BUREAUCRACY AND DISASTER RESPONSE: EFFICIENT
ORGANIZATIONAL MODELS FOR EFFECTIVE RISK
COMMUNICATION
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
COM 415 - RISK COMMUNICATION
WEEK 2
A.
Weber's Theory of Bureaucracy:
This theory was proposed by Max Weber in his book entitled The Protestant Ethic and
Spirit of Capitalism. The word bureaucracy originally comes from the word legal-rational.
Organizations are called rational in terms of goal setting and organizational planning to
achieve these goals. According to Weber, the bureaucratic form of organization is, by nature,
the most efficient form of organization. Weber suggests the following characteristics of
bureaucracy:
1.
Clear division of labor
2.
Well-defined hierarchy of authority
3.
Rational programs in achieving organizational goals
4.
Procedure system for handling work situations
5.
A system of rules covering the rights and duties of position holders.
6.
"Impersonal" interpersonal relationships So, bureaucracy is a normative organizational
model, which emphasizes structure in organizations. Elements of bureaucracy are still
found in many modern organizations that are Bureaucracy is a human organization that
is ideally structured. This bureaucracy is achieved through the establishment of rules,
structures, and processes within the organization (Kreps, 1986) recognizing that an
organization nature bureaucracy or Not based on its characteristics. According to Kreps
(1986), the characteristics of bureaucracy are as follows: The existence of standardized
rules, norms, and procedures regarding what is done in solving problems completing
tasks organization; Specialization of the roles of organizational members according to
the division of labor; Formal hierarchy of organizational authority; Employee jobs are
qualified based on technical competence and the ability to do one's job; Interpersonal
relationships among organizational members are professional and personal; Detailed
job descriptions must be given to organizational members which are guidelines in
carrying out duties and responsibilities; Rationality and the possibility of predicting
organizational activities and completion of goals. In addition to these certain
characteristics of bureaucracy, bureaucracy also has elements that are key.
Keit Devis (Goldhaber, 1986) suggests four elements of bureaucracy, namely the
existence of high job specialization, a rigid hierarchy of authority, detailed rules and controls
and impersonality.
Weber defines an organization as a system of interpersonal activities with a specific
purpose designed to harmonize individual tasks (Littlejohn & Foss, 2009). According to
Weber, the principles in bureaucracy theory include the following; First is Authority which
means legitimate power. In organizations, authority must be formally authorized by the
organization. Organizations that have a hierarchical structure as a form of official rational
authority will produce organizational effectiveness. The top position of the hierarchy is the
head of the organization who has been legally elected. It is the head of the organization who
has the authority to coordinate; Second is Specialization, degree development and division of
tasks are examples of specialization. A large organization will have several departments or
divisions that have their respective tupoksi (main tasks and functions); Third is demand,
coordination rules in the organization must be carried out based on rules that are made
rationally. Rules are made to help achieve organizational goals.
B.
Disaster Communication:
Given that Indonesia is a disaster-prone area, disaster mitigation is needed. According to
Article 1 Paragraph 6 of Government Regulation No. 21 of 2008 concerning the
Implementation of Disaster Management, disaster mitigation is a series of efforts to reduce
disaster risks, both through physical development and awareness and improvement of the
ability to face disaster threats. Effective disaster mitigation involves the active role of the
community in disaster-prone areas. the role of the community can be realized through disaster
communication, Both between the community and the government, the government and the
government, community groups and other communities.
Disaster communication in general is the process of sending and receiving messages or
actions. Communication also requires the participation and cooperation of the actors involved
so that in communication activities there is the same point of attention to the topic being
discussed (Wardhani, 2011). In relation to disasters, communication can function as a social
radar that gives certainty to other parties about the existence of a disaster in a place. The
intended social radar, which radiates information to various parties for disaster risk reduction.
The purpose of Disaster Communication is to provide information and invite the community
to be prepared for disasters and reduce disaster risk. The benefits of Disaster Communication,
namely realizing a disaster resilient community.
Communication is dedicated to pre-disaster activities that include preparedness, early
warning and mitigation. Communication provides information to the public about the
necessary preparedness and preparations to be made when a disaster occurs. All of this is
aimed at reducing the number of survivors and property losses to a minimum. Disaster
management efforts must begin long before a disaster occurs because anticipation as early as
possible will be able to reduce the number of losses of life and material. When disaster
management efforts can be carried out as early as possible, it is hoped that attitudes, actions
and behaviors will emerge that emphasize awareness and increase human capabilities in
facing disaster threats. Various communication efforts Disasters are beneficial for realizing
disaster resilient communities.
C.
Communicating Tsunami Risk:
Risk communication is a process, not just a product. To make communities more
resilient, messaging strategies for hazardous events should draw on knowledge from the
social, behavioral and economic sciences, especially research on risk communication and
behavior. This field of study explains and predicts how people receive, share, understand and
respond to information about risk. When weather forecasters or coastal managers encounter
situations where their messages do not lead to desired actions, they often turn to social
scientists to help improve the products they put out. Products such as warnings, evacuation
directions, etc. are key components of weather risk communication. The U.S Department of
Commerce's NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrartion) and social
scientists can provide useful input for product improvement. However, there is more focus on
the many actions that take place outside of product creation. These actions include
relationships built with community partners, emergency management and broadcast
meteorologists long before a specific event or product is released, and are all part of the risk
communication process. Communication strategies for hazardous events should draw on
social science to effectively communicate risk.
NOAA practitioners can use currently known best practices to help guide efforts risk
communication. These practices can improve understanding of at-risk audiences, their
concerns, and their values, resulting in more effective interactions that help them recognize
risks and identify actions to minimize those risks.
Whether forming partnerships, planning stakeholder engagement activities, developing
outreach materials, creating new products in response to stakeholder or partner needs, or
simply having a chat, these best practices can be used to increase the effectiveness of these
efforts. They can be applied at all stages of the risk communication process. The result is
more effective engagement with different groups of stakeholders and partners. These best
practices are not hazard-specific, but cover all hazards. The following are steps in Tsunami
risk communication:
1.
