Introduction Department of Justice

In 2008, the U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics reported that

there were 17,985 state and local law enforcement agencies in the United States. These

agencies employ approximately 765,000 sworn law enforcement officers. During a

fouryear period, from 2004-2008, the total number of law enforcement officers

nationwide increased by 33,000 officers or 4.6% (Reaves, 2011).

The training of new officers is a responsibility charged to an institution that

provides the minimum training standards set by the governing State. This institution is

most commonly known as a law enforcement academy, but is often affiliated with larger

organizations such as colleges, universities, technical colleges, or a municipal police

agency.

In 2002, the U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics (2005)

conducted a census of law enforcement academies throughout the United States. As of

yearend 2002, a total of 626 state and local academies were operating in the United States

that offered basic law enforcement training to individuals recruited or seeking to become

law enforcement officers. Included in these 626 academies were: (a) 274 county,

regional, or state academies; (b) 249 college, university, or technical school academies;

and (c) 103 city or municipal academies. The total expenditures of training academies

during fiscal year 2002 was an estimated $725.6 million, including $351.2 million among

county, regional, or state academies, $299.4 million among city or municipal academies,

and $75.1 million among college, university, or technical school academies (United States

Department of Justice [USDJ], 2005).

The 2002 census also reported that the median class size among all academies

ranged from 21-32 neophytes. Larger academies generally had larger class sizes, ranging

from 27-50 neophytes among those academies having 100 or more full-time training

personnel. Further, among all academies nationwide, a total of 53,302 neophytes

successfully completed the basic law enforcement recruit training.

The curriculum for these academies is extensive and encompasses an average of

720 hours of training. The national figures stipulate a range of 620-840 hours.

Instructional topics included in the training are, but not limited to, firearms, basic

firstaid/CPR, emergency vehicle operations, self-defense, criminal law, use of non-lethal

weapons, community policing, etc. The largest portion of this training was related to

firearms where a median of 60 hours was reported.

This research study was conducted in the state of Florida; therefore, it was

appropriate to note that 387 law enforcement agencies from Florida were represented in

the national statistics. These agencies included 46,105 sworn law enforcement officers

(USDJ, 2011). Additionally, the state of Florida included approximately 6.5% of the

nation’s law enforcement academies. This figure equated to 41 academies throughout the

state.

Virtual reality is a training tool that is available to 78% of law enforcement

training academies nationwide. Fifty-eight percent of the nation’s academies reported

that this tool was part of their facility (USDJ, 2005). Published statistics did not report on

the number of firearm simulators exclusive to Florida academies; however, queries to Ti

Training, Inc., a vendor holding accounts in Florida, reported that as of yearend 2009

their company had supplied simulators to at least six different county or municipal

agencies (T. Brown, personal communication, September 29, 2010).

This research study used a firearms simulator, known also as virtual reality.

Numerous terms have been associated with virtual reality and it appears that the

definition is consistent with the software’s application. For the purpose of this study, the

following definition was used: a technologically-created environment that incorporates

representations of real-world elements such as human beings, landscapes, and other

objects (Kock, 2008).

Virtual reality training for law enforcement neophytes is an area that has not been

thoroughly researched. Based on the reported availability to law enforcement academies,

relevant research on its effects would be beneficial to a broad spectrum of training

personnel. This study was designed to broaden the body of knowledge in the use of

virtual reality in law enforcement training.

Statement of the Problem

There has been no research on the cognitive memory and handgun accuracy

development of law enforcement neophytes through the use of virtual reality.

Additionally, traditional training of police officers has been an evolving process.

Previously, if there was inadequate training of a law enforcement neophyte it was

subsidized by experienced trainers and mentors who often trained by example.

Generational attrition has created a gap in experienced mentors once used for guidance by

newer officers (T. Hughes, personal communication, February 2010). Through the

multitude of available scenarios, virtual reality provides a repetitive learning process that

can fill the void created by natural attrition.

Scenario-based training is a technique used by a vast majority of law enforcement

academies throughout the United States. Supporters of this type of training would argue

that it is a realistic approach to real-world problems encountered by a law enforcement

officer. This technique is designed to promote cognitive growth through scenarios that

employ live actors/instructors. Critics of this training technique argue that it is time

consuming and cost prohibitive. The time consumption prohibits repetitiveness required

for long-term development and the cost associated with the number of required

instructors makes this technique difficult for smaller institutions.

Despite these arguments, based on the 2005 data, approximately 90% of law

enforcement academies used reality-based scenario training to teach arrest techniques and

93% used scenario-based training to teach self-defense. Only about 65% of the

academies used scenario-based training for cognitive development. Eighty-eight percent

of law enforcement academies used scenario-based training as a means of teaching

firearms skills (USDJ, 2005). There was some indication that law enforcement

academies have been using virtual simulations as a means to teach firearms skills;

however the effects of virtual reality on the cognitive memory and handgun accuracy

development of neophytes has not been thoroughly researched.

Learning-style research suggests that students learn best when they are taught in a

way that matches their dominant learning style. This modality matching is sometimes

referred to as aptitude-by-treatment interaction (Smith, 1996). The process of virtual

training offers each learner a plethora of learning-style modalities, yet the literature only

reveals evidence of its existence in law enforcement academies. It does not address the

effects that it has had on the neophyte.

Hiring standards for law enforcement neophytes are detailed. Restrictions on

criminal records, driving habits, financial stability, and even social stability are among the

many factors that govern administrators in their decisions to confirm or deny applicants

requests for employment. It would seem likely that the candidate with the most realistic

chance for selection is that person(s) who has been sheltered from the environment where

they will ultimately work. The virtual environment can offer the neophyte simulated

circumstances where cognitive and skill development will promote professional growth.

Early identification of developmental deficiencies can also provide additional

opportunities to prepare the neophyte for professional activities.

Purpose of the Research

The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of virtual reality

training on the cognitive memory and handgun accuracy development by the law

enforcement neophyte. This research study used an experimental design. The use of a

stratified randomly assigned sample was designed to quantitatively compare the effects of

virtual reality to the existing forms of traditional training.

Law enforcement educators, trainers, and administrators may find the results

beneficial for program, curriculum, and staff development, and educational enhancement

through the integration of technologically-advanced training techniques for their existing

programs. The increasing societal demands on civil protectors and ever depleting

resources made it incumbent upon police trainers and administrators to study these results

in order to prepare the next generation of law enforcement professionals.

Research Questions

The effects of virtual reality on the cognitive mapping and development of

handgun accuracy in law enforcement neophytes have not been thoroughly research. As

such, the intent of this study was to address the following research questions:

1. To what extent, if any, is handgun accuracy developed by neophytes who are

trained with virtual reality different than those trained in the traditional,

noninteractive formats?

2. What are the differences in handgun accuracy development between male and

female neophytes who are trained with virtual reality and those trained in the

traditional, non-interactive formats?

3. To what extent, if any, is the development of cognitive memory in neophytes

who are trained with virtual reality different than those trained in the

traditional, non-interactive formats?

4. What are the differences in cognitive memory development between male and

female neophytes who are trained with virtual reality and those trained in the

traditional, non-interactive formats?

Significance of the Study

The effects of virtual reality on the development of cognitive memory and

handgun accuracy by law enforcement neophytes have not been thoroughly researched.

As such, this research study should be of interest to a broad spectrum of law enforcement

trainers, administrators, and also, adult educators who wish to enhance the learning

environment. The use of virtually reality offers the potential of an alternative to

traditional training techniques that are currently being used.

According to the U. S. Department of Justice, more than half of law enforcement

academies have some form of virtual reality equipment; yet, the traditional formats of

training are still widely used in cognitive memory and handgun accuracy development.

Expenditures for training exceed millions of dollars on an annual basis. Expenditures

ranged from $261 thousand to $1.2 million per academy during fiscal year 2002. The

range of expenditures per neophyte was from $5,400-$13,100 and the cost per instructor

ranged from $17,900 - $41,800 (USDJ, 2005). Virtual reality offers supplemental

training opportunities at a fraction of the cost.

Law enforcement trainers and administrators would find this research of particular

interest as virtual reality offers a host of various scenarios that in some cases cannot be

replicated through the traditional scenario-based training. The ability of the software to

continuously repeat the training provides the neophyte an opportunity to develop at their

own pace. Due to its visual and audible portrayal of law enforcement service calls, the

neophyte can experience the realism of the incident. In any case, a virtual death is

overcome simply by hitting a reset button which offers the opportunity for a successful

learning environment. In contrast to the traditional formats of training, the virtual

classroom also offers an opportunity for collaborative learning through an evaluated

process of each virtual event.

This study also has implications for those who are working in and for

organizations that develop software for law enforcement applications. Adapting software

that can meet individual learning styles, enhance the transfer of learning, promulgate skill

development (specifically in the use of a firearm), develop communication skills, increase

cognitive mapping abilities, and finally, create intrinsic motivation are among the various

business opportunities.

In a substantial disaster situation, the psychological, physiological, and cognitive

states of individuals are increasingly stressed, leading to the introduction of new

unfamiliar and possibly unidentified human stressors that could negatively dictate the

quality of response (McCauley-Bell, Platt, & Clark, 2008). The virtual learning

environment offers the human operator/instructor extra assistance in performing learning

tasks that identify the stressors and teach the response.

Winchester and Ntuen (2008) describe virtual learning as augmented reality where

human interaction is combined with computer-generated agents, in real time, to become

modalities of interface. Augmented reality systems generate large amounts of

information, multiple solutions in less time, and perform far better in time processing.

During their discussion, Winchester and Ntuen identified problems associated with

augmented reality as a standalone instrument of instruction.

An instructional design that is interactive and energetic can stimulate deep

learning. The virtual learning environment provides flexibility and diversity, which are

also key elements to implementing virtual learning in the classroom. Virtual learning is

not a single standalone approach to learning, rather a tool that can be used with almost

any educational theory (Haren, 2007).

Considering virtual reality’s flexibility and seemingly endless realm of

possibilities, this research should have relevance to a broad spectrum of educators,

trainers, and instructors outside of the law enforcement profession. Currently, virtual

reality has been used in aviation, the United States Armed Forces, driving instruction, the

medical field, etc. Since this research focused on both the cognitive as well as the

physiological response to virtual training, it could provide insight into the benefits

associated with computer-assisted learning.

Limitations of Study

This research study has certain limitations:

The sample was limited to academy-level neophytes from a single institution

in central Florida. All of the participants were enrolled in a law enforcement

academy sponsored by the Florida Department of Law Enforcement and the

Criminal Justice Standards and Training Commission (CJSTC). Because the

sample was composed of participants from a single institution, care should be

taken in making broad generalizations to the entire law enforcement

population.

Assumptions of the Study

Assumptions that were made regarding this study included:

1. The instructors who were appointed by the host institution were used as safety

officers during data collection and did nothing to bias the results of the testing

procedure.

2. The virtual reality equipment that is owned by the central Florida law

enforcement organization and used as a testing instrument was accurate for the

purpose of this study.

Definitions of Terms

The following operational definitions were used to clarify terms used in this

study:

Academy Class: The groups of adult students who were enrolled in a specialized

training program that prepares the student for law enforcement operations.

Administration Order: An alternating presentation of simulated scenarios where

the neophyte was required to respond during the final intervention.

Cognitive Memory: A time-based physiological response to a life threatening

scenario that was measured by response time.

