1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
In a survey with over 9,000 people, participants identified their greatest
fears. Their responses in ranked order are as follows: public speaking; speaking
up in a meeting or class; meeting new people; talking to people in authority;
necessary examination or interview; going to parties; talking with strangers
(Lucas, 2015). These data reveal that many people are afraid of several
moments, but moments centered around communication more specifically. On
the other hand, confident speakers and competent communication skills are
central to the list of graduate objectives, as well as sought after traits of hiring
employers (Schroth, 2019). As such, scholars have attempted to understand the
gap between communication anxieties and needed outcomes for future
endeavors (Bodie, 2010). These studies typically explore “public speaking
anxiety” and “communication apprehension,” which are often incorrectly spoken
about as if they are the same experience. Public speaking anxiety (PSA) is
defined as “a situation specific social anxiety that arises from the real or
anticipated enactment of an oral presentation” (Bodie, 2010, p.
72). Communication apprehension (CA) is a fear or anxiety associated with either
real or anticipated communication with one or more persons’ (Beatty &
McCroskey, 1984, p. 79). This project utilizes the broader application of
communication apprehension to justify the need for
communication workshops. The workshops specifically contribute to
2
reducing four different types of communication
apprehension: Traitlike CA, Context-based CA, Audience- based
CA, and Situational CA (Davis, McCroskey, &
Richmond.,1986). Participation in communication workshops, events, and
communication appointments, at campus speaking centers, for example, will help
develop strategies to manage and reduce communication
apprehension. Furthermore, participation in such events provide communication
skills necessary to succeed professionally.
Currently, two frameworks foster specific communication instruction
across college campuses: communication across the curriculum and
communication in the disciplines. Communication across the curriculum (CXC)
was founded by the need for oral communication to be provided to all students
through instruction, activities, and support. Whereas CID extends CXC, as an
integrated program-based theoretical framework (Dannels, & Housley-Gaffney,
2009). Furthermore, CID was later developed to offer a theoretical framework in
communication scholarship that has advanced communication literature across
the disciplines. The impact of CID is seen beyond progress in communication
literature, but also by communication assistants who are steadily employed
through support services offered on many campuses.
Those who work in CID programs have sought to reduce communication
apprehension and help prepare students across campus to gain professional
communication skills for many years. A need for such services, and even the
3
types of services, have evolved yet continued to be consistent. At the core of the
communication in the discipline's theory is the idea of change (Dannels, 2001).
Some examples of what changes CID promoted have included-growing
knowledge about discipline specific communication, expanded speaking center
support services, and advancements in presentation related technology for
students on campus. Recently, we have seen a unique change and increase in
the needs students have in addressing communication apprehension and
communication skill building. The workshops format, topics and content are
timeless, pragmatic, and theoretically informed. According to findings in
communication apprehension, a series of regular workshop events help reduce
communication apprehension by teaching strategies to help manage
communication apprehension and help better serve current
student populations (Barber, 2020). Offering the workshops in this project is an
effort to reduce different types of communication apprehension and to give
a much-needed communication education, to connect, students to each other,
faculty, and their campus resources.
4
CHAPTER TWO
COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION
Most people are afraid of public speaking, and scholars have spent
decades interrogating why (Beatty, & McCroskey, 1984) (Dwyer, Kangas, &
Davidson, 2012) and to what consequence (McCroskey,1977a). Public speaking
anxiety (PSA) is defined as “a situation specific social anxiety that arises from the
real or anticipated enactment of an oral presentation” (Bodie, 2010, p. 72).
Similarly, yet distinct, communication apprehension (CA) is defined as "an
individual's level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated
communication with an individual or individuals'' (Beatty & McCroskey, 1984, p.
79). Communication apprehension is the explanation of a communication anxiety
that occurs during various communicative moments such as: interpersonal,
small group, mass, or public speaking. Often the terms “public speaking anxiety”
and communication apprehension” are spoken about as if they are the same
thing. However, communication apprehension is a much broader perspective.
Additionally, communication apprehension is a more thorough topic to apply to
this project because self-reported surveys have revealed that several different
communication encounters are on the list of “greatest fears'' of many. Despite the
fact public speaking is on that list, the majority of the “greatest fears list” list are
impromptu types of speaking (e.g., talking with strangers, speaking in a meeting,
interviews). Communication apprehension includes the fears people experience
with a variety of impromptu communication situations (Bytwerk, 1985). This does
5
not dismiss the fact that PSA is the most prevalent subtype of communication
apprehension, affecting almost everyone (McCroskey, 1970a, McCroskey,
1970b, McCroskey, 1972). The term “communication apprehension” was coined
by McCroskey, who was motivated to dedicate extensive time researching PSA,
which later led him to the broader topic of CA, after a scary situation happened
with McCroskey's student that brought to his attention to the potential severity of
the issue, which studies show is still at hand.
McCroskey noted and would share with his graduate classes the story
about his student (Tillson, 2015). "One evening, I received a phone call at home
from a Penn State psychologist." His student was about to jump off the top of a
thirteen-story building on campus and was rescued. The student disclosed that
she "could not go through giving another speech" at the university. McCroskey
was disturbed; she never appeared to be any more reluctant than other students
in his Public Speaking class (Speeches, 2015). Later, McCroskey discovered that
a few years before the incident, there were thirteen student suicides recorded at
Pennsylvania State University, all but one of the students were enrolled in Public
Speaking courses during the time of their death. Both public speaking anxiety
and communication apprehension are typical for people to experience. There are
various levels of CA and PSA and their impacts can range from minor to severe,
and this story is a severe case. Earlier studies found that 20% of people suffer
from CA; high levels of CA can be disabling to a person (Beatty & McCroskey,
1984). Later, McCroskey developed the Personal Report of Communication
6
Apprehension (PRCA) which is a 24-item Likert type scale to help know where a
person is at in their level of communication apprehension. This scale is often
used in communication research or to help instructors and students gage student
progress with reducing CA by taking the test before and after they take an Oral
Communication course. McCroskey (1984) suggested there are 4 main types of
CA: Traitlike CA, Context-based CA, Audience-based CA, and Situational (Davis,
McCroskey,& Richmond,1986). Traitlike CA is a type of CA that is similar to an
invariant trait, such as eye color and is highly resistant to change. Traitlike CA
covers a wide range of types of communication and is more personality related.
Context-based CA is a generalizable CA that happens during or about specific
contexts, such as public speaking. Context-based CA explains why some people
can have apprehension about group communication and on the other hand feel
comfortable speaking to strangers at a networking event. Audience-based CA is
a type of CA which happens with a certain person or group. For example, a
person interviewing for a job they are not very interested in will feel differently
with that audience compared to the same person being interviewed for their
dream position. Most people have some communication context that they will feel
apprehension in. (McCroskey & Richmond, 1982). Situational CA is about the
state of a person is in, which can vary. Situational CA represents apprehension
which only occurs with a certain individual or a group in a particular situation or at
a particular time. For example, a person may feel comfortable speaking one on
one, unless they are asking the person out on a date. This situation is what
7
creates the communication apprehension. Earlier work had emphasized pure trait
CA and pure state CA. McCroskey argued that categorizing a broader
perspective and defining specific subtypes of CA gives a distinguishing marker
from old approaches and new approaches. In addition, it is unlikely there would
be any person that experienced trait CA without some level of state CA, as
earlier literature indicated (Davis, et al., 1986) Each workshop in this project
gives strategies to improve or reduce these 4 specific types of CA. The specific
type/types of communication apprehension that each workshop targets is stated
in the workshop rationale. CA subtype information in the project is important; it
helps to expand awareness of how CA impacts people differently. This
awareness provides an opportunity for those experiencing CA to home in on
confronting the root (the subtype of CA an individual is experiencing), therefore
reducing that type of CA.
The general concept of CA has expanded research and literature
extensively. To give a few of many examples of topics that have expanded
literature about communication apprehension: a pilot study of a peer mentoring
program for university students with autism (Siew, Mazzucchelli, Rooney, &
Girdler, 2017), communication apprehension and communication self-efficacy in
accounting students (Hassall, Arquero, Gonzalez,, 2013), exploring connections
of eating disorders and communication apprehension (Goldberg, 2016),
transgender communication, loneliness, communication apprehension, in a
Canadian sample (Heinz, 2018), communication apprehension among Black
8
students on predominantly White campuses (Byrd & Sims, 1987), communication
apprehension in parent-child relationships regarding parental alienation and self-
esteem (Aloia, & Strutzenberg,. 2019). These examples show the variety of
populations and situations that are impacted by CA. CA has allowed
communication scholars to assess physiological, cognitive, and behavioral
impacts that people experience and attempt to treat CA, for example, using skills
training and relaxation techniques. CA is a very complex topic. The CA concept
is unarguably strong and prevalent, evident in the amount of research, literature,
and continuous reports from people experiencing CA. CA, the broader topic
which extended PSA, is the best concept to apply to current and evolving
communication related anxieties. Additionally, by incorporating the 4 different
types of CA addressed in each workshop, this project contributes to progressing
the concept of CA while extending the reach to the theoretical frame of CID to
subtypes of CA.
Current Contextual Considerations
Even though there has been extensive research done over decades of
time, in some ways, we could be falling behind in putting a dent into reducing CA.
For examples, cell phone and computer use has reduced face-to-face
communication, which is what assists us in interpersonal rapport. Rapport leads
us to more trusting and cooperative relationships and more positive
communication outcomes (Lattie, Lipson, & Eisenberg, 2019). An increase in
technology use has been found to be correlated with an increase in anxiety,
9
potentially more negative communication outcomes (Gander, 2020). Most college
students are in Generation Z, who have relied heavily on technology to
communicate. Some scholars assert that Gen Z has “missed out on vital rules of
conversation” (Schroth, 2019). In addition, Gen Z has self-reported greater
anxiety than any other previous generations (American College Health
Association, 2001) (American College Health Association, 2014). According to
data from The American Psychological Association (APA), Gen Z is currently
seen as the most stressed-out group in America (APA, 2018). Furthermore, 52%
of Gen Z reports being even less involved in extracurricular activities in 2020.
Over 80% of Gen Z reported school now being their biggest stressor (Karter,
2020). 2021 is not the time for communication scholars to give up on doing work
that contributes to helping students to reduce CA. CA is a seasoned concept,
however it can use more attention due to the fact it is a prominent problem that
has not been solved. Communication educators should be mindful that CA has
been on the rise and is projected to increase in the current student population
(Barber, 2020).
Learning to manage fear or anxiety about public speaking or
communicating and learning communication skills is important for professional
development and communication practitioners will likely need to put in more
effort in helping students Communication scholars assert that preparation and
practice can help reduce the fear or anxiety from speaking (Bytwerk,1985).