Have an informed plan, know what needs to be achieved and how to achieve it before
embarking on risk communication efforts. For example, starting from having a clear
goal of trying to change behavior or seeking action, understanding the audience as they
are a diverse group with different values and concerns and different filters that
influence what they hear. Knowing who is talking about risk, people reach conclusions
based on what they know and hear. Understand what they hear from other sources and
determine if the messages are consistent. Develop and deliver the right messages such
as what is said, how it is said, and how it is conveyed important to convey as well as
consistency and resilience. What is said, from the words, the way the hazard is talked
about, including what is done should have the following characteristics: be specific,
consistent, clear and accurate, use simple language, meet the needs of the media and
other emergency partners, explain the protective actions to be taken and how they will
benefit the audience, describe the hazard including its location and timing, disclose the
source of information, provide options for further information, the manner of
communication (style, tone, attitude), speak clearly and empathetically, be honest and
open, use a confident tone. Be consistent with the information in the message and
consistency is essential both within the office and with others talking to the audience as
inconsistent information is often ignored.
2.
Speak to the audience's interests rather than just the organization's as this can create an
emotional connection to the audience's values and concerns to help improve efforts in
risk communication. Find out what is important to the audience and connect with their
values and concerns. Be a good listener and provide opportunities for the audience to be
heard and pay close attention to their concerns. Understand how they interpret and
respond to risk information. Identify barriers to action. Start a dialogue because risk
communication is not a one-time thing so adjust the conversation accordingly future
based on what is learned during each conversation and this becomes important to the
audience. Build trust by being a trusted messenger and partner and be honest about
what is known and unknown to build trust. Consider the socio-demographic and
economic context of the message recipients, understand the needs and circumstances of
those who are most vulnerable (e.g. those with limited mobility, those whose primary
language is not Bahasa Indonesia e.g. still using local languages, those with weak social
networks or without adequate financial or physical means to take action).
3.
Explain the risks in a way that is clear and appropriate for the audience, for example by
using personalized stories and visuals and help the audience understand the impacts and
dangers. Starting with impacts, describe the impacts that will occur in their community
using graphics and visuals. Refer to past events and use maps that are easy to
understand and interpret when necessary. Allow the audience to share experiences
starting with each audience member can help explain the risks and other community
members will understand more by sharing local stories. Be open about the unknown
and start with what is known and avoid the term "uncertainty" but do not avoid the
concept. Do not use scare tactics as they usually do not work, so only use them if the
situation really calls for it. People have concerns that limited and will shut down if they
feel there is nothing they can do to help the situation.
4.
Offer options to reduce risks such as facilitating conversations to identify barriers to
action. Offer options that address these barriers and are appropriate to the local
situation. Describe some options and provide guidance on them and explain how they
benefit the audience. Offer choices at the individual and community level, empowering
citizens to take responsibility for themselves while also building resilient communities.
Involve the audience in planning, from emergency planning in the smallest groups to
formal community-level planning and preferably before it is needed. Allow
stakeholders to discuss options.
5.
Working with trusted sources and communities, people seek confirmation from multiple
trusted sources to verify risks and help them make decisions on what if any action to
take. Engage with audiences regularly and learn their audience needs upfront. Modify
communications to meet those needs. Identify trusted sources of information and know
who the audience is listening to. Find opinion leaders and early adopters in the audience
community. Building partnerships with trusted sources and working with a variety of
partners including faith-based and community organizations and social networks will
increase the chances that the same message will reach the audience from trusted
sources. Working together to create consistent information sharing, multiple
messengers are essential to provide a consistent message.
6.
Evaluate the results of the communication effort in terms of the message. Get audience
feedback, options for gathering feedback can vary widely from asking a few target
audience members for their opinions to conducting a formal survey or evaluation.
Asking questions that provide useful feedback such as open-ended questions that ask
for feedback from audience members in their own words works well. Pay attention to
how the audience responds to the information and ask them to share their reactions.
Learn what the outcome of the communication was. Be willing to make changes, test
draft materials while there is still time to adjust. Make improvements to the process
before the next communication, small changes can dramatically increase effectiveness.
7.
Use different ways to communicate, people like to receive information in different
ways. Understand how the audience likes to receive information about hazards. Use the
audience's preferred medium and deliver the message in the preferred format. Do not
underestimate the use of television and social media as sources. Use newer technologies
such as social media and continue to monitor changing preferences. Use multiple
mechanisms and formats, the audience needs to hear the message multiple times.
Multiple formats will increase the chances of reaching the audience. Make sure the
message is compatible with the medium used, change the message to suit the medium
and be relevant yet consistent.
EMERGENCY RISK COMMUNICATION FEATURES
A.
Risk Communication Planning:
For communicating about natural hazards, risk communication research provides
valuable insights into how people create and spread ideas about the threat of natural hazards,
and how communicators can shape those ideas. Risk is not the same as hazard, risk is defined
as the hazard multiplied by the likelihood of occurrence. Each risk has its own unique
characteristics, such as whether the situation can be controlled, whether the audience fears the
risk, and so on. These characteristics color how the risk is perceived. Risk is personal and
often subjective. What one person perceives as a risk, another may not. The National
Research Council (NRC) defines risk communication as "an interactive process of
exchanging information and opinions among individuals, groups, and institutions. It involves
multiple messages about the nature of risk and other messages, not strictly about risk, that
express concerns, opinions, or reactions to risk messages or legal or institutional
arrangements for risk management." This definition highlights some important aspects of risk
communication; most importantly, that risk communication is a process rather than a single
product or service. This process can be defined in several stages.
The risk communication process begins well before a specific event, in the "pre-crisis"
phase. This is when NOAA practitioners can strengthen relationships with their communities
and build trust, support mitigation and adaptation planning, and improve the information
dissemination chain. As an event approaches (e.g., a hurricane gets closer to shore),
communities move into the early crisis phase. This is when most of the short-term weather
forecast information including outlook information, observations, and warnings are available
that are delivered and used for preparatory decision-making. Communication during this
period is critical and unique enough that an entire sub-field-crisis communication-is within
the field of risk communication. At this time, clear and timely messages aimed at providing
sufficient information for decision-making are essential. Messaging is more fully explored in
the behavioral response section that describes the warning response process. The maintenance
phase, most applicable to long-term hazards, occurs when the crisis is ongoing and
information must be updated for use by decision-makers.