Final Intervention: A scenario-based exercise where the neophyte responded to

law enforcement situations for the purpose of collecting data.

Handgun Accuracy: The ability of a law enforcement neophyte to place accurate

shots within the vital areas/upper torso of a human subject that was measured by the

number of scoreable hits.

Neophyte: A academy-level law enforcement recruit.

Reaction Time: The time required for a law enforcement neophyte to respond to a

lethal encounter with lethal force.

Scenario Category: Three simulated situations were presented to the neophyte

during the final intervention. They were identified as Scenario A (traffic stop), Scenario

B (emotionally disturbed person), and Scenario C (domestic violence encounter).

Test Group: This research used two groups (experimental and control) of

participants during the treatment process and final intervention. The experimental group

included participants exposed to virtual simulations. The control group included

participants exposed to the curriculum used by the Florida Department of Law

Enforcement/Criminal Justice Standards and Training Commission during the

discretionary portion of firearms training.

Traditional Training: Training techniques that are lecture based, non-interactive,

and follow a pre-test, test, and post-test format.

Virtual Reality: Technologically-created environments that incorporate

representations of real-world elements such as human beings, landscapes, and other

objects.

Organization of the Study

Chapter 1 introduces the study by examining law enforcement academies in the

United States and presenting the problem to be researched. Included in this chapter are

the purpose of the research, research questions, and significance of the study, limitations

and assumptions of the study, operational definitions of terms, and the organization of the

study.

Chapter 2 contains the review of related literature for this research study. The

literature reviewed for this study examines adult education, the application of virtual

reality and, a summary of the review of literature.

Chapter 3 contains details of the procedures that were utilized in this study.

Included in this chapter are the research questions, population and sample, treatments,

validity and reliability, collection of data, data analysis, and a summary of methods.

Chapter 4 presents the results of the data analysis. The demographic

characteristics of the participants are described, findings of the data analysis,

observations, and summary of results.

Chapter 5 includes a summary of the study, discussion, the conclusions, the

implications of the study, and recommendations for further research.

Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of virtual reality

training on the development of cognitive memory and handgun accuracy by law

enforcement neophytes. Chapter two contains the review of related literature for this

research project. The literature reviewed for this study examines: (a) adult education, (b)

the application of virtual reality in the law enforcement profession, and (c) a summary of

the literature review.

Law enforcement responsibilities have changed since inception of the profession.

Today, law enforcement officers are identified as professionals who are faced with

numerous career challenges. The job of a police officer has become so complex that

training programs have become fundamental components in the assurance that police

behavior is both professional, accepted, and respected by the public (Traut, Feimer,

Emmert, & Thom, 2003). Crime suppression, the primary objective in their job task

descriptions, consumes a majority of time, but it is intertwined with the growing trend of

community-oriented policing that result in higher levels of exposure to the general

citizenry. This exposure creates an increased sense of awareness for the general public

that scrutinizes decisions made by police across the country.

Training law enforcement professionals has become more and more challenging.

There are changes in societal demands, laws and requirements, administrative policies,

and procedures that impact the training of law enforcement officers from the basic entry-

level academy to in-service training. Virtual reality training has become a recognizable

tool in an arsenal of training opportunities that is changing the scope of traditional police

training. To that end, the following review of literature discusses the history, impact, and

application of virtual reality in the training of police officers.

During an era, ranging from the 1840s to the early 1900s, law enforcement

officers received little training if any at all. Only in the last 50 years has police training

become synonymous with terms such as marksmanship, defensive tactics, and the

mechanics of arrest (Chappell, 2008). During the last half century, law enforcement

training has been reformed; however, 90% of police training still focuses on the high

liability areas such as firearms training and other skill development techniques while

ignoring cognitive development, reasoning, and even communication skills. High

liability tasks are the focal point of training, because it is assumed by police

administrators that the greatest risk of a civil tort comes from the use of protective action.

The first of many challenges with traditional law enforcement training is that it is widely

lecture based and relies heavily on pedagogical principles. Even the basis for skill

development, such as firearms training or defensive tactics stems from classroom lecture.

Information from these classroom sessions are largely committed to short-term memory

until such time that the participant passes a state required exam. The basis for a lifetime

of split-second, life-and-death, life-changing decisions, using short-term memory is

problematic. Therefore, the challenge in changing law enforcement training is

stimulating the cognitive development in not only the academy-level learner, but also the

veteran officer through an entire career of in-service training.

Adult Education

Cognitive development is defined as the construction of thought processing,

including remembering, problem solving, and decision making from childhood through

adolescence to adulthood (Hartman, 2001). Though law enforcement professionals are

considered adults, this theory is applicable as each stage of development in an officer’s

career is much the same as human development.

Piaget’s (1952) theory of cognitive development has four emerging themes: (a)

Sensory-motor (infancy), (b) Pre-operational (toddler and early childhood), (c) Concrete

operational (elementary and early adolescence), and (d) Formal operation (adolescence

and adulthood) (Hartman, 2001). The formal operational stage of Piaget’s theory is of

primary concern in the development of police training as research in this stage focuses on

intellectual development, successful intelligence, motivation, teaching for understanding,

self-regulated learning, and meta-cognition (Perkins, 1993).

The application of andragogical principles can aid in the cognitive development of

both basic recruits and veteran officers. Adult learning principles associated with the

concept of andragogy better serve the law enforcement professional in these five basic

assumptions: (a) they increase self-directedness, (b) they allow the experiences of the

learner to become an active part of the learning process, (c) the learner becomes

stimulated to learn by immediate life situations, (d) the learner is intrinsically motivated,

and (e) the learning is problem centered (McCoy, 2006). White (2007) examined the

effects of andragogy on law enforcement trainees and argues that the andragogical

approach: (a) draws on the trainee’s past experiences, (b) treats trainees as adults, (c)

adapts to the participant, and (d) fosters critical thinking and creativity.

Although the aforementioned principles remain as a solid foundation for adult

learning, it is unknown how much influence the technology of today may have changed

the theory of Andragogy, since Knowles (1980) published his theory over 35 years ago.

Today, more training and education is taking place through and with the use of

computers.

As early as the 1950s, computer simulation had been in development (Robinson,

2005). Two-dimensional images were displayed by computer hardware for the learner to

view and, in 1995, the Canadian Museum of Civilization, in Hull, Quebec helped to

create a 3-D virtual-reality exhibit of Ice Age figurines (Deitz, 1995).

The history of virtual simulations can be identified in four distinct periods:

pioneering, innovation, revolution, and evolution. In the late 1950s and into the 1960s,

the development of simulations and virtual reality was in its infantile stages. The

developers were laying the groundwork of generations to follow. In the 1970s, software

and hardware continued to evolve. However, it was during this period that the potential

of computer simulations came to fruition. During the revolution period of the 1980s,

practical applications of the computer simulation started to reveal itself; however, the cost

of associated components limited the use of these instruments. This all changed in the

1990s as the cost effectiveness of computerized components became more practical.

Added to this was the development of Windows software that revolutionized the personal

computer and its practicality. Finally, in the last 15 years, virtual animations have

become an integral part of any virtual-reality package (Robinson, 2005).

Application of Virtual Reality in the Law Enforcement Profession

The term virtual reality is used synonymously with terms such as: simulation,

second life, avatar, cyberspace, artificial reality, virtual world, etc. Research has shown

that, with as many applications for which the software was written, there are distinctly

different definitions. For example, in the medical field and the gaming industry,

computer simulations have characters often referred to as avatars. The definition found

to be best suited for this research was: technologically-created virtual environments that

incorporate representations of real-world elements such as human beings, landscapes, and

other objects (Kock, 2008).

In Kock’s definition, the virtual world is considered an environment. This is an

aspect of virtual training that is critical for law enforcement professionals since it is the

environment for which the officers must cognitively train. Lewenski, editor of Force

Science Institute, is a researcher of the law enforcement profession and widely known in

the criminal justice community for his research on all aspects of law enforcement

training. During a personal interview with B. Lewenski (October 15, 2009), he

summarized that a vast majority of traditional law enforcement training focuses on skill

development. He referred to the work of Gladwell who expected a normal adult to repeat

a specific task nearly 3,000 times before expert status can be achieved. Though

Lewenski does not concur entirely with Gladwell’s work, he does admit that repetition is

a key essential. Virtual training gives law enforcement officers the chance to

continuously repeat a skill to enhance the development. Lewenski also referred to the

work of Pickers whose research has shown that gaming helps to develop skills only so far

that it is a game to the officers who are training. Research has shown improvement in

skill development when the learner is learning while having fun. Lewenski stated that

even though virtual training has real-life application, it is still an adult video game.

Motivation. Virtual training is arguably a game, but it has serious implications in

police training as it reinforces one particular element of Piaget’s theory--motivation.

Research has shown that cognitive development includes two types of motivation,

extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic motivation is typically characterized as traditional law

enforcement training in that its usual reward is a mandated certification required for

continued employment. Extrinsic motivation can have a negative impact on learning; it is

entrenched in the traditional classroom, with students working for impersonal and

external reasons. On the other hand, intrinsic motivation provides the foundation for

long-term learning. This type of learning can be recalled, twisted, and applied in different

dimensions’ for the life of the learner. Intrinsic motivation is the experience of enjoyment

with feelings of competence and self-determining with a perception of locus of causality

(Pintrich, 1995). Virtual training could provide the intrinsic motivation through an

interesting, informative, challenging delivery, and a varied and creative application of

teaching. It focuses on higher-order learning outcomes and it transfers the responsibility

of learning to the student.

Although motivation in learning is essential, it does provide the foundation to

teach for understanding. Teaching for understanding, also known as performance

perspective, is the understanding of information in a variety of thought demanding ways.

It is understanding information in such a way that predictions about the information can

be made or understanding performances (Perkins, 1993). In the practice of law

enforcement, understanding performances can be interpreted as those actions of the

police or threats of a violent offender.

Cognitive reasoning and decision making. Academy-level students have very

little exposure to training that is associated with cognitive reasoning or, in law

enforcement terms, threat assessment. The Florida Department of Law Enforcement, for

example, defines threat assessment only as a footnote in the defensive tactics section of

their academy curriculum. Training for a threat should focus on the when, what, and how

to identify the impending attack. The opportunities provided in the virtual world

illustrate an environment where the police officer can reason through and respond to

multifaceted indicators that warn of a threat. Early detection of these indicators exposes

the participant to social circumstances leading up to the use of protective action. This

training opportunity provides an individual with repetitive attempts to seek cover, protect

themselves or others, and even take other action that may prevent the use of protective

action.

According to Lewenski (personal communication, October 15, 2009), virtual

training offers other benefits concerning the exposure to social circumstances;

circumstances that are not provided during two stages of an officer’s life. The first stage

is the social exposure to the non-conformant element of society during the officer’s

upbringing. In that, Lewenski stated that standards for applicant hiring are so

constringent that men and women who survive the hiring processes were often sheltered

from the criminal element that is prevalent in many urban environments. This eliminates

the would-be officers’ real-world experience and their ability to identify threats before

and sometimes even while they happen. Secondly, during the training process itself,

inservice opportunities for training do not offer the repetitiveness required for the officer

to become an expert. In most situations, field training is not finite. If Gladwell’s (2008)

research is precise, then an officer would essentially need to work for several years before

gaining the experience necessary to efficiently identify a threat.