Preparation can include many things, such as: learning about the audience,
10
conducting research, gaining support material, organizing your communication,
and practicing delivery. These steps in preparation apply to reducing anxiety in
many different types of communication, from job interviews to networking
opportunities, to formal presentations. University speaking centers provide a
place where students prepare and get assistance, both are strategies that reduce
problematic communication apprehension.
11
CHAPTER THREE
COMMUNICATION IN THE DISCIPLINES
University speaking centers are common programs on university
campuses that are often informed by theoretical underpinnings. Campus
speaking centers originated in the late 80s as communication across the
curriculum (CXC) gave the basic premise of providing oral communication and
job readiness to all students, regardless of their major, to speak professionally in
order to enter the workforce and advance in careers. By the late 90s speaking
centers on campus were more common (Gaby-Fisher, 1999). As an extension of
CXC, communication in the disciplines (CID) provided a theoretical framework
that expanded literature and program options within the disciplines. A limitation of
CXC was the breadth of application leading to minimal theoretical richness
because the initial purpose was to teach oral communication and professional
speaking skills across campuses. In this section, CXC is introduced to give a
better understanding of the shift and impact CID has had on communication
literature and communication support offered in all disciplines.
CXC is a program-based model using three categories: separate
communication instruction, integrated communication instruction, consultant-
based support (Tuleja & Greenhalgh, 2008). Some scholars criticized the CXC
model, asserting it was not theory-based (Dannels, 2005; Garside, 2002). In
addition, pressure on communication educators arose from business, industry,
and accreditation agencies for profession-specific communication training.
12
Curiosity arose within the discipline to learn discipline-specific communication
practices in addition to providing the theoretical base some scholars were
seeking, CID promotes communication program development and growth that
CXC was lacking.
The CID framework was created by Deanna Dannels and is marked by
three specific activities: (1) generates locally constructed communication
outcomes, (2) identifies and supports discipline specific genres (3) incorporates
discipline specific evaluation and assessment (Dannels, 2001). CID is a
distinctive educational approach which promotes disciplines collaborating to
improve students’ communication competence and skills with the needs within
their discipline and their future professionals. Part of CID assists in orienting and
socializing students by professional preparedness for what their professions
require (Sullivan& Kedrowicz, 2011). This is a theory that has space for
communication scholars to be the students, to learn about communication across
disciplines, specific to the discipline oral communication styles and in discipline
specific locations situations. CID allows the application of new ideas and program
developments to meet the needs of current and future student populations, and
imperatively, theoretical considerations. The increase in communication research
and literature in all disciplines is one noticeable impact of the CID theoretical
framework provided. For example, CID welcomes and encourages
communication research to topics that need progress. There is a noticeable shift
and abundance in communication literature contributions from outside
13
disciplines. CID has been expanded through literature on a variety of
topics: integrating students in ethics education (Canary, et. al., 2014), gender
(Sullivan& Kedrowicz, 2011), simulation-based communication training (Koponen
& Julkunen, 2015), communication skills for medical students, simulation, and
gaming (Koponen, Pyörälä, & Isotalus., 2014), speaking in engineering (Dannels,
2005), and design for interactive IT applications (Sundblad & Lenman, 2001).
CID has promoted program expansion. For example, new technology
related to presentations, workshops about global communication, are topics that
can be successful working within the CID model. Students have often seen
communication skills from a surface perspective of a way to get from point “A,”
an unemployed broke student, to point “B,” an employee with a growing bank
balance (e.g., Kedrowicz & Taylor, 2013). Or students see a communication
class as a basic list of organizational steps they must learn (like a speech outline)
to meet graduation requirements and move forward to “real life” after they
graduate. CID takes communication instruction from the sole ideas of the “how”
and extends to ask many questions of “why;” this curiosity leads to new studies
and findings in communication literature. Scholars have realized and
recommended a shift in CID pedagogy from being primarily communication that
is focused on function and structure to a liberal education with a global
community perspective (Palmerton, 2005). This shift places emphasis on
communication as a social interaction and meaning, which meets the needs of
the current and progressing world (Kedrowicz & Taylor, 2013). The fact scholars
14
see a shift as necessary and possible within the CID framework means its model
possesses the theoretical characteristics to demonstrate additional contributions
in this realm. Additionally, this is evidence of the applicability of CID and the
continued contributions as CID expands the way communication skills are
integrated into different models and communication scholarship.
These examples demonstrate how rich and flexible of a communication
theory CID is for all disciplines. CID has promoted collaboration across
disciplines in communication literature and has provided space for programmatic
evolution. The workshops in this project can be facilitated by campus speaking
centers staff. They may be used by outside disciplines, or even institutions other
than academics. Additionally, there seems to be a gap in literature of assessment
on how communication skills training impacts CA in different disciplines (Rust,
Gentry, & Ford, 2020), and these workshops may be used in later work
contributing to such assessment. CID is a theoretical frame that has room for all
of these possibilities, which makes it the most appropriate framework to use for
reducing communication apprehension through the workshops in this project.
15
CHAPTER FOUR
AUTHOR MOTIVATIONS, EXPLANATION OF PROJECT
I experienced dichotomies during my initial public speaking experiences.
In my first presentation, at an advertised event at a town hall, I spoke
successfully, giving an introduction speech to a live public audience. I won a
speech contest that day. Two months and three speeches later, I experienced a
panic attack during a speech. I was dumbfounded at the opposite experiences
and did not understand what had happened. This experience led to studying
public speaking anxiety, further, to the broader topic of communication
apprehension. Through discovering communication apprehension, I began to
understand myself; I found myself wanting to help others overcome their own
communication anxieties and speak more effectively.
During self-awareness and a process of self-improvement, I developed a
holistic approach for myself that I still practice. These techniques address the
cognitive, physiological, and behavioral aspects of communication apprehension
and improve speaking confidence, which is informed by Lang’s 3 System Stress
Model (1968) (Bodie, 2010). My approach can be found in the
Reducing/Managing Communication Anxiety workshop. In the behavioral section,
the importance of engaging in different communication opportunities and events,
to help reduce communication apprehension, is explained. Engagement,
practice, and community support offered to participants by attending such events
helps reduce CA while building necessary communication skills. Creating
16
platforms that help students feel positive about communicative events should be
a top priority in communication pedagogy.
Feeling comfortable communicating can have a considerable impact on
professional development. Communication in the discipline’s programs and the
CID theoretical frame has space for communication practitioners to develop
services to meet the contextual, situational, and audience needs. I chose
communication workshop topics that have the most practical and integrative life
application. Furthermore, they are not addressed often in communication
pedagogy. Each workshop will help participants to develop strategies to manage
communication apprehension. Regardless of what type of communication event
a person participates in, the engagement and practice are worth the time and
effort. The project manual consists of six-one-hour communication workshops.
Workshop topics are listed below and can be used individually or in combination.
Each workshop includes the following: a theoretical justification, corresponding
research, rationale, workshop objectives, intended audience, instruction details,
materials list, step-by-step directions, a facilitator script, and timeline. The script
is a dialogue; however, a facilitator can use it as a monologue if they prefer.
Some workshops have supporting materials in prompts, skeletal notes, or
worksheets for individual or group work. These are in Appendix A
Group Communication/Presentations
Persuasion/Negotiation
Reducing/Managing Communication Anxiety
17
Speaking on the Spot
Networking/Listening
Audience Analysis/Enhancing Delivery
Limitations
The limitations of this project regarding the CID theory itself are that some
of the language and topics used in the workshops could easily be considered
communication discipline specific and biased. This is somewhat conflicting to the
foundational purpose of CID, to bring together a collaboration of all disciplines
together and the workshops are not written as situated in discipline specific
locations or with discipline specific oral genres. The workshops were created with
the main idea of communication experts at speaking centers facilitating them.
With that said, anyone in any discipline could be a facilitator of them by following
the script.
On the other hand, one way I see this project being more effective in
helping all disciplines and contributing to literature would be to use these
workshops to assess students in specific disciplines for CA pre and post
workshop attendance and participation. For example, to test to see how much
communication apprehension was impacted on criminal justice students, after
they participated in the workshops. This was not my original intention, however,
now that I see that the assessment of impact of communication skills training on
CA seems to be a gap in literature about CA. This is an area that merits further
work and could contribute to new findings.
18
Practical Application
My speaking experiences started in 2015. For four years, I viewed the
journey of navigating communication apprehension as a series of small
successes and significant failures. Today, I have a gentler perspective and
believe that speaking and communicating is better seen as a "progress not
perfection" process. Giving myself the gift of a shift in my thinking permits me not
to need to be all-knowing or always good at speaking. However, if I want to learn
and improve, I must show up to practice and participate in a variety of
communication opportunities. Placing a high priority on managing communication
apprehension and improving communication skills has paid me back in benefits
and growth many times over by feeling more comfortable, personal growth, and a
sense of altruism through helping others. From the time I walked off the podium
in a panic attack (2015) until a few years ago (2019), when I began teaching oral
communication in a GTA program at my university, I developed a holistic
approach to reduce my own communication apprehension. This approach
includes physiological, cognitive, and behavioral techniques and is covered in
managing speaking anxiety. When I practice all three areas intentionally, my
speaking tends to be noticeably higher quality, which is the best version of me
that I can offer to share with the world.
These workshops will help participants to develop strategies to manage
communication apprehension. The topics can be applied to and used by all
disciplines, in academic settings, to gain data on impacts of communication skills
19
training (a behavioral process) on reducing CA (a cognitive process).
Additionally, the workshops address the four different types of CA. Student
responses could help us know more about the better ways to help the current
university students reduce CA. I would like to eventually see these workshops
developed into more. For example, the topic of networking and persuasion have
so much more rich content and activity options. The fact that these were one-
hour workshops, and only one on each subject, reduced the content to surface
concepts, discussions, and activities.
Furthermore, using these workshops could help vulnerable
populations. For examples, those who have higher rates of CA, such as those
participating in educational based support communities which serve victims of
violence, who need to communicate clearly to testify in court and to rebuild
successful lives, Prison populations, who need to rebuild lives and competent
and confident communication skills will give them a better chance at being
productive members of society and re-enter the workforce successfully. I would
like to look at these two specific populations because CA is likely higher in those
who have been victims of violence and prison populations than the average
population. In addition, these populations would be less likely to have strong
communication support services to specifically teach communication skills and
reduce CA.
20
Conclusion. Communication apprehension (CA) is something that
students need help addressing. Competent and confident communicators are
generally more employable and successful (Tuleja & Greenhalgh, 2008). Those
who work at universities have a responsibility to offer new ways to help reduce CA
and teach communication skills training through a variety of methods.
