Decarbonizing the Global Cement Industry

Decarbonizing the Global Cement Industry

In 2015, the United Nations introduced their 2030 agenda for Sustainable Development, which

emphasized in its 13th goal, the urgent action to combat climate change and its consequences. At the

end of the same year, global leaders came together to sign the Paris Agreement in 2016, during the

21st session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change. This landmark agreement aimed to limit the rise in worldwide temperatures to below 2°C

above pre-industrial levels (IEA, 2018).

Alongside these developments, many nations established their own Nationally Determined

been observed globally. Notable occurrences include the devastating wildfires in Australia during

2019-2020, the record-breaking heatwave in the Pacific Northwest in June 2021, and the deadly

floods in Pakistan in 2022 (Clarke et al., 2022). Secondly, there has been increasing pressure from

investors in heavy carbon companies for more reporting on environmental footprint, and roadmaps to

lower emissions to ensure sustainability, although with limited efficacy so far (Baines & Hager, 2023).

Consequently, sustainable, and responsible investing has witnessed significant growth, incorporating

environmental, social, and governance (ESG) factors into investment decisions. In 2020, the global

market for sustainable investing reached an estimated $35.3 trillion, representing a 15% increase from

the previous year. Moreover, investors are increasingly urging companies to address climate change

and provide more information about their climate-related risks and opportunities, leading to a rising

As cement production is responsible for 7-8 % of carbon emissions, several countries have started to

explore ways of decarbonization for their cement industry. The global production and consumption

of cement is not uniform, with China and other Asian countries producing more than 80% (IEA,

2018). It is important to highlight that cement is a decentralized industry because it relies on locally

available raw materials, such as limestone, clay, and sand, which vary in quality and composition

from one region to another. In addition, cement production also varies widely between regions based

on infrastructure needs, urbanization levels, and availability of raw materials, among others. For

example, in China the cement production per capita in China is 1818 kilograms of cement, compared

to around 600 kg per capita globally. In the Middle East it is close to 827 kilograms of cement per

capita (IEA, 2018). This indicates that policies to decarbonize cement industry will need to be tailored

reaction that results in decomposition of limestone CaCO3 into Lime (CaO) and Carbon Dioxide

CO2. This material, clinker, which constitutes on average 80% of what cement is made of, is then

mixed with other additives to form cement (ETC, 2020). This process is called calcination, and it is

where most of the CO2 emissions in the cement production comes from. This is because the chemical

reaction in this process results in the releasing of CO2, but also because to make this process happen,

there is a lot of heat required. This heat comes from burning of fossil fuels to reach temperatures

typically in the range of 1,400 to 1,500 degrees Celsius (Monteiro et al., 2017).

The other source of CO2 in the production process of cement is usually referred to as “indirect

emissions”, and this includes the CO2 emissions from the electricity used, the logistics and

transportation, among others. Indirect emissions are responsible for about 10% of the CO2 emissions

Cement is the primary ingredient in concrete and holds the distinction of being the second most

consumed material globally, behind water (McKinsey, 2020). Considering the ongoing trends of

urbanization and the increasing need for infrastructure, the demand for cement is projected to rise

significantly by approximately 12-20% until the year 2050 (IEA, 2018). However, the cement

industry is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for approximately 7%

of global carbon dioxide emissions. Each ton of cement production results in an equivalent of 600

kilograms of Co2 (IEA, 2018). There is a growing need for change in the cement industry as countries

across the world are scrambling to reduce their carbon footprint while shifting their focus towards

heavy industries that are heavy carbon emitters.

This in turn has put pressure on global leaders of heavy industry sectors as investors and shareholders

pathway for the energy system that is consistent with limiting global warming to below 2 degrees

Celsius above pre-industrial levels, as agreed upon in the Paris Agreement. The roadmap assumes

ambitious deployment of carbon reduction technologies in the cement industry, but it also sets out an

expectation for a high level of international cooperation and policy support towards encouraging

lowcarbon cement (IEA, 2018). Other heavy industries including iron & steel, chemicals, and plastics

are also under the same pressures to decarbonize, with varying degrees of difference when it comes

to availability of substitutes. However, the one of the shared factors is the sustained demand for

cement and other heavy industry products, which makes policies and actions to reduce emissions even

more critical (Rissman et al., 2020)

As per latest figures, the cement industry contributes to around 3.7% of GDP and is providing jobs

contributor to the construction and real-estate sectors which represent close to 40% of Egypt’s

national economy. However, the cement industry also has a heavy environmental impact, with 5.3%

consumption of total energy in Egypt, and approximately 14% share of Egypt’s CO2 emissions,

which is double the global average (EBRD, 2016, p. 10)

In Egypt, the cement industry has recently received much criticism after cement companies lobbied

to allow the importing and use of coal in Egypt after the natural gas shortage in 2016 (Global Cement,

2015). Critics argued this will only add to the already heavy carbon footprint of cement production.

