SYSTEM APPROACHES
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
COM 450 - ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
WEEK 2
Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter the reader is expected to be able to:
1.
Apply theories of the systems approach.
2.
Analyze organizational communication issues.
3.
Solve organizational communication problems with a systems approach.
A.
Metaphor System and Concept System:
Metaphor is a way of thinking by using metaphors so that one can understand a problem
more easily. According to Gareth Morgan, there are four metaphors that can help to
understand organizations, namely:
1.
Machine Metaphor
It is a way of understanding organizations by taking the metaphor of an organization as a
machine. This metaphor has been around for a long time, since the era of industrialization,
about 300 years ago. A machine is designed to accomplish certain specific tasks. Likewise,
with the image of an organization, a leader must first understand what the company's goals
are, understand their duties and responsibilities, how to plan and supervise so that they can
work efficiently to achieve these goals. However, in reality, the machine metaphor is too
simple to describe an organization that is quite complex.
2.
Organism Metaphor:
Organisms are living systems that are highly susceptible to their surrounding
environment. To survive, it must be able to adapt to its surroundings. As a simple example,
how a camel can survive in the barren desert. It has to drink a lot of water and store it in its
body cavity. It can also eat thorny cactus trees without injuring its mouth, this is because the
specialized anatomy in its mouth allows it to chew on thorny plants.
There are several things related to the organization as an organism, namely: organization
as an open system, the process of organizational adaptation to the environment, factors that
affect organizational health and development, and the relationship between species in
ecology.
3.
Cultural Metaphors:
The cultural metaphor views organizations as having values, written and unwritten rules,
ideologies and habits that are embraced and understood by all members of the organization.
The organization is a social miniature, which has a unique culture that is different from other
organizations. However, this cultural metaphor will make it difficult to solve leadership
problems, because culture is very complex and not easy to control. In some cases, culture
tends to be static, making it difficult to adjust to changes in the environment.8
4.
Psychic Prison:
Organizations with a variety of rules, cultures, and customs can inhibit members from
developing their creativity. Endless daily routines cause sterility of mindset. This makes
organization members tend to be static and insensitive to change.
B.
Three Systems Theories:
1.
Cybernetic Systems Theory
The term cybernetics refers to the use of anything related to (cyber) technology. In
addition, experts working in this field believe that cybernetics can be classified as a science
that deals with information processing, decision-making, learning, adaptation, and
organization of individuals, groups, organizations, land and machines. It is not about
technology or sophistication, but about the system that runs within it.
Cybernetics is used to describe how feedback can enable communication processes.
Cybernetics is a theory of control systems based on communication or information transfer
between the system and the environment and between systems. Based on cybernetic theory,
psychologists compare the functional mechanisms of a person to those of an electronic
machine. This theory views the individual as a system that can control its own feedback,
otherwise known as self-regulating feedback.
This feedback control system, whether in humans or machines such as computers has
three functions namely:
a.
generates system movement/action towards a desired target (to achieve a specific desired
goal),
b.
compare the impact of his/her actions, whether or not they are in line with the proper
path/plan (detecting errors),
c.
utilizing mistakes to steer back to the way things should be (Husamah & Pantiwati, 2016, pp.
167-168).
From this it can be concluded that cybernetic theory is actually a theory that analogizes
the working mechanism of human thought (such as computational thinking).
2.
Karl Weick's Theory of Organizing:
Organization Theory according to Weick is a number of events that are intertwined
together, which take place in an area where the sequence of events forms an organizing
process. This organizing process produces an organization. The emphasis lies on activities
and processes. So it can be said that an organization is a system that adjusts and sustains itself
by reducing the uncertainty it faces.11
The role of people and their behavior is addressed in the discussion of behavioral theory
and systems theory. Behavior is distinguished from structure. Weick's theory states that
structure is characterized by organizing behavior. Communication does not reflect important
processes, but communication is the important process. People do not run the organization
but people are the organization.