Finally, in the resolution and evaluation phase, events are examined to understand how
the communication system performed, and recommendations are made to improve the system
for better results.32 For any effort to be effective, a certain amount of planning is required. To
plan a risk communication effort, whether a one-off message or multiple messages to multiple
audiences over a longer period of time, it is necessary to determine the intent and purpose,
analyze the audience, develop the message, determine appropriate methods, set a schedule,
and pull all these pieces together into a comprehensive plan. Having a risk communication
plan can help focus efforts to keep everyone involved in assessing, communicating and
managing risks informed so they can work together as a team.
1.
Define Objectives:
Two variables to be considered in communicating risk are why communicate risk
and what is to be gained from it. The objective is a general statement. It answers the
question why communicate, why educate this group, why try to build consensus, the
objective is a statement of specific, measurable details that must be achieved. Objectives
often answer "how" questions such as how will communicate? how often will
communicate? how many messages will be used? for example, if the objective is to
reduce teenage smoking, one objective might be to get 50% of the audience to quit
smoking by June 15. After determining the goals and objectives, formalize them by
writing them down and by getting approval from all those involved in the project as
much as possible within the organization.
This formal agreement can help communicate risk more effectively as the two
variables to consider in communicating risk are why communicate risk and what is to be
gained from it e.g. giving everyone a common ground to build on, telling upper
management why to do what is being done, providing benchmarks to measure success.
When defining goals and objectives, a number of factors must be considered. The aims
and objectives may at first seem obvious such as communicating to provide the audience
with the information they need to make decisions about risks to their health or safety or
the risk to their health or safety environment. However, the aims and objectives are
certainly influenced by a number of factors, including legal issues, the requirements of
the risk organization itself and the requirements of the audience. These factors must be
consciously considered in determining the aims and objectives or it may find itself in
conflict with something that could seriously undermine the entire effort. For example, if
the intent and purpose of a risk communication effort on an internet site conflicts with the
communication requirements for these sites mandated by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, then the organization will be liable for any financial penalties
established.
2.
Developing the Message:
When conveying risk-related information, it is often helpful to develop key messages
as part of the planning process. Messages help focus all communication participants on
the most important information and how to deliver it. In treatment communication,
messages usually convey the essential nature of a risk and what people can do to avoid or
reduce it. In consensus communication, a stakeholder group may want to develop its own
message when recommending policies or actions to be taken by decision makers. In crisis
communication, making all organizational participants aware of key messages even if
they evolve during a crisis can make recovery actions more effective, reduce confusion,
and increase organizational credibility. In a crisis, key messages are especially important
for media spokespersons and those staffing telephone hotlines.
Message development in risk communication is not the same as developing a catchy
slogan in an advertising campaign. Message development is not manipulative, nor is it a
substitute for audience analysis or public participation. The point is not to try to bombard
people with what they think they should know, but to understand what they want and
need to know and address those things in a clear and concise way. As public health
researchers in the UK have found, the idea is to state risk information in a way that
supports continuous sharing on all sides (Bennett and Calman, 1999).
3.
Face-to-Face Communication:
Face-to-face communication involves a person speaking directly to an audience or
listening as the audience speaks. Usually the audience and speaker do not interact, except
perhaps to ask questions. Examples include one-on-one discussions such as between
doctors and patients or between employees; presentations to clubs, societies, and citizens'
groups, either as a solo speaker or as part of a speakers' bureau; talks in educational
settings such as elementary schools, college classes, or training courses; tours and
demonstrations; video audience interviews; and information displays. Face-to-face
communication has the advantage of having an identifiable human representative of the
organization or another credible person presenting the risk information, thus
personalizing it. Of course, if the presenter does not have credibility, the presentation can
be has a negative effect. Face-to-face communication generally offers the opportunity for
immediate audience feedback, if not through questions then through visible audience
reactions to particular statements. Some audience analysis information is generally
available in advance to the presenter who can ask questions of the person organizing or
hosting the presentation, allowing each presentation to be customized. The group may be
targeted to receive an oral message, whereas it may not know if the person to whom a
written message is sent has ever read it. Face-to-face communication can also be
presented in the language of the audience. So, if the goal is to present information in a
forum that allows for immediate feedback and to target specific groups, face-to-face
communication may be the best option.
On the other hand, face-to-face messages can also be easily misunderstood.
Audiences may be too overwhelmed or hostile to ask questions that will clarify
misunderstandings. Especially angry audiences can turn presentations into politics and
generally refuse to listen. An oral presentation alone also gives the audience nothing to
refer to later. So, if you have a very angry audience, or an audience that needs long-term
information, face-to-face communication may not be satisfactory or sufficient. Face-to-
face communication can fit into almost any schedule. To disseminate information
quickly, press conferences or radio announcements are quite useful for long-term efforts,
a series of Ongoing presentations to various organizations and the public may serve to
reinforce the message and keep the audience up to date. Another way to strengthen face-
to-face communication is to encourage engaged professionals to disseminate risk
information to their at-risk clients.
Advanced technical knowledge is usually required to convincingly present oral risk
information. However, the ability to speak in a way that is both entertaining and
informative is also necessary. No matter how well educated, an expert who struggles to
speak in front of groups is a poor choice for a spokesperson. So is a professional
speechmaker with only superficial knowledge of the risks. The best person to present oral
risk information is one who will be trusted by the audience and who is held accountable
by the organization for communicating the risks and is acceptable as a representative of
the organization by the public.
4.
Working with Mass Media:
Mass media methods typically involve using sources such as television, newspapers,
radio, magazines and the internet to communicate risk information to a wide audience.
Such sources can be powerful because they reach a large audience and can be
remembered and trusted by many people. Television, radio and the internet are
particularly useful sources in crisis communication situations where people need
information updated quickly. The main weakness of mass media is that media sources
control the content and timing of news stories. Due to time and space constraints and the
mission of media organizations, stories aired or published on risk-related issues may not
contain the emphasis or depth of information that those communicating risk would like to
see. As such, the media should not be relied upon as the sole source of information in
planning risk communication efforts. Because of their wide reach and powerful impact,
the use of mass media should be carefully considered as risk communication plans are
being prepared. Even a small amount of negative coverage can derail the best-planned
efforts and destroy trust and credibility among the audiences and participants it is trying
to reach. On the other hand, productive relationships with media representatives can
result in a more informed and solution-oriented public. Timelines for planning and
implementing media and product interactions can vary widely. On the one hand, it may
only take half an hour to talk to a reporter about a particular topic and perhaps follow up
by sending out background material. In a crisis situation it will be working within a short
timeframe to prevent or mitigate the problem. The time involved in a crisis
communication situation can be driven in part by a series of steps defined in company
procedures. The unplanned nature of a crisis, however, can make time unpredictable.
