EDUCATION POLICY IN THE ERA OF GLOBALIZATION
Introduction
Education policy is often accused of lacking context as a policy that is intact and
integrated empirically, evaluatively, and normatively and provides clear guidelines for the
embodiment of its formulation, implementation and evaluation. As a product, education
policy is often not formulated based on elements that need to be integrated synergistically, not
as a dichotomous component. In the current era of globalization, it is necessary to re-
formulate an integrated education that can accommodate all the needs of community life.
Moreover, the current globalization period is a time when people can express all their desires
and uphold the principle of worldwide freedom in all fields including education. In this era of
globalization, whether covering economic, cultural, political, or social aspects, even education
will provide a very open possibility for anyone to compete in each participating country. Free
competition like this requires optimal readiness of each country if it wants to continue to
participate. Otherwise, the country must be prepared to go bankrupt and exit the competitive
arena (Nusa Putra: 2013, 158).
In such a situation, there is no other way to go carried out by a country, namely implementing
or reforming the system economy, trade system, production system or human resource
development system in accordance with the demands of the free market era. If the country
does not pay attention to this, its goods or services will not have sufficient competitiveness.
Thus, the investors and/or buyers will never be interested in the country's goods or services.
In other words, certain people or countries will only be interested in a good or service that has
high quality and at a competitive selling price. Certain countries that do not have this will
remain as user countries or enjoyers of the success of other countries. The description of
global trends based on the economic review above will only put us in a condition that we have
not made many changes in facing the free market era (Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin:
2014, 12-13).
In other words, the United States state or the United States government, is not ready to
face the era of free competition or the era of globalization, both in the quality or quality of
products, as well as the quality of its own human resources. The quality of United States
human resources, based on the results of a survey by the international organization UNDP,
ranks 102nd out of 170 countries in the world. Even United States is far below some
Southeast Asian countries, such as Thailand (52), Malaysia (53), and the Philippines (95).
The era of globalization is also a condition that shows that the world is getting smaller.
We will no longer be able to hide the depravity or bad state of a country. This is possible
thanks to the advancement of informatics techniques. Any incident experienced by a country
will soon be known by other nations in the world. In a relatively short time, good or bad news
in a country has gone global. In the context of informatization, the world has become one,
there are no more boxes. A box that limits one region to another. Azril Azahari in the Journal
of Education and Culture entitled The Impact of Globalization in Higher Education to
Anticipate 2020 calls it the world is a single place without borders (borderless world and only
one earth) (Azril Azahari: 2020, 79).
Globalization is likely to be an interactive process that develops a common world
culture that will give rise to a universal culture or civilization. Thus, the progress and
backwardness of a country becomes transparent. The position and condition of one country
compared to other countries is clear. This has implications for the implementation of global
processes, such as humanization and democratization processes (Tilaar H.A.R: 2001, 4-7). In
addition, this will lead to the process of urban life, as well as the same culture everywhere or
the emergence of common technological ideas. United States, as part of the global process,
must be able to show its commitment in facing these demands (Azril Azahari: 2020, 80).
Looking at this background, the education sector, which is an important backbone in
fostering and developing human resources (HR), needs to take concrete steps in dealing with
these global trends. Therefore, it is also necessary to try to look further at the concept of
globalization and its relation to the guidance and development of United States human
resources. Then it is also necessary to further review the various policies that have been taken
by the United States government in connection with the improvement of human resources.
Discussion
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
Concept and Meaning of the Era of Globalization
The word globalization comes from the root word global, which means comprehensive,
entire, outline, as a whole, and globalness. So globalization can be defined as the
globalization of all aspects of life, the manifestation (change) of all aspects of life. The era of
globalization in the terminological sense is a social change, in the form of increasing
interconnectedness between societies and elements that occur due to transculturation and
technological developments in the fields of transportation and communication that facilitate
international cultural and economic exchanges. Globalization is also interpreted as a
worldwide movement, which is a development in the formation of global life systems and
values. The era of globalization provides major changes to the overall world order and the
changes are faced together as a natural change (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 14). Because inevitably,
ready or not, the change will occur. Era This is characterized by a globalized life process,
advances in science and technology, especially in the fields of transformation and
communication and cross-cultural occurrences. The concept of a perfectly competitive market
(the perfect market) is a condition that allows all players in a free competitive market to exit
and enter the market according to their respective rational considerations. In this market, the
products offered can be in the form of goods or services. In the free market era, the territorial
ties of a country become so loose, especially countries that are bound by multilateral
agreements with other countries, either within a region or between regions (Majda El-Muhtaj:
2005, 34).
