Introduction to Many of the ideas and questions

Many of the ideas and questions that led to the current research were initiated by

the National Research Council's comprehensive report on spatial thinking (National

Research Council, 2006). As well as a thorough review of current spatial thinking

research in the geosciences, it also serves as a benchmark from which to measure future

research on this topic (NRC, 2006). The National Research Council publication suggests

that spatial thinking serves three purposes and functions. The first function conveys the

appearance of and relationships among objects, largely those on Earth's surface. The

second is an analytic function which enables an understanding of the relational structure

of objects, or the ways that one or more objects on Earth's surface may afTect other

objects. Third, the report delves into the importance of a function in the

spatial arrangement of objects. Spatial orientation and arrangement are the important

aspects of these functions (NRC, 2006).

An important outcome of the attention to spatial thinking has become collectively

referred to a spatial literacy, or the ability of individuals to frame problems in spatial

terms. The development of spatial literacy is hypothesized to be dependent on the

formation and interpretation of spatial representations and transformations between and

among objects and patterns. For example, route-planning is a form of spatial literacy and

entails using distance, type of path, number of terms, and streets or highways (NRC,

2006). The NRC report (2006) places considerable emphasis on Geographic Information

Systems (GIS) as a means to implement spatial thinking and develop spatial literacy. GIS

applies innovative visualizations and images that can help students with the application of

spatial concepts.

Spatial thinking is a regular and important skill people use every day. Its

importance is reinforced in that "People, natural objects, human-made objects, and

human-made structures exist somewhere in space, and the interactions of people and

things must be understood in terms of locations, distances, directions, shapes, and

patterns" (National Research Council, 2006, p. 5). Spatial thinking is used widely in

problem solving contexts "by managing, transforming, and analyzing data, especially

complex and large data sets, and by communicating the results of those processes to one's

self and to others" (National Research Council, 2006, p. 5). These examples include

mental object rotations, navigation tasks, visualization, and map analysis. Many of these

tasks are important aspects of earth science education. The National Research Council

(2006) argued that spatial thinking is important in the sciences, technology, and their

applications in everyday life. Spatial thinking is viewed as synonymous with spatial

cognition and additional research is needed on this topic and its relationship to education.

Gersmehl's (2008) theoretical framework formed the basis for the current study.

Background to the Research

Several aspects of spatial thinking are identified by the National Research Council

(2006). They wrote that spatial thinking is the broad term used to describe people's ability

to process spatial information. Spatial ability is also related to people's ability to

solve spatial problems and tasks. Often, instruments used to measure spatial ability are

pencil-and-paper tasks or presented on a computer. Table I presents Spatial Terminology.

Table l : Spatial Thinking Terminology

Spatial Term

Definition

Spatial

Thinking

Spatial

Ability

Spatial

Cognition

Modes of

Spatial

Thinking

A collection of cognitive skills including three elements:

Concepts of space, tools of representation, and reasoning in the form

of a measurement (NRC, 2006)

Links these three: space, representation, and reasoning in the form

of a measurement (NRC, 2006)

The thought processes involved in spatial thinking (NRC, 2006)

Gersmehl's contribution to spatial thinking is represented by modes that

were determined through an extensive literature review. They include:

comparison, pattern, aura, region, hierarchy, transition, analogy,

association as well as spatio-temporal modes that include change,

movement, and diffusion (Gersmehl, 2008)

There is a dearth of substantive research in assessing college-aged pre-service

teacher elementary education students' ability to think spatially. Research has examined

other students' ability to think spatially, especially in younger ages.

The significance of spatial thinking is an important component of educational

assessment. The Geography Framework for the 1994 and 2001 National Assessment of

Educational Progress provide considerable evidence of the importance of spatial thinking.

Gersmehl (2006) further argued that spatial thinking such as spatial-pattern analysis is a

sophisticated activity that is transferable to numerous other cognitive tasks. Modes of

spatial thinking skills have been identified by Gersmehl (2008) and numerous other

researchers and philosophers have examined the topic as exemplified by the substantial

bibliographies that are available (Black, 2005; Bunch & Lloyd, 2002; Golledge, Marsh &

Battersby, 2008; Lee, 2005; & Linn & Peterson, 1985).

The aspects of spatial thinking that will be identified in this study are associated

with the thinking processes students use as they work through spatial tasks. Gersmehl

(2008) suggested that spatial cognition is thinking about locations, conditions, and

connections. As scientists learn more about the brain, the similarities of spatial cognition

and spatial thinking skills become more apparent. The spatial thinking skills are

specifically those related to modes of spatial thinking established by Gersmehl (2008).

Spatial cognition is an important aspect in psychological research. In the brain, there are

regions use specific tasks. These tasks can include verbal, movement, and spatial

cognition. The development of one's spatial cognition in this region of the brain provides

explanation for how people use skills to process spatial tasks.

The National Research Council (NRC) (2006) report on spatial thinking suggested

a need for greater research since not very much that is definitive is known about the

process and its importance to the general population as they navigate through the

environment. Navigating through an environment requires students to use spatial thinking

skills. This is one aspect of spatial thinking. Research informs us that spatial thinking is, in

part, affected by schooling as well as other experiences. The current research study is

examining: a) factors that may influence spatial thinking among pre-service teacher

education students; b) provide important insights about how spatial thinking is applied; c)

the connection between the use of spatial thinking by teachers that may be extended to

spatial thinking experiences for their students. As mentioned earlier, research has been

completed with young children, but little has focused on the initial enrollment of

collegeaged students who are selecting a career path in education that will place them in

the classroom with young students. The current research will examine what is important in

the spatial thinking of students at college age when they obtain their pre-service

professional education, and how it may inform and enhance their role as science

educators.

The NRC (2006) suggested that researchers seek an answer to the question "How

can one learn to become a better spatial thinker?" The present research will address the

question: Are the experiences being provided to pre-service elementary science teachers

making them better spatial thinkers? The NRC (2006) suggested that spatial thinking is a

learned skill and should be taught and practiced in all grades, K 16.

Spatial Thinking in Biology, Chemistry_ and Physics

The case for spatial thinking in the sciences of biology, chemistry and physics is

well documented in the literature of educational and psychological research. Research has

shown that the study of the cell in biology can be enhanced through learning with visual

models and various representations (Wu & Shah, 2004). Although the visual models and

various representations are different from the spatial navigation examples which are

included in my study, all are relevant because they represent instruments of measurement

for spatial thinking. Research by Huk (2006) suggested that the implementation of 3D

models in chemistry learning is helpful for students in developing mental models. Huk

(2006) concluded that students with high spatial ability benefit from 3D models since they

are capable of a more complete cognitive process. The research suggested that the

educational value of three-dimensional models depends on students with high spatial

ability. Students of low spatial ability became overloaded cognitively when using the 3D

visual models and were less successful in comprehending the content. Future research was

suggested to concentrate on mental models as they are represented and constructed by

students with low spatial ability (Huk, 2006).

Spatial visualization is also required in multi-disciplinary sciences. "Chemistry is a

visual science" and Wu and Shah (2004, p. 465) suggested that some visualization tools

are effective in helping students overcome conceptual errors in chemistry. Principles such

as providing multiple representations and promoting the transformation between 2D and

3D representations are among the five principles suggested for effective chemistry

learning.

Spatial visualization is an important skill in solving kinematics problems in

physics (Kozhevnikov, Motes, & Hegarty, 2007). Kozhevnikov, Motes, and Hegarty

(2007) suggested that students with high spatial ability may enhance conceptual

knowledge ofphysics principles. Problems included principles ofvelocity in moving

projectiles and prediction of directional movement The transformations from one frame of

reference to another represented another example of spatial tasks utilized in the

Kozhevnikov (2007) study that emphasized the importance of spatial ability.

Golledge, Marsh, and Battersby (2008) argued that all persons can benefit from

effectively taught and presented geospatial concepts. Students, teachers, and society in

general can develop an appreciation of thinking spatially. Five concept levels were

described by Golledge, Marsh, and Battersby (2008) beginning with a set of spatial

primitives. The primitives include the spatial concepts: identify location, magnitude, and

space-time. These primitives are commonly used in earth science courses. College

students also use the primitives to extend their spatial thinking to higher level concepts

such as interpolation and projection in earth science/geography courses. This suggests that

all spatial tasks are not equal in terms of the level of ability. Certain spatial tasks challenge

one's ability to identify very simplified examples such as locating features on a map.

These spatial primitives are the most basic concepts of spatial thinking according to

Golledge, Marsh, and Battersby (2008). Higher geospatial concepts occur when

connections and comparisons between locations are formulated by the person.

The Case for Spatial Thinking in the Earth Science Classroom

Researchers recognize that enormous variability exists in students' spatial ability,

often recognized in geography education through map reading skills (Kastens, 2001).

These students are generally adolescents and secondary education students. Some

students encounter difficulty with maps and the spatial representations incorporated in

their design and presentation of information (Ishikawa & Kastens, 2005). According to

Orion and Ault, Jr. (2007), students' spatial ability can be improved through instruction

and application. They suggested three contributions that might help with the improvement

of student spatial thinking: inquiry-based learning, using an outdoor learning environment

for the construction of concrete models of a natural system, and using knowledge

integration activities.

Rationale for the Research

Because little research exists on the study of undergraduates performing spatial

tasks, the topic of the current research will use an understudied group relative to the

phenomenon of spatial thinking research (Gersmehl & Gersmehl, 2007). The current study

will contribute to the spatial thinking research by examining the learning and application

of spatial thinking skills among pre-service teacher education students at the

undergraduate level.

The purpose of this study will be to identify course work experiences that may

affect spatial thinking abilities and applications in pre-service teacher education students.

Earth science education includes the sciences of geography, geology, and geoscience; this

incorporates the sciences related to the earth in terms of its physical structure and

relationship with the atmosphere. Earth science education is comprised of physical

geography without the components of cultural and regional geography. The earth sciences

require spatial thinking as an important cognitive skill in problem solving and

visualization.

The research on spatial thinking in geography education is important för two major

reasons. First, elementary pre-service teachers interact with children who are in the

formative stages of their thought processes. It is important that such teachers are cognizant

of the opportunities tor recognizing and using spatial thinking with young children. The

interaction between elementary teachers and their students is not the focus of this study.

The importance of assessing pre-service elementary teacher education students' ability to

think spatially is important since classroom experiences are assumed to be an important

gateway to spatial skills. Informed teachers regarding spatial thinking is considered a key

part of the equation by the researcher.

While the importance of spatial thinking as part of education is widely recognized,

there has been relatively little research focused on its importance to those who plan to

become elementary school science teachers. Second, substantial numbers of universities

offer courses similar to the earth science for elementary teachers that will be the treatment

in the proposed research. The research and its conclusions will serve as a model to guide

spatial thinking and inquiry-based geography education curriculum.

Spatial thinking and visualization is a fundamental aspect of all science; consequently,

spatial thinking is important in science teaching. Recent reviews of the science education

literature reveal that spatial thinking occurs in math, chemistry, biology, physics, and earth

science, the latter which is the focus of this dissertation research.

Questions and Hynotheses Guiding the Current Research

Creswell (1998) suggested that drafting an overview research questions with

several sub-questions is effective and follows a tradition of inquiry. The factors affecting

spatial thinking are central to the research questions and are interrelated with the töllowing

questions. The present research problem consists of six sub-questions and one central

question.

Central Question: What are the effects ofa pre-service teacher education earth

science content course (Geography 1900) that is conceptually designed and inquiry-based

on the spatial thinking of university students?

The central question was further developed into six subquestions:

l . What spatial thinking modes are embedded in the Geography 1900 course based on

the Gersmehl (2008) classification of modes of spatial thinking?

2. What modes of spatial thinking do pre-service elementary education students

exhibit prior to instruction in Geography 1900?

3. What changes occur in spatial thinking and spatial skills as a result of enrolling in

and completing a conceptually based, inquiry course (Geography 1900) that has

embedded clearly identifiable spatial tasks based on Gersmehl's classification

(2008)?

4. What are the effects of Geography 1900 on the modes of spatial thinking that

students apply at the completion of the course?

5. What modes of spatial thinking do students transfer from the classroom to the

outdoors as they move about campus?

6. Are there differences in spatial thinking between the Geography 1900 population

and a comparison sample of students that receives a different treatment?

Formulation of hypotheses is an important component of research in science

education. Thus, following the clarification of the questions to be examined in the study,

the following formal research hypotheses were put forward as a means to guide the

collection of and analysis of the data. The hypotheses, which are discussed in detail within

Chapter IV, are as follows:

I l

l . Geography 1900 has clearly identifiable modes of spatial thinking embedded within

the earth science content.

2. Students apply specific modes of spatial thinking before instruction as measured

by the Spatial Thinking Test.

3. Modes of spatial thinking by students in Geography 1900 will significantly

improve as a result of their completion of the course.

4. Geography 1900 will have a positive effect on the spatial thinking of a majority of

students.

5. Students apply modes of spatial thinking in their activities outside the classroom as

indicated during a spatial walk.

6. Students completing Geography 1900 will demonstrate greater improvements in

spatial thinking compared to students in the Geography 1020 comparison group.

This study will concentrate on examining the theoretical underpinnings for spatial

thinking as a cognitive process that results in an enhanced means for students to complete

and reflect on spatial tasks. The research will rely on grounded theory in which the

observational and interview work performed by the students will allow new discoveries

and empirical evidence to emerge and produce new knowledge (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).

Transcripts of interview dialogue and observation discussions will be a central aspect in

the analysis, as will pre and post test data collection and analysis. Both quantitative and

qualitative methods arc important to the current the research questions.

Significance of the Research

Spatial thinking is recognized as both a geospatial navigational and a problem

solving tool in the earth sciences because earth science requires identifying shapes, sizes,

connections, map analysis, and multi-dimensional transformations of space on Earth

(National Research Council, 2006). The NRC report suggested that student spatial thinking

can be improved through classroom instruction and training. The spatial tasks performed

by undergraduate students in the pre-service teacher education curriculum at Western

Michigan University will enable the researcher to assess factors affecting spatial thinking

and gain insight into teaching strategies designed to promote spatial ability.

Most of the pre-service teacher education students who are enrolled in science

education courses will eventually teach elementary school students. It is the hope that

these future elementary grade teachers will employ spatial learning in their own lesson

plans. In this regard, elementary students will also benefit from learning spatially in

everyday life. The National Research Council (2006) suggested that learning spatially is

important at all levels, K-16. By assessing and training future educators to think and learn

spatially, educators will have a start at may model those applications in their own

classrooms and incorporate strategies that are appropriate to the ages of their students. The

current research is an early step in validating the effectiveness of science content and

inquiry-based instruction on the spatial learning in the earth science classroom.

CHAPTER 11

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

This literature review encompasses studies and research related to spatial thinking

in a topical order. The review begins with the early studies, specifically Piaget's emphasis

on this cognitive skill. The development and importance of visual-spatial thinking is a

critical aspect in this review. This cognitive skill should be taught in the classroom. The

benefit of spatial thinking is apparent in the use of problem-solving and visualization in

the earth sciences. All sciences including biology, chemistry, and physics require students

to use spatial thinking; the earth sciences require the use of spatial thinking to a greater

extent since the content is spatially arranged relative to Earth.

The topical order begins with Piaget's influence in the 1960s and moves into other

areas of spatial thinking including studies of gender differences. Throughout these decades,

gender differences are noted and assessed, especially in the 1980s. Spatial ability is also

clearly defined in the literature review. In numerous studies, students were subjected to

spatial tests to determine their ability to think spatially by demonstrating the physical

manipulation of items or completing tasks that were spatial. Many of these tasks involved

pencil and paper, while other examples involved students in another setting. These studies

and the types of tasks are outlined in this literature review, as is the spatial terminology.

This terminology is all incorporated into spatial thinking as a whole.

Subsections represent topical categories. These are outlined in the following sections and

reveal different aspects of spatial thinking.

1950s-1960s: Studies of Children's Conceptions of Space

Early research on childhood development and visual-spatial thinking was guided

by Piaget. The model Piaget used was reflected as a behavioral model of developmental

stages and the capacity for higher order thinking. The research suggested that higher order

thinking develops concurrently with development of visual-spatial thinking (Piaget &

Inhelder, 1956).

One of the earliest works related to spatial thinking was the Piaget and Inhelder

(1956) book entitled: "The Child's Conception of Space". The first known test of spatial

ability in the book was the water-level task. A subject was shown a bottle sitting on its

base at a variable angle relative to a table top. The subject was asked to draw a line on a

paper sketch of the bottle in its upright position to indicate where the water surface would

lie within the bottle. In another example, the children were shown a tilted water glass held

at a 45 degree angle and asked to draw a line to show how the liquid would look if it were

about half full. Children at very early ages had difficulty, while at older ages children

recognized that changes in position relative to the sides of the container make no

difference in the amount of water in the vessel. Piaget and Inhelder's (1956) research

paved the way for further studies in the aspects of spatial learning for children,

adolescents, and eventually adults. Tests of spatial ability are now more detailed,

encompassing a great number of spatial skills, although much of the current experimental

work with spatial thinking may be traced back to Piaget's studies.

Studies of mental transformations by children were addressed in further research

by Piaget and Inhelder (1956). The researchers proposed that early childhood imagery is

reproductive in nature and that transformational reasoning with images occurs with

developing mental operations. In further research of adult reasoning, Piaget and Inhelder

(1956) suggested that large differences are present in transformational reasoning as

evident by being able to mentally rotate objects. An example of the mental rotation of

objects was the widely cited and replicated three mountain task used by Piaget (Piaget &

Inhelder, 1956).

Studies on Differences in Spatial Thinking

A major focus of prior research has been devoted to differences between females

and males on spatial thinking. The number of males included in the present research was

not adequate to do a similar analysis, but the amount of attention devoted to the topic in

the literature necessitates a discussion of research prior results. The concept of gender

difTerences in spatial thinking was also examined. The advantage of males in spatial

thinking has been documented based on several factors, including puberty and hormonal

changes, and the rearing of boys with outdoor orientations as compared to girls. Maccoby

and Jacklin (1974) determined that the male advantage in thinking spatially emerges in

adolescence and is maintained throughout adulthood. Other studies suggest little

between males and females on certain spatial tasks, particularly on the use of maps and

map-learning tasks (Golledge et al., 1995).

McGee's (1979) study on human spatial abilities is often cited in literature with the

evidence that environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological differences are the main

factors in explaining differences in spatial abilities. McGee's (1979) article is benchmark

research on the variability of spatial ability person-to-person and among the genders. The

results clearly suggest that many variables contribute to the ability of students to think

spatially. The very fact that people live in locations from urban, suburban, and rural areas

and that they are exposed to a wide range of influences and outside experiences have been

more clearly demonstrated as affecting the development of spatial thinking.

Liben (1981) observed that males are encouraged to enroll in mathematical and

science courses, whereas females often elect to take language-based courses. While

research is not conclusive, there are suggestions that males and females may differ in their

thinking as both the result of background experiences and perhaps hormonal changes

during different periods of life.

Psychological studies further reveal that gender differences are observed in

performing certain spatial tasks associated with maps. The research reported that males

achieved higher scores in a variety of visual-spatial activities (Gilmartin & Patton, 1984).