The Egyptian cement industry also compares unfavorably to other regions in terms of carbon

emissions. For example, the average CO2 emissions per tons of cement produced were 0.62 (620

kilograms) as of 2019, while in Egypt, the reported average was 0.75 (750 kilograms) tons of CO2

reducing carbon emissions from cement production will need to be tailored to the specific context

of each country and region.

In particular, Egypt is highly vulnerable to climate change impacts, due to its geographical location

and socio-economic conditions. The whole region of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) is

already experiencing the effects of climate change, such as rising temperatures, water scarcity, and

more frequent and severe weather events, including droughts and floods. Egypt’s coastal areas are at

risk from sea level rise, which could lead to flooding and erosion, damaging infrastructure, and

displacing communities. In addition, current economic conditions and limited resources make it

challenging to adapt to impacts of climate change, which was highlighted in Egypt’s latest update for

its NDCs (UNFCCC, 2023). There has been ongoing discourse on reducing greenhouse emissions in

In the recent June-2023 update, cement is listed at the top of the industry list that Egypt plans to

decarbonize (UNFCCC, 2023). Even though there are no clear targets in terms of CO2 emissions

reduction, there is an approach to increase efficiency and reduce dependency on fossil fuels by

incorporating more alternative fuels (refuse derived fuels). In March 2021, Egypt’s Ministry of

Environment published a mandatory decree for cement plants to substitute 10% of their energy usage

by alternative fuels (EEAA, 2022). However, these efforts will seem insufficient if we consider the

starting point: the cement industry’s carbon footprint is higher than the global average. While cement

production is responsible for around 7% of CO2 emissions, in Egypt this number is closer to 14%

ton of cement, while in Egypt this number is much higher – sometimes reported at more than 800

kilograms of CO2 per ton of cement (EBRD, 2016).

There are several explanations for the above figures that this study will present, but it is also important

to note that the cement industry in Egypt is a major contributor to the construction sector, which

represents 15% of GDP (Abdou, 2017), which means policy actions for reducing the cement

industry’s footprint in Egypt must consider its overall contribution to the economy. Cement plants by

design are made to accommodate different types of fuel, and this means there is an opportunity to

create a closed-loop system whereby waste is transformed into a valuable resource, driving the

transition towards a more sustainable and circular economy (Busch et al., 2022). However, the cement

industry in Egypt is facing many challenges including overcapacity, high energy costs, lack of access

The cement industry in Egypt is a significant contributor to the country’s economy, but it also has a

substantial environmental impact, including high levels of greenhouse gas emissions and intensive

energy usage (EBRD, 2016). To address these issues, there is a need for a green transition towards

more sustainable and environmentally friendly practices within the industry. The cement industry in

Egypt is responsible for close to 14% of the country’s emissions, and is also a heavy user of energy,

with low opportunities for exporting its products due to the logistical nature of the product. This

reason- added to the complexity of the economic challenges currently faced by the industry and in

Egypt in general such foreign currency shortage, decreasing local economic activity, among others-

means that the question of green transition in the cement industry in Egypt is much more complex

than the availability of technology for carbon reduction. Although there are several green transition

models implemented in other countries, as well as a dedicated 2016 EBRD report with a low carbon

road map for the cement industry in Egypt (EBRD, 2016); there has been slow uptake and lack of

progress in moving toward sustainable practices. This is due, historically, to several factors including

lack of regulations or policy actions promoting or mandating emissions reduction, low awareness

new technologies in addition to general heavy industry inertia. This study thus aims to understand

industry perspectives on what a potential green transition grounded in the Egyptian context will look

like, as well as the policy challenges and opportunities.