Media follow-up after a crisis event, especially if an organization is perceived to have
mishandled the situation, may require more time with the media to engage as well as
dealing with the actual crisis.
Formal events such as press conferences may require several days to planned and
coordinated. Working cooperatively with local newspapers to communicate issues
affecting the community can take weeks or months. Creating media messages for a
campaign for the community usually requires weeks or months of coordination and
production. Developing a mutually productive working relationship with journalists is an
ongoing effort for many organizations. While this means vigilantly contacting media
representatives to update them on the latest news or to suggest story ideas in a timely
manner, the quality of the resulting media coverage is often worth the time involved.
Many organizations require approval from internal management when employees work
with external media professionals. When planning interactions with the media, allow
appropriate time for approval and review of any information material that has been
planned to be provided to the media. Additional time is likely to be required to source or
revise materials to make them suitable for specific media. For example, newspapers may
want photographs of people rather than technical illustrations. Television reporters may
ask if high quality video clips can be provided or ask to be recording their own
recordings.
Several types of costs are involved in media interaction, depending on the type and
duration of the activity. The first is labor costs. Often, a specialist trained in media
relations is required to plan and coordinate, including creating a media plan. There is also
the time of those who speak with media representatives. Production costs are required to
create materials such as press releases, press kits, advertisements and public notices,
photographs, and video footage. Formal events such as press conferences may require the
rental of meeting rooms and equipment. Working with the media does not have to be
expensive. Even a small organization can communicate important risk information to
thousands of audiences through a single radio, television, or newspaper interview, in just
the few minutes it takes to speak with a reporter. The key in budgeting for media
interactions, as in any other type of communication activity, is to define goals and target
specific activities to achieve them. Media specialists or consultants can help find the
greatest value within a defined budget.
Those who communicate directly with media representatives should at least have
basic technical knowledge of the risk situation so that they can answer technical
questions accurately and credibly. However, equally important is an understanding of the
media organization and the ability to use language that will be understood by the
audience of the media. Those producing materials for media use must have the
professional skills necessary to create a high-quality product appropriate to the target
audience of the media. A person who understands the subject matter must be able to
describe it clearly in order for it to be accurate material.
5.
Stakeholder Participation:
Stakeholder participation involves audiences in some way in the discussion, analysis,
or management of risks. Examples include advisory committees, facilitated deliberation,
alternative dispute resolution, interest groups, community-operated environmental
monitoring, and formal hearings where audiences are invited to provide testimony. The
advantage of stakeholder participation is that audiences can see for themselves exactly
what is known about the risk, how the risk will be managed, and how decisions are made.
Because they can participate in risk decisions, it is likely to be more acceptable and
lasting. Stakeholder participation can be structured to accommodate a variety of
audiences, including those who are hostile or have difficulty reading or understanding
other forms of communication. If one of the goals is to increase the chances that the risk
decision will meet the needs of the audience, stakeholder participation may be the best
option.
However, stakeholder participation can be a scary proposition for some risk
managers. They fear losing control over risk decisions, instead of seeing that audience
input can be invaluable for fair and sustainable decisions. If there is no commitment to
stakeholder participation from those analyzing risk, managing risk, or making decisions,
the effort can undermine the credibility of the organization and hamper efforts
communication or risk management in the future. Stakeholder participation is generally
more expensive than simply publishing a technical report or holding a press conference.
Stakeholder participation is usually a long-term proposition. Unless an interaction
structure is already functioning such as an advisory committee, one cannot be put in
place quickly enough to release urgent information. Stakeholder participation can usually
only be used effectively when risk management and risk communication efforts will
occur over time. Little technical knowledge of risk is required to organize stakeholder
participation but technical and management staff must participate for the interaction to
have meaning. In addition, knowledge of stakeholder participation is required to
effectively structure the interaction. Groups such as the International Association for
Public Participation are developing to develop and disseminate information on
stakeholder participation.
6.
Communication Technology Support:
Technologically-assisted communication is often computer-based to discuss or
disseminate risk information, or allow audience members to query and receive various
information about risks. For example, one software application allows audience members
to evaluate a number of factors to help experts identify more publicly acceptable
technologies for cleaning up landfills. Technology-assisted communication has the
advantage of being able to disseminate a tremendous amount of information, which
audience members can tailor to their individual needs. This appeals especially to
"technophiles", those among us who always have to have the latest toys and gadgets that
technology has to offer. Once developed, technology-assisted communication can be
updated and revised more easily than material developed through other risk
communication methods so that it is always current, a plus in a risk field that can change
hourly.
If the graphical elements are built correctly, an app can be as attractive as an
advertisement or a full-color display, yet carry as much information as traditional
informational material or even more. Speech, video, animation and other multimedia
elements can be combined, making an app very versatile. So, if the goal is to allow
people to see all the data and develop their own perceptions of risk, to disseminate
information quickly, or to engage an audience cost-effectively, communications
technology-assisted communication is a good option. However, technology-assisted
communication has some disadvantages. Applications that must be run on a fairly
sophisticated computer make mass dissemination impractical. In addition, the use of
computers in some areas is still uneven, making it difficult to reach all audiences with
computer-based applications. So it cannot rely on technology-assisted communication as
the main method.
Technology-assisted communication is getting easier every day. However, some
applications still cannot be developed in time to meet short-term schedule goals.
Moreover, unlike information materials that will eventually run out, applications must
also be constantly updated or the audience will lose interest. Some applications, such as
websites, require relatively little technical computer knowledge to develop. Depending
on the purpose of the site, a little risk information may also be required, for example,
setting up a computer bulletin board to incorporate stakeholder comments on an
environmental impact statement. However, computer applications that incorporate risk
modeling require a great deal of technical knowledge, not only about risk but also about
the application. Often, such models are developed by teams, with each member
specializing in a particular area such as technical communication, computer
programming, and risk assessment.
7.
Social Media:
Social media involves using the Internet to share opinions, thoughts and other
information through text, graphics, and videos on risks that the audience deems relevant.