Understanding different types of CA can help us to know how to reduce CA
specific to an individual.
CA and PSA is often thought of as “over studied” topics because ample
research and literature is available on the topic. However, CA needs more
attention with the current student population situation and generational concerns
that may be negatively impacting communication. If anything, it is my hope that
communication workers see that CA and communication training skills are areas
that when improved make a noticeable improvement in a student’s life for the
better. These are the reasons I am motivated to continue to focus on reducing
CA using CID on college campuses and universities.
21
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28
APPENDIX A
THE WORKSHOPS
29
WORKSHOP INTRODUCTION
Two of my most profound and early memories of public speaking
happened about two months apart. The first memory I have was when I was a
brand-new club member in a professional speaking organization. The club had
scheduled my introduction speech at an advertised and well-attended open
house event at our town hall. This event's highlight was a mini-speaking
competition, and I was competing against two other seasoned speakers. One of
the speakers was the "District 12 Champion Speaker." Surprisingly, at the end of
the open house, I was the one given a ribbon after being voted to be the "Best
Speaker." The second memory happened two months after the open house. I
was giving my fourth speech at the club, to a tiny audience, and I started having
a panic attack so bad that I was removed from the podium. I was confused about
what had occurred for me to have such dramatically different outcomes.
Ultimately, I was led to research communication apprehension and have been
able to develop a liberating holistic approach for myself to confront the ailment
that I now speak about frequently. At times, I still can feel uneasiness about
speaking; however, I feel the overall freedom from communication apprehension
that I have experienced through the techniques I still practice must be passed on
to others.
“How” students feel about communicative events should be a top
consideration in communication pedagogy. Feeling comfortable communicating
can have a considerable impact on professional development. Communication in
30
the disciplines (CID) is a theoretical framework for communication programs; it
acts as an umbrella model with space to include many types of communication
platforms and events. Furthermore, I discovered pertinent communication-related
topics outside of public speaking that are often bypassed or barely brought up
because the Basic course centered around 4-10 larger speeches where
organization, delivery, and content are the primary focus. I chose communication
workshop topics that have the most practical and integrative life application.
Furthermore, they are topics that will be helpful if expanded on beyond a
traditional speaking course. Each workshop has the potential to contribute to
reducing different types of communication apprehension.
Communication Apprehension
Many students want to improve their fear of public speaking. More
accurately, the fear of public speaking. Many speaking situations, in general, are
on lists of "top fears" for most people today (Lucas, 2015). On the other hand,
strong public speaking and communication skills are paramount to students'
potential or permanent employment and upward mobility (Bodie, 2010).
Improving student professional success is one main driving force for
communication scholars to research ways to improve student communication
outcomes.
In breadth and depth, James McCroskey was the communication scholar
most significantly involved in academic work about public speaking anxieties
which was expanded to the much broader topic, communication apprehension.
31
McCroskey noticed some students would not speak in class at all. He discovered
that those who suffered the most anxiety regarding communication, struggled
with more than just fear from public speaking. McCroskey and his colleagues
found a type of communication anxiety that happens with interpersonal
communication, small group communication, mass communication, or public
speaking. McCroskey coined the term "communication apprehension".
Communication apprehension (CA) is defined as "an individual's level of fear or
anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with an
individual or individuals'' (Beatty & McCroskey, 1984, p. 79). Later work
specifically addressed four different types of communication
apprehension: Traitlike CA, Context-based CA, Audience-based CA, and
Situational CA (Davis, McCroskey, & Richmond, 1986). A clearer perspective
about communication-related fears, coupled with knowing the primary
responsibility of communication education to prepare students for the
professional world, has motivated communication scholars to provide theoretical
foundations for communication programs to develop in academics.
COMMUNICATION IN THE DISCIPLINES
Communication in the Disciplines (CID) is a program and theory-based
communication framework developed to address limitations in the parent model,
Communication Across the Curriculum (CXC). Both focus on improving or
developing oral communication and professionalism (Dannels, Gaffney,
&Housley, 2009). CXC acted as a basic premise; it did not rely on the theoretical
32
density that communication scholarship can offer. Dannels (2001) created the
Communication in the Disciplines (CID) model to provide a more pragmatic
model that furthers communication scholarship by acknowledging that
communication is contextual, situational, and discipline specific. CID initiated
scholarship by giving outside disciplines a place to share their uniqueness in a
variety of professions. The following easy-to-use workshops are additional
support tools used in cross-curricular communication events or communication
events in all disciplines. They are appropriate for use outside disciplines. These
workshop topics were chosen because have personal and professional benefits.
Additionally, each one addresses one or more of the 4 different types of CA. The
primary purpose and intended use of the workshops is to enhance
communication development at speaking centers, in university campus events, or
classrooms. However, these concepts are timeless, and the workshops are
scripted in a way that organizations outside of academics can benefit from
engaging with the content.
A PREVIEW OF THE WORKSHOPS
GROUP COMMUNICATION/PRESENTATIONS
PERSUASION/NEGOTIATION
REDUCING/MANAGING ANXIETY
SPEAKING ON THE SPOT
NETWORKING/LISTENING
AUDIENCE ANALYSIS/ENHANCING DELIVERY
33
PREVIEW OF WORKSHOP 1 GROUP COMMUNICATION/PRESENTATIONS
The Group Communication/Presentations workshop provides knowledge
about group development theory, expands on the benefits of studying group
communication, and gives an activity to improve group communication outcomes
using an agreement/contract. Additionally, the activity reduces communication
apprehension (common in the forming stage) by clarifying communication
through the structure of the agreement/contract. This workshop targets reducing
Context-based, Audience-based, and Situational CA.
PREVIEW OF WORKSHOP 2 PERSUASION/NEGOTIATION
The purpose of the Persuasion/Negotiation workshop is to help
participants recognize the importance of persuasion in professional development.
Persuasion is a highly complex topic; therefore, this workshop offers a sampling
of persuasive techniques. The breakout session provides networking, thus
reducing communication apprehension through experience and practice. This
workshop targets reducing situational CA and audience-based CA.
PREVIEW OF WORKSHOP 3 REDUCING AND MANAGING
COMMUNICATION ANXIETY
The Reducing and Managing Anxiety workshop will help participants feel
more comfortable communicating. This session provides theoretical perspectives
and participants evaluate physiological, cognitive, and behavioral effects of
communication apprehension; techniques to reduce and manage their
anxiety. This workshop targets reducing traitlike and situational CA.
34
PREVIEW OF WORKSHOP 4 SPEAKING ON THE SPOT
Speaking on the Spot is a workshop that provides participants the
opportunity to learn and practice impromptu speaking. Participants practice
impromptu games using a prompt in small groups and as an audience. This
session helps develop all aspects of oral communication, which improve
confidence, therefore, the practice also can reduce communication
apprehension. This workshop targets reducing context-based CA and situational
CA.
PREVIEW OF WORKSHOP 5 NETWORKING/LISTENING
The purpose of the Networking/Listening workshop is to draw attention to
the importance of networking in professional development. The session includes
methods to practicing active listening in networking situations that can be applied
in all areas of communication. There is a breakout session for the audience to
practice networking following a prompt; this will reduce participants'
communication apprehension because they will have practice and a frame of
reference through application of the prompt. This workshop targets reducing
situational CA, audience-based, and context-based CA.
PREVIEW OF WORKSHOP 6 AUDIENCE ANALYSIS/
ENHANCING DELIVERY
The Audience Analysis/Enhancing Delivery workshop promotes audience
centeredness and more thorough methods to look at audiences to include
speaker bias, stakeholders, and psychographics. Additionally, awareness and
35
addressing speaker biases and a section about physical and situational delivery
are included. Participants will expand knowledge on preparation and engaging
with their audience; thus, improving their speaking confidence, therefore reducing
communication apprehension while speaking. This workshop targets reducing
audience-based CA and situational CA.
36
GROUP COMMUNICATION WORKSHOP
THEORETICAL RATIONALE AND WORKSHOP STRUCTURE:
Research in group development has been thoroughly documented
(Fujishin, 2013). Many scholars have sought to learn more about group
processes as a way of understanding how they operate. Ultimately, this would
build helpful theoretical explanations and models that may aid in more successful
group outcomes. Psychologist Tuckman focused on the role communication
plays in forming groups with both successful and unsuccessful group dynamics.
During the 1960s, he studied earlier work about groups (e.g., therapy groups,
natural groups, laboratory groups). The theory of group dynamics was the
foundational theory that led Tuckman to explore group development more
specifically. In 1965, he published “Tuckman's theory of group development.” In
his theory, Tuckman classified all group processes based on the group setting,
what is occurring in the group-task or interpersonal, and the position of a group in
a hypothetical sequence (the stage of development). Initially, Tuckman identified
4 stages of development, “forming, storming, norming and performing.” A 5th
stage, “Adjourning” was added in 1975, as a material understanding of the
importance for groups to wrap up work, receive recognition, and get appropriate
closure when the group ends. Tuckman’s classification of group development
processes helped social scientists to explore new ideas, which led to contributing
to theoretical perspectives and pragmatic models. Furthermore, it provided those
who engage with groups (e.g., practitioners, pedagogical groups, business
37
groups, layman groups) new theoretically based considerations to improve
efficiency, productivity, and member satisfaction. There has been a correlation
made between working in groups and reducing communication
apprehension. The theory of group development remains pragmatically
applicable in academic, business, medical, and non-professional environments.
Overall, this workshop outlines reasons to study group communication,
fundamentals on advantages and disadvantages that are situated during
communication in small groups, foundational theoretical perspectives, and
supplies a structured activity connected to Tuckman’s theory, specifically the
“forming stage.” The activity is a small group communication exercise where
participants will need to communicate intelligibly as a group to produce their own
example agreement/contract during the workshop. The purpose of using the
agreement/contract is to increase clarity of communication, inefficiency,
ineffectiveness, and labor inequities. Often, these problematic matters are
communication related and are primary complaints of group work. Additionally,
the activity reduces communication apprehension (common in the forming stage)
by using clear communication and intentional structure. The workshop targets
addressing context-based communication apprehension, audience-based
communication apprehension, and situation communication apprehension.
The workshop begins with the facilitator presenting research-
based information about motivations to study small group communication and
foundational theoretical perspectives using a discussion-based format. The script
38
can be used as dialogue or monologue if the facilitator wishes to reduce
discussion for instructional preference or controlling time. Next,
the facilitator explains the activity, the agreement/contract, role assignment for
the activity. The facilitator divides participants into small groups to complete their
own agreement/contract. This portion of the workshop is designed to guide the
group to practice transparent discussions, make concrete decisions, and
document their group conclusions on how their group will operate.