The main goal of the organization is to reduce the ambiguity of the information
environment. Ambiguity refers to the uncertainty characteristic of an organization's
information environment. In a vague information environment, there are many interpretations
that can be used for a particular event. Example: "Go see the Boss" can contain many logical
or illogical meeting requests. According to Weick, reducing ambiguity - or making sense - is
at the core of organizational processes.
3.
New Science Systems Theory:
The world has changed, the deterioration of structures is evident everywhere. The old
ways of doing things no longer work. Rapidly evolving technology has permanently altered
the world in ways that are sometimes difficult for us to comprehend. We have entered a new
era characterized by the proliferation of information.
New scientific discoveries force us to re-examine many of our basic assumptions about
society and organizations. We are beginning to appreciate the complex dynamics involved in
the process of organizational stability and change. Some popular new theories including
systems theory, quantum physics, dissipative structures, and chaos theory.
New Science System Theory emphasized:
a.
The importance of relationships in organizations.
b.
The importance of participation in organizational processes.
c.
Appreciate organizational change and instability.
d.
The importance of being open to the information environment
It focuses on the arrangement of parts, the relationships between parts and the dynamics
of relationships that make up the overall concept of a very broad and complex system. Any
discussion of a system is about interdependence, which suggests that there are
interdependencies between the components or units of the system. A change in one
component causes a change in every other component.
C.
Methods for Studying Organizational Systems:
1.
Fusion Process: That the organization will influence the individual and the individual can
influence the organization. The organization is made up of members, each of whom is an
individual with a different character, and with different family, educational and previous
work backgrounds. Employees have organizational privileges, and each job is as unique as
the person who does it. After the merger, each employee looks like an organization and each
position in the organization is formed according to the individual's special interests.
2.
The concept of the connecting pin illustrates the dual role of a leader, he is the superior of the
team he leads as well as a subordinate of a higher structure, General Manager, Director, and
so on. He is both a leader and a subordinate.
3.
Managers must be able to fulfill their function as safety pins, binding one work group to
another at the next level.
4.
The connecting pin structure shows the relationship between groups.
5.
Organizations with a safety pin structure encourage an upward orientation rather than a
downward orientation; communication, supervisory influence, & goal achievement are
directed upward in the organization.
1.
Systems Theory According to Scott:
Scott says that an organization is a system. To study an organization is to view it as a
system. He argues that the essential parts of a system-like organization are the individuals
and personalities of each organization; the formal structure, interaction models, status and
role models that generate expectations and the physical work environment. So leadership
style is attached to roles, creates expectations and is an important part of the organization.14
The most important bonding process in this section is communication. The concept of
systems focuses on the parts and dynamic relationships that form a whole. Any discussion of
systems involves interdependence.
Interdependence indicates that there is interdependence between system components.
Changes to one component cause changes to every other component. Understanding the
concept of interdependence is an important part of the definition of systems and systems
theory (Pace and Faules, 2010: 63). The use of system theory is based on the dependence
between leaders and subordinates in terms of completing tasks, cooperation and other
activities.
It focuses on the arrangement of parts, the relationships between parts, and the dynamics
of those relationships that foster unity or form a whole. Such a system concept complex and
thus difficult to define. A simple definition will ignore the complexity and sophistication of
the concept, but a detailed explanation will create complexities that are not easily understood.
Any discussion of systems involves interdependence, which indicates that there is a
dependency between the components of a system. A change in one component brings about a
change in every other component.
2.
Four Systems Theory:
The four leadership styles proposed by Likert, better known as the four systems theory,
are:16
a.
Absolute ruler
This style is based on the assumptions of McGregor's Theory X. Leaders give employees
complete guidance and close supervision, believing that the best way to motivate employees
is to instill fear, threats, and punishment. There is very little interaction between superiors
and subordinates; all decisions come from the top and communication below consists only of
instructions and orders.
b.