For example, teens facing diabetes can join social media networking groups to share diet
and exercise tips and support each other in achieving health goals. Using social media to
communicate risks has several advantages. Because audiences choose to engage in
conversations about risk, their level of interest is high, and for care and crisis
communication, that interest might translate into a willingness to change behaviors that
improve health and safety. Social media also has an expectation on the part of the
audience that it will happen soon. Information can be posted quickly and updated as
needed. Feedback is also instant, and changes in opinion, as measured by conversation
topics, are relatively easy to track over time. So, if the goal is to engage the audience in
conversation and to determine how their perceptions are changing, then social media can
be a good choice. While many praise social media as the perfect mechanism for sharing
information, it does have some drawbacks. Viewers generally have to find an
organization's page or profile, and research has not confirmed whether those on social
media are actually looking for health and safety information there. Audiences also have a
growing expectation that a page is always active. This means that if an organization has a
presence on a social media site, someone will always be available to answer questions or
engage in conversation. On the other hand, not everyone can access social media, and
demographics Certain organizations are less likely to use social media. In addition, the
fact that information is in the control of the audience may concern some organizations
responsible for communication risks. So, if the audience is not looking for information
about an organization's risks on social media or the organization is unwilling to commit
to the medium, then social media may be a poor choice.
Social media seems so easy. Most accounts can be set up in minutes. But extra time
is needed before joining a site to ensure that organizational policies and procedures are in
place to sustain the effort. In addition, social media requires daily supervision, and once
it begins activation there may be an expectation from the audience that it will always be
available 24 hours. Little technical knowledge is required to interact with audiences on
social media but being able to leverage a wealth of information from multiple disciplines
can go a long way to answering audience questions and positioning the organization as
an expert on the risk at hand. Also, not everyone is comfortable representing their
organization on social media. Poor social media skills will soon become apparent by not
providing quick feedback to the audience.
B.
Emergency Risk Communication Features and Criteria:
Risk communication is divided into care, consensus, and crisis communication. The
paradigm is based on a number of factors such as agreement on the magnitude of the risk
between scientific experts and those at risk, the level and type of engagement of the audience
or participants, and the urgency of the risk. Circumstances An emergency is traditionally
defined as a sudden or unexpected situation that requires immediate action. Emergencies are
random, often do not follow a predictable process, and are unexpected. Examples of recent
emergencies include disease outbreaks (Covid-19; pandemic flu; botulism; severe acute
respiratory syndrome or SARS; West Nile Virus), terrorism-related events and include natural
disasters such as earthquakes and Tsunamis. Risk communicators have long dealt with crises
such as industrial accidents and routine disease outbreaks (flu season, measles). Indeed, crisis
communication, as the paradigm implies is a distinct branch of risk communication, with its
own strategies and tactics. Sometimes, the principles, strategies and tactics of communication
in emergencies fit within the boundaries of crisis, concern and even consensus
communication. Nevertheless, those who communicate risk must understand the unique
characteristics or hallmarks of emergency risk communication as well as tsunami natural
disaster management so that they can plan for the unexpected and communicate before,
during and after an emergency. The following are the characteristics and criteria of
Emergency Risk Communication:
First, there is purpose. Communicators should explain, put in context, correct
misperceptions, provide action options, empower people to make decisions, move people to
recovery, and help them reach new levels of readiness. In practice, then, appropriate crisis
care and communication principles can be used.
Second, there is a sense of urgency and a rapid rate of change. Decisions must be made
within a narrow time frame, with uncertain outcomes, to mitigate unknown risks and to
recover quickly from events that are still unfolding. So in practice recognize that
communications may be confusing, contradictory, and subject to change as events unfold so
that early planning can reduce confusion.
Third, logistics will be disrupted. Normal or pre-planned communication channels and
measures may not be available, such as electrical power, mobile phones, Internet connections,
and transportation to the scene. So use pre-planning and be flexible during a disaster to
identify alternatives.
Fourth, there is the potential for large numbers of sick or injured people across a wide
jurisdiction. Crossed lines of authority for responders, family and friends demand immediate
information, and healthcare infrastructure can be highly stressed. So work with various
agencies and organizations and seek creative communication alternatives.
Fifth, intense media attention. Journalists seek and report information incessantly. So
appoint and train a spokesperson, but also prepare others to speak. Sixth, the emotional
response. Everyone will likely experience a range of strong emotions including fear, anger,
panic, denial, blame, solidarity with others, a desire to help victims, and a need for personal
control. All of these can affect how people respond to a risk. then develop and implement
communications that take these responses into account, including providing people with
reasonable and appropriate actions to take.
The seventh is incomplete or unknown information. Misunderstanding facts about risks
can affect people's responses. Uncertainty can increase fear and panic. So address factual
misperceptions in planning and during an emergency. Explain what is known at the time and
what is not known, saying that it is preliminary information. Say what to do to find out more
information. Admit mistakes and change previous statements as more information becomes
public.
Eighth, there is the involvement of multiple organizations, sometimes with competing
agendas, including possible documentation for law enforcement investigations. Sources may
release conflicting information, which causes confusion and reduces credibility. So get
organizational buy-in during emergency planning. Understand agency roles, jurisdictions and
developing evidence
/ criminal offenses / regulations. Draw clear lines of authority and responsibility, and make
sure everyone understands their role.
Ninth, there are security and privacy concerns. Some information, such as the victim's
name, cannot be released. Then explain the type of information that cannot be released and
why. Say whether it will be released later and under what circumstances.
Tenth, the reaction. After the emergency is over, people may look for those to blame.
Then evaluate the shortcomings. Take responsibility for things that are the fault of the
organization or company and explain what is being done to overcome the disaster.
C.
Tsunami Natural Disaster:
Natural Disasters are something that cannot be avoided and must happen. Earthquakes,
landslides, volcanic eruptions, floods, toxic gases and others. This is a phenomenon that has
been inherent in the earth until now humans have not been able to overcome the emergence of
this danger, disaster is a social construction where this disaster is a meeting of threats in the
form of natural or artificial phenomena, disasters will occur if the community has a lower
level of knowledge or ability compared to the threats that may occur to them (Suryono,
2005).12 According to Law Number 24 of 2007, disasters are a form of social construction in
which the community has a lower level of knowledge or ability compared to the threats that
may occur to them classified into four types as follows.
1.