1.5. Research Aim & Questions

This study attempts to fill the literature gap in answering the complex questions about obstacles to

green transition in the cement industry and aims to contribute to the discussion on how to move

challenges from a regulatory perspective?

practices?

discussion of the low carbon roadmap available for the cement industry in Egypt and its different

low-hanging fruits for achieving considerable CO2 reductions through specific policy

recommendations for collaborative stakeholder actions.

Even though climate change has been identified as an issue since the 1980s, it is only in this last

decade that public discourse on climate change has made it into official agreements and policy

documents that are now widely spread. Today, climate change is one of the most pressing global

issues facing humanity. This is partially because Climate change is already having significant impacts

on countries around the world. Many regions are experiencing more frequent and severe weather

events, including droughts, floods, heatwaves, and storms (UNFCCC, 2022).

levels between 2030 and 2050 (IPCC, 2018). The 1.5-degree scenario is the more ambitious target of

applied in markets where it is economically viable. This is especially true to Middle East and China

alternative fuels. Alternative fuels include a variety of kinds that will differ in their availability in

each region or location. The most common alternative fuels that can be used in the cement industry

of a circular economy and diverting waste from being buried in landfills. This is also considered a

energy consumption for processing of the different kinds of fuel. Also, there is no change in the

cement production process itself, which is the largest source of the CO2 emissions in the industry.

This is why the shift to alternative fuels is expected to help reduce carbon emissions of the cement

There are of course several challenges to using alternative fuels in the cement industry, some of

them are related to the production process, whereby pretreatment is mostly needed for handling

different kinds of fuels, and certain adjustments in the cement plants as alternative fuels do not

provide the same energy of fossil fuels (ETC, 2020). However, the bigger challenges to using

alternative fuels comes from the degree of maturity of local infrastructure and regulatory

frameworks that make it both possible and economically logical for the different stakeholders. The

local infrastructure must support an effective and efficient waste collection network, and one that

makes landfilling waste costlier than burning it in cement plants. There are also usually challenges

with local governments, especially in developing countries where there are bureaucratic hurdles and

Another commonly cited reduction measure is ‘reducing the clinker to cement ratio’, which refers

to reducing the percentage of limestone needed in the making of cement – which is the main source

cement industry. A recent IEA report estimated it could save almost 35% of CO2 emissions

methods to reduce the ratio of limestone needed in the production of cement (Fransen et al., 2021).

quality but reduce CO2 emissions. Examples of these materials include fly ash, a by-product of

involves using naturally occurring clays to replace limestone, which helps in reducing CO2

for cement use are not unified across the world, and there have been several calls for adopting

standards that are focused on the quality of cement and concrete, instead of raw material

requirements. There has been notable progress in these regulations, with India being the leading

Also, the challenge with alternative raw materials like clay instead of limestone is since the material

availability is not unified across the world which means adoption of this technology will vary

regionally.

dioxide (CO2) emissions from cement production process and stores them underground or reuses

them in other applications in the chemical industry. According to the recent 2018 IEA low carbon

2018). There are more than four different technologies at varying phases of trials in the cement

industry, including calcium looping, direct separation, and chemical absorption. A 2017 study in

Romania analyzed two different scenarios for carbon capture which indicated a massive potential of

up to 90% capturing for CO2 emissions from the cement production process using calcium looping,

but at a staggering 120% of the actual cost of production (Cormos & Cormos, 2017).

It is important to note that the cost of capturing and storing CO2 from cement production is

efforts into practical applications take place. There are also calls for cross-sectoral collaboration

between industries that would be end users for the captured CO2 so that there is a closed economy

cycle instead of storing CO2 in underground expensive storage with no economic benefits

(Beddington et al., 2019)

cement due to technical specifications (Gartner and Sui, 2017). Another example is belite cement,

which is a mineral compound of different composition that needs lower energy than in traditional

cement process, but also in testing stages. These are only examples of alternative materials to

traditional cement that can be used in the same manufacturing process, but all of these are currently

commercially available (Gartner and Sui, 2017).

These measures have varying degrees of applicability, as well as being in different stages of

maturity for the technology used. There are different barriers to implementing above measures as

mentioned in the different studies. The barriers cited in studies include economic barriers,

pertaining to high setup costs or other market dynamics like lack of demand. Technology barriers

usually refer to technological immaturity of proposed solutions, or difficulty of retrofitting proposed

measures to current production sites (Benhelal et al., 2021; Miller et al., 2021). A common theme

across literature was that new technologies are estimated to take 15 to 30 years to move to maturity

cost of over-specification (Ida Karlsson et al., 2020). For example, there are certain changes that can

be done to reduce the co2 emissions of cement by substituting some raw materials, but these

changes mean a different way of using cement for construction; thus, posing a risk of enforcing and

technical capacity questions (Ida Karlsson et al., 2020.