The virtual simulation can offer opportunities for an officer to evaluate the totality

of the circumstances and learn to read social circumstances despite their lack of social

and professional experience. The training offers repetitiveness in conjunction with expert

instruction. Some virtual simulators offer what is referred to as a picture in a picture.

This tool allows participants to visually see themselves as they perform while being

constructively critiqued by the instructor. A visual representation is an essential tool for

the development of meta-cognition as it demonstrates the skills the instructor wants the

student to learn. The virtual world creates a storybook for the learner to follow. Bonds,

Bonds, and Peach (1992) indicated that the there are two sub-core strands within the

story: (a) the characters and (b) the setting. As the student reads or, in the virtual world,

lives the story, a mental map is completed showing the relationship to the two strands.

The activity helps the student organize content information into an understandable whole

allowing also for the development of visualized relationships.

The policing environment is filled with complexities stemming from conflicts in

the law enforcement function. The conflicts are inherent to the job tasks for which

officers are required to make split-second decisions that will affect citizens and other

officers alike. Despite the complexities, however, the cognitive reasoning of officers

needs to be evaluated as any other decision-making process because the outcomes

themselves are based on judgments people have made. Decision-making research has

compared the rationality of a person’s intuitive judgments under uncertainty with

analytically derived answers produced by formal models (Can, 2006). As is the case

with decisions made by police, the intuitive judgments are more applicable to law

enforcement training. Can (2006) conducted a qualitative research, where interviews

were conducted with law enforcement trainers. It was determined that, while making

vital decisions during an unanticipated event, law enforcement officers used both

intuitive and analytical decision-making processes. It was further shown that during the

initial stages of the problem solving, tasks errors were equally distributed between all

participant demographics. Analytical cognition increased the amount of errors under time

constraints without managing to implement other decisions and contingencies. When the

learner implemented intuitive cognition that corrected several types of decisions during

the same time period until they got the desired outcome, it was too late. The most critical

conclusion of Can’s study is those officers who had previous incident experiences and

more in-service training hours made less errors and made better decisions in a simulated

process.

Skill development. In a study conducted in Washington State, the research

focused on pre- and in-service training and the satisfaction level of the instructors who

gave the training. At the time of the study, the Washington State Criminal Justice

Standards and Training Commission only required 440 hours of academy level training;

60 of the 440 hours was dedicated to firearms training. Little attention, if any, was given

to the decision-making processes used in the deployment of the weapon during a

lifethreatening confrontation. There were two noted reasons for the level of attention

given to firearms training during this study. The first reason was that familiarity and the

motor skills associated with marksmanship and gun handling require many hours to

refine. Second was that decision-making training often requires one-on-one instruction.

This is a process that is sometimes cost prohibitive in an academy level setting as the

monetary demands of such training are usually too high (Morrison, 2006).

The virtual classroom offers an integral tool to simultaneously instruct multiple

officers in the development of their skills. Since multiple participants can train at the

same time, one-on-one instruction can be subsidized by collaborative learning, where

both visual and auditory stimuli are present for all of the participating learners. A 1993

study of 712 entry-level candidates to the Israel Police Force confirmed the need for an

integral tool of collaborative learning. The research study concluded that evaluations by

peer candidates are vital in achieving a good predication of future police behavior success

(Dayan, Kasten, & Fox, 2002).

A handgun is the primary weapon used by officers in the field, hence, the largest

portion of firearms training is dedicated to it use. It is usually the first weapon used by

officers because it is the most accessible and, to overstate the obvious, it is carried on the

side of the hip. However, Morrison (2006) warned that handgun qualifications are

primarily a test of marksmanship and a limited test of gun handling. Although this

situation is not unique to the state of Washington, Morrison added that the notion about

being “qualified” to carry and use handguns does not include meaningful measures of the

breadth of critical elements that bear on police competency in field confrontations. It

should be noted that the Washington State Criminal Justice Training Commission

increased the number of training hours for their Basic Law Enforcement Academy from

440 to 720 as a result of Morrison’s research.

Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, training in domestic terrorism has

become increasingly available to teach and train police departments to defend against

attack as well as gather intelligence from suspected subjects. During a 2003 conference

on terrorism hosted by the United States Secret Service, the host speaker, who for the

security of his position will remain anonymous, made this observation, “the unfortunate

reality of terrorism is that the law enforcement community has to get it right all of the

time; and, the terrorist only has to be right once” (personal communication). The reality

of this comment is that terrorism has no rules and no concern about who is affected by the

violent act. Striking fear in the victim and secondary victims is the basic premise of the

concept. Law enforcement officials are regulated by laws and policies during any

conflict, yet no research was located that revealed where scenario-based training was

used to expose even experienced officers to the threat of terrorism. Deitz (1997)

indicated that in the space of minutes or even seconds, officers on rapid-response

missions must distinguish terrorists from hostages, sort out surrendering criminals from

those who are still dangerous, and protect both the hostages and any innocent bystanders.

Their duties may also include identifying the wounded and ensuring that medical

personnel can perform triage and save lives and no one can forget the necessity of

protecting the officer’s own lives. Deitz sums up the complexities of an officer’s

involvement during a deadly confrontation, the importance of decision making, skill

development and cognitive reasoning.

In his 2005 article titled The Impact of Using Virtual Reality Technology to Train

for Law Enforcement Critical Incidents, Bos agrees with Deitz indicating that experience

is the best teacher. Further, Bos says that virtual reality training can engage the officer

into the realistic training they need to respond to, think through and successfully end a

critical incident. Bos categorizes virtual reality training into three categories: immersion,

interactivity, and information intensity. Immersion is the ability of the technology to

isolate the senses and give the illusion of being transported to a new location or

environment. Interaction is the technology’s ability to change the scene from the point of

view of the participants and the ability to alter their physical position and to manipulate

objects. Information intensity means that the virtual world includes artificial entities that

demonstrate a certain degree of intelligent behavior.

Bos (2005) admits that the bombings of September 11, 2001 were the catalyst that

has increased federal funding in the sum of $4.4 billion for grants since March 1, 2003.

Funds totaling $566 million have been made available to states and cities for equipment,

training, planning and exercises. This funding has made available the use of technology

to increase the opportunities of the law enforcement training in terms of the virtual world.

Scenario-based training. Currently, the state of Florida, through the Criminal

Justice Standards and Training Commission, requires scenario-based/simmunition

training during the basic law enforcement academy. This type of training can be costly,

instructor intensive, and time consuming.

Descriptively, this training incorporates live actors (law enforcement trainers) into

a shoot/no shoot incident to the learner. Ammunition carried by both the actors and the

learners is a marking substance dispersed from their handgun. This product is

uncomfortable to the individual who is struck. Supporters of this type of training will

argue that the associated discomfort from the projectiles impact is incentive for making

shots count and the right decisions. Yet little research could be found that articulated the

amount of learning that was occurring during this process. Research could surmise that

this type of training would be an effective test; yet, further research would be needed to

conclude the effectiveness of learning.

Bos (2005) also noted that one of the key advantages to virtual reality training is

that the officer can experience a real-world scenario in a controlled environment. The

discomfort associated with scenario-based training is avoided, it is more flexible than

other training methods, and an officer can practice tactics over and over again. The

experience of a virtual death is a lesson that may not be forgotten, but is easily overcome

by pressing a reset button. Another goal of virtual training does not focus on the learner

as much as the instructor/teacher. That said the virtual classroom provides the instructor

the means and the capability to teach analytically and creatively while at the same time

monitoring the environmental response.

Sternberg and Grigorenko (2002) point out that analytical teaching encourages the

learner to analyze, critique, judge, compare, evaluate and assess. Creativity, on the other

hand, encourages the learner to invent, discover, imagine suppose, and predict. The

virtual simulation provides the instructor a means to respond to the learning environment

by adapting to the skills and learning style of the learner. The uniqueness of the virtual

simulation is less restrictive to that which bounds traditional parameters in training that

are nonconforming to the speed of which a learner is progressing.

Although most of the noted research has centered on the use of firearms, research

also revealed that virtual simulations for law enforcement are now being used for pursuit

driving, high-risk incident management, incident recreation, and even crime scene

processing (Hormann, 1995). Simulations provide real-world experience, at a fraction of

the cost, in a risk-free environment that provides the challenges, developmental

processes, and training required of law enforcement personnel.

Cognitive memory. The issue with replicating the real world is putting people

into a realistic training environment and replicating in the virtual world what could

happen in the real world (Simon, 2005). The realism creates a cognitive memory or map

of areas which are familiar to the officer: a sports arena, shopping mall, a local street, or

bar that the officer has responded to a dozen times before. A cognitive map is a realistic

model of perception (Hill, Han, & Van Lent, 2002). The virtual training environment

accelerates individual development by increasing the motivation of the learner with a

learning foundation for which to build. In that, the learner is learning in a simulation with

familiar settings where the officer works on a daily basis. Trying to recreate a unique

environment using current and traditional techniques of scenario-based training would be

time consuming.

Operational decision making across professions can be conceptualized as a

twostage process. The first requires an assessment of the current situation--what is the

problem? On the basis of this judgment, the second is determining the appropriate

reaction--what to do in response? Little research has been conducted into police decision

making, despite its critical role in effective operational policing and well-publicized cases

where erroneous decisions have been made by police officers (Flin, Pender, Wujec,

Grant, & Stewart, 2007). The requirements of the learner to adjust, innovate, or simply

cope with issues in the simulation exercise, without prior guidelines for behavior, have

been observed to evoke defensiveness and rationalizing denials of the relevance to the

exercise (Danielian, 1967). In other words, simulated scenarios that did not have the

appearance of realism were categorically denied any merit on behalf of the learner. The

virtual world has not only the capability, but the expectation of realism for the learner to

develop judgments and react to stimuli of the environment in lieu of real-world

experiences.

Summary of the Review of Literature

Virtual reality, second life, avatar, and cyberspace are all terms that have been

universally used to explain the process of creating an environment that immerses the

learner into a real-world scenario that cannot be duplicated, in its entirety, without living

the real thing. Virtual training is designed to be visually attractive, allows a high degree

of customization, can facilitate learning processes by providing in some cases

threedimensional, visually intensive, information-rich, and dynamic learning

environments (Taylor & Chyung, 2008).

There has been little research that shows the long-term effects of virtual reality

training and the impact it is having or will have on the law enforcement community.

However, with technology becoming more simplified in its application, the end users

with little or no knowledge of simulation theories can very quickly learn to use

simulation software and develop useful models (Lehaney, Kogetsidis, Platt, & Clarke,

1998). Even though computerized simulations and training have now been available for

over 25 years, a 2007 study showed that there was only a moderate willingness to explore

the use of virtual simulation in a variety of different professions. In the law enforcement

profession, however, the aid of federal funding has been changing the level of willingness

as the profession explores more beneficial alternatives to traditional training (Taylor &

Chyung, 2008).

The aforementioned discussion has made several points. There is a high degree of

risk associated with the essential tasks required of police officers. Decision making is

based on the officer’s ability to process threats, risks, weigh alternatives, and act

according to applicable policies and laws. Research has shown that experience is the best

teacher and that officers’ cognitive reasoning abilities coincide with their experience.

The challenge for trainers and administrators is to develop ways of introducing real-world

training to officers who are presented with these challenges.

Virtual training offers an environment that is real world. Its actors are simulated,

but portray realism in their actions and language and are placed in a setting that is

familiar to the officer who develops motivation and a cognitive map in the learning

process.