Semi-absolute ruler
This style is basically authoritarian, although it still encourages and motivates subordinates to
participate in expressing opinions or input and complaints. Meanwhile, communication and
interaction between superiors and subordinates are carried out through formal or official
channels. It is very rare to communicate freely and frankly through infomal channels.
c.
Advisor
This style involves fairly frequent interaction at a personal level to a moderate degree,
between superiors and subordinates in the organization. Information travels both up and
down, but with less emphasis on ideas coming from the top. Leaders place great, though not
absolute trust and confidence in subordinates.
d.
Inviter
This style is very sporting, and aims to keep the organization running well through the real
participation of employees. Information flows in all directions, and control is exercised at
every level. People communicate freely, openly, and frankly almost without fear of
punishment. In general, the formal and informal communication systems are identical, and
this ensures the integration of personal goals and actual organizational goals.
3.
Managerial Grid (Blake & Mouton, 1964):
It is a tool for leadership style training for leaders in order to streamline & streamline,
and create worker satisfaction.
That leaders can be more effective if they pay more attention to "people" and
"production", which are then combined with "classic management" (production) and human
relations (people).
The Managerial Grid developed by Blake & Mouton helps to think about leadership style
and its effect on employee productivity and motivation. The Managerial Grid says that, if an
organization/company pays good attention to employees, it will reciprocate to high employee
concern for the company which will lead to high employee motivation. This will ultimately
increase productivity. Leadership styles are divided into five according to this theory,
namely:
a.
Inattention to people and results (Improverished Management)
This type of leadership pays little attention to people and results, tends to avoid problems and
does not care. Completely handing over tasks to subordinates, on the grounds of providing
freedom and independence to subordinates. Within certain limits this type will work, for
example in the short term.
b.
Attention to people, not attention to results, (Country Club Management)
The country club leader type is a leader who cannot 'clash' with others, including
subordinates. He wants to always be liked. Gives good attention to subordinates, the team is
compact but does not pay attention to the results. Control over tasks and results is weak,
resulting in low productivity.
c.
No Attention to people, attention to results (Authority- Compliance Management)
This type is only result and task oriented. Leaders with this style tend to be dictatorial and
authoritarian, paying little attention to subordinates. In some cases, this leadership style will
be effective and can provide good results, for example, when the company is at a crisis level.
But if done in the long run, it will backfire, many team members are not strong and choose to
resign.
d.
Attention to people and results (Team Management)
This type of leader is the ideal type of leader. Leaders with this leadership style emphasize
the achievement of tasks, but still give attention to subordinates. He succeeds combines
attention and support for the team and the organization's goals. Team members become
committed members, and are willing to take part in the success of the organization, caring
about achieving the tasks entrusted to them.
e.
Halfway, both on people and on results (Middle of the Road Management)
This leadership type has a leadership style that maintains a balance between the needs of
people and production. Leaders score average on both criteria. The amount of attention given
to results and people is forced to be always the same, so sometimes leaders find it difficult to
generalize between the two.
Practice Questions
1.
Explain what is meant by the machine metaphor in the understanding of organizations.
2.
Explain what is meant by the concept of safety pins in organizations.
3.
What is the process of fusion in organizations?
4.
Describe the 4 leadership styles according to Likert.
5.
Describe the Managerial Grid leadership model developed by Blake & Mouton.
CULTURAL APPROACHES
Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter the reader is expected to be able to:
1.
Apply theories of organizational culture approaches.
2.
Analyze organizational communication issues.
3.
Solve organizational communication problems with an organizational culture approach.
A.
Strong Culture Perspective and
Excellent Culture:
Every organization has a culture. Organizational culture is the hallmark of an
organization. Organizational culture can be weak and it can be strong. A weak organizational
culture makes employees have different orientations and loyalties, to superiors, to unions, and
only care about the work unit. Conversely, an organization that has strong cultural values will
have a major impact on organizational success. Every member of the organization is willing
to work hard with high loyalty to the company/organization.17
The organization will be a good place for members of the organization to work and create
and improve their abilities if the organization has strong cultural roots. There are 4 main
things that qualify an organization as having a strong culture:18
1.