Map-use skills were also observed to be related to the level of student spatial ability. In

their research, Gilmartin and Patton (1984) suggested that there is no different between

male and in map-use skills. The ability för a student to use spatial thinking in map

use can be partly attributed to the educational and experiential background of the student.

Although psychological research suggested that males outperform females in spatial tasks,

geographers have noted that the difTerence may not be significant in a statistical or

practical way. Roadmap reading and other map use skills may not readily translate into a

significant difference between males and females. It is possible that differences depend

more on the geographical task than spatial ability when explaining the differences

between males and females (Gilmartin & Patton, 1984).

Spatial thinking is an ability that underlies a person 's predisposition to mentally

perform rotations and other changes among objects in two and three dimensional space.

Linn and Petersen (1985) developed a classification of three spatial abilities as part of

their research. The three classes are: spatial perception, mental rotation, and spatial

visualization. The Linn and Petersen (1985) research is a benchmark meta-analysis of

others' research in spatial ability and gender differences. The authors suggested that males

outperform females in mental rotations, but are quite similar in spatial perception and

spatial visualization. The research suggested that explanations for sex differences involve

early childhood experiences and biological and hormonal changes.

Bunch and Lloyd's research (2002) suggested also that biological and

environmental variables may affect the spatial abilities of individuals. He concluded that

spatial intelligence is related to inherent and learned spatial abilities, and is used and

understood by individuals in different ways depending on particular contexts. However,

despite the many research studies, there is not yet a set standard or research measurement

that has been agreed upon by researchers to fully analyze individual spatial ability and

whether differences between males and females may be the result of biological and/or

environmental factors.

Bunch and Lloyd's (2002) research fUrther noted that the different interactions

and small differences among genes may result in notable differences in spatial abilities,

Prenatal exposure to testosterone is one indicator in influencing the brain in its organization

and lateralization. A person with high lateralization has most of the resources for a particular

function located in one or the other of the brain's hemisphere. If that is the case, Bunch and

Lloyd (2002) suggested that the brain would need fewer connections to process and transfer

information to the other hemisphere. Past research suggests that greater right-lateralized

activations are the result of completion of spatial tasks (Galin, 1974; Schwartz, Davidson,

& Maer, 1975; Babiloni et al., 2006).

Research literature identified by Bunch and Lloyd (2002) suggested that males

may have increased spatial ability because of the hunter and gathering processes. This

hypothesis has both anthropological and historical foundations. As males were more

heavily involved in the navigation in unfamiliar environments, the evolutionary selection

theory argues that modern man may be the beneficiary of those historical trends. Females

may have been engaged in gathering in a local environment that is more familiar, and

gained less contextual experience in mentally recording and reproducing spatial cues. The

gatherer would also be able to identify specific landmarks from memory and recall the

locations of food in distant places. These ancient trends in human evolution may be

reflected in the modern scheme of navigation and route-planning by males and females,

and thus explain the enhanced spatial ability of males to females on certain tasks. In this

regard, earth science necessitates the study of locations and relationships among and

between observed features of Earth.

Other theories also suggest environmental variables that may afTéct spatial

thinking among individuals. The Right Shift Theory (RS) suggests greater use by females

than males of the right hemisphere of the brain; this shift also shows that a larger portion

of females may use the left hemisphere for verbal processing of information (Bunch &

Lloyd, 2002). While Bunch and Lloyd (2002) reported that male and fOmale genetics

were believed to be significant in spatial thinking, he also proposed that exposure to

environmental and cultural variables are important. Research suggests the relationship of

women who have both genetic potential and spatial experiences as being a positive factor

in contributing to successful performances on spatial tasks.

Theories of spatial thinking suggest factors that seem to be influential in

explaining differences between males and females. Genes, hormonal differences, and

brain lateralization are biological differences that could be responsible for gender

differences in spatial thinking. Past research has clearly defined gender differences on

some spatial tasks in the field of geography, especially those that entail map reading and

interpretation (Gilmartin & Patton, 1984). Self, Gopal, Golledge, and Fenstermaker

(1992) suggested that males and females differ in task performance on certain spatial

problems related to navigation outside in the environment.

Spatial Visualization

It is also being verified by the research that spatial visualization and spatial

thinking are closely related. Spatial visualization is the process by which people mentally

manipulate, rotate, or reposition an object that is two- or three-dimensional into a new or

transformed orientation. Spatial orientation involves viewing patterns from different

angles or perspectives. Among the attributes that are used to classify spatial visualization

is that of spatial relations, which is a major component of the present research. Spatial

relations include the attributes of estimating and reproducing distances, lengths, and other

linkages through space (Golledge, et. al, 1995). Spatial visualization, spatial thinking, and

spatial relations are components of spatial intelligence as has been defined by Gardner

(1983).

The study of spatial visualization and thinking has been bridged to developmental

psychology. One theory of cognition was developed by Vygotsky (1978) which focused

on the relationship between visualization and communication. His theory of cognition

emphasized the aspects of culture, social behavior, and historical contexts. Because

communication and spatial visualization are widely used in science classroom

observations directly as well as through images, Vygotsky's (1978) research provided

opportunities to transfer those theories to research in science teaching and student

learning.

Visual-spatial exercises have been demonstrated to be important in the

development of student visual-spatial self-awareness through performing specific spatial

tasks. Scientific creativity has also been attributed to the development of spatial thinking

when using imagery (Mathewson, 1999). Visual-spatial cognition has a fundamental role

in science, and this is also an important component of science teaching. Spatial

relationships between the earth and sun represent an important aspect of spatial thinking

in the earth sciences.

Visualization and spatial thinking are also critical in learning chemistry. Wu and

Shah (1999) advocated greater implementation of spatial thinking skills in the teaching of

chemistry. The ability by students to view objects or figures in various representations and

relationships is important in chemistry education. Additionally, the nature of chemistry is

often taught with the presentation of dynamic and interactive features. The transformation

of objects and figures from a two-dimensional to three-dimensional

perspective is important to the comprehension of molecules and their behavior. Finally, a

reduction of cognitive load is possible when explicit and integrating information are

provided with several different cognitive options for students (Wu & Shah, 1999).

Wiley (2003) suggested that visually rich presentations benefit the learner's grasp

of spatial concepts. Such learning may include animated images, virtual simulations,

pictures and video in order to give the learner a real-world experience. Much of the stimuli

that people are exposed to in current times is visual. Learners who are shown a visually

rich presentation can apply the information to construct their own visualizations or

transfer them to new contexts (Wiley, 2003). Because of differences in spatial ability,

some students may require more and different types of visualizations. The overall effect of

increased visualization for those students who have low spatial ability may result in an

increase in comprehension and conceptualization. Other supportive instructional elements,

such as the written text and graphic visuals, are a valuable aspect for differentiating

instruction based on multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1983).

Research in visual analytics is providing important information on the role of

spatial thinking in geosciences (Andrienko, G. , Andrienko, N. , Jankowski, Kaim, Kraak,

Maceachren, & Wrobel, 2007). The research suggests that spatial visualization is a key

factor in the development of spatial literacy. The research reports that "visualization is an

efTective way to provide material for human's analysis and reasoning... [and] for

supporting the involvement of humans in problem-solving" (p. 585).

Animations were researched for their efTects on visualization (Andrienko et al.,

2007). The research revealed that animations are an important aspect of visualization and

are a positive aspect of earth science education. This research revealed that students can use

animations as an effective resource in learning and problem solving.

Drawings and Representations of Space

There is research evidence that central to spatial intelligence are "the capacities to

perceive the visual world accurately, to perform transformations and modifications upon

one's initial perceptions, and be able to re-create aspects of one's visual experience, even

in the absence of relevant physical stimuli" (McCormack, 1988, p. 5). McCormack (1988)

suggested that visual/spatial thinking is multidimensional with several interrelated

abilities including perception, memory, logic, and creativity. This ability is an essential

component of the elementary school science experience. In the elementary classroom,

students may draw to record their observations. Drawing is an important aspect of an

observation. The drawings may represent rotations of objects in space and even the

spatially interrelated images of the components of biological specimens (McCormack,

1988). Children's spatial thinking and visualization are also incorporated into school

learning experiences. The ability for students to think spatially requires the appropriate

training of the elementary school teachers to include spatial thinking skills in their

instruction. McCormack (1988) suggested several activities that can be used in the

elementary school classroom. These include making paper patterns representing shapes of

blocks, paper-folding, predicting and drawing shapes of different objects and relating

these to biological specimens, and observing objects from multiple perspectives. There

are other opportunities using floor maps of the community where spatial components are

organized to reflect reality in the student's eye. Visual/spatial thinking is important in

everyday life as the perception and awareness of our surroundings emerges into spatial

concepts and patterns. It is essential for students to develop spatial thinking skills at an

early age as they explore new conceptual meanings and spatial patterns.

The classroom is an important medium for learning spatial skills and the science

classroom should enhance the opportunities for students to learn and experience spatial

thinking activities. Students often are required to transform images between

threedimensional realities and two-dimensional pictures and images. In science, students

are exposed to two and three-dimensional pictorials and images that can enhance their

spatial thinking skills. Concepts of geography and other sciences including biology and

chemistry use examples of images that require students to think spatially (McCormack,

1988).

Mental Maps

Spatial interaction includes distribution of goods, people, and information which is

relevant to geography. The complex patterns observed on the surface of the earth develop

within the observer as perceptions. Gould and White (1986) studied the ways in which

'mental maps' are related to various characteristics of the real world patterns. They

observed that mental images are easier to construct when one is familiar with the location

as opposed to an entirely different environment. In a city för instance, the knowledge of

landmarks and routes are among the spatial elements from which mental images are

constructed. Environmental or psychic stress may add an invisible mental topography to

the perception of a place (Gould & White, 1986). The fäctors of relative location and

accessibility are also important. Perception of place and the mental maps which are

formed through filtered information flows represent spatial thinking (Gould & White,

1986).

Spatial Orientation

Although spatial thinking is important in geography, spatial orientation skills

appear to be linked in understanding mathematical problems. Results from Tartre (1990)

suggested that skills such as estimating the approximate magnitude of a figure or mentally

rotating the size and shape of a figure aids in solving problems within a spatial, visual

framework. The relationship between mathematical learning and spatial thinking is related

to specific tasks. The research suggests that spatial thinking has numerous applications in

the realms of the sciences and mathematics.

Cognitive processes such as Piaget's classification involving imagery suggest that

the learner constructs a mental image or a transformation. Other studies suggest that mental

rotations and mental transformations are linked to neurological processes

(Kosslyn & Koenig, 1992). Visual processing in the brain acquires information from the

temporal cortex to parietal cortex of the brain (Kosslyn & Koenig, 1992). The research

evidence suggests that linkages within the brain are important for students to think and

learn spatially.

Because geography is a study of the relationships between people, places, and

environments, mapping is an effective means of integrating these elements. The

Geography Education Standards Project (1994) emphasized the world in spatial terms as

the first standard. When students think in spatial terms, they will have the ability to

describe and analyze the spatial organization of people, places, and environments. The

Geography Education Standards Project (1994) suggested that breaking patterns of spatial

organization into the components of points, lines, areas, and volumes enhances spatial

thinking. Instruments and resources used by scientists to acquire spatial data from maps,

globes, and satellite images are dependent on spatial analysis and thinking. The

Geography Education Standards Project (1994) recommended that students continue to

have direct experience with a wide variety of geographic representations, such as maps,

throughout K-12. Additionally, students should have the opportunity to become familiar

with geographic information systems and mental mapping that is a mixture of objective

knowledge and subjective perceptions. Mental mapping research suggests it is an effective

application of spatial thinking. The National Geography Standard 2 proposes the use of

mental maps to organize information, while Standard 3 introduces the analysis of spatial

organization of people, places, and environments (Geography Education

Standards Project, 1994).

The research by Golledge, Dougherty, and Bel] (1995) on route determination

suggested that a background in geography enhanced route planning. Golledge's (1995)

findings suggested that spatial configuration of routes was an important factor in the

overall performance by research subjects on spatial tasks. Golledge, Marsh, and Battersby

(2008) also argued that spatial primitives are the basis for comprehending relationships

with route knowledge, navigation and wayfinding. Spatial primitives are the fundamentals

of spatial skills.

When students experience the tools of spatial representation, such as maps symbols,

areas, they seem to have greater success in spatial thinking. Questions regarding whether

college-aged students are aware of their surroundings represents the world around them

represents an important research question. Static features in the environment are important

in establishing the relationship between and among objects, such as buildings, intersections,

etc. The relationship of two or more entities or relating an entity to a reference frame such

as a map is associated with orientation, location, size, color, shape, and texture (National

Research Council, 2006).

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner developed a theory of multiple intelligences that emphasized the

many ways in which humans approach learning and apply skills to solve problems.

Individuals, according to Gardner, have strengths in some types of intelligence and less

capacity in others. The development of one type of intelligence will compensate for another

to a degree in everyday life and intellectual tasks. Gardner's categories of intelligence,

including linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal,

intrapersonal, naturalist, and spatial, have been reviewed, researched, and commented on

by other scholars (Vardin, 2003).

According to Gardner (1983), who has written widely about multiple

intelligences, the conceptualization of relevant spatial factors is very important in the

sciences, and identified spatial intelligence in his research. Geography, as a science,

requires patterns of thought involving connections and relationships among entities that

are spatially distributed. Multiple intelligences emphasize the many characteristics in

which humans solve problems. Such intelligences include linguistic,

logicalmathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist,

and spatial intelligence. Spatial intelligence has implications in both geography and earth

science.

Gardner did apply his theory of multiple intelligences to students' learning in a

1995 journal article (Gardner, 1995). He stated that "all of us possess each of the

intelligences, but no two individuals exhibit exactly the same profile of intellectual

strengths and weaknesses. Each intelligence exhibits its own developmental trajectory" (p.

16). Spatial thinking as treated in the current research complements Gardner's theories

especially as it pertains to the preparation pre-service elementary education students who

intend to become teachers. Experience with spatial thinking for pre-service elementary

teacher education students is one means to highlight the role it will play in their work with

elementary students.

Map Analysis and Spatial Thinking

Spatial analysis using maps to achieve cognitive proficiencies is important in the

teaching of geography and earth sciences. Research initiatives pursued by geographers

provide insight on the use of maps and analysis as visual displays (MacEachren, 1995).

Visual-spatial thinking consists of "vision — the process of using the eyes to identify,

locate, and orient ourselves in the world, and imagery — the formation, inspection,

transformation, and maintenance of images in the 'mind's eye' in the absence of a visual

stimulus" (MacEachren, 1995, p. 34). Research has shown that students apply

visualization skills and processes when solving map problems and viewing displays.

Computer software programs are often used to display earth science, atmospheric and

climate visuals and call upon special types of spatial thinking by the student. Computer

images readily display multiple-representations and dimensions of the earth and are

expected as a mainstay within the 21 century earth science classroom. The development of

spatial thinking and technological advancements in pedagogy are of major interest in the

research community of geographers and cognitive psychologists.

Weather forecasting using spatial information and the patterns of atmospheric

conditions on maps was researched by Ishikawa, Barnston, Kastens, Louchouarn, &

Ropelewski (2()05). In the study, students were asked to identify aspects of climate on a

physical map. It was observed that they had difficulty assessing different aspects such as

interpretations of three-dimensional patterns of climate forecasts. Weather forecasts on

maps are complex due to the three-dimensional interpretations that are necessary using a

two-dimensional map. Ishikawa et al. (2005) suggested that improvements in the design of

maps, and digital maps provide the means to explore the three-dimensional aspects of the

atmosphere. Interactive maps would also allow students to view multiple images at once

with layered information that may be accessed through a menu of options. In this sense,

the concept of spatial association (Gersmehl, 2008) may be introduced through both the

information on the map as well as the manipulation on the map in order to visualize the

information. The presentation of information on the map is important for visualization and

interpretation by the viewer. The research suggests that learners benefit from complex

maps, such as those with weather forecasts, if they are able to apply spatial thinking skills

to interpretation tasks (Ishikawa et al., 2005).

Within education, applications of spatial thinking go beyond earth science

classrooms. Spatial thinking is a cognitive skill useful in mathematical education. Spatial

structuring entails the organization and construction of an object torm or collection of

objects within mathematics (Battista, Clements, Arnoff, Batista, & Borrow, 1998). This

type of spatial structuring features different levels of abstraction about the shapes and sizes

of objects. Spatial structuring is a technique used as a means to assess the spatial ability

among elementary aged students. The mental rotation of geometric shapes and objects is

another example of assessing spatial ability. Battista et al. (1998) suggested that the

structuring of two-dimensional and three-dimensional space is the foundation för

geometric and spatial thinking. Rearrangement and orientation of features is evident in

earth science problem solving that includes drawing, mapping, or visual imaging on a

computer. In earth science, space is usually structured and organized using a coordinate

system, such as latitude and longitude. Spatial thinking requires the learner to superimpose

different shapes and patterns on the coordinate system in order to explain spatial

relationships. Different components of spatial thinking have been revealed through

research. Among them is one application of spatial thinking that entails identifying objects

in relationship to the observer. Second, the language used to communicate spatial thinking

allows people to determine the fundamental locational properties of objects. Third, the

observer views objects based on their dimensions and geometric shape, but also the

observer must also view the scale ofobjects and uses scalar relations between objects to

arrive at a sense of spatial context (Monetello, 1999). A fourth consideration occurs when

the location properties derived from the context allows the observer to apply correctly the

concepts of boundaries, density, shape, pattern, and region.

Geography_ Education and Spatial Concepts

Golledge suggested that "in geography, knowledge of space represents the

accumulation of facts about the spatial arrangements and interactions comprising

humanenvironment-relations and recognition of fundamental concepts — i.e., the

declarative base of geographic knowledge" (Golledge, 2002, p. l). Thinking spatially and

spatial reasoning are the foundations for assessing both past and new geographic data.

The human-environment relationship and place-to-place conditions represent an

important aspect of geographic knowledge and understanding. Golledge (2002) suggested

that geographic knowledge serves two purposes: l) to establish where geographic objects

are located, and 2) to experience ways that those objects may be factored into

decisionmaking and problem-solving. Geographic knowledge includes knowing about

places and features and their spatial relationships, which is an important aspect of spatial

thinking. Communicating this geographic knowledge through cartography and

visualizations are important applications of spatial thinking in the classroom. The

occurrence of spatial thinking among individuals, such as university students, may be

assessed and analyzed in research studies. Student spatial abilities are important to

learning geography and earth sciences content and should be investigated relative to

problem-solving and everyday life activities.

The processes of spatial thinking and cognitive skills are also related to language.

Carlson's research (2003) proposed that spatial language serves as an important basis for

investigating the extent to which such language influences other processes. Spatial

tenninologies are often with reference to objects and relationships that reference other

locations (Carlson, 2003). Little research has been completed that relates objects and

spatial terms.

Dodick and Orion (2003) evaluated the cognitive skills necessary for students to

complete tasks in geologic time. Geology, as an earth science, uses information and map

analysis that are related to spatial thinking. The earth is complex in its physical features

and processes from the depths of the earth to the interaction with the atmosphere. Both

spatial and temporal skills are necessary when students are visualizing change across

space through time. Three schemes of reasoning are proposed for the spatial-time

continuum. They are transformation, temporal organization, and inter-stage linking. The

transformation serves as a principle of change, such as the reconstruction of geological

and biological processes, observed in fossil and depositional environments. The temporal

organization is a scheme in which a sequence can be assessed in categories or stages such

as superposition and rock layer strata. The inter-stage linkage scheme is a combination of

actualism (whereby, the present is a key to the past) and scientific reasoning

(Dodick & Orion, 2003).