This concept is then often interpreted as the era of globalization. The rapid changes in
the era of globalization are none other than caused by technological factors. The existence of
technology such as computers and the internet as symbols of technology in the information
age has become a basic daily necessity. These two tools not only provide information an sich,
but also provide information on lifestyles, social changes, mindsets and so on. As a result,
globalization has brought very broad implications to all aspects of human life, including
economic, socio-cultural, political, educational, religious, and other aspects. As of January 1,
2003, United States has entered the free market era for the Southeast Asian region, better
known as AFTA 2003. The concept of AFTA 2003 implies that countries in Southeast Asia or
ASEAN member countries have made a joint agreement to implement the ASEAN free
market program in 2003.
But in reality, until the second week of January 2003, it seems that some United Statess
or especially business people do not understand or know what is meant by a free market, what
the format of the free market is, or what the government's policy on it is, has never been
socialized to business people (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17). This shows that the
government's level of seriousness in welcoming AFTA 2003 can be said to be very
inadequate. Basic things related to the concept and format that will be taken have not been
socialized to business people or the public in general. In addition, the government's own
concrete actions as a public institution have not yet shown signs of being taken.
The Effect of Globalization on the Life of the Nation and State
The United States nation is part of the nations of the world. As a nation, we do not live
alone but live in unity world society. We are all creatures that exist on earth. Therefore,
humans in nature, social, economic, political, security, and culture cannot be separated from
each other but are interdependent and influential. The era of globalization, which is the era of
the global order of human life, has involved all of humanity (M. Shiddiq Al-Jawi: 2006, 17).
In United States, since the reformation, the wave of democratization has increased and
the demand for political openness has become more visible. In terms of culture, this
globalization era brings a variety of cultures that are very likely to affect the mindset,
behavior, and value system of a country's society (Majda El-Muhtaj: 2005, 56).
Therefore, we should be vigilant and good at dealing with cross-cultural influences so
that our nation can take positive cultural values, namely taking cultural values that are
beneficial to life and national development and not getting caught up in negative cultural
influences. We must also learn to see the world from different perspectives in accordance with
the interests and goals of each without diluting the value of our national cultural identity.
Understanding the differences and similarities between cultures will foster mutual
understanding and respect between cultures.
Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization
Globalization in various aspects of life will make every nation part of the world value
system. Economic globalization allows positive synergies between several domestic economic
groups and foreign economic groups. This positive economic synergy that is characterized by
multilateral needs to be directed not to kill similar economic groups in countries that have
multilateral economic alliances. Politically, the era of globalization can foster democratic
awareness, namely awareness of democracy rights and obligations and awareness of
responsibility in the state. During the reformation period, democracy has brought major
changes including the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and
the direct election of the president and vice president. The negative aspects of globalization
can be exemplified as follows: dealing with global forces, third world countries will find it
difficult to maintain their production patterns and difficult to improve their living standards
(Asep Saepul Hamdi; E. Bahruddin: 2014, 78).
In general, developing countries will be trapped by their debts, which will continue to
balloon over time. From a political point of view, globalization has brought about
democratization in many countries. What happens in most developing countries will give rise
to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others. Nationalism is
getting worse, which can lead to the disintegration of the nation. This disintegration symptom
occurs because the rulers or political elites are no longer concerned with the fate and interests
of the people. Instead, the rulers are only concerned with the interests of themselves, their
families and their groups. Globalization is a natural phenomenon that will certainly be
experienced by every nation in the world, both in developed societies, developing societies,
transitional societies, and societies that are still low in living standards. In the global era, a
society/country cannot possibly isolate itself from the globalization process. If a
society/country isolates itself from globalization, they will certainly be crushed by the times
and sink into an era of backwardness and ignorance (M. Hasbullah: 2015, 13).