Value
Values are the beliefs and views held by members of the organization. Every organization has
core values in acting and thinking that are used by every member of the organization in
achieving goals. These values include religious observance, slogans and so on.
2.
Hero
Someone whose presence in the organization is able to exemplify the values of the
organization.
3.
Procedures and rituals
These are routine activities carried out by the organization to commemorate its values.
4.
Cultural network
Is a communication network between members of the organization. Its function is to channel
and provide interpretation of information. Through this cultural network, the organization
expresses its cultural values.
B.
Some Approaches to Organizational Culture:
As mentioned in the previous subsection, organizational culture is closely related to the
success or failure of organizational performance, and organizational culture is perhaps the
most important determinant of successful organizational performance. But unfortunately,
most organizational actors do not recognize and understand the strategic role of
organizational culture.
The idea that an organization is determined by the culture of the organization or in other
words, the organization is culture gives rise to two approaches/perspectives, namely:
1.
Functionalist (objective) perspective
The functionalist approach highlights the communication process and sense making of
organizational members. For example, how members construct their organizational reality.
The stories/events in the organization, for interpretivists will be more interested in how the
stories are told. Who tells the stories, and what the stories mean to the members of the
organization.
2.
Interpretive (subjective) perspective
Functionalists consider rituals, values, practices, language repertoire as elements/variables
that make up organizational culture.
Deal & Kenedy (1982), if these elements are developed, they will drive business success.
Ideas: predictability, controllability, causality.
C.
Schein's Model of Organizational Culture
According to Schein (1992), culture is a pattern of basic assumptions discovered or
developed by a group when learning to solve existing problems, adapt to the external
environment, and integrate into the internal environment. The basic assumptions studied
proved to be very suitable for solving the problems presented. Therefore, understanding,
thinking about, and gaining a firm grasp of these things is taught to new members as the
correct way. 19
Schein (1992) also says that there is a strong relationship between culture and leadership.
The culture in the company is the result of the culture created by previous managers. Leaders
play a role in creating and changing the existing culture. But that does not mean that the
leader alone determines the culture in the organization. Culture and leadership are like two
sides of the same coin. When culture exists, it determines the leadership criteria that the
organization needs. On the other hand, leadership plays a role in managing the cultural
changes required by the changing environment. 20
1.
Artifacts
Artifacts are all human works that can be captured by the five senses, can be seen, heard, and
felt. Artifacts can be products, services, even human behavior. For example, a visitor can see
the pattern of employees behaving and acting, but the visitor cannot know what is happening
behind that behavior. Another example, When visitors come to a large company, they may
see that their office equipment is mediocre, but other companies have very neat office
equipment and very good and expensive equipment. The product is different from other
products in terms of packaging and quality. We see another example of a bank serving its
customers mediocre, but in another bank the service is extraordinary, every customer who
comes is offered drinks or sweets. Artifacts are the topmost layer of culture because they are
symbols that are given meaning and positively related to values.
2.
Handbook Values:
It is the quality of the results of the improvement process in work that is considered correct.
These guiding values are shared and create patterns of behavior and actions for all members
of the organization. Handbook values are the second layer below artifacts. At this level,
something that cannot be seen because it exists in the mind and can be realized by humans.
Core values are legitimized through interaction and make group cohesiveness a source of
identity and core mission. Schein says that some organizations have cultures that can trace
the espoused values back to the inventor of the culture.
3.
Basic Assumptions:
Assumptions are a belief or belief that is accepted and considered a reality by members of the
organization. This level shows that there is an assumption that an organization has at a certain
place and time in carrying out its activities. The essence of organizational culture is the
values, beliefs and assumptions resulting from a shared learning process since the founders
and early leaders of the organization that are shared as true values during the organization's
continuous success. A bank, for example has the assumption that the service strategy carried
out will be favored by its customers.
D.