Dodick and Orion (2003) examined the factors functioning when student's ability

to reconstruct geological systems that have changed and developed over time. A Temporal

Spatial Test (T ST) was used in this study. The students participating were in grades 7-12.

Results of the research indicated that the students' ability in spatial visualization their

ability to order the strata (rock layers). The measurement instruments consisted of

organizational puzzles and paper-and-pencil tests. The researchers rationalized that:

Indeed, the understanding of rates of change is a basic concept of all

scientific disciplines both as a methodological problem (the measurements

of rates) and as a philosophical problem (continuous vs. discrete rates of

change). Thus, exposing students to this concept within the earth sciences

gives them a better understanding of one of science's universal concepts

(Dodick & Orion, 2003, p. 436).

Dodick and Orion (2003) also noted that there had not been research within

science education at that time on the relationship between change rates observed changes

in geological features or data. The principles in earth science education, particularly in

geology, require student comprehension in the dynamic processes of the earth including

change throughout time. In order to conceptualize the processes of strata reconstruction

throughout time, spatial visualization is an important element due to the observation that is

necessary. The cognitive skills of solving earth science problems are clearly linked in

spatial thinking.

Bednarz and Bednarz (2004) outlined the challenges for geography education

within the spatial thinking context. As suggested by other researchers as well, the most

important problem for geography education is the lack of theory-based research on which

to build spatial thinking research (Bednarz, 2000; Bednarz & Bednarz, 2004). They have

suggested that geographical information science has a close affinity to spatial thinking,

and promises opportunities for theories to be developed and researched. Such an

approach to research will benefit geography as well as other science disciplines that are

engaged in the improvement of spatial learning. The applied elements of their research

apply to students who are able to learn effectively through research and theory based

instructional designs which implement and teach spatial thinking.

Gersmehl's Framework for Spatial Thinking

The research completed on the modes of spatial thinking (Gersmehl & Gersmehl,

2006) serves as an excellent basis for the cognitive processes and terminology. Modes of

spatial thinking evolved from Gersmehl's (2006) analysis of an extensive literature on

spatial thinking research from disciplines ranging from cognitive science to medicine.

Gersmehl extracted evidence from the literature that humans use eleven modes of

spatial thinking. They are: l) comparison: how are places similar or different?; 2) aura:

what influence does a place have on nearby places?; 3) region: what nearby places are

similar to this one? ; 4) transition: how do things change between two places?; 5) analogy:

what places have similar conditions?; 6) hierarchy: what larger area is this area inside?; 7)

pattern: what distinctive arrangements can you see?; 8) association: are spatial patterns

related (correlated)?; 9) change: how do conditions change through time?; 10) movement:

does something change position through time?; I l) diffusion: how do things spread

through time?

The modes of spatial thinking are key to this literature review and served as the

basis för the methodology ofthis dissertation. It is based on the knowledge that certain

parts of the brain are activated when completing a particular spatial thinking task or

problem (Gersmehl & Gersmehl, 2006). The modes of spatial thinking are regularly used

in the cognitive processes of problem solving and map analysis, since the map is a basic

spatial image either on paper, electronically, or in one's mind.

Gersmehl & Gersmehl (2006) initially suggested twelve modes of spatial thinking. They

törmed the basis för a series of teaching and learning projects he designed that were used

in classrooms with students. Observations were made of the classroom interactions, and

data were collected. Of particular interest to the current researcher, the modes could be

applied to the earth science/meteorology instructional assignment used Geography 1900.

The course included inquiry lessons that engaged the students in examining spatial

attributes and identifying spatial patterns with reference to the atmosphere and

atmosphere-land surface interaction.

The research by Gersmehl and Gersmehl (2006) pointed out that different parts of

the brain are used to perform various spatial tasks. The brain is complex and consists of

specific regions with specific roles in cognition, based on evidence from brain-scan

technology. The researchers have identified neurologically distinct centers where eight

core modes of spatial thinking occur. The eight modes are: comparison, aura, region,

hierarchy, analogy, transition, pattern, and association. These modes were verified through

a critical analysis of literature and research review (Gersmehl & Gersmehl, 2006). The

research evidence suggests that young children develop certain aspects of spatial thinking

and as they progress into adolescence and adulthood, other areas of the brain related to

spatial thinking develop to complement and connect neurologically with the earlier spatial

thinking abilities.

Geography Education/Earth Science and Spatial Thinking Research

The establishment of a taxonomy of spatial thinking is viewed as an important

goal in research. Contributions by Gersmehl and Gersmehl (2006) represent the juncture

between basic and applied research. Much of the research studies they have synthesized

provide positive indicators of brain patterns and functions associated with spatial learning.

The rational extension from basic research to curriculum planning and classroom

instruction seems obvious. The cognitive skills and descriptions from the research

literature seem to make sense when applied to lesson plans. The research indicates that

children can and should learn fundamental aspects of spatial thinking at an early age, it is

important that pre-service teacher education students who are preparing to teach young

children are being taught these same skills.

Gershmel's research examined several of the same concepts as did the research by

Black (2005), but from different contexts. Black was interested in spatial misconceptions,

whereas Gersmehl was interested in identifying the modes of spatial thinking that are

applied in geography and subsequently in much of earth science instruction. Black (2005)

observed spatial factors were often misconceived by students. For example, she based her

argument on the process of mental rotation, or viewing objects from different locations

and angles in relationship to some other object. Black (2005) concluded that the

connection between the ability to determine angular size and the ability for disembedding

patterns within aerial or satellite photographs were related. Furthermore, two-dimensional

to three-dimensional conversions are frequently used in the earth sciences as students

move from a flat map or diagram to a raised relief map or model.

Black (2005) concluded that certain conceptual problems present a special

difficulty for students. These include understanding of scale and transforming

twodimensional diagrams to three-dimensional formats, both mechanically when using

props and mentally when using verbal descriptions. The transformation of multi-

dimensions is often taken for granted, but entails a complex set of skills that are derived

from spatial thinking.

Tversky (2005) suggested that spatial reasoning is the basis for abstract knowledge

and inference when using maps and mapping. Visuospatial aspects of the world can be

captured by examining visual properties such as shape, texture, and references to distance

and direction (Tversky, 2005). Her research suggested that graphics are an important

element to organize and create schematic representations. The ability to transform and

manipulate objects is a spatial skill applied in earth science where patterns, objects and

movement are prevalent.

Measuring and Reporting Spatial Ability

Gramann, Muller, Eick, & Schonebeck (2005) investigated student approaches to

performing spatial task from several points of reference. The students were presented

with a diagram of a tunnel and were instructed to navigate through it following straight

and curved routes. The groups of students using different strategies to address problems

were placed in separate groups: turning and non-turning groups. The turners performed a

spatial task by mentally rotating their frame of reference. The non-turners performed a

spatial task by tracking the orientation with paper and pencil. It was hypothesized that

individuals have difTerent frames of reference when solving a spatial task or mental

rotation. In that sense, some ofthe information about the tunnel was visible, while other

information was inferred. The results of the study suggested that participants mentally

visualize movement through a tunnel set a homing vector from the end position back to

the origin. The establishment of a heading vector in the path was related to their frame of

reference (Gramann et al., 2005). The researchers concluded that coexisting

representations are equally important in navigation (Gramann et al., 2005), which is

consistent with the research by Golledge (2005).

Black's (2005) research was completed using non-science majors enrolled in the

College of Natural and Applied Sciences at a midwestern public university. A twenty

multiple choice questions test was given to students to identify Earth Science

misconception and conceptual difficulties. All areas of earth science were represented. The

Purdue Visualization of Rotations Test was also used. Testing students with geometrical

objects and asking rotation questions is a frequently applied method of assessing spatial

ability. Black (2005) observed positive correlations at a moderate level between scores on

the test of Earth Science concept understanding and the scores of the three spatial ability

tests.

Black's (2005) research suggested there is an important relationship between earth

science conceptual understanding and spatial ability. The link between the earth sciences

(physical geography, meteorology, and geology) and spatial thinking should be

emphasized through instruction. He believed that earth science misconceptions could be

reduced through the use of visualizations and multi-dimensional tasks.

Spatial thinking through journal writing has been researched by Hooey and Bailey

(2005). They studied the effects ofjournal writing in learning geography and developing

spatial thinking skills. The research (2005) was designed so students performed writing

tasks in two separate sections. The first section was a written summary of an event that

they had read, while the second section represented a personal opinion. The researchers

argued that students should learn and develop skills at interpreting the distribution of

physical and cultural phenomena at different scales, including the global scale. Their

research suggested that spatial thinking goals can be accomplished through written

assignment that capitalize on interpreting and presenting spatial information in narrative,

written formats. Students received preparation to apply critical thinking skills to assess

and process spatial problems and issues. Spatial thinking and the application of spatial

concepts in writing narratives may also complement development of a worldview

perspective as a proposed goal in science education (Cobern, 1991).

Several researchers have proposed that the development of spatial thinking should

begin early in the curriculum (Everett, 2005). The research is particularly relevant to the

present research regarding the preparation of elementary teachers who will likely teach

earth science as part of their self-contained classroom assignment. The research suggested

that elementary educators should select appropriate activities to develop students' ability

to think spatially. Elementary students learn about patterns and shapes through pattern

blocks. Tessellations are complex patterns used in mathematics that are used to develop

and extend the spatial ability ofelementary students. The ability to think spatially is not

only important in the sciences, but in mathematics as well. The observation by Everett

(2005) applies to the role of spatial thinking opportunities in the curriculum when he

states: "By learning more about how children think and develop, we can create

opportunities for students to develop to their fullest potential" (Everett, 2005,

p. 30).

Recent research has provided additional evidence of the importance of spatial

thinking in the geosciences (Hemler & Repine, 2006; Kastens & Ishikawa, 2006).

Learning to think spatially is not only important for the students, but for teachers as well.

Teachers should apply instructional methods that promote and develop spatial thinking

among their students. Kastens and Ishikawa (2006) argued that spatial thinking as a

cognitive skill is useful in the geosciences. This cognitive skill is essential in problem

solving and viewing aspects of the earth.

Battersby, Golledge, and Marsh (2006) suggested that spatial thinking and science

are closely connected, especially considering the degree to which spatial representations

are applied in the geosciences. Learning geography requires the use of distributions and

relationships that are key elements.

Research suggests that not all students are able to successfully use and apply

geospatial concepts that incorporate spatial thinking (Battersby et al., 2006). Furthermore,

the research reveals that a distinct hierarchy of geospatial concepts were learned by

various ages and grade levels. The research has demonstrated that higher-order geospatial

concepts are more difficult and present a greater challenge for younger students

(Battersby et al., 2006; Golledge, 2005). For example, using map overlays, an important

aspect in spatial analyses, is a complex cognitive process for middle school students.

Data from the research indicated that university students used overlays correctly.

Approximately 95% of the high school students used them correctly. About fifty percent

of middle school students used the overlays correctly.

The complexity issue is an important consideration in educational and learning

applications. The map overlay problem is a task which required the association among

spatial patterns. The map overlay represents more advanced spatial analysis, yet research

suggests this concept may be too advanced for younger middle school students

(Battersby, Golledge, & Marsh, 2006). Battersby et al. (2006) suggested using a cognitive

order so that students could focus on developmentally appropriate geospatial concepts and

tasks.

Bodzin and Anastasio (2006) built the argument in their research that learning

spatial concepts and data analysis skills are essential for Earth system science education

using inquiry-based instructional methods. Their research also suggested that visualization

is an essential component in the application of spatial thinking, either in interpreting and

using graphics or in the development and production of graphic materials, such as reading

remotely sensed images or producing maps from data sources.

Other Applications of Spatial Research

Spatial Ability and Science Teaching

Sanchez and Wiley (2007) studied undergraduate students at the University of

Illinois at Chicago and concluded that spatial ability is related to the learning of scientific

topics. The research report was confined to volcanic eruptions, a topic about which the

students did not have more than a minimum amount of prior knowledge. All the students

in the experiment read a text association with volcanic eruptions. One group of students

was given illustrations and animated images of a volcanic eruption. The second group of

students did not have the visuals. The researchers observed that when the two groups of

students in the study were compared in their success at constructing mental animations

from non-illustrated text or text with static illustrations. The benefits ofthe animations

were evident in the analysis (Sanchez & Wiley, 2007). This research based on spatial

thinking among university students is similar to the current research in which university

education students are engaged. The study by Sanchez and Wiley (2007) demonstrated

that animations with their spatial attributes of movement, connections, and location are

important in helping students learn more spatially. It also reinforces that the belief that

spatial thinking should be a component of the undergraduate pre-service teacher education

experience where spatial concepts may be imbedded within earth science and geography

instruction.

A common application of spatial thinking is the estimation of distance. The

research by Bridgeman and Hoover (2008) suggested that distance estimates are often

overestimated. In field-based interviews, participants were asked about distance estimates

and their spatial familiarity of their surroundings. The results of the research suggested

that distance is not accurately estimated. The way the individual perception of distance is a

major influence on the actual distance reported. The complexity of spatial thinking relative

to real world experiences, such as estimating distance, was suggested by the research.

Research has also been completed regarding the steepness of a slope and the

apparent slope difficulty by individuals expressed through verbal communication or

physical mobility. Bridgeman and Hoover (2008) suggested two reasons researchers may

expect difTerences in slope estimations: stronger effört required to walk up an incline and

different neural processing of landmarks and surrounding space. The researchers

compared a motor measure that determined physical exertion with a verbal measure to

estimate slope. The exertion, or motor, measure was more accurate than was the verbal

descriptive measure for estimating slope. The research further revealed that large errors

in estimation were made by individuals when assessing a spatial layout of their

surroundings (Bridgeman & Hoover, 2008).

Neurological Spatial Processing

Spatial cognition is linked with the neurological functions of the brain (Burgess,

2008) and research is showing that particular locations in the brain process particular

types of spatial thinking. One of those spatial thinking elements is location. Research

suggests that the egocentric representations of locations in which the student views their

particular location as the dominant factor is stored in the brain and updated by our own

movements and intentions to move (Burgess, 2008). The brain is continuously processing

concepts of space and our surroundings as people adjust to new spatial contexts.

Lobben (2008) suggested that newly emerging visualization experimental

methodologies in visualization can enhance the scientific design of experiments. For

example, focus groups may serve as an excellent resource for qualitative data. Animated

methods can be used as variables in science teaching and learning. Lobben (2008)

reported that cartographers are most aware of image properties and the effects they might

have on the visualization of geographic information. Cartographers are skilled at

developing various methods of representing different data properties associated with

mapping methods such as the shapes of points, lines, and polygons on maps.

Spatial Thinking and Virtual Geography Applications

One of the challenges of geographic education is to prepare students with the

strategies for spatial thinking (National Research Council, 2006). The use of virtual

globes and digital maps may enhance students' abilities to learn and apply spatial

concepts. Google Earth is an example where mapping and geographic information are

merged for students to both manipulate and visualize information. Some researchers

believe that when students can view their own home or a location near their residence,

they can develop the strategies of making comparisons and connections that involves

spatial thinking. Other web based access to global data with capabilities similar to Google

Earth offer a unique advantage in the implementation of spatial thinking. For example,

Joseph Kerski suggests that engagement with geo-technologies moves the students into

the realm of spatial thinking (Kerski, 2008).

Researchers and educators are continuing in their pursuit to identify more

specifically the concepts and processes in spatial thinking (Kerski, 2008). Access to

digital mapping tools and internet-GIS are increasing for both school and non-school tasks

that use spatial thinking as a practical cognitive skill (Kerski, 2008; Gersmehl, 2008).

The use of digital globes is considered a virtual tool in the spatial learning by

students through inquiry as a main pedagogical approach (Schultz, Kerski, & Patterson,

2008). Spatial thinking incorporates processes that include an interconnection of spatial

questions including those of spatial ability, spatial concepts, spatial reasoning, spatial

cognition, spatial intelligence, environmental cognition, mental and cognitive mapping,

and mental maps (Black, 2005; Gardner, 1983; Golledge, Marsh, & Battersby, 2008;

Gould & White, 1986; Linn & Peterson, 1985; & National Research Council, 2006).

Spatial Primitives and Concepts

Golledge, Marsh, and Battersby (2008) suggested that all learners benefit from

effectively taught and presented geospatial concepts that engage students in spatial

thinking. Four levels of spatial thinking particularly relevant to the current research were

proposed by Golledge, Marsh, and Battersby (2008) and referred to as spatial primitives.

Location and the recall of location are a major theme that is evident in all stages of the

human life and serves as an important primitive. Other lower-order primitives include:

identify, magnitude, and space-time. University students are expected to use higher level

spatial concepts such as those proposed by Gersmehl (Gersmehl, 2008). Golledge et al.

(2008) and Gersmehl (2008) both propose that geospatial thinking is embedded in

everyday life and people use it unknowingly. Both researchers expressed it is too often

taken for granted and rarely receives enough curricular or instructional attention in

classrooms.

Golledge, Marsh, and Battersby (2008) researched the benefits from using maps

with lower order or simpler concepts. The geospatial concepts they researched were

presented in an ordered sequence through a series of paper-and-pencil or field tasks. The

tasks served, according to the researchers, as the foundation for learning spatial concepts

as taught in the classroom (Golledge et al., 2008). Golledge was in search of a framework

that would order the scope and sequence of the geospatial concepts, based on the belief

that current practices were in need of an upgrade (Golledge et al., 2008).

Training students to think spatially is important in a science curriculum. The need

for students to learn spatial and visualization skills of interpretation is associated with

technology, and the use of technology in classroom instruction. The research on this topic

to date further emphasizes the need for a curriculum that systematically presents spatial

thinking as a cognitive skill with wide ranging applications. Much of the research has been

with the visual representation of maps and other graphic materials, which is the immediate

interest of those researchers with a background in geography. Spatial representation may be

used to develop models in order to summarize or apply abstract information to the

explanation of complex causal phenomena. The spatial relationships among the parts within

a spatial graphic or diagram presents a challenge for novice learners (NRC, 2006). The NRC

summary of research (2006) suggested the power of spatial thinking is within the problem

solving and decision making attributes it complements. The summary further suggested that

students enter the science classroom with a spatial toolbox which can be applied to those

tasks that make up the school curriculum.

Wayfinding

Gauvain (1993) suggested that spatial thinking is useful in everyday activities,

such as directional movement when walking and driving to a destination. Gauvain (1993)

argued that it is critical to understand the cultural context in which an individual is using a

directional framework. Her research also suggested that other factors may influence

spatial cognition.

In addition to studying the amount of exposure to space and its relation to

spatial thinking and problem solving, researchers have also investigated how

type of exposure, including physical active versus passive movement, self-

versus other-directed exploration, and the number of vantage points

accessed, may relate to spatial cognition (Gauvain, 1993, p. 107).

The evidence suggests that spatial thinking and skills associated with it are highly

relevant to movement, everyday travel, and even recreation hiking. Research also suggests

that the processes which facilitate spatial thinking are influenced by the context and

nature of the activity. Cultural experiences and environmental situations are also believed

to be an important aspect as well (Gauvain, 1993).