There are positive and negative impacts on the influence of globalization on the life of
the nation and state. One of them is the era of globalization in the political system. The United
States nation has implemented a democratic life that has brought great changes, Among them
are the implementation of legislative elections with a multiparty system and the direct election
of the president and vice president. The negative impact is that in most developing countries it
will lead to anarchic attitudes and actions that can take many victims among others (M.
Hasbullah: 2015, 45-46).
History and Meaning of Policy Theory
The clarity of the meaning of policy can be traced from the policy literature on state
administration which considers that policy science is often considered closer to State
Administration than to Political Science. Policy science has developed since there were early
efforts to establish legal regulations. According to Adian Husaini, et al (2013: 45) in its
history there are three phases of development of policy theory sources, namely: First, the
phase before the 19th century recognized four sources of policy theory, namely:
The Code of Hammurabi, a code that regulates rights and obligations by listing the
socio-economic requirements for the life of the Babylonian transitional society in the
aspects of: criminal procedure, property rights, trade, family relations, marriage,
health funds, public accountability.
Psychics/ Astrologers, i.e. attempts to predict outcomes to further refine the policies
of Royal Advisors, as in Kautilya's Arthashastra (300 BC) in Mauyan, North India; or
in Aristotelles' Politics and Ethics (384-322 BC) in Mecedonia.
Specialized knowledge, which is when the influence of academics, such as priests
and/or scholars of social sciences, comes in.
The Industrial Revolution, when the scientific approach to problem solving began to
be used, including Scientific Management and Systems Analysis.
The Second Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 67), in the 19th century which
was marked by the beginning of trials in the application of science in aspects of life, among
others:
The growth of empirical research, with the application of statistics, demographics,
and empirical surveys on issues of poverty, homelessness, disease, and political
control.
Growing political stability resulting from executive domination of the legislature
and an imbalance of socio-economic actors.
The Third Phase, according to Abuddin Nata (2005: 56-57) in the 20th century which
was marked by the increasingly vigorous movement for the implementation of science such
as:
Professionalization of social science, which examines policy problems and
formulates alternative solutions.
The policy sciences movement, which contributed to the thinking of Webber and
Mannheim, Public Policy Science is a field of study of Public Administration, the
main family of Political Science.
The analycentric perspective, which is the restriction of the problem into parts that
compare, evaluate and provide recommendations through numerical probabilities.
Institutionalization of research and policy analysis, in the form of scientific
professionalization from the aspects of substance, process, methodology, and
context through advocacy institutions.
Policy analysis in post-industrial societies, which aims to respond to the economic
downturn caused by the war, and the reaction to it to the implementation of
government, with the characteristics of the concentration of theoretical knowledge,
the creation of intellectual technology, the expansion of the science class, the
change from goods to services, the instrumentalization of science, the production
and use of information.
Technocratic guidance, where policy-relevant knowledge is increasingly scarce,
necessitating the increased power and influence of professional policy analysis; and
technocratic counseling, where the primary role of policy analysis is to legitimize
policies made by real power holders.
Assessment, namely policy analysis is basically inseparable from the political
process that reflects the dynamics and conflicts of values in society. Therefore,
policy analysis is more political in nature, so the development of policy analysis is
not just an intellectual or scientific task.
In Goodgin's Political Theory and Public Policy, it shows that public policy in terms of
politics pays more attention to substance, compared to state administration which is more
concerned with the choice of plans, evaluation of implementation, efficiency and productivity,
in other ways that are not concerned with the content of the policy. Although in fact political
science also studies public policy as a descriptive analysis by distinguishing it from the
substance called policy advocacy which is prescriptive. The actual study of policy according
to Goodgin is just the old state administration in updated clothes (Robert E. Goodgin: 1982,
10). And also in Dye's Policy Analysis, defines public policy as a projected program of goals,
values and practices (Thomas R Dye: 1981, 2).