Methods for Studying Organizational Culture:
Organizational culture does not seem to be easily understood by every member of the
organization. Organizational culture can be identified by organizational members in several
ways, as described by Robbins and Coulter below:22
1.
Story
Senior executives will tell stories to new and existing members of the organization about the
legacy of the company's values and culture. In some cases, it is a way of honoring people
who have done something valuable for the organization.
2.
Ritual
Every organization usually has its own style of rituals, and sometimes they take root and
become part of organizational life. A series of recurring activities that express and reinforce
the core values of the organization.
3.
Symbol or symbol of material
As well as uniforms, office layouts, types of cars provided, and other observable physical
characteristics are an important part of company culture.
4.
Language
Many organizations and organizational units use language to identify culture.
5.
Socialization:
Another way to learn about organizational culture is through socialization. Socialization
includes activities where organizational members learn the ins and outs of the organization
and learn how to interact and communicate with organizational members to carry out all
organizational functions. Therefore, organizations must be able to get employees, especially
new employees, to adapt to the organizational culture that guides them to work at their best.
The goals that organizational members want to achieve are:
a.
Establish a basic attitude, habits and values that can encourage cooperation, integrity and
communication within the organization.
b.
Introducing the organizational culture to the members of the organization.
c.
Increase employee engagement and innovativeness within the organization.
Practice Questions:
1.
Explain the meaning of Strong Culture and Excellent Culture.
2.
Explain what is meant by the functionalist (objective) perspective in the organizational
culture approach.
3.
What are artifacts in organizational culture? Explain.
4.
What is meant by customer values in organizational culture? Explain.
5.
Discuss with your peers what the purpose of organizational culture socialization is.
CRITICAL APPROACHES
Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter the reader is expected to be able to:
1.
Apply critical approach theories in organizations.
2.
Analyze organizational communication issues.
3.
Solving organizational communication problems with a critical approach.
A.
The Concept of Power and Its Implications in Organizational Life:
Definition of power:
1.
Power is the ability to use force and mobilize resources, energy and knowledge towards a
goal (Gbadamosi, 1996).
2.
Power is the possibility of someone being able to do their own will despite resistance (Max
Weber, 1947).
3.
Power is the ability of a person as a group to impose its will on others, despite preventive
opposition or through acts of disrespect or through punishment as severe as negative
sanctions (Blan, 1964).
4.
Power is a force that results in behavior that would not occur in the absence of the force
(Mechanic, 1962).
5.
Power is the ability of a person or group to influence the behavior of others, that is, to change
the probability that others will respond in a certain way to certain stimuli (Kaplan, 1964).
In an organization power is an invisible form of power, but its impact and influence can
be clearly felt. Power arises in relationships between people. According to Robert A Dahl in
an article, power is the ability of actor A to make actor B do what actor B from himself
actually does not want to do. Why would actor B want to do something that he himself does
not want to do? Because B sees A as someone who has power.
A leader often tells his team members to do or not to do something. Giving orders from
superiors means that the leader or leader has exercised his power in the organization.
Basically, power refers to the ability to make others do something they want.
The use of power by a leader has two impacts, namely positive impacts and negative
impacts. The effective exercise of power increases the motivation of subordinates to do a
good job, while the ineffective exercise of power by managers has a negative impact so that
work cannot be done properly.25
A leader can have five sources of power, namely:
1.
Reward Power
This type of power is power that uses rewards or rewards to make someone willing to do
something he wants, the power can be in the form of salary, rewards, bonuses, promotions,
praise, recognition or more attractive positions. However, this power also allows the leader to
delay rewards as punishment if subordinates do not act as ordered.
2.
Coercive Power
This power tends to use threats or punishments to make someone do whatever they want.
This coercive power is the opposite or negative side of rewarding power. A legitimate
example of not following instructions as instructed is issuing a letter of reprimand, salary
reduction, demotion and even dismissal or dismissal.
3.