The agreement/contract example in this workshop uses information for a
group that is preparing an oral presentation. The general structure of the
agreement/contract can be used for any group project or assignment. The
agreement/contract is a communicatively pragmatic and flexible model for faculty
or students to use to improve any type of group's overall experience, efficiency,
and effectiveness.
Workshop Objectives
By the end of this workshop, participants will be able to:
1. Identify foundational group theorists, theories, and
communication applications to group processes.
2. Name the benefits to studying group communication
and relate them to everyday life.
3. Define small groups, evaluate the advantages and
disadvantages of working in groups.
39
4. Translate theoretically based classification of group
processes to creation and application of a planned
agreement/contract to improve group communication,
efficiency, effectiveness, and member satisfaction.
5. Participate as a group member while utilizing a role
assignment.
6. Engage with the group and help generate a detailed
agreement by using communication skills written, verbal,
and listening.
7. Analyze a model agreement/contract that can apply to
a group oral presentation.
Intended Audience: Students and faculty will be the primary audience of
this workshop. Students in the workshop will learn skills to improve overall
outcomes when working in groups. Faculty in the workshop will learn a
structure for incorporating groups that will add clarity to improve student
and group learning outcomes.
Instruction Details:
The workshop is formatted to last for one hour. The script is written as a
dialogue: if the facilitator prefers to, the script can also be used as a
monologue instead of a dialogue. First the facilitator explains theoretical
applications. Next, participants are working in groups as the facilitator is
walking around to assist groups by answering questions and offering
40
suggestions. Following the group agreement/contract agreement, the
facilitator will call on a few Reporters to share their agreement details.
Announcements will be made, and certificates of completion will be issued
in email after the workshop.
Materials:
Agenda of workshop for participants
Blank group agreement/contract forms
Sample completed agreement contract
Dry erase marker/board or digital note taking method
Certificate of completion (Digital format option)
Page Break
Time Schedule Content
11:50 am–12:00 pm Facilitator arrives 10 minutes early
Greet participants as they arrive
12:00-12:05 pm Welcome participants
Distribute agenda
Document attendance (pass around an attendance
sign in sheet with name, participant information for
tracking, and email address for certificate of
completion to be emailed after session).
41
12:05-12:20 pm Facilitator Introduction
“Who here has had at least one terrible experience
working in a group?
Did one person seem to do the work? Maybe it was
something else; can you describe what happened?”
(Allow the audience to fill in some experiences).
Today, we are going to learn about group
communication and how we can intentionally handle
groups differently so that we can have successful
experiences with group presentations or group
assignments. We will learn why you want to learn
about group communication, defining what a group is,
and the advantages and disadvantages of working in
groups. We will identify a few foundational
researchers, their theories regarding groups, and how
those theories can connect to improving your group
experiences. The application will be carried out by
you taking a role assignment during the “forming
stage” which is a part of one theory we will discuss.
Groups will create an agreement/contract as a group.
This activity is a structured method that helps reduce
42
challenges that were found in theory. The method
also helps to improve communication and groups are
more effective, efficient and equitable.”
(Estimate spending 3-4 minutes on each question to follow
this timeline)
Sample answers are in italics
Q. Where do we see groups?
Write down any student answers, thank them.
A. Example answers
1. Families
2. Friendship circles
3. Sport teams
4. Committees
5. In classes
6. Work teams
Facilitator Speaking Notes
“For our purposes, a group is a small collection of
people, who interact over time to reach common
43
goals. A small group consists of 3 or more individuals.
There is not an agreement on the maximum size
(Adler, Rodman, & du Pre’,2017). However, research
suggests that the best size is the smallest number of
people who can get the task done effectively.
Generally, the larger a group becomes, the more
difficult it is to schedule meetings, manage
participation, and information.”
Q. Why would you want to study group communication?
Write down any student answers, thank them.
A. Example answers
1. To have a better
understanding of how groups
cooperate, make decisions, influence
members, accomplish goals
2. Employers indicate that
the ability to work well within a group
is in the top ten most sought-
after traits in people they hire
3. According to Maslow's
Hierarchy of Needs the benefits are
44
enormous and impact each level of
need, such as monetary rewards,
position advancement, and self-
actualization
4. Knowledge about group
communication can improve
interactions in groups, including in
academics, professional settings,
parent groups, athletic teams,
volunteer groups, etc.
Q. What are the advantages you experience when working
in a group?
Write down any student answers, thank them.
A. Advantages
1. Each member brings
unique experiences
2. More ideas are presented
45
3. Each member has
different resources and has a
connection with different people
4. This bigger collective
perspective is distinctively different
than any individual
5. Members are likely to
voice problems they see in a thought
process if they see potential
problems if they see in a thought
process if they see potential
problems and if members the group
becomes self-correcting its errors
and thinking
6. Broader perspective
enhances creativity in solutions.
7. Working in a group can be
more fun and satisfying
than working alone
8. Gives a sense
of belonging
46
9. Has been shown to reduce
communication apprehension
Q. What are disadvantages you experience when working in
a group?
B. Disadvantages
1. More time consuming
(time=expense) time to call meeting,
hear each person’s input, e.g.
2. Groups may not have a
cooperative climate
3. In
certain situations, groups may
not be productive.
4. If group is not working
leadership can be burdened
5. Imbalances in work
12:20-12:30 pm “Now that we understand how prevalent groups are
on our working and a personal life, it's best to recognize best
47
strategies for being in them and improving efficiency and
the experience for the people in them. Research about
groups has been thoroughly documented to improve group
communication and understand group processes. There are
many theorists and theories about group
communication. Today I am introducing to you two people
who conducted foundational research about groups and their
theories.” Review the following content (use marker/board)
A. Kurt Lewin (a psychologist)
“The theory of group dynamics” 1943, 1948, 1951
B. Bruce Tuckman (a psychologist and professor)
“Tuckman's theory of group development” 1965. 1975
Studied all earlier work
Used Lewin's theory as a foundation
Conducted further group research (therapy groups,
natural Groups, lab groups, e.g.)
A. Tuckman's theory of group
development classified all group processes,
including communication, based on:
1. The group setting
48
2. What is occurring in the
group-task or interpersonal?
3. The position of a group in
a hypothetical sequence (the stage
of development)
B. Initially 4 stages of development
1. Forming (uncertainty on
roles, group logistics, anxiety)
2. Storming (conflict,
personalities show, questioning)
3. Norming (group enjoyable,
cooperative, productive)
4. Performing (group flexible,
high morale, synergy, trust)
5. Adjourning (1975) (when
task is finished all move on)
“Tuckman asserted that challenges in the forming stage
were related to uncertainty of roles, and the group function.
This uncertainty can be anxiety producing. Exchanging
information, schedules, determining roles, work division,
group goals, rules, e.g., in an agreement/contract can help
49
reduce anxiety and improve group communication to
increase effectiveness, efficiency and member satisfaction.
This activity will give you an opportunity to meet in a group of
3 and complete your own group agreement/contract.”
12:30-12:45 pm “For efficiency, I will put you in groups of 3.
If you are number 1, you are assigned the Discussant role, if
you are a number 2, you are assigned the Recorder role and
I will hand you the agreement/contract packets. If you are a
3 you are the Reporter for your group. Starting here, with the
person in front on this side, you are the 1st group member,
then the person next to you is the 2nd group member, here
are your agreement/contracts, and the person next to you is
the 3rd group member. 3. Now the three of you are in a
group.” (Facilitator repeat putting people in groups of 3
according to who is the next three sitting near each other
until all are in a group of 3. If there is an odd number than a
group of 4 works-one person can be a participant and not
take a role)
1. Discussant-leads meeting
2. Recorder-writes contract details and
agreement
50
3. Reporter-communicates on behalf of the
group with facilitator and may be asked
to present agreement for 1-2 minutes
“I will explain the agreement before you begin your group
meeting.”
Remind participants to move their chairs so they are in a
circular manner to maximize listening with eye contact,
privacy, and to best hear members speak. As groups form,
walk around the room and double check that people are
proceeding by using the Discussant, Recorder, and Reporter
roles.
“Look at the contract agreement template. This is an
example of some best communication practices to do when
a group is forming to maximize success when working in
small groups. Please complete your group agreement. For
this activity you are free to make up names and information.
For this task I suggest an oral group presentation. I have
provided a sample contract that applies to an oral group
presentation in your packet if you would like to see an
example.”
51
Discuss, explain, and review each page of the agreement
example by holding up the pages for the participants to
follow along.
Group writes agreement/contract
Walk around the room to answer questions, clarify
the agreement process, or offer suggestions
“We have a few minutes left. At 12:45 I will ask for a
few Reporters to volunteer to share highlights of their
agreements with us to get some ideas on different
agreements made.”
12:45-12:50 pm Select a few reporters and ask them to read what
they consider 1-2 highlights in their contract/agreements
12:50-1:00 pm Final announcements (facilitator plan to stay after for at least
10 min.)
Facilitator will provide contact information
Certificates will be emailed to participants
Thank participants for attending
52
SUPPORT MATERIALS
Agreement (Example)
Group
members
Name
Email
Cell
Number
Preferred Method to
Communicate
Best Days/Times to
Communicate
1.Bruce
Tuckman
n/a
196-519-
7535
US Mail/Call
(no text/email)
9AM-2PM
M-F
2.Kurt Lewin
n/a
194-319-
4851
US Mail/Call
no text/email)
8AM-6PM
M-F
3. Aubrey
Fischer
n/a
194-219-
7178
US Mail/Call
no text/email)
4AM-2PM
M,W,F
4.
5.
6.
Presentation: “Three Theories in Thirty Minutes”
Due Date: 5/9
Meetings Dates: (Tuesdays) 2/23, 3/2, 3/9, 3/16, 3/23, 4/6, 4/13,4/20, 4/27, 5/4
(Spring break, no meeting 3/30)
Meetings Times: 1:00-1:45 PM
Group Members
Name
Roles/Responsibilities
1. Bruce
1. Present theory stages group develop 9 mins/2-3 slides 2.
Prepare Introduction 1 min/1 slide
Discussant, Reporter, Recorder (rotating each meeting)
2. Kurt
1. Present theory of group dynamics 9 mins/2-3 slides
2. Prepare Conclusion 1 min/1 slide
Discussant, Reporter, Recorder (rotating each meeting)
3. Aubrey
1. Present Grounded theory small groups 10 mins/2-3 slides
2. Accept content/create/edit Slides
Discussant, Reporter, Recorder (rotating each meeting)
4.
5.
53
6.