Natural disasters are disasters caused by an event or series of events caused by nature,
including: earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, floods, droughts, hurricanes, and
landslides. An example of a tornado natural disaster occurred in West Bandung on
Monday, March 19 November 2018. Houses were damaged by 186 units of which 9
were declared severely damaged, 31 were moderately damaged, and 146 were lightly
damaged after being hit by heavy rains accompanied by tornadoes. There was an
injured survivor by the name of Mr. Ujang who is 35 years old and evacuated 9 families
to a safer place. According to BMKG Bandung Station forecasts, in a few days there is
a short-scale weather disturbance in the form of tropical cyclone Gaja in the Bay of
Bengal and tropical cyclone Bouchra in the Indian Ocean, which causes a decrease in
rainfall (Simbolon, 2018).
2.
Non-natural disasters are disasters caused by non-natural events or series of events,
including technological failure, modernization failure, and disease outbreaks.
a.
Non-natural disasters in technological failure are disasters caused by errors in
design, operation, or human negligence and intentionality in the use of
technology. An example of a non-natural disaster in technological failure is the
Lapindo mudflow in Sidoarjo. Lapindo mud has existed from 2006 until now and
is still happening. In May 2006, PT Lapindo Brantas was drilling for oil with
existing technology. A mistake in mechanism and procedure caused mud to
emerge from the hole. It started to appear at a point that has drowned houses and
become a sea of mud (Noviyanto, 2016).
b.
Non-natural disasters that fail to modernize are disasters that occur due to a new
form of colonialism. An example of a non-natural disaster in terms of
modernization failure is the failure to build the Indonesian state. Modernization
development must be assisted by developed countries. Indonesia has asked for
help from developed countries, but has failed. Failure occurs due to indicators of
unemployment, poverty, and the non-achievement of welfare (Sam, 2014).
c.
Non-natural disasters caused by disease outbreaks are disasters caused by the
spread of infectious diseases in certain areas due to poor environmental
conditions, climate change, or the wrong food and lifestyle of the community
(Bekasikab Portal). For example, the spread of skin and respiratory diseases in
refugee camps due to the earthquake that shook Pidie Jaya Regency, Aceh on
December 7, 2016. Skin diseases can occur due to difficulties in obtaining clean
water (Simanjuntak, 2016).
3.
Social disasters are disasters caused by events or series of events caused by humans,
which include social conflicts between groups or between communities. For example,
the Lingga Village residents rioted with the local police. Residents were angry because
of a change in policy applied regarding the relocation of the Mount Sinabung Eruption
disaster. The developer when buying land in Lingga village promised to build a market,
but in fact it was used as a Mount Sinabung relocation project. The chaos began when
residents set fire to heavy equipment and police post tents in Lingga Village, which was
used as the second phase of relocation land (Fachri Fachrudin, 2016).
4.
Technological failures are all catastrophic events caused by design, operation,
negligence and willful, human errors in the use of technology and/or industry that cause
pollution, damage to buildings, loss of life, and other damage. One example is the
sudden and unexplained fire of a Galaxy S7 cell phone in Canada. As a result, the
owner of the smartphone received burns on the hand. The South Korean electronics
giant stated that the Galaxy S7 was not infected with a battery problem prone to
catching fire, but an external damage problem. While external damage is not explained
in detail and detail (Yusuf, 2016). According to Amhar and Darmawan (Amhar &
Darmawan, 2007), there are three types of disaster definitions based on their causes,
including the following:
1.
Geological Disasters:
a.
An earthquake is a sudden release of energy that causes a dislocation (shift) in the
earth's interior. The timing of earthquakes is unpredictable. For example, the 5.3
SR earthquake in Klungkung Bali that occurred on Thursday, November 15, 2018
at 01:23:30 WITA. The earthquake occurred at a depth of 20 km with the epicenter
located 78 km southwest of Klungkung Bali, and had no tsunami potential, before
it was known whether there were survivors or material damage due to the
earthquake (Sudin, 2016).
b.
Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes at sea under certain conditions, but they can
also be caused by the eruption of an underwater volcano or the fall of a large
asteroid into the sea. When a tsunami will hit land can be predicted so that an early
warning system can be made even though the remaining time is only around 5-20
minutes. For example, the tsunami that occurred in Palu and Donggala on Friday,
September 28, 2018 occurred for the first time at 13:59:56 WIB with a magnitude
of 6 on the Richter scale (SR) and occurred again at 17:02:45 WIB with a
magnitude of 7.4 SR at an earthquake depth of 10 km. BMKG issued a Tsunami
Early Warning (PDT) with the existing parameters, namely the potential for
tsunami and the estimated arrival time of 17:22:43 WIB. BMKG stated that the
estimated tsunami arrival time had passed, so the PDT was ended at 17:36:12 WIB.
A few minutes after the PDT was terminated, the tsunami wave crashed as high as
1.5
m. At 18:02 WITA, a tsunami occurred and killed around 2,113 survivors (Farisa,
2018).
c.
Volcano is volcanic activity (volcano) whose occurrence time can be well predicted
because the volcano's activity is always monitored. For example, Mount Agung in
Karangasem Regency, Bali Province erupted on November 21, 2017 at 17:05
WITA. BNPB (National Agency for Disaster Management) and BPBD (Regional
Disaster Management Agency) monitor the development of Mount Agung's activity
level and recommendations from the magma application. The application also
support the Disaster Report feature regarding Mount Agung's activity. There were
no survivors in this eruption, but residents are advised to refrain from climbing and
any activities in the danger zone (Iskandar, 2017).
d.
Landslide is a disaster whose occurrence cannot be predicted, but signs of
landslides can usually be detected. For example, the landslide that occurred in Pasir
Panjang Village, Brebes, Central Java on Thursday, February 22, 2018 at 08:45
a.m. killed 7 people, 13 people were missing, and dozens were injured. The search
for missing survivors is still ongoing. The Head of the Information Data Center and
Public Relations of BNPB stated that two weeks before the incident there were
signs of landslides, namely heavy rain and springs that were clogged on the
hillside. The number of residents evacuated to a safe place after the landslide was
245 people (Nadlir, 2018).
2.
Meteorological Disasters:
All meteorological disasters are now natural phenomena that can be predicted quite
well once there is an integrated monitoring system with monitoring stations and
weather satellites. Meteorological disasters also always have interactions with human
activities (green fields/water catchment areas, drainage, sluice gates, pumps). Here are
some types of meteorological disasters:
a.