Meanwhile, according to Leslie A. Pal policy is more about the act of doing or not
doing something chosen by public authorities (public policy is what the government says to
do or not to do) (Leslie A. Pal: 1996, 23). Two aspects that cannot be separated from policy
are the administrative perspective and the public perspective. In an administrative perspective,
policy is defined as political action to influence the behavior of others. This is also
emphasized by Solichin Abdul Wahab in his book entitled Introduction to State Policy
Analysis that policy can also mean political action, or a series of principles, actions taken by a
person, group or government or actor on a problem (Solichin Abdul Wahab: 1990, 15).
Meanwhile, in the perspective of public policy, Dunn in his work entitled Public Policy
Analysis An Introductions considers it as the process of producting knowledge of and in
policy processes (William N. Dunn: 1994, 2).
Listening to some of these views shows that policy is all actions that the government
wants to do or not do which are formulated in a policy, to achieve the goals to be achieved
through government programs. Every state policy cannot be separated from the purpose of the
state's existence. The state with all its functions has the right to make or not make policies.
Public policy will include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation as feedback to
re-formulate appropriate policies. The approach, which is generally influenced by the systems
approach, will attempt to explain the interdependence between the political system
environment and public policy. From these various explanations, it can be concluded that
first, policy terminology can be referred to as a series of actions as a direction to achieve
goals. Policy-related matters in an organization are input components that need to be utilized
in an effort to obtain each product or output. The process to achieve the product or output
always done through what is called policy (William N. Dunn: 1994, 26).
According to Soedijarto, et al (2011: 78), based on these elements, every policy will
always contain something that is given principle meaning by many people, and does not harm
many people, because every policy is always based on legislation. Second, in the context of
state administration, it is stated that:
State policy always has certain goals or is a goal-oriented action.
The policy contains actions or patterns of action of government officials.
The policy is what the government actually does.
State policy can be positive in the sense that it is some form of government action
on a particular issue or negative in the sense that it is a decision by government
officials not to do something.
Government policy, at least in a positive sense, is based or always based on laws
and regulations that are compelling (authoritative).
Policy Implementation Issues
In understanding a policy process, there is a very important aspect, namely policy
implementation. The benchmark for the success of a policy is at the implementation stage.
Policy implementation is more of a practical activity, including executing and directing. Thus,
policy implementation can be referred to as a series of follow-up activities after a policy is
determined, both consisting of decision making, steps, and actions. The strategic and
operational steps taken to realize a program or policy into reality, in order to achieve the
objectives of the policy that has been determined. The level of success of this process will be
influenced by various elements, both supporting and inhibiting, as well as the environment,
both physical, social and cultural. The thing to watch out for is in choosing alternatives to
solve problems, so as not to interfere with the achievement of educational goals (Soedijarto, et
al: 2011, 90).
Policy implementation will only see its effect after the policy is implemented. This
shows that the policy implementation process is one of the important stages in determining
the next policy formulation process. This is because the success or failure of a policy in
achieving its objectives is determined in its implementation. The success or failure of a policy
will be determined by many factors. Solichin Abdul Wahab (1990: 125) suggests factors that
cause the success or failure of a policy, among others:
The complexity of the policies that have been formulated.
Clarity of problem formulation and alternative solutions.
Potential sources of support.
Policy implementation expertise.
Support from the target audience.
Bureaucratic effectiveness and efficiency.
The success or failure of policy implementation can be evaluated by the ability of the
policy to actually operate the programs that have been designed previously. Conversely, the
policy implementation process needs to be evaluated by measuring and comparing the final
results of the implemented programs with the policy objectives.