Expectations of Team Members
1. Be accountable for tasks/assignments
2. Complete work on time as assigned/agreed
3. Listen to each other
4. Give and get respect
5. Make an equal contribution to the final product as agreed
6. Let the group know about absence
7. Make your best effort
8. Ask for assistance
Goals for this project/presentation
1. Create an inform group presentation showing 3 theories about groups
2. Schedule/attend a group practice appointment for the week of presentation at
campus Speaking Center (schedule appt by meeting 4/20)
3. Slides/presentation completed 1 week prior to due date. Group do a timed
practice presentation together before practice meeting at Speaking Center
4. Presentation wear black slacks/ long sleeve dress shirt/tie option/black shoes
5. Receive an A grade individually and an A for the group work portion
Group Rules
1. Attend each meeting/be on time/stay the whole meeting
2. Rotate roles every meeting
3. No cell phone/texting during the meetings (silence cell phone, put phone on
vibrate) if a call is taken but group will stop meeting and then the meeting will be
extended the duration of that call (emergency calls will be handled and adjust
this rule if needed)
4. All final edits/work will be reviewed prior to presentation as a group to
approve
5. Bring a joke to share at open of each meeting
54
Consequences to not following agreement
1. Discussant required to mention issue in next group meeting open to
discussion
2. If an issue reoccurs/a new offense, the offender buys a group (lunch,
ice cream,eg.)
3. For new/returning offenses group brings agreement break up to class
professor
4. Group will discuss and vote if person should be dismissed (professor
updated)
5. Group will move forward with completing the group presentation with least
disruption to presentation/members (professor informed to support/mediate in
group as needed)
We have written this contract, and all agree to abide by the
goals/guidelines. I am acknowledging this by my signature below.
Printed Name Bruce Tuckman Signature Bruce Tuckman Date 2/23/21
Printed Name Kurt Lewin Signature Kurt Lewin Date 2/23/21
Printed Name Aubrey Fischer Signature Aubrey Fischer Date 2/23/21
55
Communication Group Project/Presentation Agreement
Groupmembers
Name
Email
Cell
Number
Preferred Method to
Communicate
Best Days/Times to
Communicate
1.
2.
3,
4.
5.
6.
Group Members
Name
Roles and
Responsibilities
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
56
Expectations of Team Members
*Consider discussing performance level/grade expectations of each member/the
group*
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Goals for this project/presentation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
57
Group Rules
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Consequences
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
We have written this contract, and all agree to abide by the
goals/guidelines. I am acknowledging this by my signature below.
Printed Name___________________Signature________________Date_____
Printed Name___________________Signature________________Date_____
Printed Name___________________Signature________________Date_____
Printed Name___________________Signature________________Date_____
Printed Name___________________Signature________________Date_____
Printed Name___________________Signature________________Date_____
58
PERSUASION AND NEGOTIATION WORKSHOP
THEORETICAL RATIONALE AND WORKSHOP STRUCTURE:
Persuasion is a type of communication concerned with changing a
person's attitude, intentions, behaviors, motivations, and beliefs (Gass & Seiter,
2018). Modern-day communication scholars confirm that Aristotle's rhetorical
proofs are the foundation of persuasion; ethos (credibility), pathos (emotion), and
logos (logic) are how a person is persuaded (O'Hair, Rubenstein, & Stewart,
2015). Persuasion helps us to achieve specific outcomes for specific changes
and needs that exist.
Compliance gaining is an example of persuasion. Compliance is restrictive
and is typically related to changing a person's behavior immediately. Research
on compliance-gaining behaviors is often from interpersonal communication or,
more specifically, face-to-face communication and not about one person
communicating to many, which falls under the more significant idea of
persuasion. Marwell and Schmitt (1967) were two sociologists who were the first
to use empirical evidence to classify the dimensions of compliance-gaining
behaviors. Their work inspired many articles in communication literature about
compliance-gaining messages to follow.
The purpose of this workshop is to provide time-tested tools to improve
participants' persuasive skills and to offer some compliance-gaining tactics.
There are many ways to achieve these goals; the content in this workshop
was chosen based on simplicity, successful outcomes, ethical concerns, and
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giving some variation. In addition, participation in the workshop targets the
reduction of situational communication apprehension, and audience-
based communication apprehension.
Some Persuasive strategies have proven to be successful, simple, and
timeless. Dale Carnegie wrote How to Win Friends and Influence People in 1936.
The text has over 30 million copies, making it one of the most sold books of all
time. The communication-based techniques in the book not only define the
purpose of the techniques but are also things that many would consider as kind
and courteous things to do. In one section, Carnegie classified the techniques as:
be genuinely interested in other people; smile; remember that that person's
name, to them, is the sweetest and most important word in any language; be a
good listener, encourage others to talk about themselves; talk in terms of the
other person's interest; make the other people feel important and do it sincerely.
Most of these suggestions center around communication types that require
development, except for smiling and saying a person's name. Neither of these
requires significant experience as a communicator to implement. In addition to
the success with these strategies, they are ethical; ethics can be a significant
concern in persuasive tactics. There are many compliance-gaining behaviors; in
this session we discuss three from that were listed by Gass & Seiter (2018).
These compliance-gaining behaviors are explained further in the scripts.
“Pre-giving” is about gaining favor from a person giving them something or
doing something for them before making a request.
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“Asking for the stars” (also called door-in-the-face technique) is a tactic
where a person pitching their idea or product shows the most expensive product
first.
“That’s not all” is a tactic that is practiced through the persuader throwing
in an upgrade or an additional item to make the deal look better.
One of the oldest closing strategies for handling objections (or to finalize
the sale before objections) is called “feel, felt, found.”
The workshop begins with the facilitator distributing a workshop prompt
with skeletal notes and key points before introducing Aristotle as the foundational
theorist on persuasion, the complexity of persuasion, the modern-day theoretical
perspective of compliance gaining. The facilitator introduces the traditional
challenges in persuasion (including ethical concerns) using a discussion format.
Next, the facilitator explains Six Ways to Make People Like You (Dale Carnegie,
emphasis on smiling, and using names), and three sequential techniques to
improve compliance-gaining. The final strategy that will be introduced is “feel,
felt, found”. This ancient model of closing a deal will be explained. Additionally,
the technique will be demonstrated with the new method of using a satisfied
customer as the example; instead of the traditional way where
the salesperson says they themselves felt and found.
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Workshop Objectives
By the end of this workshop, participants will be able to:
1. Define persuasive communication and identify it as
the most complex type of communication
2. Identify Aristotle’s initial rhetorical proofs as the core
of persuasion and are applied today
3. Differentiate between persuasion and
compliance gaining
4. Apply theoretical foundations in compliance gaining
5. Identify, examine, and practice techniques to gain
persuasive skills
6. Recognize three compliance gaining tactics and
apply them
7. Define a persuasive closing technique and
demonstrate using it
Intended Audience: Students are the primary audience of this workshop.
Participants will learn new persuasive techniques,
compliance gaining tactics, and learn one method to
responding to objections/closing.
Instruction Details: The workshop is formatted to last for one hour. The script is
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written with the facilitator using a discussion method for 10
minutes. If the facilitator prefers to, the script can be used as
a monologue instead of a dialogue. During the next 20
minutes the facilitator explains theoretical applications.
Participants are working in groups for 15 minutes; the
facilitator is walking around to assist groups by answering
questions and offering suggestions. The facilitator will call on
a few participants to share their technique practice and
comments. Announcements will be made at the conclusion
of the session.
Materials: Agenda of workshop for participants
Prompt for participants
Dry erase marker/board or digital note taking method
Certificates of completion (Digital format available)
Time Schedule Content
11:50am-12:00 pm Facilitator arrives 10 minutes early
Greet participants as they arrive
12:00-12:05 pm Welcome participants
Distribute agenda
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Document attendance (pass around attendance sign in
sheet with name,
participant information for tracking, and email address for
certificate of completion to be emailed after session).
12:05-12:15 pm Facilitator Introduction
“By a show of hands, can you think of a time you needed
to change someone's mind about something? Today, we will
begin by talking about persuasion and then we will move into
the subtopic of compliance gaining. Once we differentiate
those two topics, we will cover time tested skills in
persuasion you can apply to get people to like you. After that
we will cover 3 compliance gaining tactics. Finally, we will
cover a very popular method to address objections/and or
help you close a deal.
Each person has received a prompt with key point skeletal
notes and the techniques we are learning. You will be
divided into groups of 3 to practice the techniques by using
the prompt. The workshop concludes with debriefing by a
recap and encouraging comments from the participants. The
techniques practiced are pragmatic to apply in academic,
professional, or personal persuasive communication.”
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(Estimate spending 3-4 minutes on each question to follow
this timeline)
Sample answers are in italics
Q. What is your definition of persuasion?
Write down any student answers, thank them.
A. “For our purposes, persuasion is
a complex psychological process related to
changing attitude, intentions, behaviors,
motivations, and beliefs. Think of
persuasion as more of an art than a science
and it is an umbrella topic involving many
facets.”
“Modern day communication scholars confirm that Aristotle’s
rhetorical proofs are the foundation of persuasion; ethos
(credibility), pathos (emotion), and/or logos (logic) are how a
person is persuaded.”
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Q. When you hear the phrase “compliance” what do you
think of?
Write down any student answers, thank them.
A. “Compliance is more restrictive
than persuasion, it is typically related to
changing a person's behavior immediately.
Compliance gaining is a small subcategory
of persuasion, it is a concept from the broad
traditional ideas of persuasion”
“Research in compliance gaining behaviors tends to be
around influence in interpersonal or face to face
communication and not about one person communicating to
many, which falls under the larger idea of persuasion.”
“Marwell and Schmitt (1967) were two sociologists who were
the first to use empirical evidence to classify the dimensions
of compliance-gaining behaviors. Their work inspired many
articles in communication literature about compliance-
gaining messages to follow.”
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“Some Persuasive strategies have proven to be successful,
simple, and timeless. Dale Carnegie wrote How to Win
Friends and Influence People in 1936. The text has over 30
million copies, making it one of the most sold books of all
time. This book was written during the “relationship selling”
period in marketing technique history. The techniques in the
book not only provide communication intentions but they are
also kind things to do. In one section, “The Six
Ways To Make People Like You” Carnegie classified six
“liking” techniques to make people show you favor as:
1. Be genuinely interested in
other people
2. Smile
3. Remember that that person's
name, to them, is the sweetest and most
important word in any language
4. Be a good listener, encourage
others to talk about themselves
5. Talk in the terms of the other
person's interest
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6. Make the other people feel
important and do it sincerely.”
“Carnegie claimed that a person can make more friends in two
months by being interested in them, than in two years by making
them interested in you. Additionally, Carnegie asserted the only way
to make quality, lasting friendships is to learn to be genuinely
interested in them and their interests.”