Flood is an event when the water discharge (water entering a place from rainfall,
overflow or tidal run-up) is greater than the water credit (water leaving the place),
either because it seeps into the ground, evaporates or is discharged elsewhere. For
example, flooding in Cilacap, Central Java, occurred on Tuesday, November 13,
2018. A total of five sub-districts of Nusawungu were hit by floods. Before the
flood, there were landslides in several areas along with strong winds that caused
trees to collapse (Ridlo, 2018).
b.
Wave is a wave that can cause abrasion. For example, a 100-meter-high wave hit
the South Coast of Gunung Kidul, causing erosion of the Baron coastline of
Gunung Kidul on Sunday.
June 4, 2017. The shoreline was eroded along 100 meters with a depth of
approximately one meter. As a result of the high waves, the flow of the river that
empties into the beach turned to the east, after previously going west (Rfk, 2017).
c.
Wildfire is a disaster that can be partly caused by human factors (land clearing), but
widespread fires are only made possible by dry forest or scrub conditions. For
example, the fires in Riau in early 2017 were caused by a lack of rainfall, resulting
in hotspots. There were 15 hotspots in total. Relevant parties together with the TNI
and Polri have gone to the location to extinguish the fire. Abriman, Head of the
Kuansing Forestry Service, stated that some hotspots are easily accessible and
some hotspots are difficult to reach. The Riau Police stated that people should not
take advantage of the lack of rainfall to clear land by burning (Efendi, 2017).
d.
Drought is a disaster that is generally followed by crop failure. For example, a
drought occurred in Rawapitu in September 2018. Farmers stated that yields
decreased by 50% due to the drought. One farmer stated that the drought made it
difficult to get water supply, resulting in only 50 sacks of grain per hectare. In fact,
under normal circumstances farmers can produce 100 sacks of grain per hectare
(Zulkarnain, 2018).
e.
In Indonesia, tornadoes are rare, but tornadoes are relatively more common. In
2018 alone, a tornado occurred in Yogyakarta on April 24, precisely in the Bantul
area, Yogyakarta Special Region. The natural phenomena of the two winds are
often equated, but they are actually very different. Although both are formed from
Cumulonimbus (CB) clouds, the vortexes that arise have different characteristics
and characters. According to the news.detik.com page, the Head of Data and
Information of BMKG Balikpapan, Abdul Haris, explained the differences between
the two winds. A tornado is formed from one or a small part of a CB cloud.
Meanwhile, Tornadoes are formed from dozens of CB clouds (Fitrazana, 2018).
3.
Anthropogenic Disasters:
Anthropogenic disasters are those that arise directly due to human error, intent or
negligence and have widespread effects on the environment. Anthropogenic disasters,
for example, industrial damage (e.g., chemical plant damage), are disasters that occur
directly due to human error, deliberation or negligence in Bhopal or the nuclear power
plant explosion in Chernobyl), or transportation accidents (for example, the Exxon
Waldez tanker leak in Alaska). Other anthropogenic disasters that can occur include
terrorism, sabotage, riots and social conflicts.
Tsunami:
Tsunamis are waves of seawater flowing in all directions that occur due to impulsive
disturbances on the seabed. Impulsive disturbances occur due to changes in the shape of the
geologic structure of the seabed primarily vertically and in a short time.
Tsunamis have been a familiar sight since they struck Aceh at the end of 2004, claiming
many lives and destroying homes and infrastructure. at the end of 2004, which caused many
casualties and the destruction of settlements and infrastructure in the area. As if the tsunami
had become a very frightening specter. Precisely on December 26, 2004, a powerful
earthquake occurred in the Indian Ocean, off the west coast of Aceh. The earthquake occurred
at 7:58:53 WIB. The epicenter was located at longitude 3.298° N and 95.779 E approximately
160 km west of Aceh at a depth of 10 kilometers. The earthquake had a magnitude of 9.3 on
the Richter scale and was the most powerful earthquake in the last 40 years, hitting Southeast
Asia as well as South Asia. The earthquake has killed around 126,000 people. Many buildings
were damaged by the earthquake, such as in Meulaboh and then Banda Aceh at the tip of
Sumatra. In Banda Aceh, almost 50% of the buildings and houses were damaged by the
tsunami. However, most casualties were caused by the tsunami that hit the west coast of Aceh
and North Sumatra.
In Indonesia, the locations that have the potential for tsunamis consist of 21 areas, namely
Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam, North Sumatra, West Sumatra, Bengkulu Lampung. Banten,
Southern Central Java, Southern East Java, Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara,
North Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi, South Sulawesi, North Maluku, South Maluku, Biak-
Yapen Balikpapan, Palu, Talaud, Kendari. Therefore, tsunami phobia exists not only in Aceh,
but also in many coastal areas in Indonesia, even though some have been familiar with the
word tsunami since the tsunami in Flores on December 12, 1992. Some people interpret
tsunamis as tidal waves, but they are very different. Tidal waves occur due to the moon's
force of attraction on the earth while tsunami comes from the Japanese tsa and nami, which
literally means waves in the harbor, resulting from impulsive disturbances in seawater due to
unpredictable changes in the condition of the seabed. The speed of tsunami waves depends on
the depth of the sea. In a sea with a depth of 7000 meters, for example, the speed can reach
9429 kilometers per hour. The speed is similar to that of a fighter plane. But the height of the
waves caused by this speed in the middle of the sea is only less than 60 cm. As a result, ships
sailing on them rarely feel the tsunami. Unlike normal ocean waves, tsunamis have
wavelengths that are at both peaks The waves travel about 100 kilometers in the open ocean
and the time difference between 10 minutes and 1 hour. When it reaches a coastal area such
as a bay or river mouth, the waves will be slower, but the wave height will increase by tens of
meters, causing damage. Tsunamis can be caused by three sources: earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and landslides on the seabed. Among the three causes of tsunamis, large
earthquakes are the main and most common. Tsunami waves travel at speeds ranging from
50-1,000 kilometers per hour. The speed decreases as the waves approach the coast, due to
seabed friction. At the same time, tsunami waves become higher as they approach the coast.