In addition to the realism that is offered by a virtual simulation, the interaction by

the instructor/facilitator is both immediate and constructive. The facilitator can use the

software as does a football coach who would replay video footage of previous games

against their opponents. The simulation can be rewound and played over again stressing

individual problems or mistakes. Some virtual training instruments also offer the

facilitator a mechanism known as a picture in a picture where video footage of the

participant can be replayed next to the simulation where the actions of the individual can

be critiqued. The facilitator’s role during the instructional portion of this training does

not change; however, the transfer of learning is enhanced by the addition of visual and

auditory teaching tools. Further, virtual training can offer a collaborative learning

environment as multiple learners can participate and evaluate each other while listening

to the instruction given by the facilitator.

Virtual reality offers a plethora of opportunities for training the use of firearms,

high-risk management for specialty units, driving simulations, and crime scene

processing. These high liability areas of training carry with them a major threat to the

law enforcement administrator’s risk of civil torts. Teaching for understanding is

beneficial when eliminating the unnecessary byproducts of education and focus on the

elements that will affect the learner the most. By virtue of its design, the virtual

classroom focuses on a specific task and reinforces the targeted concept.

Chapter 3

Methods

The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of virtual reality

training on the development of cognitive memory and handgun accuracy by law

enforcement neophytes. Chapter three contains the methods that were used for the

collection and analysis of data for this research project. This chapter specifically

examines the following: (a) research questions, (b) population and sample, (c) treatments,

(d) validity and reliability, (e) collection of data, (f) data analysis, and (g) a summary of

the methods.

Research Questions

To investigate the effects of virtual reality training on the development of

cognitive memory and handgun accuracy by law enforcement neophytes, this study

examined the following research questions:

1. To what extent, if any, is handgun accuracy developed by neophytes who are

trained with virtual reality different than those trained in the traditional,

noninteractive formats?

2. What are the differences in handgun accuracy development between male and

female neophytes who are trained with virtual reality and those trained in the

traditional, non-interactive formats?

3. To what extent, if any, is the development of cognitive memory in neophytes

who are trained with virtual reality different than those trained in the

traditional, non-interactive formats?

4. What are the differences in cognitive memory development between male and

female neophytes who are trained with virtual reality and those trained in the

traditional, non-interactive formats?

Population and Sample

There are 41 certified training centers that operate in the State of Florida and

provide basic law enforcement training. Basic recruit training is offered to those wishing

to join Florida’s law enforcement, Department of Corrections, or Probation and Parole.

Individuals who are pursuing the opportunity to participate in a basic law enforcement

training program must first pass the basic abilities test. The purpose of the basic abilities

test is to predict the likelihood of success in basic recruit training and the State Officer

Certification Examination. The Florida Department of Law Enforcement (FDLE)

contracts private test providers to create, manage, and administer the basic abilities test at

certified training centers, criminal justice selection centers, and criminal justice agencies.

FDLE manages testing scores, contractual issues, program clarification, and enforcement.

The basic abilities test assesses written comprehension and expression, information

ordering, spatial orientation, memorization, problem sensitivity, and inductive and

deductive reasoning. It is a multiple-choice test in a computer-based or paper-and-pencil

format (FDLE, 2010).

Participation in a basic law enforcement training program is a regulated process.

The admission process can exceed the state mandates by the governing directors (e.g.,

physical fitness requirements, prior work history, polygraph exams, or additional agency

requirements if hosted by a municipality). Though it is beyond the scope and intent of

this research, it is notable to mention that recruits can also earn college credits for an

Associates level degree for their participation in a basic law enforcement academy.

Reviews of the training center’s admission requirements have identified

established standards for acceptance to the basic recruit program.

These requirements are as follows:

• Be at least 19 years of age.

• Be a citizen of the United States.

• Have earned a high school diploma or equivalent (GED) for law enforcement and

corrections applicants.

• Not have been convicted of any felony or of a misdemeanor involving perjury or

false statement. Any person who, after July 1, 1981, pleads guilty or nolo

contendere to, or is found guilty of a felony, or of a misdemeanor involving

perjury or a false statement, shall not be eligible.

• Never have received a dishonorable discharge from any of the Armed Forces of

the United States.

• Pass a physical examination by a licensed physician, physician assistant, or

certified advanced registered nurse practitioner.

• Have good moral character as determined by a background investigation under

procedures established by the Criminal Justice Standards and Training

Commission.

In addition to the aforementioned criterion, this study extrapolated demographic

information about each participant using a paper/pencil questionnaire. The questionnaire

did not record the identity of participants. The principal and co-investigator were the

only members of the research team collecting and reviewing this data. The data included:

• Gender,

• Ethnicity,

• Age,

• Level of education,

• Former military experience,

• Former law enforcement experience,

• Any other professional training in the use of a firearm.

This study was conducted at a facility operated by a medium-sized training center

located in Central Florida. This training center is part of a state college which serves as a

host institution for one of the Criminal Justice Standards and Training Commission’s

[CJSTC] designated regions in the central Florida area. The institution hosts

approximately 150 academy-level students, for all of its programs, which include: basic

law enforcement, corrections, probation and parole, and equivalency of training (for

outof-state officers trying to convert their standards). The institution houses a fairly

extensive education program which includes: line level and middle management training,

high-liability training, and a plethora of instructor certification programs. The

institution’s staff consisted of one Director (holding the rank of Captain), five

coordinators (three holding the rank of Sergeant and two civilian coordinators), and

additional clerical personnel.

The scope of this research targeted neophytes enrolled in a law enforcement

program. The institution hosts two of these classes quarterly, with approximately 25–30

students per class. The number of students can fluctuate for a variety of reasons: student

drop out, injuries, failing exams at exit points, etc. There is a full-time day academy and

for the career-minded adult, a night-time academy where nightly courses are shorter per

day; however, the program takes longer to complete. The classes require in excess of

700 hours of training before the student qualifies to take the Officer Certification Exam,

hosted by the state of Florida. The demographics of each class are mixed. Neither type

of class favors a particular demographic despite the institution’s attempts to offer classes

more conducive to the older, working adult. The process of admission to a basic law

enforcement academy replicates an open enrollment format used by collegiate

institutions. Therefore, there was no established control to the sample that was obtained

for use in this study.

Participants in this study were academy-level recruits who were ending their

80hour block of firearms training. Since this study was conducted in conjunction with

state-mandated training, a three-day window for collection of data had been granted by

the host institution. Participation in this study was strictly voluntary. Any recruit found

to have had previous law enforcement experience was excluded. All participants were

briefed regarding the study and given a written consent form before being enrolled in the

study. See Appendix A for a copy of the informed consent agreement form. There were

no associated expenditures for any of the participants and the participants were not

compensated for their participation. All equipment and materials used for the collection

of data were provided and funded by the host institution.

The participants represented a convenience sample and were limited to the

number of students in each academy class. Class sizes varied and a total of six classes

were necessary to obtain a sample of 106 participants with 53 members in both the

experimental and control groups. This sample size is required for a medium effect size of

.50 and a power of .71 (Cohen, 1992). To ensure confidentiality, each participant was

coded with a number for which they were referred to during the reporting of data or any

subsequent discussion. A stratified random assignment of each participant was used to

assign each participant to the control or experimental group. The random assignment was

accomplished by drawing the names of each participant from a hat and assigning the first

selected name to the experimental group, the second selected name to the control group,

etc., until all the participants had been assigned.

Treatments

There were two treatments used for this study. The first treatment included a

traditional discretionary shooting course used in the current training format outlined in

the academy curriculum from the Florida Criminal Justice Standards and Training

Commission. This treatment was used for the control group. The second treatment

utilized a virtual reality simulator owned and operated by a large law enforcement

organization in central Florida. Both treatments were conducted after the law

enforcement neophytes had successfully completed their firearms block of training and

passed the qualification exam with a score of 80% or higher.

Academy instructors provided by the host institution were all Florida statecertified

high liability instructors who were trained to deliver instruction in firearms as mandated

by Florida’s CJSTC. Instructors used for the virtual simulation held all of the

aforementioned certifications, but also had been trained in the use of virtual simulation

programs. The instructor cadre included experienced operators from the law enforcement

profession. They included a mix of municipal police officers/supervisors and county

Sheriff’s Office deputies/supervisors. Their backgrounds and specialized training

included, but were not limited to Special Weapons and Tactics, Canine, traffic

enforcement, tactical shooting, etc. Most of the instructor cadre used by the host

institution was predominantly male with a mean age of 35-45 years. Their tenure varied

slightly, but most of the selected instructors had 12 or more years of experience.

Prior to the experiment, the group of instructors who were provided by the host

institution was divided equally. One half of the instructors were randomly assigned to the

control group and the other half was assigned to the experimental group. After one half

of the 8-hour treatment period was completed, each of the instructors changed groups.

This ensured that no one participant received an advantage over the other from the

experiences or instruction of a single group of instructors.

Treatment one (traditional) and the final intervention scenarios were outdoor

activities. As such, weather did become an inhibiting factor during the experiment only

once. To that end, the host institution provided covered training areas such as a shoot

house, five-story tower, and individual classrooms that were used during the inclement

weather.

Although the virtual simulator used in treatment two was a unique instrument;

inclement weather was not an inhibiting factor as it was used indoors. During this

research study, the equipment operated flawlessly and the treatment was carried out

successfully.

Treatment one. The objective of firearms training for the basic law enforcement

neophyte is to learn how to carry, use, defend, and demonstrate safe gun handling

techniques. The end of the training is signified by a test of marksmanship where the

recruit is required to shoot a 48-round course of fire and pass with a minimum score of

80% on a standardized paper silhouette target. Successful completion of this

marksmanship test satisfies the state of Florida’s mandate to demonstrate proficiency.

Firearms training then progresses into its final stage of development. This training is

known as discretionary shooting.

The purpose of the discretionary shooting activity was to develop cognitive

memory. Its process was designed to promote intuitive and analytical decision making.

It was a traditional form of instruction that had no interaction, no feedback, and no

reward or consequences for making decisions. The process of the discretionary shooting

course was as follows:

1. The neophyte was provided with one semi-automatic handgun and one fully

loaded magazine, a duty belt, and holster.

2. The neophyte walked parallel to targets that were 48 inches tall and grouped in

pairs and triplets.

3. As the neophyte approached each target group, the target system turned and

exposed both a threatening and/or benign image for two and four second intervals.

Two seconds was provided for each two target group and four seconds for the

three target group. See Figure 1 for a graphic depiction of the discretionary

shooting course.

4. The neophyte’s objective was to identify and shoot the threatening image before

the targets turned away without striking one of the benign images.

Treatment two. Virtual training is a process that exposes the recruit to an

interactive image, conducive with the training objective. The virtual equipment consisted

of a standard computer key board, a hard drive tower, a projector, and a monitor. The

software program was based on Microsoft Windows. The computer was loaded with a

variety of simulations, such as representations of robberies, burglaries, domestic violence

incidents, suspicious persons, domestic terrorism, emotionally disturbed citizens, and

traffic stops.

Figure 1. An example of the discretionary shooting course. The horizontal arrows

indicate the neophyte’s direction of travel. The vertical arrows indicate the points that the

neophyte would engage a group of targets. The targets that are marked with an “X”

would be those that have a threatening image.