Klippel, Tappe, Kulik, and Lee (2005) in more recent research suggested the

importance of a theory they called: wayfinding choremes. The concept of wayflnding

choremes was proposed originally by a French geography, Brunet (1980). The individual's

source of a language for communicating and functioning across earth space was the

fundamental principle Brunet (1980) was interested in explaining. Route knowledge is a

major component of the theory and is based on mental conceptualizations of directions at

particular decision points. Brunet's wayfinding choremes represent concepts such as

mentally turning and non-turning, which may be similar to mental rotation such as those

necessitated at a street intersection. In route planning, those locations are identified as

decision points that are relative to point locations along a route (Klippel et al., 2005). The

route that an individual may select from the origin of a journey to the destination can be

mentally conceptualized. The mental route, according to the theory ofwayfinding

choremes, consists of chunking together the different elements of the skills of mobility

and mental cognition in order to analyze and make decisions regarding actual route

selection, route direction, and other sets of wayfinding actions

(Klippel et al., 2005).

Several researchers association wayfinding with the work of taxi drivers and they

investigated the drivers' spatial thinking relative to the tasks they perform (Spiers &

Maguire, 2008). Wayfinding by taxi drivers was presented as an aspect of spatial thinking

related to everyday travel and route planning. The ability to think spatially in the context

ofwayfinding was assessed through sketch mapping and descriptive verbal explanations of

the movement between several locations. Results suggested that the taxi drivers in several

European cities, including London and Paris, exhibited a range of spatial thinking

processes. In the initial planning research there were three spatial processes identified.

They were: l) retrieving the location of the destination, 2) determining the direction to the

destination, and 3) retrieval/selection of the streets to form the route (Spiers & Maguire,

2008). A specific category which emerged from this study was the visual connection with

physical features along the route during wayfinding. Landmarks and other physical

features were important to visualize orientation during movement. Reaching the

destination provided clues about spatial thinking when research subjects, such as the taxi

drivers, are asked to verbalize or 'think out loud' during the process of wayfinding.

The ability to use and create spatial representations is an essential part of spatial

thinking (Jo & Bednarz, 2009). The researchers examined geography textbooks to

determine whether questions in the textbooks addressed spatial thinking skills. They

proposed that questions in textbooks should föcus on the implementation of spatial

thinking processes and ask students to apply essential spatial concepts and implement

high-level processes related to spatial thinking (Jo & Bednarz, 2009). Evidence from the

research suggested that key spatial concepts such as pattern, diffusion, and hierarchy are

rarely included in textbook questions. They recommended that textbooks incorporate

questions which enhance spatial thinking skills, including the concepts of space, tools of

representation, and reasoning processes.

Transformation reasoning is a powerful concept (Ramadas, 2009) and entails

complex mental representations useful in the learning of science using visualization skills.

The transformation entails the conversion from conceptual elements into diagrams that

represent descriptions with direct applications. Verbal dialogue and motor skills are

embedded processes frequently associated with spatial transformations (Ramadas, 2009),

such as providing a detailed verbal narrative or discussion centered on a spatial task.

Sanchez and Branaghan (2009) investigated the advantages and disadvantages of

providing increased displays of pictorial features on a map where the participants were

asked to recall a marked route. Results of the study using undergraduate student

participants suggest that students remembered more and learned more efficiently with

maps that had low-resolution displays as opposed to high-resolution pictorials. The maps

used in the experiment showed urban places. The study suggested that more generalized

map displays showing less detail allowed students to recall map information more

efficiently (Sanchez & Branaghan, 2009). The research suggested that maps with high

resolution graphics and excessive pictorial content are more difficult for undergraduate

students to use. There was moderate association för students with greater spatial

visualization skills and their ability to remember a route in high-resolution displays, but

no levels of statistical significance were reported (Sanchez & Branaghan, 2009).

Spatial Thinking and Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

Lee and Bednarz (2009) examined the effect of GIS learning on the spatial thinking

ability of university undergraduates. GIS is widely used with students in geography and

purported to be an important application of spatial thinking. The researchers evaluated

performance on a pre- and post-test of spatial thinking before and after an experimental

treatment entailing the study and application of work with GIS. The pre- and post-tests were

completed by the undergraduate students and were comprised of equivalent questions

measuring the same spatial thinking abilities (Lee & Bednarz, 2009). The results from the

research found that greater improvement occurred with the students who had the most

experience within the GIS treatment. Lee and Bednarz (2009) evaluated three sets of spatial

abilities related to student performance on pre- and posttests: spatial visualization, spatial

orientation, and spatial relations. Lee and Bednarz

(2009) noted

As expected, post-test scores have a stronger correlation with the lab

exercises than class exams. Because the lab exercises were relatively

simple (i.e. demanding few cognitive processes), it is possible that the size

of the correlation coefficient (0.405) underestimates the actual relationship

between spatial thinking and hands-on application of GIS to solve

problems. The simplicity of some of the problems faced by students in the

labs was mentioned by several study participants (p. 195).

The improvements in spatial thinking skills were attributable to the students' GIS

experimental treatment and experiences (Lee & Bednarz, 2009). According to the

conclusions reached by the researchers, a GIS course or experiences with exercises in map

analysis are important in helping students develop their ability to think spatially.

Virtual and Non-Virtual Experiences in Spatial Thinking

Research has also shown that the transfer from virtual to real-world environments

in route learning requires the use of spatial thinking (Lloyd, Persaud, & Powell, 2009).

The strategies in route-learning are use of landmarks as important features with the

development of a mental map often being an anchoring concept for the individual. Those

components, especially the mental map, combine to form a reference system that is used

to sequence memorization, and anchors the recognition of landmarks in both exact and

relative locations (Lloyd, Persaud, & Powell, 2009). The researchers applied a

virtualreality route learning to determine the effects of multiple turns in a route

memorization task in Birmingham, United Kingdom. The pilot test evaluated participants

and their time of completion of the routes. The researchers reported that the route-learning

ability can be assessed through these processes of learning from a virtual town and

applying it to the real-world situation (Lloyd, Persaud, & Powell, 2009).

Summary of Theoretical Foundations for the Present Research

The research and theoretical writing from the literature that has had a major

impact on spatial thinking in recent years is that by Gersmehl (2006; 2007; 2008). The

development of the modes of spatial thinking was attributed to an extensive review of

over one thousand literature articles. A recently updated review of literature narrowed the

modes of spatial thinking from thirteen to eight. The purpose of Gersmehl's literature

review was to create a narrowed list that exemplified the numerous studies on the

cognitive skill of spatial thinking and how people use this skill to perform various spatial

tasks.

Gersmehl's research in spatial thinking progressed into the more defined set of

eight modes. These modes represent the foundation for this dissertation research study. A

review of extensive literature in psychology, geography, and other related geosciences

served as the basis in which the core modes of spatial thinking were determined. Three

spatio-temporal modes are also identified. Six of the eight core modes of spatial thinking

were determined to be embedded in the Geography 1900 course at Western Michigan

University. Many inquiry-based activities within the course applied the modes of spatial

thinking through the interactions and student conversations in completing course tasks. It

was the intent of this research to focus on the development within the population of

students enrolled.

CHAPTER 111

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Mixed Methods Research Design

This dissertation research consists of data acquired through a mixed methods

research design. A pre-post test was used in the collection of quantitative data, as well as

measures of performance on map and diagram drawing tasks that are readily quantifiable.

The qualitative data were based on interviews, observations by the researcher and

assistants, and empirical observations that were analyzed from recorded discussions and

open ended narratives, both written and spoken. The null hypothesis suggests that prepost

test means are equal. In my judgment, the research design permitted data collection that

enabled me to answer the six research questions stated above. The three hypotheses

developed for the research are based on the questions and the effects of the completion of

spatial thinking assessment tasks on pre-service elementary teacher education students'

ability to apply spatial thinking.

Qualitative Methodology

This research study is a phenomenological qualitative methodology.

Phenomenological studies are important for research studies which concentrate on a

phenomenon (Creswell, 1998). Spatial thinking is an important cognition skill and

phenomenon. Participant observation is also involved in this qualitative portion of this

study.

The phenomenological method began as a philosophy which is related to the

essence of a phenomenon or object as it presents itself in human conscious. The essence of

what humans experience with the phenomenon is of great importance. In spatial thinking,

people will exhibit different experiences of cognitive thought. As spatial thinking is a

collection of cognitive skills, the study of these skills for humans will serve as the

phenomenological study. Because the researcher wants to investigate the ways in which

undergraduate pre-service teacher education students use different modes of spatial

thinking, the phenomenological method is an effective qualitative study. By looking at the

ways in which students express their spatial thinking, the researcher studied the physical

movements and verbal reasoning relative to their cognitive thoughts.

Sanders (1982) proposed that there are three fundamental components in a

phenomenological research design. They are: l) the aspect of determining the limits or

what and who is to be investigated; 2) collection of data: 3) and the phenomenological

analysis of the data. The present study has certain limits. They are: l) the study involves

college-age students who are above 18 years of age; the number of students who

volunteered for the spatial walk in the first semester of research was sixteen; 3) the

students were from one course with two sections Fall 2008 and three sections Spring

2009 in Geography 1900; 4) the number of students participating in the second semester

spatial walks was seventeen; 5) eight students from Geography 1020, the comparison

group, participated in the spatial walk during Spring Semester 2009. The selection of the

Geography 1020 students was randomized from the enrollment roster.

The phenomenon which is being studied is spatial thinking. Examples of the

qualitative techniques the researcher used were observations in the classroom and

walkthrough tasks on the campus of Western Michigan University. The subjects were

engaged in actual spatial tasks so that their thinking and physical movements were

observed. There were interviews to examine the particular behaviors in-depth. The

interviews were transcribed from the video recordings and interpreted. The student names

were coded to ensure confidentiality.

As indicated in the Sander's (1982) paper, analyzing the data requires four levels

of analysis. The four levels are: l) a description of the phenomenon through interview

transcripts; 2) identification of emerging themes; 3) the subjective reflections on the

themes; 4) and the abstraction of the essences. The description and essences were selected

as the main levels for this research because this is a step-by-step process of integrating

multiple sets of data. The description level is indicative of the concurrent interviews from

the spatial walk.

The identification of gender differences was not an objective in this research study,

due to high percentage of female students in the sample. This study focuses on identifying

differences between and within groups on pre and post-tests resulting from a particular set

of spatial treatments. The qualitative data are mainly concentrated on the identification of

the modes of spatial thinking students demonstrated in activities and spatial walks

(Gersmehl, 2008).

A phenomenological study can föllow a psychological approach in which the study

is often an interpersonal topic relating the phenomenon to human subjects

(Creswell, 1998). This phenomenological differs from the physiological study since it

examines the students' ability to think spatially as a cognitive process. This is the essence

of the research.

Spatial Walks on the Campus of Western Michigan University

The students in this study participated in a pre-post written test assessing their

spatial thinking. A sub-sample of those students also participated in a spatial walk where

they reflected on their modes of spatial thinking in an interview during the walk. Each

individual spatial walk resulted in a transcript of the student's comments. They were word

processed verbatim by the researcher. The data collected during the spatial walks was

treated in the same manner as described earlier for the classroom observations of

Geography 1900 and consistent with an open coding scheme and emerging categories as

grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, pp. 23, 61) with two distinct caveats.

First, the spatial walk data was completed by just the researcher. The interview

protocol was used to retain stability and consistency in the interview items. Each spatial

walk was audio recorded for the preparation of transcripts.

Second, the researcher was the only person to review and analyze the transcripts

from the spatial walks. The researcher applied the same rigor to the observational process

as was applied with the classroom observations where there were two additional

observers. In part, this is the difference between well funded research where others can be

engaged and paid for assistance and research where the principal investigator is the only

person collecting and interpreting the data. In such instances the final judgment on the

accuracy and depth of analysis is left for replication studies in the future.

Seven interview items were asked during the spatial walk from Wood Hall to

Goldsworth Valley in which students responses were recorded (Appendices A, B). An

open coding scheme was developed that was used to code terminology used by the

students that reflected the modes of spatial thinking and other emerging concepts. The

open coding scheme required a "breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing,

and categorizing data" that were collected in response to the spatial walk questions

(Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p. 61). The identification and selection of categories is a process

in open coding. The categories were derived by the researcher from pertinent vocabulary

words in student responses to interview items. The pertinent vocabulary words relative to

modes of spatial thinking or other spatial concepts were not listed beforehand in order to

reduce researcher bias; common vocabulary words and patterns with other associated

words were identified by the researcher by a thorough examination of the transcript data.

This scheme was used in the deconstruction of the spatial walk transcript data. The table

constructed by the pertinent vocabulary and emerging categories is presented in Chapter

Glaser and Strauss (1967) developed grounded theory as a qualitative method.

Theory emerges from a study of the phenomenon. Spatial thinking is the phenomenon of

study in the present research. In accordance with grounded theory, themes and patterns

that emerged from the analysis ofthe transcripts were then prepared as categories för

analysis from the open coding scheme (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The analysis is derived

from the concurrent interview data collected during the spatial walk. The analysis of the

transcripts suggested that modes of spatial thinking and other spatial concepts were

reflected by the students, but not as specific vocabulary terms. The spatial modes that

emerged as the result of the conversations will be discussed in Chapter IV.

A total of twenty seven students from Geography 1900 participated in the spatial

walk segment of the research for Fall 2008 Semester and Spring 2009 Semester. The walk

was a transect across a familiar part of campus from Wood Hall to the Goldsworth Valley.

Eight students from Geography 1020 participated in the spatial walk during Spring

Semester 2009. A camcorder was used to record the path of the walk and the interview

questions and responses, but did not reveal facial features of the participants. The full list

of interview questions from Wood Hall to Goldsworth Valley is presented in Appendix A.

Students in Geography 1900 were requested to volunteer to complete the spatial

walk and observation procedure. Students in Geography 1900 volunteered on an

invitation sheet that was distributed in class for Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester

2009 (Appendix I). When there were more volunteers than necessary, the researcher

randomly selected twenty students from the sample of volunteers. If there were fewer

students than twenty who volunteered, then all the students from the volunteer list were

included in the spatial walk. The eight students from Geography 11020 were randomly

selected and invited to participate in the spatial walk and observation. The effects of

motivation, reward, or interest in the project by students who volunteered were not

considered in the data collection or analysis.

Student identification for the spatial walk was coded för anonymity. Neither the

audio nor video portions of the spatial walks did include student identification. Full

transcripts were analyzed and assessed for indicators of spatial thinking. A sample transcript

is presented in Appendix B.

As in all qualitative research, greater information and dialogue may result from

certain questions and individual students respond in particular ways. This was noted by the

researcher after the end of the recorded spatial walks. The purpose of the questioning of

the students along the walk was to infer cognitive processes the students used and their

ability to think spatially. Interview data of the spatial thinking modes reflected in their

verbal descriptions along the walk were analyzed. The walk permitted the researcher to

determine the spatial thinking skills that students transferred from the course syllabus and

the inquiry-based learning from the classroom to the out ofdoors context.

The outdoor setting was the central campus of Western Michigan University. The

walk required students to begin at Wood Hall (near their Geography 1900 classroom) and

walk to the Goldsworth Valley as instructed by the researcher. During the walk, interview

questions were presented to students at intermittent points. The intermittent points were

held constant and thus were the same for each individual who participated. There were no

dangerous intersections or traffic conditions that presented safety issues for the walking

students.

Observations in the Geography 1900 Course

Seven inquiry-based activities were observed by the researcher and trained

observers, and recorded through videotaping and observational notes. The Geography

1900 activities observed included: Topographic Maps, Mapping I, Mapping Il, Sun

Angle, Length of Daylight, Winds Il, and the Lake Effect. Based on the evaluation of the

Geography 1900 syllabus, these activities represent the greatest reflection of the modes of

spatial thinking (Gersmehl, 2008).

A systematic recording schedule was established in order to sample the functioning

of the course and students every fifteen minutes. For purposes of inter-rater reliability, two

graduate students were hired to observe a limited number of activities.

This was necessary to obtain an estimate of stability by the researcher for the

observational recording process in the data collection and interpretation. The purpose of a

second observation of the same scenario is to provide inter-rater reliability for the

measurement or rating. A high inter-rater reliability suggests the data collection and

interpretation were stable and consistent, and enhances the quality of the research and its

findings. A low reliability level makes the data and process suspect and less stable for

interpretation.

The behaviors by the students relative to the six core modes and three

spatiotemporal modes of spatial thinking were rated on a zero to seven point scale. Prior to

the observations, the graduate students retained as raters met with the researcher to review

Gersmehl's modes of spatial thinking. Each mode of spatial thinking that would be verified

in the activities was reviewed and defined on the basis of Gersmehl's taxonomy. The

individual observations of the classroom were independent, with the graduate student

raters receiving the list of spatial modes of thinking in advance. Those observations made

by the trained observers are included in Chapter IV. It was not necessary to complete an

inter-rater reliability for every observation. Rather, a sampling was made on the premise

that if the sample were reliable, then the ratings by the researcher would be stable and

reliable. Two activities were observed solely by the researcher while the co-observers with

the researcher observed five.

The students from Geography 1900 were observed by trained observers, while the

KVCC earth science class and the Geography 1020 classes were not.

Instructional Methodology

The research did not specifically compare methods of instruction. It should be

noted that Geography 1900 students proceeded through the seven instructional activities

following an inquiry model, while the Geography 1020 students were presented a

selfstudy, guided instruction model for the completion of the map and atlas exercises.

The inquiry based-approach is a widely accepted methodology in the teaching and

learning of science. The National Science Education Standards (National Research

Council, 1996) defines inquiry as a teaching pedagogy and learning goal. Students are

actively engaged in the learning process and observation and experimentation are

generally major components. Students follow the same processes as scientists do in the

inquiry methodology. Geography 1900 is a laboratory-based class with laboratory

experimentation and observational tasks designed for student engagement where students

discover science concepts and content through inquiry. Rutherford (2001) suggested that

science is a way of looking at the world, instead ofa list of facts and principles to learn by

rote memorization.

The inquiry approach is much different than the traditional lecture. In inquiry

pedagogy, students are actively engaged in the learning process and discover the big

concepts of earth science. Inquiry is important as a methodology used by scientists in the

actual processes of science. Ruhf (2006) identified the dominance of inquiry in science

education as a result of curriculum reform in the 1960s. The curriculum reform during this

time focused on the concepts of teaching science instead of memorization and isolated

facts (Ruhf, 2006). Curriculum studies emerged which transformed science in the

classroom into an inquiry-based pedagogical approach. These studies include the Physical

Science Study Committee (PSSC), Biological Sciences Curriculum Study

(BSCS), the Earth Science Curriculum Project (ESCP), and the High School Geography

Project (HSGP). These projects were funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF)

(DeBoer, 1991).

Inter-rater Reliability

Reliability has practical significance for qualitative research. In order for the

researcher to be certain that the same standards and criteria were being applied to the

interpretation of non quantitative data collected and analyzed. The reliability was

addressed by retaining and training two advanced graduate students to complete a second

and third review of the recorded classroom observations. They observed the interaction of

the students and conversations about the content during the class sessions. The researcher

and the other raters made their ratings of the modes of spatial thinking used by students in

their classroom discussions. There were three classes co-observed within the classroom

during the research period in Spring Semester 2009 and two classes were observed using

the video recordings. The observation and rating of the video recorded classes were

included in the determination of inter-rater reliability.