“Notice that neither of these require significant experience as a
communicator to implement. This list can likely be categorized as
ethical; ethics can be a significant concern in persuasive tactics.”
“Next we will talk about three compliance gaining tactics. There are
many compliance gaining behaviors; in this session we will discuss
three.
1. “Pregiving - is gaining favor from a person giving them
something or doing something for them before making a
request. Supermarkets that hand out free samples are an
example for this. Common explanations to the effectiveness
or ineffectiveness of pregiving are physical attraction,
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perceived motives, thankfulness, impression management,
and beliefs about norms.”
“The Impacts on effectiveness/ineffectiveness
of pregiving are:
a. physical attraction
b. perceived motives
c. thankfulness
d. manage impression
e. beliefs of norms”
“Dennis Regan showed how successful pregiving can be
through a study at Stanford University where students
thought they were participating in “aesthetics”. There, they
were given a Coca-Cola. Later, the participant would see the
same person selling raffle tickets and would buy twice as
much as someone who was not given anything.”
2.“Asking for the stars” (also called door-in-the-face
technique or DITF) This a tactic where a person pitching
their idea or product shows the most expensive product first.
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This request is so big, it is often turned down, leading the
persuader to offer a second less expensive option. This
second option is what the salesperson was hoping to sell all
along. Empirical studies have been conducted since 1975 by
Robert Cialdini. The effectiveness of the DITF tactic has
been repeatedly demonstrated effective in research.
3. “That’s not all”-a tactic practiced through the persuader
throwing in an upgrade or an additional item to make the
deal look better. The salesperson does not wait to be
rejected before offering the better offer. Discounting a price
applies as part of this tactic, however, some evidence has
shown that the persuader should use this with caution
because if the discount is a large amount, it can stop a sale
from closing if the customer feels distrust or deception
(Gass & Seiter, 2018). Closing a sale can often be very
challenging. Therefore, learning to close a deal or sale is
very valuable.
“After using persuasive techniques and compliance gaining
tactics, closing a sale is still a necessary part of the
conclusion of any persuasion process. Closing can often be
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very challenging and learning to close a deal or sale is very
valuable.”
“Now, we are going to learn one very traditional popular
objection handling technique using empathy in a manner that
has been proven to be effective in closing a sale. The
method is called “feel, felt, found” and it is so old that
we don’t know who originally created it. There are
unconfirmed sources indicating that it may have been Zig
Ziglar who was an American author, speaker and
salesman.”
“Feel, felt, found-using finishing graduate school as the
example with a committee chair speaking to a
graduate student”
1. Feel - “I know how you feel about
graduate school, it is exhausting and too hard to
finish.”
2. Felt - “I felt the same way when I was in
graduate school, it was overwhelming.”
3. Found- “However, I found out that when
I just did not give up and made small goals
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every day, I was able to finish graduate school in a
reasonable time period”
“Now, this technique was updated in a manner to help the
buyer relate to another customer instead of the
salesperson attempting to relate to the buyer. This is
especially helpful if there is an age gap or other differences
between the buyer and seller. According to John Palumbo, it
is almost as if a satisfied customer just “appears” through this
technique being adjusted this way.
“The new feel, felt, found”
1. Feel - “I know how you must feel about
graduate schoolwork, you must be feeling
exhausted and that it is too hard to finish.”
2. Felt - “I just had a graduate student that
I sat on their committee send me an email last
week saying they felt graduate school was too
difficult to finish. They were so exhausted juggling
so many things and it seemed like it would never
end.”
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3. Found - “The email went on to say how
grateful they were to find out even though it was
very challenging, it was not as bad as they thought
it would be when they set daily work goals and
they were so happy to be finished now.”
“Do you hear the difference between the two examples? The
original uses the speaker as the person relating to the
other party’s situation. The newer technique uses someone
the speaker knows who is more relatable to the other party
than themselves. With that said the initial feel, felt, found is
still used frequently and successfully today.”
“Now we are going to be divided into groups for you
to get support and practice these skills using what we
learned and your prompt as a guide. After each member has
had a chance to practice each method, you can debrief and
share your thoughts about these techniques. For the sake of
efficiency, I will put you in a support group of 3. Starting
here, with the person in front on this side, you are the 1st
group member, then the person next to you is the 2nd
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group member, and the person next to you is the 3rd group
member. 3. Now the three of you are in a group.”
(Facilitator repeat putting people in groups of 3 according to
who is the next three sitting near each other until all are in a
group of 3)
Remind participants to move their chairs so they are in a
circular manner to maximize listening with eye contact,
privacy, and to best hear members speak. As groups form,
walk around the room to offer support by answering
questions or to make suggestions of how to get group
members started.
12:45-12:55 pm Select a few participants to share what compliance
technique they think they will use the most, any comments
about Carnegie's six ways to get people to like you or feel,
felt, found.
12:55-1:00 pm Final announcements (facilitator plan to stay after for at least
10 min.)
Facilitator will provide contact information
Thank participants for attending
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SUPPORT MATERIALS
(PROMPT ANSWERS AND HANDOUT)
Answers
1. psychological, beliefs
2. restrictive, immediately
3. (2.) smile, (3.) name, most important
4. favor, before
5. expensive, less expensive
6. upgrade, better
Persuasion, Compliance Gaining and Closing
1. Persuasion is a complex _____________ process related to changing attitude,
intentions, behaviors, motivations, and _________.
2. Compliance gaining is more ___________ than persuasion, it is typically
related to changing a person’s behavior _______________.
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3. Dale Carnegie wrote “Six Ways to Make People Like You”. Be genuinely
interested in other people, ______, Remember that that person's_______, to
them, is the sweetest and _____ ______ word in any language
Be a good listener, encourage others to talk about themselves
Talk in the terms of the other person's interest. Make the other people feel
important and do it sincerely.
4.“Pregiving” is gaining ________ from a person giving them something or doing
something for them ________ making a request.
5. “Asking for the stars” (also called door-in-the-face technique or DITF) a tactic
where a person pitching their idea or product shows the most___________
product first. This request is so big, it is often turned down, leading the persuader
to offer a second _____ ________ option, which was the salesperson's goal.
6.“That’s not all” is a tactic practiced when the persuader throws in an _________
or an additional item to make the deal look _________.
Group Practice
During the time in the group, you will practice incorporating these
techniques. First introducing yourself to your prospect and being mindful to
smile sincerely. Say their name back to them. You will initiate a conversation
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that allows your prospect to talk about themselves and show genuine interest
before presenting your product/idea to them. You will offer your prospect a gift
(pregiving). You will then present a “top of the line” version (Ask for the stars)
of your product/idea. When you present your product/idea to them you will be
sure it is in the best interest of the prospect and convey that as your priority.
Allow the prospect to respond. Add an additional item to make the deal look
better (that’s not all). Lastly, ask for the prospect to choose your product/item.
Move on to practice the feel, felt, found statements, and guide the
conversation to close.
During the encounter
1. Smile
2. Use name (s) of prospect
3. Give a gift
4. Present the “top of the line” version
5. Add an additional item to sweeten the deal
6. Use feel, felt, found in closing
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REDUCING AND MANAGING ANXIETY WORKSHOP
THEORETICAL RATIONALE AND WORKSHOP STRUCTURE:
Many students implicitly and explicitly express that their college public
speaking course is a class to “survive” or “endure” caused by the common fear of
public presentations. Students are often assigned presentations in a variety of
classes or see on-campus opportunities that require the ability to present well.
The Association of American Colleges and Universities (2015) asserts that oral
communication skills remain one of the most intentional learning outcomes for all
college students. A typical oral communication textbook (e.g., The Art of Public
Speaking, Lucas, 2015) dedicates about one page to address “the fear of
speaking.” Unpacking speaking anxiety and providing techniques to
reduce/manage the problem is imperative to improve outcomes in oral
communication pedagogy. If a person completes an oral communication course
yet remains uncomfortable, embarrassed, or afraid to speak, they are more likely
to avoid speaking opportunities and not feel confident or prepared professionally.
Moreover, the primary responsibility in education is to facilitate professional
preparedness. Ideally, students learn how to be confident speaking; employers
and the like will offer them new jobs or career advancement opportunities.
Surveys of employers repeatedly indicate that clear and competent
communication is more related to career success than an applicant’s area of
study. Top executives and managers in today's workplace name communication
skills high on the list of traits in people they hire.
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Western culture expects us to be able to speak in front of people - in
academics, business, and social events like weddings and funerals - not just in a
classroom. In a survey with over 9,000 people, participants were asked to write a
list of their greatest fears. The following list is the ranking of their responses:
public speaking, speaking up in a meeting or class, meeting new people, talking
to people in authority, important examination, or interview, going to parties, and
talking with strangers (Lucas, 2015). It is unquestionable that people are afraid of
communication situations in and outside of formal public speaking.
The purpose of this workshop is to help participants evaluate their
challenges with communication apprehension. In the beginning,
the facilitator introduces communication concepts regarding speaking and
communication anxieties, defines public speaking anxiety (PSA) and
communication apprehension (CA). Further, explains ways these communication
anxieties affect us, what we can do about addressing CA, by using a discussion-
based format. Next, the facilitator explains the group activity, the role assignment
for the activity, and then divides participants into groups of 3. In groups,
participants will follow a prompt (provided) to recap what they have learned,
share their own experiences, and set goals for the coming week to practice
applying the physiological, cognitive, and behavioral techniques. An example
plan of goals is included to give participants a clear frame of
reference. This portion of the workshop is designed to guide the individuals in the
group to transparent discussions, receive relief, and support through sharing (a
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“me too” moment) and make concrete goals with a documented plan of action to
apply the following week. This workshop targets reducing traitlike communication
apprehension and situational communication apprehension.
Workshop Objectives
By the end of this workshop participants will be able to:
1. Identify two foundational theories related to
speaking anxiety
2. Define communication apprehension and public
speaking anxiety, additionally, understand the differences
between them.
3. Recognize the advantages to reducing/managing
communication apprehension
4. Describe the physiological, cognitive, and behavioral
impacts of communication apprehension
5. Evaluate their individual experience with
communication apprehension and create a plan to
manage/reduce communication using an intentional
holistic approach
6. Practice implementing psychological, cognitive, and
behavioral methods to manage/reduce
communication apprehension
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Intended Audience: Students and faculty will be the primary audience of this
workshop. Students and faculty in the workshop will learn
about communication apprehension, how it affects them, and
what they can do to manage or reduce it. Instructors may
learn these techniques to help manage their own
communication apprehension while teaching and/or to help
their students in their classes reduce communication
apprehension.