In addition to technology measures and their possible implementation, there are general policy

actions that are common across literature to reduce carbon emissions in the cement industry. These

policy actions can also be found in other literature on decarbonization in heavy industries as well

(Rissman et al., 2020). Policy actions can include carbon pricing, public procurement and support to

research and development (Busch et al., 2022).

In summary, the literature provided common technological recommended measures and policy

(Busch et al., 2022). Most notably, there is a no common identified policy framework for

intensive ways of producing cement might mean the potential of reducing cement consumption or

substituting it with alternative building materials could be overlooked (Ahman, 2018).

extensive research from China in the past years, as efforts to decarbonize have swept through the

industrial sector in China (Dinga and Wen, 2022). A recent review of literature on China’s cement

industry decarbonisation efforts highlighted that most studies were targeting emission reductions

but not carbon neutrality, which can be understood considering demand for cement in China

accounts for more than 50% of the world’s cement industry (Dinga and Wen, 2022). However, the

literature from China provides extensive quantitative modeling which can be helpful for replicating

studies in other countries. Overall, there is a strong emphasis on emission reduction measures that

can be identified as circular economy approaches, alternative fuel derived wastes as an example,

since the expected co-benefits from such measures would make them more cost-effective to

implement (Schneider, 2019). Identified co-benefits include recycled waste, less areas used as

capacity gaps, among others. Most notably, Balsara et al. (2021) highlighted the need for

Other research from developing countries included emission reduction measures that were not

that no long-term research or roadmaps for net-zero cement production by 2050 were available for

developing countries. However, literature from developing countries often focus on particular

emission reduction measures that can effectively work in the country’s specific context. For

example, a recent study in Philippines highlighted the co-benefits from using sugarcane ash, a waste

byproduct of sugarcane, for use as biomass derived fuel in cement plants (Jamora et al., 2019). This

is in line with Balsara et al. (2021) approach for focusing on specific measures that can be

Discussions on the decarbonization of cement production was not always on top of the agenda for

publications on the cement industry in Egypt. Egypt was a late adopter of the regulatory standards

that limit dust emissions and harmful pollutants from cement plants. It was only in 2010 that the

Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) implemented a stricter emissions guideline with

online monitoring for cement plants (Askar, 2010). These guidelines were a long-awaited amendment

to the 1994 Egyptian environment protection law which set the limits of dust emissions and other air

pollutants for cement plants. It was only in 2010 that the EEAA updated the limits of air pollutants to

match international standards. The guidelines and current regulations do not have any reference for

CO2 emissions (Askar, 2010).

However, it should be noted that there were calls for using alternative fuels and using cement

production process as a method of eliminating hazardous waste instead of landfilling, as several

the new regulations using a life-cycle assessment (LCA) methodology to evaluate the environmental

footprint of cement production in Egypt. The study found lacking monitoring and evaluation of

greenhouse gas emissions, and only automated monitoring for carbon monoxide by the Egyptian

Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) (Abdou, 2017).

Sustainable Development (WBCSD). The study provided a roadmap for the cement industry and the

relevant stakeholders including government organizations to implement mitigation measures to

reduce the CO2 emissions increase that will happen due using coal and heavy carbon fuels. The

study estimates that without the mitigation measures, the cement industry in Egypt would be within

ton of cement (EBRD, 2016).

are close to non-existent in Egypt. However, the report does indicate that several other countries

industry and that this is an economically viable measure for companies as well (EBRD, 2016).

However, in the Egyptian context, there is another challenge to this approach, since lowering the

clinker content of cement means there will be different types of cement for different uses. To put it

mildly, the application of this in Egypt suffers from long-term resistance from authorities

responsible for construction codes, as well as from cement companies based on their historical

experience with the end-users of the cement industry – leading to most of the cement sold in Egypt

long-term domestic market needs. This is because the cement market is operating at a 70% capacity,

the cement industry’s low carbon roadmap after six years of implementation, to the extent possible

within the scope of the study.