Tsunami wave heights can reach maximum levels on sloping and indented coasts such as
bays and river mouths. On such beaches, tsunami wave heights can range up to tens of
meters. For example, the 1992 Flores earthquake with a magnitude of 6.8 would theoretically
generate tsunami waves 1-2 meters high at the epicenter. However, when it arrived at the
Flores coast, the tsunami waves could have reached a maximum height of up to 24 meters.
Sequentially, the picture shows the symptoms of a tsunami starting from the first
sequence, which is initially calm, as if nothing will happen. Secondly, an earthquake occurs
in the middle of the sea with great force. Thirdly, the animals become restless, birds move
away from the shore. Fourth, the sea level recedes suddenly, many fish are left on the beach.
Fifth, there was a tidal wave, strong waves appeared, not like usual. Sixth, there was a
rumbling sound from the middle of the sea. Seventh, there was a strong smell of salt and
sulfur, like rotten eggs. In the stage where the sea level recedes suddenly, fish are often
tricked by the strange and attractive scenery into heading out to sea, which is a trap for the
unknowing. Tsunami impulsive disturbances usually originate from three main sources,
namely: (1) seafloor earthquakes, (2) Volcanic eruptions on the seabed, and (3) Avalanches
that occur on the seabed. Tsunami waves caused by impulsive forces that arise will be
transient, or it can be said that the waves have fault properties.
This kind of wave is different from other ocean waves that are continuous, such as ocean
waves generated by the attraction of celestial bodies. Tsunamis have a duration of
approximately 10 to 60 minutes. Tsunami waves have a wavelength of up to about
100 kilometers. The propagation speed of tsunami waves in the sea can reach up to 500 -
1000 km/hour. The speed at which a tsunami travels is influenced by the depth of the sea and
can travel thousands of kilometers. When the tsunami reaches the shore, its speed will be
In the middle of the sea the height of the strongest tsunami waves is 5 meters, when the waves
reach the shore they can be tens of meters high. In identifying tsunami-prone areas, there are
several analyses:
1.
Tsunami Hazard Analysis:
Tsunami hazard analysis aims to identify areas that will be affected by tsunami
hazards. Tsunami prone areas can be identified through two methods: the first is to
simulate the relationship between the causes of tsunamis such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, seabed avalanches, and tsunami wave heights. Then the results of the tsunami
wave height simulation are further simulated through the conditions of use, topography,
seabed morphology as well as the type and geological structure of coastal lands. The
second is to establish the link between earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, seabed landslides
and tsunami waves based on the history of how these events occurred. Through the
results of this analysis, areas affected by tsunami waves are identified and mapped.
2.
Tsunami Vulnerability Analysis:
Vulnerability analysis is aimed at identifying the impact of a tsunami in the form of
the number of casualties and economic losses, both in the short term in the form of the
destruction of infrastructure settlements, facilities and infrastructure and existing
buildings, as well as in the long term, which is affected by the rise and fall of an area's
economy due to trauma and also due to the destruction of infrastructure, natural
conditions and many others. So the vulnerability analysis looks at a number of factors,
such as population density in tsunami-prone areas, the economy of the community which
is based on the sea, infrastructure to support transportation for evacuation during a
tsunami as well as limited access to communication.
3.
Tsunami Resilience Level Analysis:
The analysis of the level of resilience is aimed at identifying the ability of the
government and the community in general to respond to a tsunami disaster, so as to
reduce its impact. The analysis of the level of resilience can be identified from three
aspects, namely the number of health workers to the total population, the ability of
community mobility in evacuation and rescue, and the availability of equipment that can
be used for evacuation. Based on distance, tsunamis are classified into 2, namely:
1.
Near field/local field tsunamis are tsunamis that occur within 200 kilometers of the
epicenter of an earthquake. Local tsunamis can be caused by earthquakes, landslides
or volcanic eruptions.
2.
Far field tsunami:
Long-range tsunamis are tsunamis that reach coastal areas hundreds to thousands of
kilometers from the earthquake epicenter. They start as short-range tsunamis with
high damage in the area around the earthquake source, and then propagate through
the ocean basin with great force, eventually causing casualties and severe damage in
coastal areas up to 1000 km from the source (ITIC, Tsunami Glossary).
In general, tsunamis start from a difference in the shape of the seabed when an
earthquake occurs. The onset of a fault raises the surface of the seabed not far from the
trough and then causes a dip in its position close to the coast. The tsunami then turns into
a wave that has a crest and a wake that forms on the water surface. Seawater returns from
the coast during the initial wave crest.
Tsunami Disaster Mitigation:
Based on the guidelines for natural disaster mitigation in coastal areas and small islands,
2009 by the Directorate of Coastal and Marine, Directorate General of KP3K, Ministry of
Marine Affairs and Fisheries are as follows:
1.
Structural Tsunami Disaster Mitigation Efforts:
Structural measures to cope with the consequences of tsunamis are technical means
with the aim of withstanding the force of tsunami waves that propagate to coastal areas.
Based on an understanding of the mechanism of tsunami occurrence, tsunami wave
characteristics, inventory and identification of damage to building structures, structural
measures can be divided into two groups, namely natural, such as the planting of
mangrove forests / green belts, along coastal areas and the protection of coral reefs.
Artificial, such as the construction of breakwaters, seawalls, breakwaters parallel to the
coast to withstand tsunamis. Creating strong structures and designs of buildings and
infrastructure following the rules of building techniques that are strong and ready to
face tsunamis and earthquakes, through development in various ways including
retrofitting and relocation.
2.
Non-structural Tsunami Disaster Mitigation Efforts:
Non-structural efforts are non-technical efforts to adjust and how to organize
related community activities to be in harmony with structural mitigation efforts or other
efforts. Non-structural efforts related to structural include: rules related to land use,
spatial planning, zoning of disaster-safe coastal areas; rules regarding the
standardization of buildings (both houses and buildings) as well as infrastructure related
to facilities and infrastructure; microzoning of disaster-prone areas on a local scale;
Making maps of tsunami disaster potential, maps of the level of vulnerability and maps
of the level of resilience, so that a "disaster-friendly" housing design can be made that
takes into account various aspects; Policies on exploration and economic activities of
coastal communities; Training and simulation of tsunami disaster mitigation;
Counseling and education on tsunami disaster mitigation and socialization mitigation
efforts Development of an early warning system for tsunami hazards.