The uniqueness of this system was that every weapon carried on a police officer’s

duty belt was simulated by specially designed equipment. The equipment was designed

to exact specifications of the police weaponry that included the same size, weight, and

functionality as the real item. Optional weapons included, but were not limited to,

military-style rifles, handguns, Taser® (also known as a stun gun), chemical agents

(commonly known as mace), and shotguns.

Rather than firing a projectile, each weapon regardless of its intended purpose

fired a pulsating laser beam that was invisible to the naked eye. Through a hit detection

camera, the computer registered the location of the shot, the time the shot was made, the

number of shots, and the interval between shots if multiple shots were fired.

”

To replicate night-time firearms training, the computer had the ability to turn any

daytime simulation into a lowlight or no light simulation. The recruits identified and

engaged their threat through the use of an inferred lighting system that was transferred

into a visible white light and illuminated only that portion of the view screen that the

learner shined. The light used for this portion of training was mounted under the

weapons barrel. Since every agency does not offer a gun-mounted light, the system’s

developer offered a handheld flashlight that operated in the same manner. Further, the

standard 48-inch target used in traditional firearms training was replaced for the virtual

world with a view screen that is 12’ x 7’ providing interaction with life-size images.

The interactivity of this system was controlled by a certified trainer/instructor.

The instructor had several options in each computerized scenario, known as branches.

The operator, known as the driver, chose the specified branching option either by a

predetermined script, objective, or by the manner in which the recruit was handling the

scenario. For example, if the recruit did not interpret a threat correctly, the driver had an

option to make the incident a life-threatening problem or provoke the threatening image

to surrender.

Essential to any learning process is the ability to review information that was

presented in a learning opportunity. That said, the virtual simulator offers an option

known as a picture in a picture. The simulator was programmed to video each participant

so that the images can be recalled and reviewed as many times as necessary to review and

describe an error, a valid point, or communication problems with the learner. This system

also provided a plethora of sound effects to ensure that the realism of the scenario was

complete.

The treatment process through the use of the virtual simulation is described

below:

1. The neophyte entered an empty room containing only the virtual equipment.

2. The neophyte was provided a duty belt, Glock, Model 22, .40 caliber,

semiautomatic handgun wherein the barrel had been replaced with a laser system.

Magazines that normally contained additional bullets were replaced with a

magazine that contained a CO2 canister that simulated recoil for each fired round.

3. The neophyte was provided with simulated scenarios that represented the same

shoot/no shoot decision-making requirements as the traditional format.

4. To ensure external validity, the driver ran pre-selected scenarios that represented

personal one-on-one or one-on-two simulations as the traditional format only

offered a maximum of two threats simultaneously.

5. Each simulated scenario was 20-30 seconds in duration.

Final intervention. Following the completion of the aforementioned treatments,

the neophytes participated in an intervention known as scenario-based training. The

collected data measured the effects of both the traditional and virtual treatments.

This intervention used real people (instructors) who presented a life-threatening

encounter. The neophytes were exposed to a scenario where a lethal response was

required to protect their life or that of another. This intervention included the addition of

marking rounds. These marking rounds were used by both the instructors and the

neophyte as a means of firing upon one another as an attack or defense of one another.

When struck by the marking round, an obvious colored spot appeared on the individual

which indicated contact. During this intervention, all safety precautions dictated by the

host institution, FDLE (2008) and the CJSTC were in effect. They included:

• A quarantined area for training.

• Signage indicating “Law Enforcement Training--In Progress”.

• Safety Officers in:

o Staging areas

o Perimeter and o In the scenario

• Safety officers were all identified by red shirts.

• Participant protection that included chest, head, eye, neck, and groin protection.

To ensure reliability of the collected data, the participants engaged in three

scenarios. These scenarios simulated calls for service that officers might face during their

normal course of duty: a traffic stop, a domestic violence incident, and an emotionally

disturbed person.

The scenarios progressed as explained below.

Scenario A--Traffic Stop: The subject (instructor) was pulled over. The subject

stepped out of the vehicle leaving the driver’s side door open with a handgun concealed

in the pocket of the door. The subject walked to and remained at the rear of the vehicle

until such time that the neophyte exited the patrol car and made contact with the apparent

violator. As the neophyte approached the vehicle, the subject became increasingly irate.

Unwilling to listen to the neophyte’s instructions, the subject returned to the vehicle,

retrieved the weapon, pointed the weapon at the neophyte, and engaged the neophyte in a

lethal encounter.

Scenario B--Emotionally Disturbed Person: The neophyte approached an

individual who replicated the actions of an emotionally disturbed person. The individual

was ranting uncontrollably and making no sense to the recruit. The individual had on a

long-sleeve shirt with a handgun concealed in the rear waistband. As the neophyte

attempted to determine the best course of action, the disturbed person retrieved the

handgun and pointed it at the neophyte and forced a lethal response.

Scenario C--Domestic Violence: The neophyte entered into a room that contained

two related persons, verbally arguing. One subject (instructor) already possessed a

concealed firearm. During the neophyte’s attempt to resolve the domestic disturbance,

the armed subject removed the weapon from concealment, pointed it at the neophyte, and

forced a lethal response.

Since this study was an experiment wherein the effects of the treatments were

being measured, the study extrapolated the following information as a means to

investigate the aforementioned goals: (a) cognitive memory was measured by response

time and (b) handgun accuracy was measured by the number of scoreable hits. Cognitive

memory was measured by the time it took for the neophyte to recognize the threat.

Handgun accuracy was measured by the number of rounds that struck the vital/upper

torso areas of the threat. A single round was considered successfully delivered if it struck

a vital area of the threatening subject. Shots that landed on the extremities, such as the

hands, arms, legs, or feet were not considered successful. Data collected for handgun

accuracy were calculated on a percentage basis so that variances in the number of shots

fired by each participant could be compared. The cognitive memory was measured by

the neophyte’s response time using a digital stop watch. The response time began as

soon as a visible threat with a weapon was made. The response time stopped when the

neophyte fired the first marker round. The marker round made a distinct audible sound

that was clearly evident to the data collector. See Appendix B for a copy of the data

collection work sheet.

Validity and Reliability

Validity. Validity represents appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness of

specific inferences made from test scores (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007). Although this study

was an experimental design, which is considered a strong research tool, it is not

irrefutable unless extraneous variables control threats to internal and external validity.

In order to insure that performance measures of the participants were valid, the design

and procedures set for this study were carefully constructed. To minimize the historical

threat to the validity, treatments one and two were conducted simultaneously for a period

of one day or eight hours of exposure to the treatment(s). The final intervention was

hosted the following day. The treatments were conducted during sequential week days so

that a weekend would not interrupt the fluidness of the data collection.

In order to prevent test-wise participants from adapting to the three separate final

interventions, the scenarios were designed with three separate and distinct scripts. The

first intervention was a traffic stop, the second was an emotionally disturbed person, and

the last was a domestic disturbance.

To prevent bias, the data collection instrumentation was designed to collect only

two pieces of quantitative data: the time it took for the neophyte to engage the threat and

the number of scoreable hits. The two pieces of data provided the necessary information

to calculate the effects of the treatments after the intervention, yet prevent the

investigator(s) from skewing scores if the neophyte increased his/her performance level.

The rater was isolated from the participants who were participating in the

intervention. The rater was not informed to which group the participant had been

assigned. The protective head gear (a helmet with a full face mask) worn as a safety

precaution by the participant also served as a means for hiding the identity of the

participant.

Rater fatigue was not problematic. The rater was not required or expected to

perform any activity and was provided frequent breaks. The digital timing equipment

required nothing more than the application of finger pressure to operate.

To control the participants’ accelerated performance beyond their natural abilities,

there was no debriefing or evaluation of performance during the final intervention. To

prevent interaction between the neophytes, the control and experimental groups were

maintained in separate buildings during the final intervention. Finally, to prevent

treatment diffusion, the neophyte groups were isolated in separate buildings.

Reliability. Reliability is the extent to which other researchers would arrive at similar

results if they studied the same case using the same procedures as the first researcher

(Gall et al., 2007). Simply put, reliability is consistency of the measurement.

Careful consideration went into the design of this study to ensure reliability.

Observer reliability was carefully controlled in the data collection. Two quantitative

measures: time and number of scored hits were the only data being collected. This type

of data collection prevented the investigator from skewing the data based on

observations.

Consistency was determined in the final intervention with a test of three separate

scenarios that measured the effects of each treatment. This measurement process

provided an opportunity for an analysis of variance to determine the differences, if any, in

each training technique.

Reliability was also maintained by the standardization of the measurements. All

participant performance was measured using the same criterion: scored hits and the time

that it took for the neophyte to engage the suspect with the first shot. Time began as soon

as a lethal threat was presented to the neophyte. Data were collected three times for each

participant in scenarios A, B, and C.

The participants used in this study were coming from individual law enforcement

academy classes with numbers that do not typically exceed 30 members. As such, one

entire control group would finish a scenario, and then the other group would complete the

same scenario. The instructors then begin another scenario. This process continued until

all three scenarios were completed. To ensure the continued reliability of the data

collection, a counter balance technique was used for each succeeding academy class.

Collection of Data

Participation in this study was voluntary. Consent for this study was obtained by

the principal investigator just prior to the discretionary shooting instructional block of

training. All participants were provided and read a printed informed consent form

(Appendix A) before being enrolled in the study. Details concerning the observations for

this study were not provided until the conclusion of the data collection so that the validity

of this study could be maintained. Data were collected from a convenience sample of

basic law enforcement neophytes. The collection of data was limited to two 8-hour days

for each academy class.

Academy-level neophytes are recruited and permitted entry into the program

through a variety of sources. Although a basic law enforcement academy is typically

designed for the beginner, some students had previous experience as law enforcement

officers. Repeating a basic law enforcement academy is common when officers come

from other states and the state for which the applicant is requesting employment does not

accept the previously completed standards.

In addition, experienced law enforcement officers may repeat the basic law

enforcement academy if they had left the profession and the term limits for their annual

recertification process had expired. The focus of this study was on the academy-level

neophytes; therefore, those who were determined to have previous experience were

excluded from this study. See Appendix C for a copy of the demographic questionnaire.

Consideration for participation in this study was restricted to those recruits who had no

previous law enforcement experience. Age was not a restriction nor was former military

experience. The United States military may provide additional weapons training;

however, there were no other similarities that would otherwise have compromised the

scope and purpose of this study (M. Butler [U.S. Army], M. Hughes [U.S. Army],

personnel communication, April, 2011).

Sample size was limited to the number of academy students provided by the host

institution at the time of testing and who met the aforementioned qualifications. The

collection period lasted over a nine-month period and included six separate academy

classes.

Data Analysis

The data were analyzed using SAS through proc freq, proc means and proc glm

procedures. Descriptive statistics were determined from each scenario. The data were

analyzed using a three-factor repeated measures ANOVA in which individuals were

randomly assigned to two treatment groups, control and experimental. The

advantage of this mixed design was that it allowed the researcher to determine whether

the independent variables interacted in their effect on the dependent variable (Smith,

1996). The advantage of the repeated measures design was that it required fewer

participants since the participants served as their own control. The error variance

attributed to individual variation was removed, resulting in more statistical power.

The primary source of error variance was the subjects. Removing the variance due to

individual differences between levels was due to the treatment itself and not the

participants (Lamb, 2003).

Summary of Methods

In this chapter, the research methods that were used in this study were described.