This chapter will present the research design of this thesis, starting with the conceptual framework,

This study will use a modified version of the Net-Cement model in China (Zhang et al., 2021) to

The study will attempt to understand and clarify the recent market conditions and regulatory

framework changes and how it affects the potential of low-carbon cement in Egypt. This will also

Cement’s lifeline: industry-wide production quota (2021-2023)

In the second half of 2022, and after years of calls and different media statements, mostly by

welcomed by the industry as it provided needed assurance and stability. This production quota was

requested by the majority private and international cement producers in Egypt, after oversupplying

cement prices from an all-time low, which was justified by producers as a needed measure to remain

economically viable. However, it is important to note that the quota was set for one year only,

which limits the ability of cement companies in forecasting their sales and revenue, and thus their

capacity to make long-term capital-intensive decisions like retrofitting or installing equipment that

will support in reducing Co2 emissions.

in Egypt, among others. Essentially, this means Egyptian cement companies do not have many

opportunities for exporting, except for neighboring markets that are accessible by trucks (EBRD,

2016).

In 2022, the production quota system for cement industries was renewed for another year, and the

move was again welcomed as there has been no major changes in demand, which is still 70% of

total production capacity (Enterprise, 2022). As of July 2023, there are reports that the quota system

will again be renewed for 2023-2024 as well, and cement companies are endorsing this renewal as

(Enterprise, 2023).

According to the most recent available data, the cement industry in Egypt is estimated to be

responsible for up to 14% of Egypt’s CO2 emissions, which is double the global average (EBRD,

2016). In terms of fuel, the cement industry in Egypt uses a fuel mix of almost 95% coal and

petcoke, which are high carbon emitting fuels, and only 5% of waste and refuse derived fuels

(RDFs). It should be noted that this increase in CO2 emissions for the cement industry is largely

attributed to the allowance of using coal in 2015.

The global average for the cement industry in using waste and refuse derived fuels (RDFs) as a

source of energy is 15%, but the good available practice, which is an indication of moderate targets

that can be reached by cement plants goes up to 30% (IEA, 2018). As for the direct CO2 emissions

per ton of cement, the Egyptian cement market also compares unfavorably to the global average:

The cement industry in Egypt had a track record and reputation of contributing to air pollution since

considerable debate on the use of coal from different civil society organizations, but eventually a

The cement industry in Egypt is regulated by Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA)

which was created in1994 to oversee companies working in the fields of cement, oil and gas, among

others (IEA, 2022). The current guidelines for the cement industry by the EEAA mainly concern the

dust emissions and air pollutants limitations and does not have mandates for CO2 emissions limits.

These guidelines have remained the same from 1994 until an amendment in 2010 decreased the

allowable limits of air pollutants from cement plants to match international standards (Askar, 2010).

In 2015, the EEAA allowed cement plants to import coal, which was previously banned, to use as

fuel in the production process after a severe energy crisis. The next update came in March 2021,

when the EEAA published new regulations for mandatory partial replacement of coal in cement

plants (EEAA, 2021). The regulations set a new quota of 10% minimum use for alternative fuels

emissions for Egyptian industries as a whole. For the cement industry, the national commitment

meant lowering the clinker value in cement to 80% conditional on meeting relevant national

standards, and implementing energy improvements (UNFCCC, 2023). In spite of these new

commitments, there are still no clear carbon pricing approaches by regulatory authorities in Egypt,

including the ones for cement. It is worth noting that recent studies have demonstrated potential

positive impact for carbon taxes on economic activity in Egypt. (Elshennawy & Willenbockel,

The NDCs also included a commitment to increase the usage of waste-to-energy by utilizing waste

in the cement industry as a fuel to replace coal, and to reach a 20% utilization rate of total collected

waste (UNFCCC, 2023). The NDCs indicated there is also a plan to improve waste collection

such as solid waste in cement, but as the following section will discuss, there are challenges to

procuring enough waste to use as fuel by the plants (UNFCCC, 2023). Lastly, it must be

highlighted that while the latest NDCs published by Egypt have certain action items for the cement

industry, there is no clear number or commitment for the percentage of reduction for CO2

emissions. The current share of CO2 emissions from cement production in Egypt is reported to be

14%, and the NDCs did not mention that number, and did not mention a target number (UNFCC,

incentives, in coordination with the newly established Waste Management Regulatory Authority