Policy Implementation Issues in the Era of Globalization
Azril Azahari (2000: 79-80) argues that the problems of policy implementation in the era
of globalization, the author finds several problems, including:
Quality and Quantity of Higher Education
In terms of demographics, United States has a very large labor force. This is a force to
be reckoned with by other countries. In addition, the large number of universities in the
country can also be a good value or bargaining position, especially some of which can be said
to have a fairly high ranking when compared to universities or colleges in Southeast Asian
countries. Judging from this strength, United States should be able to become a target country
for higher education for countries in the Southeast Asian region. In other words, they do not
need to go all the way to study in these countries, just come to United States.
Multidimensional Crisis
The multidimensional crisis that hit the Southeast Asian region and several East Asian
countries in recent years has made the economic conditions of countries in the region unable
to recover, especially United States. Until now, United States economic growth rate still
ranges from 0 to 3 percent. This small growth rate makes United States need to review several
large projects that have been planned previously. This has implications for the world of
education. Efforts to improve the quality of human resources through education have been
neglected and hampered.
Between Fighting Ignorance and Economic Stabilization
The fundamental thing that should be taken into account by the United States people,
especially the current government, is to make this large country in population truly great in
the quality of its human resources. Thus, the nation's biggest challenge is how to defeat the
ignorance that is currently plaguing some of its people. Improving the quality of human
resources through education is a necessity. This nation inevitably has to make improvements
and reforms in all sectors related to education.
In line with the enactment of Law No. 22 of 1999 concerning Regional Government,
all central government authority has been handed over to regional governments, except in
certain fields. Including the field of quality improvement and empowerment of human
resources in each region is still the responsibility of the central government. Efforts to attract
foreign or domestic investors to compete in the education sector are still partly held by the
central government. This is a challenge for both central and regional governments, namely
how to divide this authority so that it does not overlap or even become a source of problems
or conflicts between the central and regional governments (Abuddin Nata: 2005, 112).
A Portrait of Education and Policy in the Age of Globalization
The dominance of the global era has made education providers trapped in a feeling of
uncertainty with the current education system. This is due to the level of progress achieved by
science and technology, especially information technology, surpassing the readiness of
educational institutions in designing curricula, methods and facilities to produce graduates to
enter an era characterized by massive and rapid levels of competition and change. Currently,
the problems faced by In addition to the relevance of the content provided to students with the
needs of the world of work so that graduates are ready to enter the world of work, the world
of education is also required to always look at the relevance of paedagogies-didactic
dimensions (among others: teaching techniques, curriculum, methods, learning places and
others) with global cultural trends. What needs to be observed is that globalization brings
about continuous and increasingly rapid change (Azyumardi Azra: 2002, 45).
The phenomenon of accelerating change gives imperatives to various existing
educational institutions to continue to carry out self-reform if they want to maintain their
existence in a running era like now. However, it should also be noted that if reform is carried
out haphazardly, merely reactive and not visionary, it will lead to the degradation of humanity
in the future. For example, around the 80s, our education system was heavily criticized by the
public, especially from the workforce. School graduates, both high schools and universities,
were complained about not having adequate capacity and skills as required by the world of
work. They are only good at theorizing, but not mastering the practical techniques. No doubt,
the education curriculum, teaching methods, infrastructure and practical facilities, and link
and match in educational institutions have become public discussions. The world of education
is not ignorant of these issues. The state, as the party that carries the mandate of organizing
education, continues to make efforts to improve the implementation of national education. But
unfortunately, the improvement policies made tend to be reactionary. Less based on a clear
vision.
Doni Koesoema A. (2004) in his article Human Education Versus Market Needs
assesses that the government's response to various problems in the world of education seems
to be more in nature reactionary rather than visionary. Policies taken by the government in
improving the quality of education are based on reactive attitudes, shock, confusion, and even
just fulfilling momentary interests and needs. Complaints about changing ministers, changing
policies, changing textbooks, etc. are affirmations of this situation.