This chapter began with an explanation of informal observations that were conducted

prior to the beginning of this research study. These observations formulated the idea that

the cognitive memory and handgun accuracy development of law enforcement neophytes

needed to be studied.

The population and sample that were used were described and discussed. The

sample of this study was described as a convenience sample from a central Florida police

academy. The location where this study occurred was a central Florida law enforcement

training facility that possessed the required equipment for this experiment.

Treatments and the final intervention were also discussed and described. Adjunct

investigators who were used to facilitate this study were also described to include their

qualifications and accompanying certifications required by the state of Florida to conduct

high liability training.

The reliability and validity of data collection were described and discussed. The

careful design of this study was described so that threats to internal and external validity

could be controlled. The use of quantitative measures were described as a means of

determining if any interaction occurred between or within the groups as a result of the

treatments.

The demographics of the sample were described as well as the stratified random

assignment procedures that were implemented. Finally, the procedures for the collection

of data were described as well as the statistical tests that were used to analyze the data for

the findings.

Chapter 4

Results

The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of virtual reality

training on the development of cognitive memory and handgun accuracy by law

enforcement neophytes. In this chapter, the results of the research are discussed and the

findings are presented. The chapter is organized into four major sections: (a)

demographics of participants, (b) the findings of the data analysis as they relate to the

research questions, (c) additional observations, and (d) a summary of the chapter.

Demographics of Participants

The data collection for this research took place during a 9-month period. During

that time frame, a total of six academy classes were examined. Preparation for the study

began with the collection of demographic characteristics that all of the potential

candidates provided. During the course of the data collection, two candidates were

excluded from this study as they had prior law enforcement experience. The remaining

pool of candidates qualified for the study, having no prior law enforcement training or

experience (N = 106).

As illustrated in Table 1, the participants were predominantly white (nonHispanic)

males with only 18.87% (n = 20) females candidates. The predominant ages of the

participants were reported between 19 years and 30 years of age with 72.64% (n = 77)

Table 1

Demographic Characteristics of Study Participants

Characteristics

Gender

Male

81.13

Female

18.87

Ethnicity

African

American

14.15

White (non-

Hispanic)

66.98

Asian

1.88

Hispanic

16.98

Age

19-21 years

17.92

22-25 years

26-30 years

31-35 years

36-40 years

41-45 years

46-50 years

51-55 years

33.02

21.70

9.43

8.49

5.66

1.88

Education Level

High School

Some College

23.58

38.68

Associates

Degree

Bachelor’s

Degree

Master’s Degree

17.92

16.98

2.83

Military Experience

Yes No

18.87

81.13

Males

Females

----

Law Enforcement Experience

Yes

106

100

N = 106

of the group represented. Education levels were relatively comparable. Those reporting

“some college” were the majority at 38.68% (n = 41); however, 37.73% (n = 40) reported having

at least a two-year or Associates degree. Three of the participants reported having a Master’s

degree and there were no reports of Doctoral-level education. Eighty-six percent of the participants

had no military experience and none of them reported any prior law enforcement experience or

training, since they were already eliminated from the study.

The final question on the demographic information sheet requested the

participants to report any other professional training in the use of a firearm, tactical

deployment, or engagement techniques. As illustrated in Table 2, 42.45% (n = 45) of the

participants reported a source of additional firearms training, as well as training in tactical

deployment or engagement techniques. There were only four sources of additional

training that were reported: hunter education, concealed weapons classes, the United

States military, and training through an armed security program. Nineteen participants

reported that they had received training through a hunter’s education program and 19 also

reported that they had received training through a concealed weapons class. There were

nine of the 45 participants who reported that they received additional training through

multiple sources; however, only 1.9% (n = 2) indicated that they had received training

from a hunter’s education program, concealed weapons class, and the United States

Military. This study had 20 female participants. Of the 20 female participants, 4 reported

additional sources of training. Two reported having had a hunter education course, one

reported having completed a concealed weapons class, and one received additional

training through the United States Military. None of the female participants reported

multiple sources of training.

Table 2

Number and Percentages of Individuals Experiencing Additional Sources of Training

Source

Hunter’s Education (HE)

17.92

Concealed Weapons Class (CCW)

17.92

United States Military (USM)

Armed Security Class

18.87

.94

Multiple Sources

8.50

HE/CCW

4.70

CCW/USM

HE/USM/CCW

1.90

N = 45

Data Analysis

The data for this study were analyzed using a repeated measures experimental

ANOVA design. This design offered greater statistical power relative to sample size. The

research compared the same subjects under several different treatments, or followed

performance over time and "within" variables. Using a three-way ANOVA for repeated

measures, an examination of gender and test group (experimental and control) across

scenarios was completed to assess how the participants progressed with regard to time

taken (cognitive memory) and number of hits (accuracy).

The mean times of each scenario administration, by gender, were calculated and

represented in Table 3 and illustrated as a line graph in Figure 2. The administration of

each scenario included a traffic stop, a mentally disturbed person, and an incident of

domestic violence; however, a counterbalance technique was implemented and although

each individual academy class experienced the scenarios in the same order, the order of

the scenarios was different from class to class. Time for gender started nearly equal with

a mean time of 10.56 seconds for the female and 10.66 seconds for the males. In scenario

administration 2, the females’ mean response time decreased by 1.95 seconds; however,

at the conclusion of scenario administration 3, the time had risen by 5.71 seconds from

scenario administration 2. The male participants had an increase of 2.10 seconds from

scenario administration 1 to scenario administration 2; however, unlike their female

counterparts, their time was reduced by 2.05 seconds at the conclusion of scenario

administration 3.

Table 3

Mean Time Across Scenario Administration by Gender

Gender

Scenario

Administration

Female (N = 20)

10.56

9.89

8.61

6.62

14.32

17.06

Male (N = 86)

10.66

8.59

12.76

12.31

10.71

15.88

N = 106

Because the administration of the scenarios was completed using the

aforementioned counterbalance technique, the times noted for scenario administration 2

cannot be explained by any particular scenario and no apparent explanation for the

differences in time was available.

Scenario Administration 1 Scenario Administration 2 Scenario Administration 3 In

Seconds In Seconds In Seconds

Female ( = 20) Male ( = 20)

Figure 2. Line graph illustrating mean time in seconds across three scenario

administrations based on gender.

Additionally, the mean numbers of hits by gender were also calculated. As noted

in Table 4 and again in Figure 3, the mean accuracy scores by gender group were almost

parallel with the males achieving a slightly higher mean accuracy score in each scenario

administration.

In scenario administration 1, the males achieved a mean accuracy score of 2.03

hits while the female participants achieved a mean score of 1.25 hits, a difference of 0.78.

Scenario administration 2 showed a slight improvement for both groups. The male

participants had a mean score of 2.52, or an increase of 0.49. Similarly, the female

participants showed a mean increase score of 0.65 from scenario one to scenario two.

Once again, both gender groups were parallel in their result in scenario three; however,

this time both gender groups showed a decrease in accuracy. The mean decrease is

negligible with the females showing a decrease of only 0.10 and the males showing a

decrease of 0.03.

Table 4

Mean Hits Across Scenario Administration by Gender

Gender

Number of Hits

Female (n = 20)

1.25

1.29

1.90

1.07

1.80

1.32

Male (n = 86)

2.03

1.40

2.52

1.43

2.49

1.38

N = 106

Mean scores for time in seconds is depicted in Table 5. Mean times across the test

groups indicated that the experimental group responded to the intervention more rapidly

than the control group, indicating that the exposure to the virtual reality and the

interaction that was provided within the virtual reality-based training aided in the

participant’s ability to cognitively process the scenarios and respond accordingly.

During the treatments, the control group, on average required 15.94 - 17.17

seconds to cognitively process the scenarios and respond; whereas the experimental

group responded faster, averaging between 5.34 – 5.68 seconds. The range between the

two groups was 10.6 – 11.49 seconds.

Scenario Administration 1 Scenario Administration 2 Scenario Administration 3 Mean

Hits Mean Hits Mean Hits

Female ( = 20) Male ( = 86)

Figure 3. Line graph illustrating the mean number of hits across scenario administration

by gender.

Table 5

Mean Time in Seconds Across Scenario Administration by Test Group

Test Group

Scenario

Administration

In Seconds

Control (n = 53)

15.94

8.80

18.85

19.54

17.17

19.54

Experimental (n = 53)

5.34

3.90

5.41

5.54

5.68

8.62

N = 106

As illustrated in Figure 4, the experimental group completed all three scenario

administrations more rapidly than the control group. Time was calculated in seconds.

Scenario Administration 1 Scenario Administration 2 Scenario Administration 3 In

Seconds In Seconds In Seconds

Control ( = 53) Experimental ( = 53)

Figure 4. Mean time in seconds across scenario administration of test group.

The mean scores across scenarios by test group were evaluated for number of hits.

As illustrated in Table 6 and Figure 5, the experimental group finished scenario

administration 1 with a higher rate of accuracy than did the control group. The control

group, however, finished scenario administration 1 with 0.87 shots lower than the

experimental group, but increased their scores to 2.25 shots on average. On the second

scenario their scores declined slightly in their accuracy rate for scenario administration 3

with a mean number of hits calculated at 2.08.

Three-way repeated measures ANOVA designs, as used in this study, had two

repeated measures factors (gender and test group) and one non-repeated factor (scenario).

This study attempted to determine if gender and testing group and their interactions had

different effects on participants across scenario administration. A three-way repeated

measures ANOVA was performed to determine whether gender and test group and their

interaction had significant effects on a subject’s score on the number of hits and time

taken across three scenario administrations.

Table 6

Mean Hits Across Scenario Administration by Test Group

Group

Number of Hits

Control (n = 53)

1.45

1.10

2.25

1.33

2.08

1.25

Experimental (n = 53)

2.32

1.55

2.57

1.43

2.64

1.47

N = 106

Scenario Administration 1 Scenario Administration 2 Scenario Administration 3 Mean

Hits Mean Hits Mean Hits

Control ( = 53) Experimental ( = 53)

Figure 5. Line graph illustrating the mean number of hits across scenario administration

by test group.

As illustrated in Table 7, the accuracy scores during the scenario administration

were calculated. There was significance in the between-subject factors for both gender (p

= .0036) and also by group (p = .0205). Also observed in Table 7 is significance in the

within factors by scenario (p = .0120). Based on the previously reported scores, the data

would indicate that accuracy scores were higher during the scenario administrations for

the experimental group for both gender and group.

Tables 8 and 9 and Figure 6 reflect the data that were analyzed for the time it took

for the participants to cognitively process the scenario administrations. The only

significant difference was between the groups (p = .0001), indicating that the

experimental group that was exposed to the virtual reality training responded faster than

the control group. There was no difference by gender.

Table 7

ANOVA Summary Table for Accuracy During the Scenario Administration

Statistic

Source

Sum of

Squares

Mean

Square

HFL

Between

Gender

23.80

23.77

8.86

.0036*

Subjects

Group

14.90

14.85

5.54

.0205*

GxGp

Error

.13

273.59

102

.13

2.68

.05

.8240

Within

Scenario

12.55

6.28

4.52

.0120*

.01

Subjects

SxGn

SxGp

.21

3.80

.11

1.90

.08

1.37

.9256

.2570

.92

.26

.92

.26

SxGxGp

Error

.51

283.17

204

.26

1.39

.19

.8311

.82

Note. N = 106. S = scenario administration; G = gender; Gp = group; GG =

GreenhouseGeisser Epsilon; HFL = Huynh-Feldt-Lecoutre Epsilon. Greenhouse-Geisser

Epsilon = 0.9470; Huynh-Feldt-Lecoutre Epsilon = 0.9644.