(WMRA) (UNEP, 2020). Also, these new regulations established a timeline of two years from the

date of issuance for the New Urban Communities Authority (NUCA) to finance municipal waste

management in new cities. It is worth noting that cement plants would be the biggest buyers for

municipal waste as it can be used as alternative fuel (EBRD, 2016). However, as these rules and

4.4. Landscape of key stakeholders influencing a green transition

Implementation of sustainable development practices in the cement industry will require close

Utilities and Urban Development, along with the relevant authorities that set and oversee the

industry to reduce the clinker content in cement. This will involve capacity building and ensuring

monitoring mechanisms are in place, as well as updated labeling and technical guidelines (EBRD,

2016). Organizations responsible for architectural and structural designs will also need to be

involved, as well as construction and real-estate companies that are on the demand-side of cement

and would also facilitate the reduction of CO2 emissions if they start to incorporate sustainable

practices in design and building (EBRD, 2016).

This has provided few opportunities for cement companies to finance expensive upgrades that

would increase their efficiency and lower their co2 emissions (JICA, 2018)

content analysis of key documents in the industry. These findings include in-depth discussions with

cement producers, green transition technology providers, and experts in the regulatory and

financing policy spaces. This chapter is divided into five different themes. The first will present new

insights from senior executives in the cement industry on the outlook of the market and the

upcoming transition. The second will provide an important comparison in the different readiness

levels for cement companies to embrace green practices. The third section will present the current

potential options. Finally, the fourth section will provide a summary of the major regulatory

framework and financing challenges to reducing carbon emissions in the cement industry.

5.1. Insights on current outlook Egyptian cement market

The cement market in Egypt has been facing a chronic oversupply problem that was exacerbated

when new state-owned plants also joined the market in2018 (Reuters, 2018). In 2021, the Egyptian

Competition Authority (ECA) stepped in to resolve the chronic dilemma by establishing a year-long

agreement with all cement producers to mandate a quota system of supply cuts in the range of 10%

decrease in demand (Enterprise, 2023).

This uncertainty has been reflected in the comments by industry experts, as one senior executive

highlighted as lack of short-term visibility of forecasted production capacity beyond one year, and

consequently of sales and revenue, can limit their ability for effective planning and budgeting:

on production capacity by the cement plants, and this in turn has consequences for how much sales

affected, and hence any plans for large-scale projects related to sustainability or reducing emissions

as well.

the main reasons for declining demand and was also referenced by the CEO of the biggest

multinational cement company in Egypt in a recent public interview (Ramadan, 2020). Also, in

all these components together directly affect the core business of the industry (Ramadan, 2020).

In addition, here are also certain industry specific challenges that have negatively impacted the

In addition to these challenges, the current foreign currency shortage also adds to the long-existing

woes of the industry, and this will be reflected in the below sections on green transition options and

their feasibility. The majority of my respondents, especially from local Egyptian private companies,

indicated that one of their biggest operating challenges is the importing of coal and other major

spare parts as the foreign currency shortage and fluctuation in rates makes it more difficult to plan.

Also, respondents indicated that the recent devaluation of the Egyptian pound has meant that

installing or retrofitting equipment for reducing carbon emissions is even more expensive as most

are imported technologies and parts. These macroeconomic challenges are one of the biggest

developing countries. (Morrow et al., 2012)

5.2. Current practices to reduce Co2 emissions

Overall, the general market trend is that multinational companies have already started taking action

to reduce their carbon emissions long before any regulations or policy pressures from authorities in

The interviews conducted with senior executives in different cement companies provided an

understanding of the current practices by cement producers in Egypt to reduce their carbon

The above quote resonates with the other respondents from multinational companies, who have

confirmed they have had environmental objectives from their global management to mandate

energy efficiency and carbon emissions reduction upgrades for several years now.

However, it should be mentioned that most cement experts and consultants agree that there are at

least certain potential green transition options that all cement producers will be looking to

implement, like fuel substitution which promises savings on the import of coal if substituted by

The most common practice that cement companies in Egypt are using to reduce their CO2

emissions is the shift to alternative fuels - fuels that are less carbon intensive than conventional

However, using refuse derived fuel (RFD) is not as simple as it can seem at the first instance. There

below quote by one of the senior executives interviewed, who was also responsible for the cement

company’s subsidiary created for waste management: