Tools to Promote Media Literacy
Some researchers have insisted that it is vital to provide students with a formal and all-
round education to master the know-how of social media use and comprehend the
complexity of the digital platforms (Jacobs et al., 2009).
Media literacy classes are crucial as they give students the opportunity to have an
illuminating insight into the workflow of news production, including the tools and
sources to distinguish misinformation from factual information in addition to the
importance of having trusted experts to provide them with a truthful and experienced
opinion about the news. On the other hand, general audiences likely gain limited
understanding of news passively through media socialization which relies on a long
cultivation process (Amazeen and Bucy, 2019) .
Other scholars emphasized that social and moral topics should be foregrounded by
developing media literacies to help youngsters stick to their personal beliefs and core
values and not blindly follow ideological manipulation (Scharrer and
Ramasubramanian, 2015). Media literacy is often perceived as a savior from the
potentially negative ramifications caused by the heavy use of new media in the absence
of conscious awareness of the digital environment. Consequently, both governments
and industries (corporate and media institutions) should work hand-in-hand to bring in
legislative regulation to put users on the right path. Additionally, it is essential to benefit
from experts’ insights regarding the digital natives’ changing attitudes and how the
social media world influences their dynamics on the ground (Sarwatay et al., 2021).
Several decades ago, journalists were the first to identify the issue of disinformation as
a side effect of the penny press era which engendered a drastic, positive change in the
gatekeeping process. Fact-checking departments emerged in media organizations in an
effort to promote transparency and earn a good reputation with audiences. Although the
nature of the media industry has changed over the years, the same goal still remains:
building accountability relationships with the audience. Likewise, at the start of the 20th
century, media practitioners served as stakeholders in honing audiences’ media literacy
skills and have been continuing to do so till today.
Before the emergence of social media, media institutions (newspapers and magazines)
were keen on stimulating fact-checking activities to enhance credibility and integrity.
Today, media organizations are burdened with considerable challenges as a result of the
endless flow of information that cannot be easily controlled and monitored.
Consequently, they need to intensify their efforts by introducing media literacy
programmes and interactive activities that involve all parties: reporters, media
institutions and audiences. These types of activities will help invest in young audiences
by equipping them to assess the quality of a given set of information and discern fake
news from real news (Igor and Stela, 2019). The top media organizations’ global media
literacy programs such as The Guardian Foundation’s Education Center, The New York
Times: The New Literacy Project, BBC My World
Media Literacy project, News LitCap with CNN Worldwide among few others.
Nonetheless, other media outlets typically play a minor role in media literacy projects
due, in part, to a shortage of resources and, in part, to a lack of focus (Cunliffe-Jones,
2018, p.34).
At the national level, in May 2021, Al-Masry Al-Youm (AMAY) news organization
dedicated a section named Al-Masry Fact which looks into the credibility of specific
topics that had been making the rounds. The spread of coronavirus was the trigger of
the section launch. However, later on, the website has expanded the areas of
investigations by digging into the transparency of uncertain claims going viral on
social media. Sometimes the paper interviews experts to clarify in detail the
inaccuracy of news, or cite reputable newspapers or academic papers to verify the
circulated news for readers.
Additionally, it is essential for researchers and media educators to carry out a more
active role in scrutinizing and putting forward educational or public initiatives that raise
audiences’ awareness about the trustworthiness of information disseminated on social
media platforms.
Media professionals also should utilize their social media accounts as channels to
educate their audiences. They could teach users how to grasp the tactics of news
production in a simplified manner and how to identify misinformation through reliable
sources. It is assumed that users who engage with journalists as a friend or even just
following their social media accounts as well as checking various news organizations
with different editorial policies on a regular basis will more easily comprehend the
proper news dissemination mechanism over time which could help determine, to a large
extent, credible stories (Chan et al., 2021).
Meanwhile, global social networking websites’, have also been raising awareness on
fake news and encouraging news verification over the past decade. In 2019, for
instance, Twitter joined forces with UNESCO to introduce a guidebook for schools to
sharpen school students’ media literacy skills (Cunliffe-Jones,2018, p.34). Furthermore,
Twitter has recently put in extra effort to reduce the prevalence of false information.
The microblogging, social networking service announced in December 2022 that it has
broadened its community fact-checking initiative known as Birdwatch. This move aims
to enhance the business's creative fact-checking approach through using clickable notes
to provide additional, relevant information about what users are reading. When
Birdwatch was introduced in 2021, some Twitter users could disprove false tweets by
adding notes to the content to explain the situation or cite reliable sources (Malik, 2022).
Regarding the Meta platforms, an American multinational technology conglomerate
owning Facebook, Instagram, and What’sApp, is currently teaming up with
independent fact-checkers who are accredited by the nonpartisan International Fact-
Checking Network to examine content in more than 60 languages while identifying,
categorizing, and labeling erroneous information (“Meta’s third-party fact-checking
program” n.d.). In addition, Facebook teamed up with fact-checking organizations in
an effort to set up a media literacy initiative measuring users’ online critical thinking
competency by posting a series of basic questions on the platform about the source and
reliability of information (Cunliffe-Jones, 2018, p.34).
Global Movement Toward Digital Media Literacy
Since 2011, UNESCO has been organizing the Global Media and Information Literacy
Week in an effort to empower people with media and information literacy skills to
confront the ubiquity of misleading information in the digital realm. UNESCO and
members of the UNESCO Media and Information Literacy Alliance are urging
countries from across the globe to organize forums, conferences, initiatives, and
campaigns annually to raise the awareness of the public about the risks of the pervasive
fake news stories and to help people get the most out of communication opportunities
in the digital sphere (“Global Media and Information,”
(n.d.).
The European Union (EU) also released an extensive, detailed study about the major
media literary projects that have been delivered in 28 European countries from 2010 till
2016. It provides invaluable insight into the media literacy infrastructure in the EU;
mainly focusing on 547 wide-scale projects that have proved to be impactful in fighting
the lack of media literacy. Skills associated with critical thinking are the dominant skills
across the projects in the academic paper followed by skills related to media use as well
as online safety and security. The majority of the target audience group for the projects
is teens and older students in the research (Luís et al., 2017).
The UNESCO University Twinning and Networking Program (UNITWIN) on Media
and Information Literacy and Intercultural Dialogue (MILID) is a well-known
illustration of international collaboration to foster media and information literacy.
UNESCO and the United Nations Alliance of Civilizations (UNAOC) were brought
together to launch MILID in 2011. The program was established in accordance with
UNESCO's mission serving as a powerful impetus to promote media and information
literacy globally, in addition to the UNAOC's commission to promote research that can
formulate policies on media and information literacy and bridge the gap between
countries and cultures. Moreover, one of the main roles of the network is to focus on
integrating MILID at all levels of the formal education system through innovative
approaches and support the same approach in respect to media production practices.
Eight universities and a plethora of associate universities work hand-in-hand to fulfill
the MILID’s goals namely Temple University, USA; Cairo University, Egypt;
Queensland University of Technology, Australia; Autonomous University of Barcelona,
Spain; the University of West Indies, Jamaica; Sidi Mohamed Bin
Abdellah University, Morocco and the University of São Paulo, Brazil: and Tsinghua
University, China (Carlsson & Culver, 2013).
Educators and commentators around the world have perceived the use of media literacy
as an essential tool to prevent users from the harms resulting from false information.
The United States has offered various programmes specialized in misinformation in
schools. These courses differ from one state to another, giving much attention to online
media literacy, notably digital literacy, digital citizenship and technological media
literacy among others (Huguet et al., 2019). It is noteworthy that Washington was the
first state to adopt legislation pertaining to media literacy in 2016, and subsequent
successes were achieved in 2017, 2019, 2021, and now in 2022 by devoting an annual
fund for the Media Literacy Grant Program (“Media literacy
Posters,” n.d.).
Governments across Europe have fostered media literacy education in schools for
decades, but more efforts have been exerted during the last decade. Finland, France,
Denmark and Greece have been among the most European Union countries that joined
forces with experts from fact-checking corporations to introduce innovative educational
modules. According to a 2022 report, considerable attention has been directed to the
importance of media literacy by the United Kingdom’s official communications
regulator OFCOM since 2003. In Latin America, schools have put emphasis on
fostering student’s digital search and digital skills but have neglected to embed
misinformation literacy in most school curricula. The same goes for India where themes
of misinformation literacy are not featured in most school curriculum. Media literacy
education is provided on a small scale in spite of growing demand for its inclusion
(Cunliffe-Jones, 2018, p.31-33).
Furthermore, there is a plethora of media literacy associations and organizations across
the globe that are combating the diffusion of fake news, for instance, Action for Media
Education which is keen to foster media literacy tools among different age groups with
special attention directed to teachers, parents and those who practice professions related
to children. Australian Media Literacy Alliance is an unincorporated association of
seven groups with closely related media literacy goals. Established in 2012, the Center
for Media and Information Literacy at Temple University's Klein College of Media and
Communication serves as a focal point for local, regional, national, and international
media literacy and information literacy research, education, and professional
development. The Center for Media Literacy is another educational institution that
offers leadership, community outreach, professional growth, and tools for evidence-
based teaching on a national and international scale. In an attempt to encourage critical
thinking on the social, political, and cultural effects of American mass media, the Media
Education Foundation (MEF) creates and disseminates documentaries and other
educational materials (“Media literacy,” n.d.).
On a regional level, Media Digital Literacy Academy of Beirut is one of the pioneers in
the Arab world that aims to promote media and digital literacy by offering the necessary
instruction, curricular, materials, and tools as well as inspiring teachers, students,
journalists and activists to implement what they have learned to their institutions. So
far, 40 Arab colleges and schools in 12 Arab nations have benefited from MDLAB's
introduction of media and digital literacy. Furthermore, the academy develops media
literacy training materials, which comprise programs and manuals with teaching
materials, multimedia, and research papers (“Our mission,” n.d.).
Moreover, Jordan Media Institute has been making tremendous efforts to boost young
people's abilities to create digital content and actively engage in their communities. It
is keen to engage civil society organizations to advance media and information literacy
in addition to carrying out public opinion and periodic surveys on the media literacy
level among Jordanians. It also provides a Master’s program directing considerable
attention to media literacy, aiming to uphold norms of international journalism whilst
taking into account particular aspects of Middle Eastern media landscape and culture
(“About Jordan Media Institute,” n.d.).
For its part, Egypt organizes annually The Alexandria Media Forum sponsors panel
discussions and training sessions offered by experts in combating misinformation and
propaganda, raising awareness against online fake news and other media-related issues.
The Association for Freedom of Thought and Expression, The American University in
Cairo, AMAY and Daily News Egypt are among the media organizations sponsoring
and hosting the discussion (Magdi, 2019).
Moreover, the American Center Cairo organizes training and workshops to raise
awareness about the importance of active media consumption and critical thinking. It
runs an intense, comprehensive media literacy series which sheds light on combating
fake news, protecting privacy on digital media platforms, sharpening smart research
skills, and counteracting media violence and cyberbullying (“Your gateway to
American culture,” n.d.) .
Gender Differences
Research revealed that gender is among the most significant indicators of online
information search behavior (Singer et al., 2012). Various empirical studies suggested
that males demonstrate greater competence than females when it comes to digital
literacy skills. This is applicable even when both men and women are provided with
equal access to computer devices (Geissler & Horridge, 1993). One of the factors
resulting in the digital literacy gap between males and females is each gender’s
discrepancy in the use of digital devices in their daily lives. While male students show
avid interest in information technology functions, female students are simply concerned
with how to employ technology. It has been found that boys enjoy spending a very long
time in front of their computers with no particular reason or motivation; they could kill
time by playing video games for hours or mess around with the computer to merely
discover its functions out of curiosity (Silver, 2001). On the flip side, traditionally,
females do not perceive digital use as an indispensable activity in their daily life; they
usually incline to engage in technology activity in their leisure time and are not
considered heavy users (Brosnan, 1998). It is important to note that despite the fact that
some of the latter studies were conducted a long time ago, the findings are still
applicable to today’s digital media skills. Based on a recent comparative study carried
out in Rawalpindi and Islamabad, it was found that girls utilize social networking sites
for educational objectives, but boys mostly use them for communication and online
chats (Ali et al., 2021).
Similarly, another research conducted in 2013 echoed the previously-mentioned results
stating that male students show a greater interest in using digital technology. The
International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS) reported that 57
percent of male students use a computer at least once daily whereas the percentage of
girls is lesser by 53 percent. A recent research showed that this gap will consequently
influence their level of skills and expertise. It suggested that the duration of use of
digital devices is an attribute to the higher digital literacy of male students than female
students.
The results of a 2014 study were broadly in line with previously-mentioned research;
in terms of students’ self-reported web knowledge, the data revealed a considerable
disparity between male and female students. Male participants were more familiar and
involved with technology than their female fellows. On the contrary, more females than
males engage in social media activities and are more tolerant to others’ opinions (Page
& Reynolds, 2014).
Other research also found that the males achieve higher levels of information and data
literacy in comparison to their counterparts, explaining that there was a vast difference
in the mean score between both genders (Liu T. & Sun H., 2012). However, female
students are more literate than male students when it comes to “browsing competence,
searching and filtering information.” Moreover, a study suggested that male
undergraduate students of Nigeria's Faculty of Education of Kogi State University
demonstrate broader knowledge about information and communications technology in
comparison to female undergraduate students. The research accordingly implies that the
gap in digital media literacy is a consequence of males feeling more comfortable and
having stronger self-efficacy when using technology compared to females (Maxwell &
Maxwell, 2014). These results seem to confirm the findings of another comparative
study conducted among Israeli students, which suggested that men are more familiar
with the crucial tools for hiding users' identities and protecting personal data on the Web
(Weinberger et al., 2017).
Gender difference is not limited to digital devices usage but also exists in social media
usage among young adults. Men’s primary motivation to navigate social media
platforms is entertainment whereas most women use social media for acquiring
information and developing academic knowledge. Males are obviously in contrast to
females regarding their social media motives. Establishing channels of communication
such as coming into contact with many different people via group chats and expanding
their social network is the main reason for men to use it. In contrast, educational and
information purposes were the major impetus for women to log into social media
(Mazman & Usluel, 2011, pp.133-139).
Geographic Locations
The center-periphery model, also known as the core-periphery model, is a geographic
metaphor that delineates and attempts to explain the structural relationship between a
developed or metropolitan "center" and a less developed "periphery," either within a
specific nation or (more commonly) as applied to the relationship between capitalist
and developing societies (Simon, 2011).
A book entitled The Deepening Divide: Inequality in the Information Society on the
digital divide reveals that inequality among people and their given positions, eventually,
result in unequal division of resources and disparate opportunities for digital technology
usage. “A particular job or position determines the actual opportunities for a worker to
get material access to the technology or to develop the motivation to use technology”
(van Dijk, 2005, p. 138).
A study conducted in Japan echoes the sentiment, suggesting that urban school students
excelled more in using legacy and new media, particularly in critical thinking and
functional skills than rural school students. (Hu, 2022).
Regarding digital social interactions, both rural and urban residents in Canada seemed
to give consistent answers; the responses indicated that both are conscious of how many
social media users frequently portray themselves in a positive light rather than sharing
negative news. Additionally, participants from different geographical locations said
that, despite how they resolve things differently, they are aware of how to deal with
online disagreements and respond to vile comments (Burkell & Saginur, 2015).
Furthermore, a study found that there is an enormous increase in the approach towards
digital media literacy among young people living in urban areas in Indonesia (Tri Atmi
et al., 2018). The paper focuses on the level of media literacy pertaining to different
social media sites, in particular. The findings show that the youth of today enjoy a
medium level of social media literacy in urban areas. It pinpoints, however, functional
skills and information acquisition are the most literacy competencies which youngsters
rapidly acquire. This is a result of the heavy usage of social media platforms which have
an aggregate effect on teenagers’ attitude and personality (Tri Atmi et al., 2018).
Meanwhile, the rural population of Latin America and the Caribbean is significantly
less digitally literate compared to urban populations in the same countries. Several
common features contribute to the limited digital literacy among the rural population
of Latin America and the Caribbean including the lack of basic prerequisite knowledge
of information and communication technology which would allow them to pick up
digital media skills. Additionally, the lack of educational opportunities and digital
devices hamper the possession of these technological competencies. Another factor is
that Internet access is usually not available and even if it is provided, infrastructure
obstacles bring about low quality of connectivity and at a high cost which the
underprivileged usually cannot afford (“Digital literacy in rural areas”, n.d.).
In India as well, there is a divergence between urban education and rural education
models, which, inevitably, call forth a gap of digital media literacy skills for school and
university students based in both areas.
Online platforms such as social media sites and applications have been largely
integrated into the tutoring approach in almost all urban areas’ educational institutions.
Conversely, there is a shortage of electronic devices, including laptops and computers,
for more than 40 percent of students in the backcountry. Moreover, students face
difficulty in accessing social media platforms to acquire information due to low network
speed (Kaur, 2021).