The inter-rater reliability for the classroom observations was completed using the

observers' ratings and the Pearson Product Moment correlation. The correlation among the

three raters observing the classroom instruction was .78 exhibiting a positive degree of

stability in following the observational protocol. Thus, the researcher concludes that a high

degree of stability and reliability in the rating process and the ratings of attention to spatial

thinking were attained. During the meeting which followed the observations, a mean

ranking based on all three observers was determined.

Geography 1900 Observations

The classroom observers who assisted in the establishment of inter-rater reliability

were colleagues in the Mallinson Institute for Science Education. They were trained by the

researcher prior to the actual observations using a specific protocol method

(Appendix E). The protocol was a modified lesson observational system of Science and

Mathematics Program Improvement at Western Michigan University (SAMPI, 2003).

Questions posed by the raters were guided by the protocol and were addressed in

meetings with the researcher prior to and föllowing the class observations. The

observations and ratings occurred throughout the semester on a predetermined schedule

that permitted the most complete coverage considering cost and resources.

Following each activity in which reliability data were collected, the raters met

with the researcher and compared the observations för the spatial modes embedded within

the activities. The ranking systems and rationale were discussed during the meeting. A

review of the notes and observations during the class session permitted differences and

similarities to be identified. For each observation (Appendix E), the raters classified the

modes of spatial thinking exhibited based on relevant exchanges (7 = High) in dialogue

within the context of the context for that class session as well as duration of time. In

addition to the direct observations in the classroom there were audio/video recording

taken of the seven instructional activities in Geography 1900.

The same individuals who were trained as observers/raters also observed a sample

of the video tapes recorded during each class session and applied the observational

protocol. Prior to beginning the video review, the modes of spatial thinking were reviewed

for the observers (Gersmehl, 2008). The modes of spatial thinking that were assessed

during video analysis were reviewed for the raters. During the video analysis there were

no conversations among the raters and the researcher. A discussion followed the rating of

the video tape was held to clarify any questions and to resolve any major classification of

the mode of spatial thinking assigned to particular segments.

Quantitative Methodology

The Spatial Thinking Test

The Spatial Thinking Tests was constructed and validated within a prior research

study (Lee, 2005). The test was designed as a paper-and-pencil test that was developed for

Ph.D. dissertation research. Lee (2005) constructed the items based on the following:

l) identification of the test purpose and specification of concepts measured; (2)

construction of the initial pool of items; 3) pilot testing; 4) item analysis; and 5) field

testing (Lee, 2005, p. 46). The delineation of the assessment objective was the first process

in Lee's (2005) construction of the spatial test items. Selected items were further

administered to undergraduate students in a pilot study at Ferris State University along

with the full pre and post-test that was used in the research.

The researcher added two items to Lee's (2005) test that were designed for content

specificity related to Geography 1900. The earth-sun relationship and precipitation items

were examples of the content validity in the Spatial Thinking Test. The construct validity,

such as the mental rotation tasks and shape arrangements that were not specifically

related to the course content, were used as spatial thinking construct items. The inclusion

of spatial thinking construct items from prior tests provided assurance that the modes of

spatial thinking were not an achievement of the content in Geography 1900 by students,

but these items were actually measuring constructs related to spatial thinking and used in

prior research in psychology, geography, and earth science. The researcher's alignment of

the modes of spatial thinking with the test items is presented in Appendix M.

Students were administered a pre and post-tests in Geography 1900 and

Geography 1020 for Fall 2008 and Spring 2009 semesters; students in an earth science

course at Kalamazoo Valley Community College (KV CC) were also administered the

tests in Fall 2008 semester. The spatial tasks included a paper map analysis, navigation,

and contour drawings. The test packet included eighteen individual spatial tasks. The

pretests and post-tests were identical in content tor their similar spatial tasks, although the

arrangement of the items was different between pre and post-tests. The pre-post tests

repeated measures was the methodology used research för the quantitative segment of the

mixed methods design (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). The design of the research was quasi-

experimental, since it did not employ random assignment of subjects. Specifically, the

study is a non-equivalent group quasi-experimental design. No random pre-selection

process occurred within this study. The experimental group, students from Geography

1900 and KV CC, represented the independent variable. The comparison group, students

in Geography 1020, represented the comparison group that received an entirely different

course treatment. Overall, the student participants were not randomly selected from these

courses. There were randomly selected students drawn for sub-sample assessment

randomization procedures in the Geography 1020 spatial walk, such as random numbers.

Those students randomly selected were from Geography 1020, a larger enrollment class,

and invited to participate in the spatial walk.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test was used to assess for differences between the

sub-samples from the two courses. ANOVA statistics were used to determine if there was

a significant relationship between or within the three groups (Geography 1900,

Geography 1020, KVCC).

Sample Selection

Western Michigan University

Western Michigan University is located in Kalamazoo, Michigan, with an

approximate 25,000 student enrollment. Approximately 90% of the students enrolled in

Geography 1900, Earth Science for Elementary Education students were female. Students

from first year freshman to final semester seniors were asked to participate in this study.

Most students enrolled are between the ages of 18-23 in undergraduate courses at Western

Michigan University. However, a limited number are non-traditional older students. In

order to produce results that can be generalized, the entire population or a randomly

sampled selection should be used in research (Ray, 1985). This was not possible due to the

enrollment procedures for the course. Therefore, the current study will be grounded in the

collected data and generalized to this particular group of students. The study sample is

representative of the population of students who enrolled in

Geography 1900 during Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009. All students in

Geography 1900, Geography 1020, and KVCC class were provided consent to participate

in the pre-post tests.

Geography 1900: Experimental Group.

This study occurred at Western Michigan University in Kalamazoo, Michigan from

2008-2009. Five individual Geography 1900 sections taught at Western Michigan

University during Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009 represented the focus of

the experimental design in the research study. Geography 1900 used an inquiry-based

syllabus. Four Geography 1020 sections from Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester

2009 represented the comparison class which did not use the inquiry-based syllabus.

Geography 1900 is a laboratory-based course designed for pre-service elementary

teacher education students. In the inquiry approach, students are engaged in numerous

activities which allow them to discover the principles and concepts of earth science.

Students work in groups of four at individual laboratory tables and discuss the

procedures, problems, and outcome questions related to the inquiry activities. All

Geography 1900 students in this study were taught by one instructor, and not by the

researcher. The experimental sample of students from the combined Fall 2008 and Spring

2009 semesters totaled one hundred twenty students. A total of twenty seven Geography

1900 students from combined Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009 volunteered to

participate in the spatial walk by placing their name on a volunteer list

During the first and second weeks of each semester, the researcher introduced

himself at the beginning of the course, and the researcher explained the nature of the study

while asking for students to participate. Consent forms authorized by the Human Subjects

Review Board (HSIRB) of Western Michigan University were distributed, signed by the

students, and collected (Appendix C). The data collection was valid one year from the

originally date of authorization: April 13, 2008. Students were given official National

Geographic maps of either the United States or Africa as a reward for their participation in

the research project. Students who participated in the spatial walk were given an official

Mallinson Institute for Science Education mug at the conclusion of their participation as a

reward.

Geography 1020: Comparison Group

The use of a comparison group is an important aspect in research design, especially

one with clearly defined statistical methods (Liao, 2002). Geography 1020 was selected as

the comparison group in the study and is identified as a non-equivalent group.

The comparison group used a textbook and world atlas.

Atlas use was a fundamental component of the course content and exercises and

was expected to have some impact on spatial thinking since individual study tasks

applying scale, map symbolization, information extraction and reformulating as narrative

descriptive statements were completed by the comparison group students. The comparison

group was necessary to compare the effects of content materials — laboratory learning

experiences based on the seven activities in Geography 1900 with self-study using maps

and atlas exercises. The Spatial Thinking Test is a measure of spatial thinking constructs

rather than spatial thinking achievement. It was not designed specifically for either the

experimental or the comparison course with the exception of the two content items that

were added to measure specificity of learning of Earth Sun relationships and the effects of

elevation of atmospheric conditions. The two items added were not included in the initial

Test of Spatial Thinking used by Lee (2005), but were deemed important since both

content areas included specific content about spatial relationships at the scale of the solar

system and Earth system that affect atmospheric conditions.

Students enrolled in Geography 1020, World Geography Through Maps and

Media, served as the comparison group. Seventy nine student and ninety one students,

during the Fall 2008 and Spring 2009 Semesters respectively, represented the comparison

group. The inquiry-based laboratory manual, which represents the experimental source

for this study, was not used in the Geography 1020 course.

Geography 1020 is represented by the following characteristics: l) a lecture-based

course; 2) a major component of map and atlas use projects signed to a) build map and

spatial skills and b) interact with geographic content on maps; and 3) As with Geography

1900, there was no direct attempt to teach Gersheml's (2008) modes of spatial thinking, but

they were embedded in the individualized atlas projects.

Kalamazoo Valley Community College

One earth science section using the same syllabus was taught to Kalamazoo Valley

Community College (KVCC) students. These students were included within the

experimental group for Fall Semester 2008, although in the statistical analysis the group

is separate. The Instructor at KVCC used the same syllabus and classroom activities. The

KV CC Instructor noted that KVCC did not have all of the necessary materials required in

the laboratory for all activities in the course packet.

Demographics of the Population

The experimental groups, Geography 1900 and KVCC, consisted of a much

higher percentage of females. In comparison, a larger number of males enrolled in

Geography 1020 although the number of females exceeded males. Tables 2 and 3

represent demographics for the three groups (Geography 1900, Geography 1020, and

KVCC) in Fall 2008 and spring 2009 semesters.

Table 2: Demographics for Fall Semester 2008 Sample

Group

Male Female

Geography 1900

Geography 1020

KVCC

9 30

9 3

Table 3: Demographics for Spring Semester 2009 Sample

Group

Male

Female

Geography 1900

Geography 1020

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

Analysis and Reporting of the Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Spatial Walks: Research Questions and Reflections

One objective of the research was to determine if the modes of spatial thinking

defined by Gersmehl (2008) were reflected in the conversations by students outside the

classroom, and if this was linked to their classroom instruction in Geography 1900. The

percentage of students using the various modes of spatial thinking was calculated after

analyzing the transcripts. These qualitative results were garnered using principles of

qualitative research presented by Sanders (1982). The analysis entailed the deconstruction

of recorded conversations, identifying indications of spatial thinking, associating them

with Gersmehl's (2008) modes of spatial thinking, reconstructing the contextual meaning

and making an inference to the efTects ofthe Geography 1900 course on student

behaviors. Geography 1020 student transcripts were assessed, although parallels in

responses limited the difTerences between these groups. The behavior and responses

ofthe Geography 11900 students represented the concentration in the spatial walk

analysis. In presenting the responses for the spatial walk in this research, three excerpts

were selected from the interviews to demonstrate three levels ofrcsponses: l) an elaborate

response; 2) an acceptable response; and 3) brief response pattern.

Analysis of Spatial Walk Transcripts and Reflections

The interview items selected for the more detailed discussion are presented

according to each interview item. A more detailed presentation of the full transcripts is

presented in Appendix B.

Interview Item 1: "We are beginning a walk through part of campus. Our destination is

Goldsworth Valley. You may befamiliar with the route. Using the knowledge of where we

are presently, and the location of Goldsworth Valley, which we cannot see from here,

describe any information that you need to consider in order to be certain that we will arrive

at our destination by the end ofthe walk.

The following map indicates the starting point, Wood Hall, surrounding buildings,

and the end point Goldsworth Valley at Western Michigan University (Figure l).

cenrf

Figure l . Map of Western Michigan University Campus.

The following responses were received from the experimental group, Geography

1900 students, who participated in the walk. The students responding were outside of

Wood Hall on the eastern side of the building. In response, the Geography 1900 students

expressed that a plan or a reference point was needed to reach Goldsworth Valley or the

Bernhard Center. One student commented:

l.) A lot of people, this being my first year on campus, will point me to different

places by saying you need to go up to this building in front of us and take a left,

and then you're going to go up to that building and turn right. That's pretty much

all I needed, so far this semester.

The campus buildings represented a fixed reference point for twelve (36%) of the

Geography 1900 students. In many of the other cases, a map or a compass represent an

essential aspect of finding a destination. Twenty one (64%) referred to maps as being an

important part of reaching any particular destination. One student confirmed this in the

answer:

2.) A map, possibly. A good reference guide like maybe someone who has been here

for a while. You could ask them. Basically, a map. Last year, I had a map to figure

out where I was going. And buildings.

Students also commented that a directions and compass directions are important

in reaching a destination.

3.) Um, maybe to know spatial directions: north, south, northeast, southeast,

northwest.

The analysis of a map is a process of identifying location and interpretations of

the conditions and connections of features. Connections are made by two locations on the

map, which in this case would be Wood Hall and Goldsworth Valley or the Bernhard

Center. The core spatial thinking mode is comparison as students can interpret conditions

and make connections between two locations. According to Gersmehl (2008), comparison

entails the identification of how places are similar or different. These students

demonstrated that by: l) making verbal comparisons and connections between physical

features such as buildings; 2) understanding the physical features on a map; and 3)

comparing the location of buildings and other features with direction.

Interview Item 2: "Identify any objects in which you see that will be helpful in order to

reach your destination.

The buildings and other physical features represented a category of objects that

students identified while reaching their destination. Objects such as flagpoles, buildings,

the WMU sign, and other landmarks were identified by students of Geography 1900.

Twenty (74 0 0) of Geography 1900 students identified the flagpoles as being the most

prominent landmark on campus. Geography 1900 students commented:

l) Well, I would say for one thing the flagpoles in the center of campus is definitely a

pretty distinguishable landmark. Of course, you have Sangren Hall, and then of

course you have Sindecuse. So, between the two buildings and the flagpoles, it

kind of gives me a sense of my bearings as far as the campus layout. And,

therefore, a sense of direction. I wouldn't say the flagpoles are the most prominent

landmark on campus, but as far as student meetings and places it seems to be

centrally located so it is definitely a feature that students can identify with.

2) Um, we are going to Goldsworth Valley; there's a pond and you go past Sindecuse.

There are buildings up here, so you know you're heading in the right direction. Yes

(flagpoles are the prominent point on campus).

3) Buildings, trees, flagpoles.

In general, students identified the flagpoles as a prominent and focal point on campus.

It was determined by review of the transcript that 100% of the Geography 1900

students used the comparison mode, while 63% of the Geography 1900 students used the

association mode in completing this reflective task (Figure 2).

Spatial Walk: Interview Item 2

100 80 60

o Percentage of 1900

Students

Figure 2. Modes of Spatial Thinking Displayed (N=27).

Interview Item 3: "At this location, please identify one prominent landmark. (If answer is

notflags, would you consider the flagpoles a prominent landmark? Describe the

arrangement of the flagpoles relative to each other.

The spatial mode Gersmehl (2008) identified as 'pattern' suggests that features are

represented in clusters, strings, waves, or other non-random arrangements. Geography

1900 students commented:

l) Well, the flagpoles themselves form the shape of a triangle at their base as far as

their actual layout, Um, the flagpoles all seem to be perpendicular to each other, er

I'm sorry, parallel to each other in their height. I would assume there is a

triangle at the base. Each one is roughly 60 degrees in separation from the vertices

of itself to the other two flagpoles.

2) There are clusters of three...there are three sets of three... it's like they make a

triangle with the three flags. And they make a triangle with the sets of flags.

3) Uh, they're kind of set up in a triangle shape. Uh, they're probably about six feet

from each other.

The geometric triangle is a recurring description in the conversation with the

participants. The flagpoles are prominent on campus, and it was suggested that there are

other prominent landmarks as well. These include the Echo Structure on campus, the

WMU sign, and buildings such as Sangren Hall. Pattern was used within the interview

conversation by thirty three (100%) Geography 1900 students as they referred to the

arrangement of the flagpoles. This was expressed as a triangular pattern by these students.

These students were using pattern a spatial modes of thinking as defined by Gersmehl

(2008).

The spatial pattern for the base platforms for the flagpoles was also identified by

six (22%) students. The comparison was used to describe and compare the flagpoles in

terms of size, shape, and height. The flagpoles were also described by six (22%) students

as being equal distant from each other. Students also used the comparison mode as they

compared the flagpoles relative to each other in terms of size, shape, and height. The

flagpoles were described in most instances as being equal distant from each other.

The association mode was reflected by many responses, as students associated in

an example the same features with all flagpoles. The following is a transcript excerpt:

"they are on a circular platform, the flags are the same height, and flags are equal distant

from each other on the same platform."

The association of all of these features in the same is a theme expressed by 52% of

the Geography 1900 students in conversation. It was also determined that 100% of the

students used the mode pattern, while 60% of the students used the mode comparison.

The other modes of spatial thinking were not reflected (Figure 3).

Spatial Walk: Interview Item 3

100

Spatial

Mode

O Percentage of

1900

Students

Figure 3. Modes of Spatial Thinking Displayed (N=27).

Interview Item 4: What direction are we presently walking? (Follow up) Are you

relating this to anything else?

Most of the students identified the direction as being north. Several students

identified the direction as being south, east, or northeast. The relationship with direction

and association with streets and highways is evident. A Geography 1900 student noted:

l) I would say we are headed pretty much due north, I would think, or in a northerly

direction. Well, my reference points are pretty much extensive and expansive as

far as just how my mind knows this is north. I know that W. Main runs east and

west; I know Drake road runs north and south which is perpendicular to W. Main.

I also know that E. Michigan Avenue runs east and west which is again parallel to

W. Main, perpendicular to Drake.

This student was making references to streets adjacent to campus. This is a mode

of spatial thinking in making an association of direction with street orientations. This

connection was quite common with all students. The category being exemplified in this

question is the transportation systems: streets and highways. Other students determined

the direction they were walking in relation to their residential location. By making these

connections, a high percentage of students described an analogy in relating direction with

other physical features or transportation routes became evident.

2) What direction are we currently heading? I'm going to say east, but I honestly don't

know. I'm trying to remember the way Westnedge runs, because I know Westnedge

is behind us pretty much north. Westnedge is down that way and south is down the

other way, so that would make us this way. But, I'm not actually sure if that's right.

3) North. Well, I'm relating it to north because I know to my right is my hometown in

that direction, and then South Haven is to the left.

It was determined through the Geography 1900 student transcripts that 85% of

students used the analogy mode, while 30% of the students used the comparison mode.

The other modes were not reflected in the conversations. The Geography 1900 students

were using these modes of spatial thinking when relating the direction of travel to other

geographic features and transportation routes (Figure 4).

At a specific location while walking downhill, I stopped and asked the student this

question. The student generally took a few seconds to think about their response before

answering. Most students responded in a fraction of a mile, in particular one quarter mile

(0.25 mile). A majority of the Geography 1900 students answered one quarter of a mile

as the distance from Wood Hall to that point. There was general consistency within the

answer. The approximate distance from Wood Hall to Interview Item 6 location as

measured is 0.20 mile.

Spatial Walk: Interview Item 4

o Percentage of 1900

Students

Figure 4. Modes of Spatial Thinking Displayed (N=27).

Interview Item 5: Howfar would you estimate we have walked since the beginning?

Looking at the apartments below, what is the estimated distance from this location?

The second interview item in this set asked the students to estimate the distance

from the stopping point to the apartments in Goldsworth Valley. In most cases, the

students identified a similar distance and stated that it was another quarter of a mile to the

apartments. Other responses in distance clustered around one quarter of a mile.

Interview Item 6: Describe any changes in the route in this side of campus. Do you recall

any Geography 1900 activities you may have applied?

Figure 5 shows a representation of the walk down Gilkison Avenue to Goldsworth

Valley. Figure 6 shows the path of the walk down to Goldsworth Valley.

00K

Figure 5. Map of Spatial Walk to Goldsworth Valley.

Figure 6. Interview Item 6 Location. Note: The downhill slope is shown in this photo.

Geography 1900 students commented:

l) Um it seems like we're going downhill from where we started. Yeah, the um, when

we had to draw the hill reminds me of Colorado, like how on one side you have,

like the higher you go up a mountain, the higher, of course, the elevation; then

weather's going to change.

2) Well, we've gone downhill. It wasn't a very steep hill, but elevation went lower. It

seems like we've generally gone in the same direction. We've veered offa little to

the left, but other than that we haven't changed directions.

3) We're going downhill. Yeah, we did like elevation, like highest and lowest points.

Yeah, it was on a topographic map.

The identification of a change in slope or change in elevation was given in the

answers by 93% percent of Geography 1900 students. They reflected that the walk

gradually goes downhill during the latter half of the walk. Many students recognized this

change. Although the actual word transition does not appear in the transcript, this is the

mode of spatial thinking being exemplified. Other words noted by the participants such as,

dowrffill and elevation change, suggest a reflection of the transition spatial mode of

thinking (Table 2).

The transition mode of spatial thinking is where a change between two distinct

spatial conditions is described. The change in elevation was noted by many of the students

suggesting that transition was the spatial mode of thinking involved in their recognition of

the changing conditions of elevation. Making the association with this gradual change in

elevation and the topographic maps in the classroom were observed in the conversation.

It was determined after review of the conversations for Interview Item 6 that

100% of the Geography 1900 students used the mode transition, 93% used change, 8% of

the Geography 1900 students used the association mode, and 8% of the students used

comparison. These modes of spatial thinking emerged from the dialogue as the end of the

walk drew near (Figure 7).

Spatial Walk: Interview Item 6

100

o Percentage of

1900

Students

Figure 7. Modes of Spatial Thinking Displayed (N=27).

Interview Item 7: What contentfrom your Geography 1900 course have you applied or

thought about as we walked today?

This question related to the content material of the Geography 1900 course and its

application to real-world situations. When students are navigating, they are thinking

spatially. Because the content of the course requires spatial ability, students were using the

spatial applications they learned from the course. Maps were noted in the interviews since

they are linked with direction, distance, and connections, students often noted this in their

answers. Other answers were related to the weather. One Geography 1900 students

commented:

l) We talked about all different kinds of things as far as, you know, precipitation and the

fact that lower pressure systems seem to be more volatile and have an increase in

chance in precipitation because as the warmer air is rising, it carries the moisture up

to altitude which is obviously going the reach the dew point, the condensation point,

and come back down. You know, there is so many different things about that and as

far as lake effect snowfall; you know, obviously this wasn't snow we received today

but if you watched the weather report it wasn't lake effect. It was probably enhanced

slightly by lake effect, but the majority of it was just from the fact that we had a cold

front from the north and we had a warm front from the south that came together and

collided and provided that cold air mass as all the moisture which is why we got

dumped on with 6 inches of snow today. Yeah, as far as the continental polar air

mass coming out of the north and you have the maritime tropical masses — they

tend to be warmer coming out of the Gulf of Mexico and combine right here in the

Great Lakes region and obviously in the plain states as well. Anywhere, mid-

continental is where that occurs...

2) Um, clouds. The weather part, I could tell it's raining consistently kind of, and so I

predict it will continue to rain at a consistent rate based on the way things are

today. Um, we talked about precipitation in terms of the climate type, and so we

receive rainfall here much more here than they would in the desert. Um, we talked

about the cloud cover, and today would definitely be 100% cloud cover and the

rain is part of that. It's raining because the clouds are full of rain and water

droplets. They had to release the water droplets because they're too heavy.

3) Um, probably how the weather systems work. We learned how the pressure

systems move in and out and what causes what type of weather, so I guess. .. we're

doing the weather journals, especially made me think about why we had the

weather we have.

Students discussed the weather during the spatial walks, especially when the

weather was unfavorable. Temperatures were occasionally quite cold and the students

were cognizant of their discussions on temperature in the classroom activities. The most

recent or activity for the concurrent week of the spatial walk was often discussed by the

students. This interview item was the most dissimilar between the Geography 1900 and

Geography 1020 students. The Atlas and map use in Geography 1020 was frequently

identified by Geography 1020 students. The following are selected excerpts from

Geography 1020 students in response to this same interview item.

1) It taught me (Geography 1020 course) how to read a map better. Just to become

more familiar with the world. Reading maps and being more familiar.

2) I guess the culture aspect; you can just look around campus and see all kinds of

people.

3) Figuring out where to get to places.

The percentage of students who discussed a component of weather or an aspect of

mapping was determined through the transcripts. This emerged as result of the many

aspects of weather: temperature, precipitation, pressure, clouds, and wind studied in class.

Students in Geography 1900 were often applying the concepts of weather lessons during

the walks and recalling the activity completed in class.

The responses associated with the spatial walk were classified for a rational

analysis. A review of Table 2 reveals the specific responses to the Interview Items. The

following is a summary: l) Students in the spatial walk experimental group were using

objects in the environment as a reflection for spatial thinking. They cited buildings,

flagpoles, etc; 2) they identified resources that would assist them in making spatial

decisions and judgments, and 3) they conceptually, if not specifically, used language that

was consistent with the modes of spatial thinking proposed by Gersmehl (2008).

In contrast, the comparison group had only eight students who participated in the

spatial walk. There were no similar reflections regarding the concepts underlying spatial

thinking. This suggests that the instruction in Geography 1900 invoked spatial thinking,

but not the specific terminology, while that did not develop to the same extent among the

Geography 1020 students. Responses from the Geography 1020 group were generally

brief in comparison with the Geography 1900 students. The sample of eight, however,

reduces the confidence in this observation.

Common spatial modes and concepts of spatial thinking are presented in Table 4.

These categories emerged as a result of the analysis of the transcripts for each interview

item. The categories are resource, landmark, arrangement of flagpoles, direction of walk,

distance, and change in route. Each one of these represents a link to spatial thinking

during the spatial walk. The most common spatial modes of thinking during the walk were

comparison, pattern, association, analogy, and transition.

Table 4: Common Mode/Concept of Spatial Thinking Associated with

Spatial Walk Interview Items

Interview

Item

Category

Information

and

Common

Response

Spatial

Mode/

Concept

Resource

Map;

Compass;

Left and

Right

Orientation

Landmark

Buildings;

Trees;

Flagpoles;

WMU Sign

Comparison

Arrangement

of Flagpoles

Triangle;

Circular

Platform

Pattern,

Association

Direction

of Walk

North/

Northeast

Analogy

Distance

Quarter

of a mile

(0.25

mile)

Spatial

Relations

Change in

Route

Going

Downhill;

Landscape

Transition

The data suggest that students use modes of spatial thinking outside the classroom

as they move about campus and the environment. Perhaps the most obvious effect of spatial

thinking is for route-learning and planning strategies.

Route-learning strategies are an important consideration because they

impact performance, and considerable individual differences in preference

and observed. Major strategies include the use of a cardinal reference

system (i.e., compass points), turn-sequence memorization, and

landmarks. Preferred landmarks may be proximal (set along one's route)

or distal (visible from a distance). (Lloyd, Persaud, & Powell, 2009, p.

424).

The qualitative data complemented the prior research (Lloyd et al., 2009), since

compass points (North, South, etc.), and resulted in sequencing along the prescribed route,

with proximal and distal landmarks on the Western Michigan University campus included

in the range of verbal and physical behaviors exhibited by the students

(Table 4).

Qualitative Analysis from Classroom Observations

Following the observations of the classroom and viewing of the video recordings,

the rating by the trained observers and the researcher were analyzed. The complete list of

activities observed during the Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009 is presented

in Appendix G. Observational notes made by the researcher during a five minute

increment for every fifteen minutes is presented in Appendix H.

The spatio-temporal modes, movement and change, were strongly represented in

the activities. The movement of the earth around the sun and seasonal change is an

example of activities that concentrated on the spatio-temporal modes of movement and

change. The concentration of the spatial mode, pattern, is exemplified in the Mapping Il

activity in which students view isohyets and draw in centers of atmospheric circulation.

For the Mapping I activity, students draw isotherms and isobars. The topographic map

activity enables students to be actively engaged in making spatial connections between

places. The following figures are examples of the assessment of the spatial modes in the

Geography 1900 classroom activities as observed.

The modes of spatial thinking are clearly evident in the Geography 1900 activities

observed. Students learn by visualization and observational tasks. The activities in

Geography 1900 were designed to enable students to be actively engaged in the learning

process. Students discover the concept and big ideas of earth science through these

activities. Reviewing the video recording reveals active engagement in the activities and

conversations within the groups of four students at individual tables.

The rating of the spatial modes of thinking were completed by in-class

observations and viewing of video recording. The ratings were validated by two additional

observers and having them rate a random selection of classes. The following graphs show

the level of strength of each spatial mode of thinking in the activity. Seven Geography

1900 activities were observed during Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009.

Mapping Il and Winds Il were assessed from in-class observations along with two trained

graduate colleagues and the researcher. The Length of Daylight and Sun Angle were the

activities observed from a video recording inside the Mallinson Institute for Science

Education Library. The identical co-observers assessed the modes of spatial thinking

along with the researcher. Figures 2-4, 7 display the spatial modes of thinking for the

corresponding Geography 1900 activity. Figures 8-14 represent the activities in which

trained observers and the researcher made an assessment in-class or viewing the video

tape.

One activity with substantial modes reflected was Mapping Il. Mapping Il activity

required students to interpret annual precipitation in the world and identify locations of

pressures cells with global circulation patterns. The most dominant spatial mode that is

observed during the activity is pattern. The students discuss the patterns of regional

rainfall in their groups. Additionally, movement of water and wind circulation were

concepts strongly embedded in the activity. Students reflected on these concepts and spent

the greatest amount of time on these related modes of spatial thinking. This activity

requires drawing an isohyet (precipitation) map. The distribution of world precipitation

within equatorial, tropical, temperate, and polar regions is an aspect of this activity. The

students spent a great amount of time discussing these four climatic regions. Region is

another strong mode of spatial thinking. The modes of spatial thinking observed in the

seven activities are presented in Figures 8-14.

Students view topographic maps in the Topographic Map activity. A laminated

map of Schoolcraft, Michigan was presented to the students at individual tables. An

additional topographic map was presented in the syllabus activity. It was determined from

the researcher's observations that pattern and transition were greatly reflected in this

activity.

The Length of Daylight activity required students to investigate how global

surface temperatures vary with latitude and by season. Students viewed an interactive web

page of the earth. Students updated a map by showing various times of the year indicating

a difference view of daylight/darkness. Change is the spatial mode of thinking that is also

exhibited during the activity and student conversations. Students viewed change of

daylight in seasonal dates. Other questions in the activity relate to the rotation of the earth.

Topographic Maps

Movement

Change

Association

Pattern

Analogy

Transition

Region

Comparison

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Scale of Time/Predominance of Mode (7=High)

Figure 8. Modes of Spatial Thinking Observed in the Topographic Map Activity, Direct

Observation.

It was determined from the researcher's and co-observers' observations that

movement and comparison were also strongly exhibited as students discussed the

rotational movement of the earth and the comparison between northern and southern

hemispheres. The remaining modes of spatial thinking are not strongly represented in this

activity. The spatial modes of thinking observed in the Length of Daylight activity are

presented in Figure 9.

The Sun Angle activity is an interactive exercise which began with an inflatable

globe and flashlight. Students practiced a simulation of shining the flashlight on the table

at different angles. The students simulated the earth revolving around the sun with the

inflatable globe. Students then reflected on the seasonal change pattern of surface

temperatures and varying amounts of incoming radiation.

Length of Daylight

Movement

Change

Association

Pattern

Analogy

Transition

Region

Comparison

o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Scale of Time/Predominance of Mode (7=High)

Figure 9. Modes of Spatial Thinking Observed in the Length of Daylight Activity, Co-

observed (Video).

It was determined from the researcher's and co-observers' observations that

movement, change, and comparison are all greatly represented in this activity. Students

described the movement of the earth rotating on its axis and revolving around the sun; the

change in incoming radiation and surface temperatures were also discussed. During the

seasonal model of the earth revolving around the sun, the students continuously compared

the Northern and Southern Hemispheres in terms of daylight and temperatures. The spatial

modes of thinking observed in the Sun Angle activity are presented in Figure 10.

In Mapping I, students drew isotherms and isobars. This activity greatly reflects the

transition mode. Additionally, the association mode was reflected as students discussed the

pressure cells that correspond with the isobars. Pattern was greatly reflected as well when

students discussed the shape of the lines.

Sun Angle

Movement

Change

Association

Pattern

Analogy

Transition

Region

Comparison

O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Scale of Time/Predominance of Mode (7=High)

Figure 10. Modes of Spatial Thinking Observed in the Sun Angle Activity, Co-observed

(Video).

Winds Il is an activity that required students to discover the Coriolis effect

through the inquiry-based investigation. Students placed a paper plate on a Lazy Susan

and drew a line from the middle of the plate to the edge while the plate is rotating

counter-clockwise. It was determined from the researcher's observations that the greatest

modes of spatial thinking emerging from the discussions were movement and pattern.

The students consistently discussed movement of wind, and this simulation is performed

by drawing a line. Flow of wind, clockwise and counter-clockwise, is discussed during

the entire activity. Association was another high frequency mode, as students associated

high pressure with clockwise flow and low pressure with counterclockwise flow in the

Northern Hemisphere. Precipitation was also associated with low pressure, while dry

conditions were associated with high pressure. These concepts were discussed by the

students in group work. The spatial modes of thinking observed in the

Winds Il activity are presented in Figure 12.

Mapping I

Movement

Change

Association

Pattern

Analogy

Transition

Region

Comparison

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Scale of Time/Predominance of Mode (High=7)

Figure I l . Modes of Spatial Thinking Observed in the Mapping I Activity, Direct

Observation.

Mapping Il is an activity that required students to assess for precipitation, global

circulation and wind patterns. Mapping Il modes of spatial thinking are presented in

Figure 13. Pattern was the greatest mode of spatial thinking as the discussions and

interactions between students were related to wind flow. The association of precipitation,

low pressure, and wind flow was identified by many students in their discussions.

The Lake Effect activity was the final observation during Fall Semester 2008 and

Spring Semester 2009. After review of the observations and discussions within the

classes, it was determined that association and comparison were greatly reflected.

Winds Il

Change

Association

Transition %iii•

Pattern

Analogy

Region

Comparison

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Scale of Time/Predominance of Mode (7=High)

Figure 12. Modes of Spatial Thinking Observed in the Winds Il Activity, Direct

Observation.

Mapping Il

Movement

Change

Association

Pattern

Analogy

Transition

Region

Comparison

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Scale of Time/Predominance of Mode (7=High)

Figure 13. Modes of Spatial Thinking Observed in the Mapping Il Activity, Direct

Observation.

Students discussed the association of cold air, warm water, wind direction, clouds,

and snowfall. It was determined from the researcher's and co-observers' observations that

students compared different areas and locations of Michigan in terms of snowfall. Figure

14 presents the spatial modes of thinking observed in the Lake Effect activity.

Lake Effect

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Scale of Time/Predominance of Mode (7=High)

Figure 14. Modes of Spatial Thinking Observed in the Lake Effect Activity, Direct

Observation.

Quantitative Analysis of the Spatial Thinking Test

The analysis of the pre-post tests was used to determine any significant differences

between the three groups: Geography 1900, Geography 1020, and KVCC earth science. A

total of two hundred ninety students participated in the Fall 2008 and Spring 2009

combined semesters, The analysis för each semester is presented separately followed by

analysis combining all students who responded to both the pre and post assessments of

spatial thinking. The paired samples t-test requires that both the pre and post tests be used

for all students.

Movement

Association

Analogy

Transition

Comparison

Nineteen total spatial tasks were included in the pre and post-tests. It was

determined that one item (items #10 pre-test, #19 post-test excluded from analysis) would

not be evaluated due to the extremely subjective nature of the one item; eighteen items

were evaluated on the pre-test, and eighteen items were evaluated on the post-test in the

analysis for Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009. The pre and post-tests are

included in Appendix N. The post-test included a water glass item that is similar to an

example from Piaget (Piaget & Inhelder, 1956). A do not know option was included. For

the purposes of the within group and between group analyses, a dichotomy scheme was

devised such that all answers indicated as do not know were determined to be incorrect.

An item analysis of Fall Semester 2008 scores, which includes all three options on the

Spatial Thinking Test, is represented in Appendices J, K, and L.

When scoring the tests, the number correct out of eighteen was recorded. The

statistical program used for the analysis in calculating the Paired Samples t-tests and

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was SPSS (2003). These testing procedures were used to

determine whether there were statistically significant differences on mean scores between

and within the experimental and comparison groups.

The following tables and figures present the analysis of the pre and post tests and

the Paired Samples t-tests for the experimental Geography 1900, the comparison

Geography 1020, and the experimental KVCC groups. An Analysis of Variance was used

to assess for any statistical differences between groups.

Geography 1900 Students: Fall Semester 2008

The following table represents paired samples statistics for the experimental

group during Fall Semester 2008 Geography 1900 course (Table 5) (Appendices J, K).

Table 5: Pre to Post Paired Samples Descriptive Statistics for the

Geography 1900 Students in Fall Semester 2008

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Pair

G1900PRE

G1900PST

61.4419

65.5581

18.0743

2.0064

2.7563

The experimental group scores on the Spatial Thinking Test from Geography

1900 (Fall Semester 2008) were analyzed using the Paired Samples t-test (Table 6).

Table 6: Pre to Post-Test Paired Samples T-Test for

Geography 1900 Students in Fall Semester 2008

Paired

samples

mean

Mean Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

p-value

14.8006

2.2571

-1.824

.075 *

*Statistically not significant

Geography 1020 Students: Fall Semester 2008

The following table represents descriptive statistics for the pre to post test

comparison group scores for students in the Fall Semester 2008 Geography 1020 course

(Table 7).

Table 7: Pre to Post Paired Samples Descriptive Statistics for the

Geography 1020 Students in Fall Semester 2008

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Pair

G1020PRE

G1020PST

62.1266

66.2658

13.8561

1.5922

1.5589

The comparison group scores on the Spatial Thinking Test from Geography 1900

(Fall Semester 2008) were analyzed using the paired samples t-test (Table 8).

Table 8: Pre to Post Paired Samples T-Test for the Geography

1020 Students in Fall Semester 2008

Paired

samples

mean

Mean Std.

Deviation

Std. Error t

Mean

p-value

-4.1392

1 1.6407

1.3097

.002 *

* Statistically significant at the 95% confidence level

KVCC Students: Fall Semester 2008

The following tables represent paired samples statistics for the pre to post-test

scores for students in the Fall Semester 2008 KVCC earth science course (Table 9).

Table 9: Paired Samples Descriptive Statistics for the

KVCC Students in Fall Semester 2008

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Pair

KVCC PRE

KVCC PST

58.6875

64.5625

12.3381

14.5004

3.0845

3.6251

The experimental group scores on the Spatial Thinking Test from KVCC earth

science (Fall Semester 2008) were analyzed using the Paired Samples t-test (Table 10).

Table 10: Pre to Post Paired Samples T-Test for the KVCC

Students in Fall Semester 2008

Paired

samples

mean

Mean Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

p-value

-5.8750

10.8927

2.7232 15

*Significance at the 95% confidence level

Fall Semester 2008 Pre-Post Test Analysis Summary

The paired samples t-tests is a statistical method to determine differences between

means, and in this research, the mean scores of the pre- and post-tests for the

experimental and comparison groups. The mean within group pre-test scores for each of

the groups on the Spatial Thinking Test were analyzed by comparing the means for

statistically significant differences.

The Geography 1020 scores were statistically significant from pre to post, while

the Geography 1900 scores were not statistically significant from pre to post. The mean

pre-test score for the Geography 1900 students was 61.4 with a standard deviation of 13.2

(Table 6). The mean score for the Geography 1020 students was 62.1 with a standard

deviation of 14.2 (Table 7). In the KV CC group, a mean score of 58.7 was calculated

with a standard deviation of 12.3 (Table 9).

The One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) results suggests no statistically

significant differences between the pre-test mean scores for the experimental, comparison

and KVCC groups. The p-value of the ANOVA is presented in Table 9 (.656). No

additional statistical tests were required, as the One-way ANOVA verified there were no

statistically significant differences between the three groups (Table I l ).

Students began each of the classes with similar predisposition to think spatially as

indicated by the pre-test scores. No statistically significant differences were identified

between the three groups on the pre-test.

Table I l : One-way ANOVA of the Pre-Tests for all Three Groups

(Geography 1900, Geography 1020, and KVCC) (PRE08)

Sum of

Squares

Mean Square

Sig.

Between

Groups

Within

Groups

Total

157.695

25174.776

25332.471

135

137

78.847

186.480

.423

.656

The Paired Samples t-test also revealed which of the, Fall Semester 2008 groups

demonstrated a statistically significant differences between their pre and post-tests. The

paired samples t-test produced statistically significant differences within the Geography

1020 group and the KVCC group. The respective p-values were 0.048 and 0.002. The p-

value for Geography 1900 students was 0.075. The null hypothesis of equal means can be

retained for the experimental group in the Spatial Thinking Test for Fall Semester 2008.

The post-value scores for the Geography 1900, Geography 1020, and KVCC earth

science all increased from pre to post-test. These data thus suggest that the coursework

IOO

provided a basis for students to improve their spatial thinking as measured by the Spatial

Thinking Test.

As indicated prior to the beginning of this research, Gersmehl's (2008) modes of

spatial thinking are embedded in the Geography 1900 syllabus. The rationale why the pre-

post test scores did not reveal statistical significance can be explained in several ways.

First, the p-value of .075 may be justified as significant in educational, social and quasi-

experimental research (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). The researcher has established .05 as

the alpha level and thus the difference in means was rejected. Other than the pretests, no

other questionnaire was used in determining student pre-knowledge and ability to think

spatially, so there was no contamination of the group with prior knowledge that would

have provided a higher pre-test mean. Students in Geography 1900 during the Fall

Semester 2008 may have had demonstrated a predisposition to think spatially on the

pretest that was not enhanced by their coursework. No questionnaires were distributed to

the students prior to the administering of the pre-tests. The post-test scores did improve for

all three groups: Geography 1900, Geography 1020, and KVCC.

The underlying theory of this research is that positive changes in student behavior

can be attributed to course materials and methodology. Additionally, instructional style can

be a factor in learning. Each of the groups experienced one of two different teaching

methodologies: inquiry-based laboratory and traditional lecture and each succeeded in

raising post-test scores. The post-test spatial tasks were identical with the pre-test except

that the sequence of items was altered.

Differences between the pre to post test scores were calculated using the One-way

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to determine whether any significant differences were

observed between scores (post minus pre) of the three groups. The between groups

statistical analysis suggested that there was no statistically significant difference between

the post-test improvement in scores on the spatial thinking test for the experimental and

comparison groups. The p-value was .883 > .05, therefore the null hypothesis of no

significant differences can be retained (Table 12).

A One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test was conducted on mean post

minus pre-test values for all three groups. The analysis suggested no statistical significant

differences. The greatest change between the mean values of the pre and post-test scores

occurred in the KVCC experimental group. The p-value at .883 (2.05) suggesting that

there are no statistically significant differences within the pre to post test scores when the

mathematical difference is applied to the analysis among the three groups (Table 12).

Table 12: One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for the Pre to Post Differences

(Post minus Pre) for Geography 1900, Geography 1020, and

KVCC) in Fall Semester 2008 (PSTPRE08)

Sum of

Squares

Mean Square

Sig.

Between

Groups

Within

Groups

Total

40.419

21868.660

21909.080

135

137

20.210

161.990

.125

.883

The descriptive statistics identifies the differences (post minus pre) for the mean

100

scores on the Spatial Thinking Test during Fall Semester 2008 (Table 13). The groups are

the following: l) Geography 1900 students; 2) Geography 1020 students; and 3) KVCC

students. The data informed the researcher about the following. The mean differences

between post and pre were highest in the KVCC students, while the smallest difference

occurred in the Geography 1020 class. The greatest standard deviation was 15.0550 with

the Geography 1900 students. It is noted with the negative difference that some students

decreased their score between the pre and post-tests. Most students did increase their

scores from pre to post as indicated in the positive mean value for all three groups. These

statistics suggest that spatial thinking is incorporated in the content of each course.

Descriptive data is presented between the students in Geography 1900, Geography 1020,

and KVCC (Table 13).

Table 13: Descriptive Data for the Mean Percentage Differences (Post minus Pre)

between Geography 1900 (group l), Geography 1020 (group 2), and KVCC

(group 3) in Fall Semester 2008 (PSTPRE08)

95% Confidence

Std. Std. Interval for Mean

N Mean Minimum Maximum

Deviation Error Lower Upper

Bound Bound

1.00

4.3256

15.0550

2.2959

-.3077

8.9588

-28.00

28.00

2.00

4.1392

1 1.6407

I .3097

1.5319

6.7466

-21.00

33.00

3.00

5.8750

10.8927

2.7232

7.071E02

11.6793

28.00

Total

138

4.3986

12.6460

1.0765

2.2699

6.5272

-28.00

33.00

101

Pre and Post Test Analysis: Spring Semester 2009 Geography 1900

The scores on the Spatial Thinking Test were analyzed for two groups during

Spring Semester 2009: Geography 1900 and Geography 1020. The KVCC class did not

participate due to course schedule and teaching times. Three Geography 1900 sections

were grouped for analysis purposes. The number of students in the combined Geography

1900 classes was 61 during the Spring Semester 2009, compared to 41 than Fall Semester

2008.

There was a statistically significant difference between the pre and post mean

scores for Geography 1900 on the spatial thinking test. The p-value for the paired

samples t-test was statistically significantly (S.05) in a positive direction. The post-test

mean was greater numerically than the pre-test mean. The data suggest that the

Geography 1900 experimental group improved their spatial thinking.

The following tables represent paired samples statistics for the pre to post-test

scores for students in the Spring Semester 2009 Geography 1900 course (Table 14).

Table 14: Pre to Post Paired Samples Descriptive Statistics for the

Geography 1900 Students in Spring Semester 2009

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Pair

PRE 19009

PST 19009

55.4426

62.8852

14.7326

17.2144

1.8863

2.2041

Pre to post-test mean scores for the experimental group on the Spatial Thinking

Test for Geography 1900 (Spring Semester 2009) were analyzed using the Paired

Samples t-test (Table 15).

A statistically significant difference between pre and post-tests was observed from

the paired samples t-test. A p-value of .000 (<.05) for a confidence level of 95% or higher

102

was suggested. The mean scores for the pre-tests were lower in the Spring Semester 2009

than in Fall Semester 2008, although the difference between post and pre-tests was

greater.

Table 15: Pre to Post Paired Samples T-Test for the Geography 1900

Students in Spring Semester 2009

Paired samples

mean

Mean Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

p-value

-7.4426

13.3959

1.7152

-4.339

.000*

*Significance at the 95% confidence level

Geography 1020 Students: Spring 2009 Semester

The pre to post-test mean scores on the Spatial Thinking Test was statistically

significant for the Geography 1020 comparison group as well.

The map analysis and extensive atlas use in Geography 1020 may have

contributed to the improved mean scores. The Geography 1900 syllabus activities were

not the experimental treatment, but the atlas use may have affected spatial thinking in

similar ways using quite different classroom methodologies.

The following tables represent paired samples statistics for the pre to post-test

scores for students in the Spring 2009 Geography 1020 course (Table 16). The

comparison group mean scores on the spatial thinking test from Geography 1020 were

analyzed using the Paired Samples t-test (Table 17).

Table 116: Pre to Post Paired Samples Descriptive Statistics of the

Geography 1020 Students in Spring Semester 2009

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Pair

G 1020PRE

G1020PST

57.8132

61.6923

14.9762

16.3793

1.5699

103

Table 17: Pre to Post Paired Samples T-Test for the Geography

1020 Students in Spring Semester 2009

Paired

samples mean

Mean Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

p-value

-3.8791

14.8951

1.5614

—2.484

*Significance at the 95% confidence level

An Independent Sample t-test was used to determine if there were statistically

significant differences between the post and pre-test mean scores of the Spring Semester

2009 experimental and comparison groups. An independent was used. There were no

statistically significant differences between the two groups on either test. Independent

Samples t-tests comparing the differences with means of the pre-tests and post-tests (post

minus pre) between the Geography 1900 and Geography 1020 students is presented in

Table 18.

The data and their analysis suggest there was no statistically significant difference

between the pre-test scores between the experimental and comparison groups. However,

the experimental group did demonstrate a higher group mean score than the comparison

group.

Table 18: Analysis of Spring Semester 2009 Geography 1900

and 1020 Students (group 1.00) and Geography 1020

Students (group 2.00) Difference (Post minus Pre)

Group

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Geog 1900

Geog 1020

1.00

2.00

6.7213

3.2637

13.7782

15.0435

1.7641

1.5770

Table 19: Independent Samples T-Test of Pre to Post Changes (Post minus Pre)

in Spatial Thinking Test Score Means (Geography 1900 and

Geography 1020) in Spring Semester 2009

104

Mean

Difference

Std. Error

Difference

p-value

3.4567

2.4078

1.436

150

* Not statistically significant

Table 20: Spring Semester 2009 Geography 1900 (l .00) and Geography 1020

Students (2.00) Pre-Test Descriptive Statistics

Group

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Geog 1900

Geog 1020

1.00

2.00

55.4426

57.8132

14.7326

14.9762

1.8863

1.5699

Table 21 : Independent Samples T-Test of Pre-Test Mean Scores between

Geography 1900 and Geography 1020 Spring Semester 2009

Mean

difference

Std. Error

difference

p-value

-2.3706

2.4622

-.963

150

.337 *

*Not statistically significant

Fall 2008 and Spring 2009 Geography 1900 Pre to Post-test Analysis

Paired Samples t-test was used to determine whether statistically significant

differences exist from pre to post for the Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009 of

a combined experimental group of one hundred and four Geography 1900 students (Table

22). The test revealed statistically significant increased between the pre to post-tests

(Table 23). The data lead the researcher to accept that the experimental treatment had a

positive and statistically significant effect on the spatial thinking of Geography 1900

students as measured by the Spatial Thinking Test. Hypothesis 2 is accepted.

Table 22: Pre to Post Paired Samples Statistics for the Geography 1900 Students

in Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009

105

Mean

Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Pair PRE1900 57.9231

I PST] 900 63.9904

104

14.3471 1.4068

17.5380

Table 23: Pre to Post Paired Samples T -Test for Geography 1900

Students in Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009

Paired samples

mean

Mean Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

t df

Mean

p-value

-6.0673

14.0203

I .3748 103

.000*

*Significance at the 95% confidence level

The following tables represent the differences (post minus pre) for the entire

sample of students, Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009. In order to examine

the change in pre to post-test scores on the Spatial Thinking Test, the researcher

determined the difference in pre-post scores (post-test minus post-test) for the

experimental, comparison, and KVCC group. The difference between the pre to post

mean group scores were listed for significance of difference between groups using the

One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The descriptive statistics are presented in Table

24. The ANOVA statistic suggested there was not a statistically significant

difference for the pre to post-tests between groups (Table 25).

Table 24: Descriptive Data between the Percentage Differences (Post minus Pre) of the

Three Groups in Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009 [Geography 1900

(group 1), Geography 1020 (group 2), and KVCC (group 3)] (PSTPRE)

95% Confidence

106

Interval for Mean

Std. Std.

N Mean Minimum Maximum

Deviation Error

Lower Upper

Bound Bound

1.00

104

5.7308

14.2973

1.4020

2.9503

8.5112

-28.00

44.00

2.00

170

3.6706

13.5371

1.0382

1.6210

5.7202

-39.00

45.00

3.00

5.8750

10.8927

2.7232

7.071E02

11.6793

-11.00

28.00

Total

290

4.5310

13.6830

.8035

2.9496

6.1125

-39.00

45.00

Table 25: One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for the Differences (Post minus

Pre) for Three Groups (Geography 1900, Geography 1020, and KV CC) in Fall

2008 Semester and spring Semester 2009 (PSTPRE)

Sum of

Squares

Mean Square

Sig.

Between

Groups

Within

Groups

Total

304.456

53803.764

54108.221

287

289

152.228 -812

187.470

.445

Figures 15-17 represent the Scatter Plots of the Spatial Thinking Test for the

Geography 1900, Geography 1020, and KVCC Sample. While there was an overall

increase in scores from pre to post-tests, some students did receive lower scores. Multiple

scores were placed on single plots, indicating that some individuals had identical scores

on Pre and Post of the Spatial Thinking Test.

107

Scatter Plot of Scores on the Spatial Thinking Test for the

Geography 1900 Sample (N=104)

• Scores

— Linear (Scores)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Pre-Tests ( 04

Figure 15. Scatter Plot of Spatial Thinking Test for the Geography 1900 Sample.

An Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the accumulated data.

The purpose of the ANCOVA is to analyze and assess the effects of post test

performance based on pre-test scores. The ANCOVA is a commonly used statistic when

prior knowledge, particular skills, and other abilities are not within the control of the

researcher in the sample selection.

Scatter Plot of Scores on the Spatial Thinking Test for

the Geography 1020 Sample (N=170)

100

• Scores

— Linear

(Scores)

100

108

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Pre-Tests (%)

Figure 16. Scatter Plot of Spatial Thinking Test for the Geography 1020 Sample.

Scatter Plot of Scores on the Spatial Thinking Test for

the KVCC Sample (N=16)

100

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Pre-Tests (%)

• Scores

— Linear

(Scores)

Figure 17. Scatter Plot of Spatial Thinking Test för the KVCC Sample.

I l l

For the current research, ANCOVA was a second analytical test of the data to

identify differences between the experimental and comparison groups on the post

administration of the Spatial Thinking Test. Table 26 presents the descriptive statistics of

the group means of the accumulated Post-tests for Geography 1900, Geography 1020,

and KVCC. Table 27 shows the effects of post-test performance based on pre-test scores.

The obtained p-value .000 suggested a significant difference in the pre to post tests scores

both within and between groups when the pre-test score was used as a covariate.

Table 26: Descriptive Data of the Post-Test Group Means for (Geography 1900

(1), Geography 1020 (2), and KVCC (3) (Dependent Variable: POSTTEST)

GROUP

Mean

Std. Deviation

1.00

2.00

3.00

Total

63.9904

63.8176

64.5625

63.9207

17.5380

15.3856

16.0933

104

170

290

Table 27: ANCOVA Test Statistic for Accumulated Pre to Post Data for the Three

Groups: Geography 1900, Geography 1020, and KVCC

Source

Type Ill Sum of

Squares

Mean

Square

Sig.

Corrected Model

Intercept

PRETEST

GROUP

Error

Total

Corrected Total

28229.964a

8564.347

28221.063

153.055

46619.212

1259747

74849.176

286

290

289

9409.988

8564.347

28221.063

76.528

163.004

57.728

52.541

173.131

.ooo

.000

.626

110

Analysis: Hypotheses Testing

Hypothesis 1: Geography 1900 has clearly identifiable modes ofspatial thinking embedded

within the earth science content.

At the beginning of the Fall Semester 2008, the researcher and a recent doctoral

graduate evaluated seven different activities for embedded modes of spatial thinking

(Gersmehl, 2008). It was concluded that Gersmehl's modes of spatial thinking were indeed

embedded within the course activities for Geography 1900. The activities were further

assessed to identify where modes of spatial thinking would likely be required to solve

problems and complete the map analysis that were incorporated. From the eleven spatial

modes, including the spatio-temporal modes, eight modes including comparison, analogy,

region, association, pattern, transition, change, and movement were identified as being

embedded in at least one or more of the activities reviewed (Appendix D).

Hypothesis I was accepted based on empirical evidence.

Hypothesis 2: Students apply specific modes of spatial thinking before instruction as

measured by the Spatial Thinking Test.

Results: Hypothesis 2 was accepted. The Spatial Thinking Pre- Test scores suggest

spatial thinking was applied by students at the beginning of the Geography 1900

experimental treatment.

Hypothesis 3: Modes ofspatial thinking by students in Geography 1900 will significantly

improve as a result of their completion of the course.

Results: The completion of the pre and post-tests is a commonly accepted means to

ascertain if significant improvement for students undergoing a treatment has changed their

111

knowledge level or behavior. Students who completed both the pre and post-tests were

evaluated for this research. A smaller portion of students did not complete both the pre-

and post-tests and were eliminated from the research. The tests were administered to the

Geography 1900 students in Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009. Statistical

analyses including the Paired Samples t-test and ANOVA statistical analysis were used.

Hypothesis 3 is rejected for the Fall Semester 2008 students, yet accepted for the

Spring Semester 2009 students. The Geography 1900 students in Fall Semester 2008 did

not statistically improve their scores; however, the Geography 1900 students did

statistically improve their scores from the pre and post-tests in Spring Semester 2009.

Hypothesis 3 is accepted for the combined semesters of Geography 1900 students. A

statistically significant improvement from pre to post was identified for the full

Geography 1900 group.

Hypothesis 4: Geography 1900 will have a positive effect on the spatial thinking of a

majority ofstudents.

Results: Hypothesis 4 was rejected for Fall Semester 2008, since 49% of students

improved from pre to post. Hypothesis 4 was accepted for Spring Semester 2009, since

67% of students improved from pre to post; Hypothesis 4 was accepted for combined Fall

Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009 groups (62 out of 104: 60%) based on the

modest number of students who improved. A significant change was observed by virtue of

improved student scores from pre to post mean scores (Spring Semester 2009 and

combined semesters) on the Spatial Thinking Test as well as the occurrence of verbal

reflections observed in the classroom and on the spatial walk that were conceptually

referenced to the modes of spatial thinking.

112

Hypothesis 5: Students apply modes ofspatial thinking in their activities outside the

classroom as indicated during a spatial walk.