*Significance at .05 level.

Table 8

ANOVA Summary Table for Time During the Scenario Administration

Statistic

Source

Sum of

Squares

Mean

Square

HFL

Between

Gender

1.07

.01

.9373

Subjects

Group

6486.44

37.79

.0001*

G x Gp

Error

4.88

17508.16

102

4.88

171.65

.03

.8664

Within

Scenario

167.34

83.67

.87

.4225

.40

Subjects

S x G

S x Gp

514.67

23.13

257.34

11.57

2.70 .12

.0723

.8329

.87

.83

.87

.84

S x G x

Error

211.10

19726.08

204

105.55

96.70

1.09

.3244

.32

.33

Note. N = 106. S = scenario administration; G = gender; Gp = group; GG =

GreenhouseGeisser Epsilon; HFL = Huynh-Feldt-Lecoutre Epsilon. Greenhouse-Geisser

Epsilon = 0.7646; Huynh-Feldt-Lecoutre Epsilon = 0.7739.

*Significance at .05 level.

Observations

The intent of this research study was to determine the effects, if any, on the

cognitive memory and the handgun accuracy development of the law enforcement

neophyte through the use of virtual reality. However, as much as the participants were

taking part in a research study, they were also actively involved in a learning process for

career development in the law enforcement profession. Likewise, the instructors used as

actors, safety officers, scribes, and time keepers. were also evaluating the neophytes as

they participated in the research treatments and intervention.

As this research study began to develop, the instructors used for the previously

mentioned purposes started making several notable observations that, although outside

the scope of this study, are very important in the development of law enforcement Table 9

Mean Time in Seconds Across Scenario Administration by Test Group by Gender

Group

Scenario

Administration

Control Group

Males (n = 43)

15.85

8.88

Females (n = 10)

19.93

16.08

16.34

12.58

21.60

13.68

19.60

9.08

5.92

19.65

Experimental Group

Males (n = 43)

1 2

5.45

5.54

5.16

4.15

5.74

8.13

Females (n = 10)

4.78

4.48

7.38

3.99

4.80

10.83

N = 106

neophytes and critical to their survival. These observations were discussed in detail with

participants of both the control and experimental groups following the conclusion of each

final intervention with each academy. These same observations were used as building

blocks for further instruction in later stages of the academy instruction.

The design of this experimental research was carefully planned so that

information related to the intent of this study would be unknown to the participants.

Therefore, the data that were collected would measure the practicality of virtual reality as

a tool to aid in the cognitive memory and handgun accuracy development of the law

Figure 5. Plot illustrating time in seconds by group across all three scenario

administrations. Note. CG = control group; EG = experimental group; SA = scenario

administration.

enforcement neophyte. There were several observations that were made during the data

collection period that may have influenced the anonymity of the study’s purpose as well

as influenced the participant’s responses during the final intervention. These

observations could explain some of the results.

Cover and concealment. It was noted by several instructors that some

participants from the control group did not utilize cover (an object that would stop a

bullet) or concealment (simply put, hiding from the offender’s line of sight). These

would have been objects such as the vehicle in the traffic stop scenario, natural barriers

such as bushes and trees, walls within buildings, etc. Although there were participants in

both groups that chose to engage the offender without moving to cover or concealment,

SA 1

In Seconds

SA 1

In Seconds

SA 2

In Seconds

SA 2

In Seconds

SA 3

In Seconds

SA 3

In Seconds

Highest Time

th Percentile

Lowest Time

this was largely in part due to the speed with which they chose to react to the

confrontation. It was noted that after exposure to the virtual interaction, several

participants from the experimental group would either first move to cover or concealment

as they began to engage the offender, as they were actively engaging the subject, or as

they were moving to cover after their initial shots were fired.

Communication. Communication skills during the final intervention had some

of the most notable differences between the groups. Clearly, participants who had been

exposed to the interaction of the virtual reality had developed, to the extent possible after

only eight hours of treatments, communication skills that exceeded that of the control

group.

Participants of the experimental group were much more confident in their

communication; meaning they provided clear directions to the offender, telling him what

was expected or the consequences if directions were not followed. Although the

communication from the experimental group may not have been that of an experienced

officer, those participants from the control group who did communicate with the offender

were more likely to enter into negotiations, rather than control and direct the incident.

Some members of the control group made deals with the offender, entertaining the idea of

a mutual surrendering of weapons. Other members made repeated ultimatums, such as

“this is the last time I will tell you to drop the gun”–even though it was the third or fourth

time the participants had told the offender it was the last time they were going to say it.

Some chose to give a count of 3, a count of 5, and even a count of 10; only to repeat the

countdown when the offender did not comply. Then there were those control group

participants, who after pointing their gun at the offender, who was pointing his at them,

decided to move closer so that they could hear better during their negotiations.

Members of the experimental group seemed to follow the conversation more

clearly with less confusion under the stressful conditions of each scenario. This was most

prevalent during the scenario where participants were confronted with a mentally

disturbed person. Members of the control group often hesitated, having to think longer

before responding to something that the disturbed individual might have said that made

“no sense at all”. To the contrary, experimental group participants carried out continuous

conversation up and to the point where a gun was made visible.

Awareness of surroundings. Law enforcement officers are trained to take note

of their surroundings in any situation. There are often threats to the safety of a law

enforcement officer that are not always known at the time a call for service is received or

even after his or her arrival. Other persons who are on scene, hidden objects, or even

natural barriers that conceal threats from sight can pose a risk to the officer.

An awareness of surroundings was particularly noted during the domestic

violence scenario, where for the only time during the final intervention, there were two

actors rather than just an offender alone. Participants from the experimental group were

observed deliberately trying to keep distance between the male/female actors

(husband/wife) as well as between themselves and the two subjects with which they were

communicating. It should be noted that during this scenario the male actor was the

offender with whom the lethal encounter would eventually occur. There was an

assumption made by nearly all 106 neophytes that the male was the primary aggressor.

The outcome of this scenario might have been considerably different had the female been

chosen to engage the neophyte in the lethal encounter. Clearly, this is something that

should be considered in future training to eliminate any potential deadly mistakes or

assumptions.

Informed consent. The design of this experimental research was carefully

planned so the intent of this study was concealed from the participants. This concealment

of information was to collect data during the final intervention that had not been

influenced by preconceived notions/ideas of the participants. Unfortunately, institutional

policies required that an informed consent form be signed by each of the participants.

This form contained the title of the research study that outlined the purpose and intent to

use virtual reality.

Although a pre-study briefing with all of the participants outlined a

“nodisclosure” policy until after their participation was completed, some of the assisting

instructors did report vocalizations of curiosity from the control group regarding the

virtual simulation room where the experimental group was exposed to treatment one.

The principal investigator was also approached by a limited number of participants

during the data collection period and asked if the control group would be able to

experience the virtual simulation when the data had been collected for their academy

class. This indicated that there was some knowledge of the known processes that the

study’s design was trying to prevent.

Principal investigator. The principal investigator for this research study was a

member of the agency that provided the training center where this research study took

place. During the first part of this study, the principal investigator held the rank of

Lieutenant (a middle manager) and, in the final two academy classes that were studied, he

held the rank of Captain (a senior staff level position). During the previously mentioned

pre-study briefing, each participant was vocally assured that their participation would not

in any way influence their status in the academy program, their grades, or future

employment. They were also informed that this research study was for data collection

purposes only and, although their activities would earn them hourly credit for attendance

in the academy, it was not a test for which they would be further evaluated.

To further prevent the existence of any unforeseen influence on behalf of the

principal investigator, he removed himself, in every degree possible, from the immediate

area of the final intervention. The principal investigator maintained an observation point

for the purposes of reporting the data, but allowed only the assisting instructors to direct

and control the process.

Safety equipment. Although the use of virtual reality may not have been

concealed from the control group, by virtue of the informed consent which included the

title of the dissertation, the process associated with the final intervention was a mystery to

both groups until moments before the processes began. In doing so, each participant was

provided protective equipment for their eyes, head, neck, throat, and chest. Finally,

moments before walking to the scenario administration, they were provided with a

weapon that was charged with live simulated ammunition.

There was a degree of uncertainty observed in each of the candidates as they

proceeded to the area. This was very noticeable by the increased and rapid breath from

the participants of both groups that habitually fogged up the protective face gear. This

rapid and increased breath was also noticeable during the administration of their second

and third intervention scenarios, yet by the last presented scenario during data collection,

this erratic breathing and fogging of the face masks seemed to dissipate for both groups.

The physiological response could have accounted for the unanticipated increase in

response times associated with scenario administration two.

Summary of Results

In this chapter, the results of the research were discussed and the findings

presented. This chapter began with a report of the participant’s demographics: gender,

ethnicity, age, educational level, and military and law enforcement experience were all

reported. Professional training outside the law enforcement academy for which they

were currently enrolled was also reported. It was determined that hunter education and

concealed weapons training were the largest sources of additional training.

Analysis of the data was then described. This study attempted to determine if gender

and testing group and their interaction had different effects on participants across

scenario administration. The statistical analysis concluded that gender did not reach

conventional levels of statistical significance in either time or accuracy. However, it can

be concluded that that gender x test group had a significant effect p value >.05 for both

time and accuracy.

Additional observations associated with the participants’ performance as well as

observations that may have created unwanted side effects during data collection were also

described. Observations associated with the participants’ performance included the use

of cover and concealment, communication skills and, an awareness of individual

surroundings. Finally, the presentation of the informed consent form, the principal

investigator, and the use of safety equipment were all discussed as having added to the

uncertainty of the participants and as an explanation to the decrease in performance

during scenario administration one and two.

Chapter 5

Summary, Conclusions, Implications and Recommendations

The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of virtual reality

training on the development of cognitive memory and handgun accuracy by law

enforcement neophytes. In this chapter, the findings and results of the research project

are discussed and presented. The chapter is delineated into the following sections: a

summary of the study, a discussion of the findings, conclusions related to the research

questions, implications, and recommendations for further research.

Summary of the Study

The purpose of this study was to identify the effects of virtual reality on the

development of cognitive memory and handgun accuracy by law enforcement neophytes.

Virtual reality training for law enforcement neophytes is an area that has not been

thoroughly researched. Therefore, no hypotheses were stated. The study addressed the

following four questions:

1. To what extent, if any, is handgun accuracy developed by neophytes who are

trained with virtual reality different than those trained in the traditional,

noninteractive formats?

2. What are the differences in handgun accuracy development between male and

female neophytes who are trained with virtual reality and those trained in the

traditional, non-interactive formats?

3. To what extent, if any, is the development of cognitive memory in neophytes

who are trained with virtual reality different than those trained in the

traditional, non-interactive formats?

4. What are the differences in cognitive memory development between male and

female neophytes who are trained with virtual reality and those trained in the

traditional, non-interactive formats?

This study was conducted at a facility operated by a medium-sized training center

located in Central Florida. This training center is part of a state college which serves as a

host institution for one of CJSTC’s designated regions in the central Florida area. The

institution hosts approximately 150 academy-level students, for all of its programs, which

include: basic law enforcement, corrections, probation and parole, and equivalency of

training.