Legitimizing Power
It is the basis of all power. This power comes from one's official position, whether in an
organization, bureaucracy or government. Legitimacy is power that comes from the
consequences of organizational hierarchy. People in this position are entitled and authorized
to give orders and instructions to his subordinates and his subordinates have an obligation to
carry out the instructions given. This power has two formal dimensions, namely the power to
reward and the power to coerce. A person who has legitimized power can give gifts to his/her
subordinates if they carry out orders well. Conversely, with legitimate power a leader can
force his subordinates to carry out his orders, and provide punishment for those who violate
them.
4.
Referent Power
This power comes from personal qualities that make the leader respected and admired.
Subordinates will show great respect and emulate their leaders. Referral power is power that
is obtained based on the admiration, exemplary, charisma and personality of a leader.
Whatever the leader orders will be obeyed and obeyed by his subordinates, sometimes even
the subordinates imitate the words of the leader with respect.
5.
Power of Expertise
This power comes from a person who has a certain technical expertise or skill that has such
expertise. This expertise does not belong to anyone else. A person with experience and some
expertise has power in the organization even if they are not a leader. This power is not related
to position in the organizational structure. This means that even though he is not a leader or a
leader, because of his expertise he is respected and trusted.
The ability to influence others is the essence of leadership. Basically, a person's power in a
company comes from the position or authority he has in the organization. Some experts
distinguish power into 2, namely:
a.
Formal Power
This is the power that is inherent or owned by someone because of his position in the
organization. the types of power that include this power are: no. 1 to 3 in the explanation
above are including formal power: the power of reward, the power of coercion and the power
of legitimacy.
b.
Personal Power
It is power that comes from a personal or private person and is not related to a position in the
organizational structure. Included in this power is No. 4 and No. 5, namely referral power and
expertise power.
a.
Coercive power: the power to apply the threat of physical sanctions.
b.
Remunerative power: power based on control over material resources and rewards.
c.
Normative power: power that can control symbolic rewards.
Structural Sources of Power:
a.
Knowledge as power
b.
Resources as power
c.
Decision making as a power
d.
Network as power
One of the most important tasks of a leader at all levels is to give equal authority and power
to his subordinates. To maintain organizational stability, subordinates must be given the same
means (power) as their rights (authority) to do the things needed to achieve organizational
goals. Regardless of the definition of power and wherever the source of power comes from,
every leader should strive to create a situation where legitimate power and enforceable
authority can be balanced at all levels of the organization.
B.
Theories and Concepts on Ideology and Hegemony:
a.
Ideology
Ideologies are attitudes that shape our thinking and guide our interpretation of reality.
Ideologies shape our understanding of things, what is good and what is possible. Ideologies
also include assumptions that are rarely questioned or examined. Ideologies shape our
worldview and can influence behavior, justify and legitimize actions.
b.
Hegemony
Hegemony refers to the process of a dominant group leading another group as subordinate.
Hegemony does not mean simple control, but represents a group's attempt to control another
group's system. Hegemonic control is achieved by shaping ideology in such a way that the
controlled group accepts and actively participates in the control process.
C.
Concertive Control Theory Approach:
In Organizational Communication
An organization or company has control or power over its daily operations. This is done
so that the activities carried out by the company are in accordance with the applicable rules.
The controls set by the company encourage all company employees, from superiors to
subordinates, to follow and comply with all regulations. This control is based on power,
because power always exists in organizations and cannot be avoided.
One form of control is concertive control. Consertive control is the use of inter-personal
relationships with an emphasis on team togetherness as a resource. Consertive control can be
described as a discipline that maintains order and consistency through power. This discipline
is created jointly, where each member of the organization works together to perform activities
that form the norm of discipline. 26
Concertive Control Theory is basically an unwritten rule that has been agreed upon from
time to time by all members of the organization. For example, an employee must work
outside office hours without overtime pay. No one will protest, even though this is not stated
in the work agreement, but because it has been going on from time to time it seems to be a
mutual agreement. This theory was developed by James Barker, George Cheney and Phil
Tompkins.
D.