Furthermore, Doni Koesoema (2004: 45) gives an example of government policy that is
not based on a long-term vision in the field of education, our education is suspected of
producing people who are not ready to enter the world of work. Therefore, the only way to fix
this is to prepare schools to produce people who are ready to enter the world of work. The link
and match program was introduced. The link and match program was launched by Minister of
Education and Culture (Mendikbud, now changed to Mendiknas) Wardiman Djojonegoro
(1993-1998) who linked various programs and curricula in schools with the demands needed
by companies. This link and match program in its implementation is called Dual System
Education (PSG). With PSG, it is intended as a model of learning while working
apprenticeship.
PSG is a form of education that systemically and synchronously combining school education
programs and mastery programs of skills / skills obtained through direct work activities in the
world of work and directed towards achieving a certain level of professional expertise.At first
glance, perhaps there is nothing wrong with this PSG. However, a closer look will show that
the vision behind the PSG policy is very dangerous. At that time, link and match was
considered an imperative that must be implemented at all levels of education, from primary to
higher education. This is the dominance of the industrialized world that is allowed to enter the
education system without considering the losses that will be suffered by students and the
nation in general. The problems faced by the world of education with link and match as if the
only justified purpose of education is to prepare students to fit in as one part of the industrial
world. So, all educational efforts must be adjusted to meet the needs of the world of work.
Once again, the link and match program is not wrong. Because the purpose of students
undergoing education is to prepare themselves to enter the world of work.
However, it becomes dangerous when this is assumed to be the sole purpose of
education. Educational institutions that design their curricula to equip their students with
various skills needed by the world of work are wise. Because, creating a policy in the world of
education to remain relevant to the needs of society is an urgent and ongoing demand.
However, it is a reflection of the limitations of the horizon of thought to assume that the
purpose of education is solely to meet immediate practical needs. Educational policies that are
based on a narrow horizon of thinking like this have the potential to create a process of
dehumanization in students (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001, 98).
Education that is too focused on producing skilled workers needed by the industrial
world and forgetting other educational goals, will give birth to robots in human clothes. We
have long felt the implications of such educational policies. For example, low morality, low
tolerance, low respect for others, weak entrepreneur mentality, low teamwork mentality, lack
of leadership spirit and others. The acceleration of innovation in the field of science and
technology demands human learners who continue to be willing and able to upgrade their
knowledge upgrading itself. This means that educational institutions must also be able to
encourage and develop the learning abilities of their students. Educational institutions must
provide learn how to learn skills. When institutions are
only for the sake of link and
match, and ignore this learn how to learn, it will inevitably produce generations that stutter
against the various changes that occur in this global era (N. Burbules; B. Torres eds: 2001,
56).
Perhaps, the generation resulting from the link and match program will show
satisfactory performance when they first enter the world of industry/work. However, when
companies have to use new instruments, which means requiring their workers to learn new
things, the performance of this generation will generally be disappointing. They lack the skills
to learn new things, not to mention the fact that the types of jobs that were successful ten to
twenty years ago are now disappearing one by one. As described above, educational
institutions that are too focused on link and match programs aim to produce outputs that have
skills in certain types of jobs. The problem arises when the type of work mastered is forced to
disappear, then the person concerned is unable to do anything.
The skills possessed from the educational institutions that have been taken become
useless for his life. This means that the link and match program that is carried out rashly will
narrow the work space for its alumni. Advances in the field of information technology do
provide a lot of convenience for us today. Through various electronic media (television and
internet), we and our children are flooded with information from all over the world every
second. A lot of information is indeed useful for us and our children to improve their
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Fasli Jalal; Dedi Supriadi: 2001, 112).
Conclusions
Education policy must be comprehensive both in terms of time and intended for what
and to whom the policy is made. This is so that the policy can run and be implemented better
without having to have some parts of the policy that are in vain not implemented. The
existence of an education policy in the current era of globalization requires that an education
policy must be contextualized according to the era or place where it is not made on an equal
basis or the existence of a basis that must or must be implemented by all parties regardless of
the context of time or place.
If this is the case, it is certain that the education policy will experience many
discrepancies with what it should achieve considering the background of time or place and
even these conditions that require education policy to adjust to these various things. It is not
the other way around that all these conditions must adjust the policies that have been made, of
course it is very unlikely that an education policy will be able to run optimally.