Instruction Details: The workshop is formatted to last for one hour. The script
is written as a dialogue: if the facilitator prefers to, the script
can also be used as a monologue instead of a dialogue.
During the next 15 minutes, the facilitator explains
theoretical applications. Participants are working in groups
for 20 minutes; the facilitator is walking around to assist
groups by answering questions and offering suggestions. At
the end of the group session, the facilitator will ask a few
participants to share what they learned about their own
communication apprehension and some goals they set in the
group to reduce/manage it. Announcements will
be made, and certificates of completion will be issued.
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Materials: Agenda of workshop for participants
Participant prompt (key point skeletal notes, goal setting
section)
Dry erase marker/board or digital note taking method
Certificates of completion (emailed)
Time Schedule Content
11:50 am-12:00 pm Facilitator arrives at least 10 minutes before the workshop
begins. Greet participants as they arrive.
12:00-12:05 Welcome participants
Distribute agenda
Document attendance (pass around an attendance sign in
sheet with name, participant information for tracking, and
email address for certificate of completion to be emailed
after session).
12:05-12:20 Facilitator Introduction
“By showing a thumbs up, have you experienced feeling
uncomfortable from public speaking? What about talking on
the phone or speaking in class? Fears about speaking are
seen to a certain degree in every culture across the globe
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(McCroskey, 2004). Speaking anxiety affects
your physiological (body), cognitive (thinking), and behaviors
in a negative way. When I say behaviorally, I am referring to
the fact many people adjust their behaviors by avoiding
speaking situations altogether-often missing wonderful
opportunities personally, academically, and professionally.
Today, we will be learning about foundational theories about
communication apprehension and public speaking anxiety.
We will learn the differences of the two and focus on
communication apprehension; what it does to us and what
we can do about it from psychological, cognitive, and
behavior angles. Before you leave today, you will be able to
engage in an active plan on reducing your communication
apprehension.”
(Facilitator, if desired, talk for 1-2 minutes about a personal
experience with communication apprehension to help relate
to your audience)
“First, let us think about what happens to our physiology, our
body, when we are afraid of speaking, for example our heart
rate. Getting to our first question...”
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(Estimate spending 3-4 minutes on each question to follow
this timeline)
Sample answers are in italics
Q. In what ways can fear affect our physiology (body)?
Write down any student answers, thank them.
A. Physiological responses
1. Heart racing
2. Difficulty
breathing/shallow breathing
3. Sweaty palms
4. Body shaking
5. Vision changes
(seeing spots, tunnel
vision, etc…)
6. Upset stomach
(nausea, vomiting, pain, bowel
disruptions)
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7. Lightheaded
(extreme cases losing
consciousness)
8. Skin changes
(hives, rashes)
9. Ringing in ears
“Our physiology can change depending on how the speaker
feels that day, what the occasion is, who is in the audience,
the size of the audience, etc.”
“Now let's think about what happens to you cognitively when
you are afraid of speaking, getting to our next question…”
Q. What thoughts go through your mind when you are afraid
to speak?
Write down any student answers, thank them.
A. Cognitive responses
1. Ruminating
conscious thoughts such as
“I hate public speaking” or “I
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always forget what to say” or
“Remember last time when….”
2. Subconscious
thoughts which we are not aware
of (more powerful than
conscious). Subconscious
thoughts are based on literal
messages our minds picked up
on at any given moment of
our lives
“Think about the ways people act differently when they are
afraid to speak.”
Q. How do you or people adjust their behavior when they are
afraid to speak?
Write down any student answers, thank them
A. Behavioral responses
1. Avoid speaking in class/meetings
2. Avoid public speaking
3. Avoid jobs/business that require speaking
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4. Avoid phone calls
4. Avoid parties/events/limit friendships
5. Avoid beneficial networking opportunities
Q. Why would you want to work on being more comfortable
in speaking situations?
Write down any student answers, thank them.
A.
1. More opportunities (communication)
(networking, superior interview skills, increase in
chance of hire, employment advancement)
2. Many people do not like to speak; therefore, if you
are comfortable with it, you stand out significantly
in many situations (personal, academic,
professional)
3. Increase your self-esteem, feel better and
more confident
4. You may be able to help someone else by sharing
your experience
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12:20-12:30 pm “Now that we about ways that we approach speaking affects
our lives. Research about the fear of speaking is
thoroughly documented. We often hear the terms “public
speaking anxiety” and “communication apprehension”
interchanged as if they are the same thing, but in fact they
are different. Originally, James McCroskey conducted
research and published findings and created measurement
scales about public speaking anxiety
(PSA). McCroskey defined PSA as “the intense worry and
fear that a person experiences when delivering or preparing
to speak to an audience. Public speaking anxiety
is sometimes referred to as stage fright or communication
apprehension; however, CA is a much broader
term. In observations, McCroskey realized students who
suffered the most anxiety regarding communication struggled
with more than just anxiety from public speaking. For
instance, some students in class would not want to talk at all.
Eventually, McCroskey and his colleagues realized what
they were observing was a type of communication anxiety
that could happen with interpersonal communication, small
group communication, mass communication, or public
speaking. McCroskey coined the term “communication
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apprehension” and defined it as “an individual's level of fear
or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated
communication with an individual or individuals.”
Today we are focusing on C and the following information
gives the reasons why. In a survey of 9,000 when people
wrote out their greatest fears list, they had several different
fears about communication participants were asked to write
out a list of their greatest fears. These are their answers and
in the ranking of their responses: Public speaking; speaking
up in a meeting or class; meeting new people; talking to
people in authority; important examination or interview; going
to parties; talking with strangers (Lucas, 2015). Because
research has identified that people are afraid of more than
just public speaking, we will use a broader perspective today
and use a holistic (mind, body, behavior) approach that will
help to manage and reduce a variety of types of
communication fears. We discussed earlier the ways CA can
negatively impact our physiology, cognitive, and behavior.
Now, we will discuss how we can try successful approaches
in each of these areas to help us manage and reduce our
CA.”
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I. Physiological/Body Responses
“First, we will talk about reducing/managing the
physiological/body responses to the fear of speaking. Many
things can help people calm down before
speaking. Dr. Flome, a psychology professor at Victor Valley
College in Victorville, California, created and published one
breathing technique that works universally if a person follows
the instructions. It works because it forces your body to
change its state. The breathing technique is called
5,5,5. When we are afraid or upset, the logical part of our
brain shuts down. We forget our lines; our symptoms can
worsen. This method induces a dual neurological state
called alpha-gamma; it is a very relaxed state where you are
alert to perform optimally. People in alpha-gamma state
perform their best. You simply breathe into the count of 5
seconds. Hold your breath for 5 seconds, and then blow out
your breath for 5 seconds. Repeat this 5 times. Let’s practice
this now.”
(Facilitator- hold up one hand and count off out loud and use
your fingers to guide the group)
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SAY “Breathe in through your nose 1,2,3,4,5. Now hold your
breath 1,2,3,4,5. Now blow out your breath from your mouth
1,2,3,4,5. (Pause for 5 seconds while participants can
process how they feel in that moment)
“Notice how you feel.”
II. Cognitive/Mind
SAY “Next, we will talk about managing/reducing the fear
that impacts your cognitive/mind. I want you to think about
what you are thinking about. What are you thinking about
when you are afraid to speak? One technique that can help
reshape CA is to create a new narrative by using
affirmations and put the new thoughts in simple sentences.
Here are a few examples:
a. I love speaking
b. My speaking is improving
c. People love hearing me speak
d. I am very comfortable speaking
You use these affirmations by writing them down, speaking
to them out loud, and/or listening to your voice replaying a
recording of you saying them. When you create your own
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affirmations, I suggest you keep them as positive
statements. You can write them a few times or many times.
The idea is you are working towards reprogramming your
mind to a new way of thinking. You can also use these
affirmations to do “mirror work”. You look in the mirror and
say these things to yourself. This may be something to
consider, especially if you have a high stakes presentation or
possibly an interview for your dream job. An additional
cognitive technique to reduce/manage CA is to use
visualization. Imagine your speech, presentation, or
interview going exactly the way you want it to; hold
that image as long as you are able in your mind. At first, it
may feel silly when you do these techniques. Many express
these techniques have been a part of them overcoming or
managing their apprehension about communicating or public
speaking.”
III. Behaviors
“Now, I will explain changes in behavior that people often
make when they have suffered from the symptoms we talked
about with their body or thinking. I encourage you to do
something different. Get support. Instead of avoiding
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speaking situations, you can reduce CA by increasing
practice and getting support by seeking help from others.
These are some ideas.”
1. Visit the Speaking Center at JHBC
The Speaking Center at JHBC has
Communication Consultants who are graduate
students with advanced communication skills.
They offer 45-minute consultations where you
can get help with any part of a presentation,
which will improve your confidence.
Preparation and practice are two things that
have been found to decrease communication
apprehension. In addition, consultants also can
help you with communication apprehension.
2. Visit a Toastmasters club
Toastmasters, International (TI) is a
fun/professional speaking organization. TI is a
worldwide organization that has clubs
everywhere. The clubs meet weekly or
biweekly to learn and practice speaking skills in
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a supportive group in a way that is enjoyable.
3. Join a campus speaking club (Forensics and
Debate e.g.)
There are campus clubs that are centered
around practicing speaking, such as Forensics
and Debate. This is another opportunity
to practice your communication skills.
4. Form an informal group
Ask a few fellow students to form a support
group to practice speaking and give each other
feedback. This can be a short- or long-
term support.
5. The Career Center at CSUSB
This office helps with mock interviews/role play
with a focus on successful interviewing and
getting hired.
12:30-12:45 pm “Now, we are going to be divided into support groups for you
to share some of your experiences with CA reflecting on the
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questions after the skeletal notes. After each member has
had a chance to share, you will each decide on a plan of
action for you to work toward reducing/managing your CA.
On your worksheet, there is a prompt to guide your group
discussion and a place for you to write your goals. For
efficiency, I will put you in a support group of 3.
Starting here, with the person in front on this side, you are
the 1st group member, then the person next to you is the
2nd group member, and the person next to you is the 3rd
group member. 3. Now the three of you are in a group.”
(Facilitator repeat putting people in groups of 3 according to
who is the next three sitting near each other until all are in a
group of 3.)
Remind participants to move their chairs so they are in a
circular manner to maximize listening with eye contact,
privacy, and to best hear members speak. As groups form,
walk around the room to offer support by answering
questions or to make suggestions of how to get group
members started.
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12:45-12:55 pm Select a few participants to share what the most
significant observations
today and what goals they will be applying after they leave.
12:55-1:00 pm Final announcements (facilitator plan to stay after for at least
10 min.)