Participants in this study were academy-level recruits who were ending their

80hour block of firearms training. Since this study was conducted in conjunction with

state-mandated training, a 3-day window for collection of data had been granted by the

host institution. Participation in this study was strictly voluntary. Any recruit found to

have had previous law enforcement experience was excluded.

The participants represented a convenience sample and were limited to the

number of students in each academy class. Class sizes varied and a total of six classes

was necessary to obtain a sample of 106 participants with 53 members in both the

experimental and control groups.

The data were analyzed using SAS software. Descriptive statistics were

determined from the scenario administrations in the final intervention. The data were

analyzed using a three-factor repeated measures ANOVA, in which individuals were

randomly assigned to two treatment groups, control and experimental.

Discussion

A discussion of the findings related to each of the research questions is presented.

The discussion from this study includes, but is not limited to, those results which were

found to be statistically significant.

Discussion of research question one. This question was examined by collecting

the number of scoreable hits from both the treatment and experimental groups during the

scenario administration. The control group had a lower mean score of hits than that the

experimental group during the administration of all three scenarios. The experimental

group had increases in their mean accuracy scores from scenario administration 1 through

scenario administration 3; however, the mean accuracy scores for the control group did

not follow the same trend.

The control group’s mean accuracy scores did increase from scenario

administration 1 to scenario administration 2. However, the accuracy scores decreased

during scenario administration 3. The control group’s mean accuracy score for scenario

administration 3 was less than those recorded for scenario administration 2. Because the

administration of the scenarios were completed using a counterbalance technique, the

decrease in accuracy for scenario administration 3 cannot be explained by any particular

scenario and no apparent explanation for the difference is available. However, there was

a significant difference between groups for accuracy scores related to the virtual reality

training and the traditional non-interactive format of training to promote handgun

accuracy in the law enforcement neophyte.

Discussion of research question two. This question was examined by collecting

the number of scoreable hits from both the treatment and experimental groups during the

scenario administration and was categorized by gender. The mean scores from the male

participants of both groups where higher than those of their female counterparts.

Mean accuracy scores from both genders followed the same trend. Male

participants ended scenario administration 1 with a higher mean accuracy score than

females, yet both groups increased their accuracy during scenario administration 2.

During scenario administration 3, the accuracy of both genders decreased slightly.

Because the administration of the scenarios were completed using a counterbalance

technique, the decrease in accuracy for scenario administration 3 cannot be explained by

any particular scenario. The summary for accuracy by gender showed that there was a

significant difference between genders for accuracy scores between the virtual reality

training and the traditional non-interactive format of training.

Discussion of research question three. This question was examined by

collecting the reaction time of the participants during the scenario administration. The

collected time was the interval between the moment the weapon was presented to the

participant to the point at which the participant fired the first shot. This time was

measured in seconds and collected for both the control and experimental groups.

Mean times across the test groups indicated that the experimental group

responded to each scenario administration more rapidly that the control group. This

would indicate that the interaction with the virtual reality-based training aided in the

participants’ ability to cognitively process the scenarios and respond accordingly. The

control group’s mean times increased from scenario administration 1 to scenario

administration 2; however, the mean times decreased during scenario administration 3.

The experimental group’s mean times increased across all three scenario administrations;

however, the increases were nominal. A comparison of the mean times by group was

significant. The experimental group cognitively processed the scenarios and responded

faster than the control group.

Discussion of research question four. This question was examined by collecting

the reaction time of the participants during the scenario administration and categorizing

these results by gender. The collected time was the interval between the moment the

weapon was presented to the male and female participant and ended when the first shot

was fired. This time was measured in seconds and collected for both the male and female

participants.

The end of scenario administration 1 resulted in mean times that were nearly

identical; however, the females responded to the scenario administration faster than their

male counterparts. The end of scenario administration two resulted in decreased mean

times for the females and an increased response time for the males. At the conclusion of

scenario administration 3, the mean times for the males decreased while the mean time

for their female counterparts increased. Because the administration of the scenarios were

completed using a counterbalance technique, the fluctuating times for scenario

administration cannot be entirely supported. The previously mentioned physiological

effects could have had an influence on the response by the neophytes. Gender had no

significance to the interaction of virtual reality and the traditional non-interactive format

of training in the development of cognitive memory in the law enforcement neophyte.

Conclusions

The conclusions related to this research study are presented below.

The virtual reality trained group performed better on accuracy than that of the

traditionally trained group. Accuracy by gender showed that there was a difference

between genders for accuracy scores between the virtual reality training and the

traditionally trained group. Both males and females performed better on accuracy from

the virtual reality group than males and females in the traditionally trained group. Males

in both groups also performed better than the females.

The virtually reality group performed faster as compared to the time of the

traditionally trained group. Gender was not a factor in the amount of time it took to

respond to the scenarios for either of the two groups.

The virtual reality training was more successful than the traditional training to

prepare the law enforcement neophyte to cognitively and accurately respond to

lifethreatening situations.

Implications

This study was conducted at a large law enforcement training center and hosted

by a law enforcement academy in central Florida; however, the findings of the study have

implications for providers of law enforcement training in other venues. All of the

participants in this study did not have any previous law enforcement experience and were

equal in their experience of law enforcement training where appropriate to the content.

The participants were selected at a given point in their training so that the impact of the

virtual reality could be measured as a training tool. Growing popularity in

technologybased training and the nationwide availability of virtual simulation reflects the

opportunities to develop the law enforcement neophyte skill-oriented learning beyond

that which has been available through traditional, non-interactive forms of training.

Administrators of adult education and law enforcement programs could use the results of

this study as a basis for designing curriculum, instructional techniques, and implementing

in-service training. The virtual interaction provided in this type of training can provide

the ability to not only enhance the neophyte’s skills, but identify weaknesses in the

individual and mitigate those deficiencies prior to the neophyte’s service in the

community. Relative to the cost of new technology, administrators may use the results of

this study as justification to pursue funding for interactive technology in the law

enforcement arena or even the adult education classroom.

Trainers and educators alike may use the results of this study to modify their

educational techniques to include the use of interactive formats. In addition to

identifying the cognitive memory and handgun accuracy development through the use of

virtual reality, this study examined virtual reality as a tool. Although outside the scope of

this research, the intent was not to replace human interaction from a professional

trainer/educator but to use the virtual interaction as a supplement to training techniques.

Virtual reality will provide visual and audible interaction that would address a gamut of

learning styles so that each learner would learn at a more accelerated rate and develop

long-term, deep-rooted memory. The virtual interaction identifies both the strengths and

weaknesses of the individual and allows for repetitiveness through the use of a simple

reset button. Through the use of interactive formats, the educator becomes a facilitator of

information, breaking away from the traditional lecture-based formats. The participants

become active in their learning process, have control of their learning, and understand the

immediate need to learn the decision-making process and the skill sets which are being

taught. In the law enforcement community, these decision-making processes and skills

sets are meant to save lives. The interaction of a visual scenario that may lead to a virtual

death provides the learner an opportunity to learn the ramifications of not making a

decision. It also provides the facilitator the means to support the learning message.

Outside the law enforcement profession, the results of this study may be used for

administrators and educators in several other professions. Some of these professions

have previously been identified as the medical field, aviation, the armed forces, and even

driving simulations that could enhance safety on the streets and highways. The

implications of cognitive memory as it relates to the development of thought processing

is a key component to many professionals who are required to make decisions that will

affect others as much as themselves.

Recommendations for Further Research

The primary research recommendation of this study is the need for continued

research in the field of technology-based learning for the law enforcement profession.

Although virtual reality training is available to 78% of law enforcement training

academies nationwide, only 58% reported that this tool was part of their facility (USDJ,

2005). There has been very little research that supports virtual reality as a law

enforcement training tool or its viability among the 78% of training academies. An

experimental design, incorporating law enforcement neophytes with no previous

experience was used, so that a measure of the tool itself could be achieved. It is

recommended that this study be used as a template for research related to experienced

law enforcement professionals in the form of in-service training.

The results of this study contained unexplainable differences in both the mean

accuracy scores and times. This study used a counterbalance technique in the scenario

administration where scenarios A, B, and C were not given to the participants in the same

order. The resulting mean accuracy score data by gender indicated increased accuracy

through scenario administration 2, but decreased at scenario administration 3. The mean

scores for accuracy by group also followed the same trend; increasing from scenario

administration 1 to 2, but decreased from scenario administration 2 to 3.

Data demonstrating the mean times by gender followed no explainable pattern.

Both genders ended scenario administration 1 with nearly identical mean times. The

male participants demonstrated longer response times from scenario administration 1 to

scenario administration 2. At the conclusion of scenario administration 3, the mean

scores indicated a role reversal with the male participants decreasing the response time

and the females time increasing. A mean time data comparison by group followed a

similar trend for the control group; increasing from scenario administration 1 to scenario

administration 2. A decrease in response time was noted, however, from scenario

administration 2 to scenario administration 3. Data representing mean response times for

the experimental group showed an increase in times from scenario administration 1 to 2

and then again to scenario administration 3. Although the mean response times for the

experimental group were lower than that of the control group this pattern is

unexplainable. Since this research study was being conducted in a learning environment

intended to train law enforcement officers, simple logic would conclude that adult

learning would be taking place during the transition from each scenario administration to

the other and decreased response times and increased accuracy scores would have been

noted by gender and group. As a result, it is recommended that a comparison of the

administration of scenarios A, B, and C be completed to determine if the unexplained

differences can be linked to the scenarios. This could assist in determining if additional

training is required/recommended for traffic stops, domestic violence encounters, or

dealing with the mentally disturbed.

This study used law enforcement neophytes so that an accurate measure of the

virtual reality tool could be measured. It is recommended that experienced officers be

subjected to the same or a similar experimental design to note any improvement to the

cognitive memory or handgun accuracy.

This study also contained a sample population that was provided by the host

institution. There was no control over the number of males and females. Although

females represented nearly 20% of the sample population, it is recommended that an

increased number of females be utilized to determine if gender differences between and

within groups are different.

The data collection took place in the central Florida area and represented a small

portion of the law enforcement community. Based on laws in effect from state to state, a

response continuum might fluctuate and create a different response. The study of virtual

reality in other parts of the country may be warranted to determine the effects of virtual

reality as compared to traditional formats of training in other locations. In a broader

spectrum, it would be advantageous to conduct this study in other countries where laws

and, moreover, the response to lethal encounters could be drastically different than those

within the United States.

The scenario administration within this study included a traffic stop, a domestic

violence situation, and a confrontation with a mentally disturbed individual. The setting

for the traffic stop was outside, similar to how a traffic stop would occur; however, the

domestic violence and mentally disturbed scenarios occurred indoors. It may also be

prudent to replicate this study using different scenarios and settings to determine if the

results are similar.

While analyzing the demographics of the participants, it was determined that

weapons training had occurred with some of the participants in other venues such as

hunter’s education programs, security training, and the United States military. It is a

recommendation for further research in these areas to determine the effects of virtual

reality or performance in other venues. Since virtual reality is a computer-based

program, the images could be altered to reflect the venue which they are targeting.

As discussed previously, this study was conducted with law enforcement neophytes

during six academy programs. A limited amount of time was available to conduct this

study so as not to disrupt the progress of the academic curriculum; therefore, only three

scenarios where used. It is a recommendation of this study to utilize additional scenarios

to determine if the results are similar under longer term training.

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