Feminism Theory Approach in Organizational Communication:
The issue of feminism is one that remains popular and raises a variety of views including,
in organizational communication. Whether we realize it or not, organizations adopt more
patriarchal systems and cultures. Feminist observers believe that women in an organization
can be oppressed or marginalized in organizational life because of the dynamics of gender
relations that form a patriarchal organizational structure. In the organizational approach, it
seems that the most valued commodity is male characteristics, such as aggressiveness and
competitiveness, which are the most valuable assets.
Although in some organizations, especially in Indonesia, women have succeeded in
occupying important positions in private, social and even government organizations. The
strong commitment of the government, which continues to strive for women's representation
in organizations, has shown positive results in recent years.
The traditional view of organizational communication emphasizes competition between
employees in the organization, rational thinking, personal egoism and independence. The
feminist concept, however, disagrees with this traditional view. The feminist concept
emphasizes cooperation, cohesiveness and reciprocal relationships. Some feminist views,
such as liberal feminists, believe that the subjugation of women comes from the system and
women should work for a decent wage from male institutions and institutions. Radical
feminists believe that women's emancipation can only be achieved by breaking male
dominance or completely separating women from the organization. In addition, there are
feminists who strive to empower women's opportunities from various forms of
marginalization through courage to speak up so that their opinions are heard in community
dialogues Postmodern feminists want to reform the dominance of the "male" world system
from a female perspective. One example is sexual harassment. Sexual harassment shows the
power of men over women. There are still many women who do not want to talk about these
incidents and even consider this issue irrelevant to discuss or say it is just a
misunderstanding. This condition is concerning because women are not aware of what is
happening in the organization that they have become victims of the system.
Some schools of Feminist Theory:
1.
Liberal Feminism
This school of theory states that women are essentially equal to men and therefore should
have equal rights with men. The application of liberal feminist focus is the right of women to
control their own bodies.
2.
Radical Feminist
This school of theory assumes that women are an oppressed class, patriarchy is the root of
oppression, and violence against women is a tool of patriarchy to keep women subordinate. In
application, radical feminists focus on issues of violence against women, including sexual
harassment, rape, beatings, objectification, and prostitution, redefining acts such as sex
discrimination, and how men use power and control to maintain their dominant position in
the hierarchy.
3.
Socialist Feminist
It assumes that women are oppressed by capitalism and patriarchy, due to their relationship as
means of production and reproduction. In application, socialist feminists focus on women's
relationships, including unpaid work at home, childcare, and unequal pay in the workplace.
4.
Cultural Feminist
It assumes that women and men are fundamentally different and that many of the unique
qualities possessed by women are even superior to those inherent in men. In its application,
cultural feminism elevates women and their women's superior feminine qualities to end
violence in the world because they believe that women are naturally more passive than men.
5.
Postmodern Feminists
It critiques essentialist notions of women's categories and claims of objectivity, opposing the
binary categorization of male/female, seeing gender not only as a set of entities rather than a
binary, but also a performance and social construction.
6.
Global Feminists
This school of theory critiques imperialism (including Western feminist imperialism),
colonialism, neo-colonialism, and globalization while arguing for the right of women around
the world to define their own oppression and means of liberation. In application, women's
activities work from the bottom up rather than being imposed from above with a focus on
economic solutions such as micro-loans, an emphasis on girls' education and a focus on
ending violence against women, including ending international trafficking of women.
7.
Eco-feminism
It links the dominance of women to the dominance of the environment, including animals, as
women are seen as closer to nature, and both women and nature have traditionally been seen
as under the control of men. In application, Ecofeminists seek to end the subordination of
women and the environment, by challenging the hierarchies that traditionally place men
above women and humans above nature. The focus is on addressing environmental issues.
Practice Questions:
1.
Explain the definition of reward power.
2.
The definition of coercive power is clear.
3.
Explain the definition of legitimized power.
4.
Explain the difference between formal power and informal power.
5.
Discuss with your peers how feminism theory relates to organizational communication.