Students used modes of spatial thinking during their spatial walk outside of the

classroom. The evidence from the transcripts audio recorded suggests that Gersmehl's

(2008) modes of spatial thinking were applied by the students. The percentages of students

using the modes of spatial thinking related to the interview items were identified earlier in

Figures 2-4, 7. Hypothesis 4 is accepted based on the qualitative evidence from spatial

walks.

Hypothesis 6: Students completing Geography 1900 will demonstrate greater increases in

spatial thinking compared to students in the Geography 1020 comparison group.

Results: Geography 1020 students in the world regional geography class served as

the comparison group. The pre and post-tests were evaluated and compared with the mean

scores from the Geography 1900 class. Students in Geography 1020 did improve their

modes of spatial thinking as indicated by the pre to post-test mean scores in the Spatial

Thinking Test. There was an increase in mean scores between pre and post-tests for the

comparison group.

The Geography 1020 students improved significantly mean scores on the Spatial

Thinking Test during both semesters, Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009. The

Geography 1900 students improved mean scores on the post-tests for both semesters,

although the Fall Semester 2008 group did not have a statistically significant increase.

Hypothesis 6 is rejected, because the statistical tests revealed no significant

differences between the experimental group Geography 1900 and the comparison group

Geography 1020. Both groups increased their mean score performance of the Spatial

113

Thinking Test.

Qualitative and Quantitative Data Comparisons

Identifying the relationship between the qualitative and quantitative data is

important in the analysis of spatial thinking. The qualitative relationship between the two

data sets that were collected in the research were analyzed. The improved scores between

pre and post-tests suggest that students both learned and improved their applications of

thinking spatially in Geography 1900, Geography 1020, and KVCC earth science.

Students who participated in spatial walk were reflective in the applications of the spatial

thinking modes of pattern, comparison, association, and transition.

Analysis of the qualitative and quantitative data from both observations of classes

suggested that modes of spatial thinking were important parts of the course. However, do

the two data sets complement each other? In order to answer that question, the researcher

reviewed the responses that represented pattern, comparison, association, analogy, and

transition.

Pattern was observed as a mode of spatial thinking in the classroom observations,

spatial walk, and Spatial Thinking Test. The use of this mode was evident in the

Geography 1900 experimental group student interactions through the discussion of wind

flow patterns around atmospheric high and low pressures in Winds Il as an example.

During the spatial walk the students applied the modes of pattern in the following ways.

Students described the arrangement of the flagpoles and platform in terms of geometric

shapes. Pattern was reflective in the drawing of contour lines and recognition of

precipitation pattern in the Texas item of the Spatial Thinking Test.

Comparison was observed as a mode of spatial thinking in the classroom

observations, spatial walk, and Spatial Thinking Test. The use of this mode was evident in

114

the student interaction and discussion of the Northern Hemisphere and Southern

Hemisphere comparison in the Length of Daylight activity. The use of this mode was

evident in the student comparison of landmarks and buildings with direction and

orientation. Comparison was reflective in the comparison of geometric shapes in these

items of the Spatial Thinking Test.

Association was observed as a mode of spatial thinking in the classroom

observations, spatial walk, and Spatial Thinking Test. The use of the mode was evident in

the student interactions of several activities. As an example, in the Lake Effect activity

students associated cold air, low pressure, warm water and wind direction with this snow

process. An association was evident in topographic map on the Spatial Thinking Test.

Students associated the features of the flagpoles (arrangement, circular platform, and

most prominent landmark on campus).

Analogy was observed as a mode of spatial thinking in the classroom

observations, spatial walk and Spatial Thinking Test. Analogy was observed in the Lake

Effect activity as students discussed other similar location (with West Michigan that

experience this process. Analogy was recalled as students developed an analogy of their

direction of walk with their apartments. Analogy is reflected on the climate example as an

example on the Spatial Thinking Test.

Transition was observed as a mode of spatial thinking in the classroom

observations, spatial walk and Spatial Thinking Test. Transition was observed in the

Mapping I activity as students discussed transitions and change between intervals of

isotherms/isobars. Transition was cited (although not the word specifically) by students

as a change in elevation or downslope during the walk. Transition was reflected in the

topographic map and the contour lines as examples in the Spatial Thinking Test.

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Future research can expand on the modes of spatial thinking that were

investigated to validate their applications in the earth science classrooms. The application

of concepts learned in class and applied as modes outside the classroom is a reserved

topic of importance. Such evidence may also provide evidence of elementary school

students' development of spatial thinking.

Spatial thinking may be assessed in multiple ways. The three types that were

assessed in this study include pre-post tests, spatial walks, and classroom observations.

Students demonstrated spatial thinking in their spatial walks and the spatial thinking test.

Gersmehl's (2008) modes of spatial thinking were reflected by the student interviews and

performance on spatial test items. Of the students who demonstrated the use of modes of

spatial thinking on the spatial walk, approximately 88% also had an improvement of their

scores on the spatial thinking test.

Analysis of the data collected suggested that students used spatial thinking in their

classroom activities as well as during the outside walks. This study and future research will

serve to promote a science curriculum that includes spatial thinking. Pre-service elementary

teacher education students with spatial thinking skills will influence children to develop

similar spatial thinking concepts and modes of spatial thinking. Students at young ages

should be taught to think spatially and continue to apply those modes.

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The Research Questions

This discussion is a comprehensive review of the research questions presented at

the beginning of this study. Following the collection, analysis, and presentation of the

qualitative and quantitative data, results emerged. The researcher subjected the results to

critical analysis. The researcher concludes that spatial thinking is an important skill that is

learned and applied in the earth sciences. Learning to think spatially benefits students in

learning earth science content as well as performing tasks in everyday life. These tasks in

everyday life include navigation and route-planning. The original research questions from

which the hypotheses were derived will serve as the basis for the discussion of results.

1. What modes ofspatial thinking did students apply at the beginning of Geography 1900

course'?

The modes of spatial thinking that students applied at the beginning of the

Geography 1900 course were assessed using the pre-test of spatial thinking. Eighteen

spatial items were included on the pre-tests, and eighteen items were evaluated (Appendix

N). The items were evaluated and converted into a percentage. Students demonstrated

their spatial thinking skills by responding to tasks requiring them

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to use spatial modes. The spatial thinking test assessed the modes identified by

Gersmehl (2008). Data from the spatial thinking test were compared for the

experimental and comparison groups. Results suggest that there are no statistically

significant differences between pre-tests of the experimental and comparison groups.

The six core modes of spatial thinking on the pre-tests were: comparison, region,

transition, analogy, pattern, and association (Gersmehl, 2008). At the beginning of the

Geography 1900 course the mean score on the spatial thinking test was 61.4 and 55.4,

respectively for Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009. The core modes that were

greatly reflected in the pretests were comparison, pattern, transition, and association.

These modes were reflected in the high evaluation scores of mental rotation and shape

examples (comparison), the Texas precipitation (pattern, transition), and the topographic

map (association and transition). The average percentage score for these examples was

over 75 0 0. Item assessment of pre-tests for Fall 2008 Semester Geography 1900

students is indicated in Appendices J (A.), K (A.).

2. What spatial thinking modes were embedded in the Geography 1900 course based

on the Gersmehl (2008) classification?

The modes of spatial thinking that were embedded in the syllabus. Through an

analysis of the syllabus activities, it was revealed that the modes are embedded within

the activities in addition to spatio-temporal modes. Six of the eight core modes of spatial

thinking were strongly reflective in the syllabus along with two of the three

spatiotemporal modes (Appendix D). The core modes identified were comparison,

region, transition, analogy, pattern, and association. The spatio-temporal modes (space

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over time) included in the syllabus were change and movement. The spatio-temporal

modes of thinking emerged in the context of the spatial walks.

3. What changes occurred in spatial thinking and application of Geography 1900

students as the result of enrolling in and completing a conceptually-based inquiry

course that has embedded clearly identifiable spatial tasks according to Gersmehl 's

(2008) classification?

The Spatial Thinking Test was the objective measure of change. The Spatial

Thinking Test was validated by Lee (2005) in prior research. The test was also used in a

prior pilot study by the researcher. The Spatial Thinking Test scores suggested that

students are applying increased modes of spatial thinking on the post test. The mean

scores for the experimental group (N = 104) were 57.9 and 63.9 on the pre-test and

posttest, respectively. The difference between the pre and post spatial thinking test

scores was statistically significant at less than the .05 level (<.05). The observations were

the qualitative measures of change. The qualitative measures of change were based on

the classroom observations and spatial walk. The two observations were: l) students in

classroom observations used spatial thinking with regularity as reflected in their

discussions; and 2) students in the spatial walk used spatial modes and concepts as they

responded to and reflected on interview questions.

4. What modes ofspalial thinking (Gersmehl, 2008) were Geography 1900 students

applying on the post-test at the completion ofthe course?

The average improvement in scores from pre to post-tests suggests that students

were applying spatial thinking modes (Gersmehl, 2008) at a greater frequency upon

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completion of the Geography 1900 course. The change in scores was statistically

significant in a positive direction. There was a slight difference between the Fall Semester

2009 and Spring Semester 2009 classes. When the two groups of Geography 1900

students that exhibited no statistically significant differences in pre score were combined,

the changes on the pre to post scores in the spatial thinking test were significant, using a

Paired Samples t-test (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). Modes of spatial thinking also

emerged in the outdoor spatial walk for most students. The data from the pre and post-

tests support the following conclusions: l) Students demonstrated an increased usage and

comprehension of the modes of spatial thinking at the conclusion of Geography 1900; and

2) Students demonstrated an improved ability to address problems on the spatial thinking

post-test that they did not address on the pre-test.

l. What modes ofspatial thinking do students apply outside the classroom as they move

about campus?

A subsample of twenty seven students from Geography 1900 volunteered to

participate in a spatial walk and interview. The analyzed transcripts from the interviews

clearly revealed spatial thinking applications. Five of the six modes: comparison, pattern,

analog, transition and change were identified. Two modes, hierarchy and aura (Gersmehl,

2008) were not applied. They were hierarchy and aura. The students demonstrated spatial

thinking using Gersmehl's modes in an outdoor setting as the result of the course

activities. These conclusions were reached by analyzing the transcript data from the

spatial walks (examples in Appendix B). This was particularly beneficial based on the

data from the spatial walks since the seven syllabus activities presented to Geography

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1900 students included topographic map reading, earth-sun relationship, length of

daylight, Coriolis force, isotherms and isobars, lake effect precipitation, and meteorology.

2. Were there differences in spatial thinking between the experimental sample that

experiences Geography 1900 sample ofstudents and the comparison group at the

conclusion of the respective courses?

The Geography 1900 inquiry course was equally effective at developing spatial

skills with the Spring Semester 2009 group as was the comparison Geography 1020

course. There were no statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the

Geography 1900 and Geography 1020 students on the post-test, as verified using a

Oneway Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). These two groups experienced a different

syllabus and different teaching methodologies as inquiry-based in Geography 1900 and

Geography 1020 traditional discussion pedagogy. Although Geography 1900 and

Geography 1020 used different coursepackets/textbooks, the material in both courses did

address spatial modes. Future research suggestion would be the use of a biology, chemistry,

physics, or mathematics course as a comparison group. The questions would include: l) Do

courses in other subjects include modes of spatial thinking that the students assimilate? 2)

How universal are spatial thinking modes across disciplinary lines? 3) Do particular

treatments in the courses result in differential results regarding spatial thinking?

Limitations

Limitations, as with any study, occurred in the research. First, all students

participating from Geography 1900 were taught by one instructor. This group is

represented by five combined classes for Fall Semester 2008 and Spring Semester 2009.

This is a limitation, since there was no comparison instructor to determine effects of the

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instruction. The data from the Geography 1900 course at KVCC course was combined

with the Geography 1900 students at WMU for Fall Semester 2008. Both KVCC and

WMU students used the same syllabus and inquiry-based methods. However, in class

observations and students interviews were not possible at KVCC. This limited the use of

the sample beyond the administration of the pre and post-tests of spatial thinking. The

KVCC experimental group's outcome on the pre to post-test demonstrated statistically

significant improvements in performance on the Spatial Thinking Test. This improvement

supports the emphasis on spatial thinking in the Geography 1900 syllabus activities. The

Geography 1020 course was also taught by one instructor. This provided stability of the

content but did not permit analyzing the effects of the instructor.

Second, as a quasi-experimental design, the study did not randomly assign

students and place them into the groups. The sampling was one of convenience using the

available students who were enrolled in courses. A true experimental design would

randomly assign students to specific groups. The specific description for sampling is a

quasi-experimental design for non-equivalent groups.

Third, Geography 1900 and Geography 1020 both involve map use and analysis.

Viewing physical maps in Geography 1900 is common, while regional maps integrating

spatial information about population and economics is more common in Geography 1020.

Geography 1020 students completed a semester long map and atlas interpretation project.

In order to make a strong comparison between science courses with very different content,

an additional course may have been investigated using spatial test of spatial thinking in

another context, such as a biology or mathematics course. The role of spatial thinking in

all science disciplines was outlined in the literature review, and could be validated by the

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inclusion of other courses. In the future, courses in biology, chemistry, and physics may

serve as a platform for additional research on spatial thinking and applications.

Fourth, the number of students participating in the spatial walk from Geography

1900 was twenty seven. The number of students participating in the spatial walk from

Geography 1020 was eight. A sample number from each course that was comparable

would enhance the reliability of the data and the analysis.

Finally, the inter-rater reliability for the analysis of spatial walk data was not

feasible due to the training and funding of assistance. The deconstruction of the transcripts

and the identification of the modes of spatial thinking were completed by the researcher.

The protocol design for interpretation was followed for each transcript.

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSIONS

The modes of spatial thinking were clearly embedded in the Geography 1900

syllabus and materials. These core modes of spatial thinking (Gersmehl, 2008)

represented in the course were comparison, region, transition, analogy, pattern, and

association. The two spatio-temporal modes were change and movement. The analysis

and alignment of the syllabus and the modes of spatial thinking verified that the six core

modes and two temporal spatio-temporal modes were present in seven syllabus activities

(Appendix M). Hierarchy and aura were spatial modes not observed in the seven syllabus

activities according to the content modes of spatial thinking analysis. Modes of spatial

thinking were applied outside the classroom as indicated in field-based interviews. The

analysis of the pre-test to post-test scores on the spatial thinking test suggested that

students were improving their ability to think spatially as the result of the Geography

1900 course. The experimental group improved scores on the spatial thinking test from

the pre to post-tests. The spatial tasks on both the pre and post-tests were identical. The

sequence of tasks was altered on the post-test.

The spatial walks engaged students with their surroundings in order to detect the

application of spatial thinking outside the classroom. The modes of spatial thinking were

applied in the conversations between the students and researcher. The researcher analyzed

the interviews for conceptual applications of the modes of spatial thinking and

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not the use of specific vocabulary (modes) used to classify modes of spatial thinking

(Gersmehl, 2008).

The analysis of changes from pre to post scores on the test of spatial thinking

revealed that no significant differences existed between experimental and comparison

groups. Analysis of pre-tests verified that students entering the experimental and

comparison courses had similar background knowledge in their predispositions to think

spatially. The differences (post-test minus pre-test) scores were not statistically significant

between the Geography 1900 experimental, Geography 1020 comparison, and KVCC

experimental groups.

The experimental groups, Geography 1900 and KVCC, received instruction from

the same course syllabus. Differences were notable between the earth science/geography

syllabus course content of the experimental group and the comparison group. No

significant differences were observed between the groups on pre-tests and post-tests

between the groups. The most notable difference between the two courses was that

Geography 1020 was a world regional geography class which used a world atlas in great

detail. The world geography course was not a laboratory course similar to the laboratory

structure of Geography 1900 and the KVCC course. The Geography 1020 course was not

inquiry-based in its design.

The qualitative observational data came from the in-class video taping and spatial

walks. The researcher and co-observers wrote notes during the in-class direction

observations and viewing of video; following the direct observations and video, the

researcher and co-observers collaborated and the mean rating was determined from all

ratings of observers. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient for the activities

that were co-observed indicated by SPSS (2003) analysis was .78.

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The videotaping accomplished three aspects related to the Geography 1900

course. l) Videotaping captured the interaction of the teacher and students necessary to

analyze the prominence of spatial thinking tasks. Each was treated equally as reflected by

the syllabus. 2) Videotaping captured the interaction between the students' conversation.

Spatial thinking predispositions and responses to syllabus content were recorded. 3)

Videotaping captured the interaction between the students and the materials and computer

displays that represented that delivery of spatially oriented content in the syllabus.

The second set of qualitative observations was the spatial walk. All of the walks

began at Wood Hall on campus and ended at Goldsworth Valley. Conversational

interviews were completed during the walks. The spatial modes (Gersmehl, 2008) that

were reflected by the Geography 1900 students in transcripts of the spatial walks

(example in Appendix B) are presented in Figures 2-4, 7. The Geography 1900 students

on the spatial walk referred to their laboratory experience during the spatial walk.

During the spatial walk, the Geography 1900 students make associations with

other locations. As an example, students referred to their apartment, home city,

transportation routes, or campus landmarks with the direction in which they are walking

which was interpreted as spatial comparison, analogy, and association in the

deconstruction of the interview dialogue. Students recalled class activities and related the

Geography 1900 laboratory inquiry with the current weather. The most elaborate

responses generally occurred when the outdoor weather was favorable; brief responses

were more common in severe cold weather. The study and observations of weather

systems is an important part of Geography 1900 and includes modes of spatial thinking

(Appendix F). The association suggests that the activities and experiments students are

performing in the inquiry-based laboratory class were being applied to everyday

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experiences and observations outside the classroom. Students also expressed the

orientation and movement of low pressure, and the location of Lake Michigan with the

wind patterns, temperatures, and lake-effect snowfall using spatial concepts.

In summary, the research completed in this dissertation provided evidence for the

following conclusions. Qualitative based results:

Qualitative based results: l) Students use spatial thinking in the experimental

group during the Geography 1900 activities. 2) The inquiry-based earth science course

contains embedded spatial thinking modes (Gersmehl, 2008). 3) Students use modes of

spatial thinking in an outdoor setting.

Quantitative based results: l) The experimental group, Geography 1900, and

comparison group, Geography 1020, both demonstrated statistically significant

improvements between pre and post-test scores; 2) No statistically significant difference

existed between the pre-tests of the experimental and comparison groups; and 3) No

statistically significant differences existed between post-test minus pre-test scores of the

experimental and comparison groups.

4) An Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the accumulated data in

addition to ANOVA. This test was a second analysis of the pre to post test scores. The

purpose of the ANCOVA is to analyze and assess the effects of post test performance based

on pre-test scores. A significant difference was determined in the pre to post-tests scores

both within and between groups when the pre-test score was used as a covariate.

Mixed methods based results: l) The syllabus and content of Geography 1900 has a

positive effect on the spatial thinking of pre-service elementary teacher education students

and 2) Students who increased their scorc from pre to post also reflected modes of spatial

thinking as they moved about campus.

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Additional research is suggested for other science courses including biology,

chemistry, and physics to determine change in spatial thinking of pre-service teacher

education students. More sophisticated methods of spatial thinking assessment are also

suggested. It is the hope of the researcher that the present and future research will lead to

greater implementation of spatial thinking in undergraduate science curricula.

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