Facilitator will provide contact information
Certificates will be emailed to participants
Thank participants for attending
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SUPPORT MATERIALS
Reducing and Managing Anxiety Workshop
Personal Reflections
Question: What types of communication do I feel apprehensive about?
Phone calls___ Talking to people in authority___
Public speaking___ Interviews___
Speaking in a meeting or class ___Interacting at parties___
Meeting new people___ Talking with strangers___
Group time -As you are comfortable, share answers to #1 Personal Reflections
with your support group. After each person has shared move on to complete #2
below. After you have finished, as you are comfortable, share with the group the
approaches you are committed to practicing.
Question: What approaches am I willing to apply in my life to reduce/manage my
communication apprehension?
Physiological
5,5,5___
Other___________________________________
Cognitive
Creating affirmations ___
Writing affirmations ___
Mirror work with affirmations ___
Recording/replaying affirmations ___
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Behavioral
Attend an appointment with the Speaking Center at JHBC ___
Visit a Toastmasters International club___
Get information about the Forensic and Debate club___
Find a few people interested to form an informal speaking support group___
Which of these approaches are you willing to commit to doing within the next
week?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Which of these approaches are you willing to commit to doing within the next
month?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Name: _____________________
Major: _____________________
Email: _____________________
The Speaking Center at JHBC
Email: [email protected]
Website: https://www.csusb.edu/speaking-center-jhbc
Toastmasters International
Website: https://www.toastmasters.org/
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SPEAKING ON THE SPOT WORKSHOP
THEORETICAL RATIONALE AND WORKSHOP STRUCTURE:
Impromptu speaking is defined as “done without being planned, organized
or rehearsed” and it is the type of oral communication we use the most. Earlier
studies showed it is one of the most ignored types of speech in classes, including
public speaking courses and textbooks (Bytwerk, 1985). However, some Public
Speaking classes do practice impromptu speaking exercises in the
course. Preston (1990) asserted that training in impromptu speaking allows
“important practical experiences to prepare students to communicate intelligently
on the spur of the moment beyond the classroom into society.”
One can argue that communication education, or education in general, is
missing an opportunity to develop students' communication skills and confidence
through setting aside time to practice impromptu speaking. Impromptu speaking
is an imperative and prevalent type of speech. As discussed in previous
workshops, people are afraid of more than public speaking (Lucas, 2015). When
people were surveyed, many people listed different types of impromptu speaking
on their greatest fears list, in addition to public speaking.
The purpose of this workshop is to inform participants about the
importance of practicing impromptu speaking as a pragmatic way to improve
communication skills. Impromptu speaking acts as an underpin to all aspects of
good public speaking; swift thinking, sound argumentation, organization,
strategic word selection, and engaged delivery. Furthermore, it is a way to help
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build confidence and reduce communication apprehension, another pressing
communication matter which often takes low or no priority in public speaking
courses.
There are two main areas of research in impromptu speaking. The first,
primarily focuses on the relationship between invention and memory; the second,
focuses on the arrangement of speech. Aristotle's theory of rhetorical proof has
pragmatic and broader offerings to impromptu speaking (Duke, 2015).
Regardless of what method is applied to impromptu speaking or if there is no
method applied and a student is engaging with speaking in a fun class
impromptu game, students benefit from the experience
(Bytwerk,1985). Bytwerk suggested six different impromptu exercises; each of
them only requires a brief period and students usually enjoy them, making them
more effective and practicing skills used in every type of speaking.
5 IMPROMPTU EXERCISES APPLIED IN THIS SESSION (BYTWERK,1985):
A short notice topic: Each participant is given a slip of paper and is
asked to write a topic (serious or not, the facilitator should plan the topic in
advance.)
A serial speech: One participant starts to tell a story and speaks for 30
seconds to one minute, the next person picks up where the first speaker left off,
and so on.
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Two people speaking at once: Two people deliver a 30 second- or one-
minute speech at the same time. This persuades students to speak with energy
and enthusiasm. The audience can vote for the best speaker and that winner
goes to the next round. This can be a loud but enjoyable game.
Pull an item out of a bag: The instructor or facilitator puts random items
in a paper bag (a stapler, a sock, a rock, a clothes pin, e.g.). Participants reach
into the bag and pull out the first thing they feel and proceed to give a persuasive
speech convincing the audience they need to purchase the item.
A desperate situation: The instructor describes a desperate situation.
You are about to be suspended for your low grades and for repeatedly playing
practical jokes in your classes, you have two minutes to persuade the appeals
board to give you another chance.
The workshop begins with the facilitator defining impromptu speaking,
explaining the importance, benefits of practice, and pointing out this type of
speech is not usually a main practice in classes. Foundational theory and
research about impromptu speaking will be introduced. Participants will be
divided into groups of 5 to practice impromptu games using a prompt. Then, the
audience will reform as one group and engage in one impromptu speaking game
where each person will participate. The workshop concludes with debriefing by a
recap and encouraging comments from the participants. Participants will learn
some ways they can continue practicing impromptu skills in fun and supportive
environments. The impromptu speaking practice in the sessions helps to
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develop all aspects of oral communication, which improve confidence; therefore,
the practice also can reduce communication apprehension. This workshop
targets reducing context-based communication apprehension and situational
communication apprehension.
Workshop Objectives
By the end of this workshop, participants will be able to:
1. Identify impromptu speaking pragmatically and as
an event
2. Evaluate connections of impromptu speaking and
communication apprehension
3. List benefits of impromptu speaking practice to
benefit themselves
4. Describe theoretical perspectives and a set of norms
created in academics
5. Combine theoretically based techniques with applied
methods to create a simple, enjoyable, and flexible approach to
improving impromptu speaking
6. Construct their own impromptu responses
7. Organize and deliver a variety of
impromptu responses
Intended Audience: Faculty and students will benefit from this session.
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Students will be the primary audience for this workshop and
learn value in gaining impromptu speaking skills to increase
their confidence. Participants will be given opportunities to
practice impromptu speaking in a fun and supportive
environment. Faculty will view exercises to implement
impromptu speaking development into communication
across the disciplines.
Instruction Details: This workshop is written with the facilitator using a
discussion method format for 15 minutes. The following 15
minutes is when the facilitator explains research and
theoretical applications. The next 15 minutes, participants
are working in groups following a prompt where small groups
engage in a small group game practicing impromptu
speaking. The facilitator walks around the room to offer
support through praise and encouragement to individuals
and groups. The groups rejoin as one audience and engage
in a group impromptu speaking game.
Materials: Agenda of workshop for participants
Dry erase marker/board or digital note taking method
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Certificates of completion (sent by email after session is
recommended)
Time Schedule Content
11:50 am Facilitator arrives at least 10 minutes before the workshop
begins.
Greet participants as they enter.
12:00-12:05 pm Welcome participants
Document attendance (pass around attendance sign in
sheet with name,
participant information for tracking, and email address for
certificate of completion to be emailed after session).
12:05-12:15 pm Facilitator Introduction
“By a show of hands, who here has taken an
oral communication or public speaking class or had to give a
presentation at some point? Has anyone here participated
on a debate or forensics team?”
“Today we will learn more about how impromptu speaking
helps build public speaking and find out how we can practice
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impromptu skills to improve our overall communication
skills.”
(Estimate spending 3-4 minutes on each question to follow
this timeline)
Sample answers are in italics
Q. What were the primary things you learned or might learn
in a public speaking class?
Write down any student answers, thank them.
A. Public Speaking Classes usually teach students
1. audience analysis
2. ethics in public
speaking
3. speech
organization
4. content information
“Public speaking is generally taught through 4-10 formal
speeches delivery extemporaneously (spoken
conversationally), written/planned, practiced, a few notes”
“Think of all of the different formal and informal places you
may need to speak.”
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Q. “What are the different types of speaking that you do or
have done?”
Write down any student answers, thank them
A. Speaking in class or in a
meeting at work
1. Job interview
2. Meeting new
people
3. Public speaking
4. Phone calls
5. Checkout person in
stores
6. Conversations with
different people (friends, family,
e.g.)
12:15-12:25 “Notice how many of these types in our everyday lives are
impromptu speaking. Impromptu speaking acts as a
foundation to all aspects of good public speaking; swift
thinking, sound argumentation, organization, strategic word
selection, and engaged delivery. Practicing impromptu
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speaking is a way to help build confidence and reduce
communication apprehension, which is another pressing
communication matter that often takes low or no priority in
public speaking courses.”
It is common to hear people share that public speaking is the
(or their) greatest fear. People have said in surveys they are
also afraid of other types of impromptu speaking, like
meeting people or talking at parties.
Practicing impromptu speaking helps to build confidence and
reduce communication apprehension, another pressing
communication matter which often takes low or no priority in
public speaking courses.
Research on impromptu speaking is scarce and outdated.
This is partially due to the fact scholars' struggle with
theoretical development to something that is constantly
shifting as one impromptu speech is almost never identical
to another. The common thread in impromptu speaking (as
an event) is that there is a time limit.
Two main areas of research in impromptu speaking
1. Focuses on the relationship
between invention and memory
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a. Bury (1999) use a
notebook, metaphorical examples
will come naturally
b. Dean (1987) borrows
from Quintillion’s concept
of copia impromptu requires mastery
of memory and quick recall. Speaker
should develop a stockpile of
examples and arguments that are
familiar to be quickly and
easily retrieved
c. Boon (1987) participants
should come up with metaphors, put
in a notebook with several examples
that can be metaphorically related to
the topic. Creativity is key
2. Focuses on the arrangement
of speech
a. Common in tournaments,
more complex than argument by
example (Carroll, 1998). Dominant
mode of organizing the speech
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centers on the use of an introduction
with an example, the
quotation, interpretation, and
preview. The body contains two
arguments with two examples each
and a conclusion that is the inverse
of the introduction.
3. Aristotle's theory of rhetorical
proof has pragmatic and broader
offerings to impromptu speaking
(Duke, 2015). Some main points:
a. Aristotle preferred placing
arguments first then support after
b. Pointed out
analogies/metaphors are easy for
philosophers and academics to
understand, not necessarily all.
c. It is easier for people to
understand examples directly
related. The audience must be
considered (Boone’s creativity is not
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relevant if people cannot
understand)
“Impromptu as an event is difficult to pin down. It can happen
at any time like when you have been looking for a job and
you just realized you have a friend of a friend that is hiring
someone for a position you really want. You need to be
able to feel comfortable enough to introduce yourself, speak
about your experience and ask for what you want.”
“Impromptu speaking practice does not have to be
complicated to be beneficial. We are going to apply some
examples of impromptu exercises.”
1. A short notice topic: Each participant is
given a slip of paper and is asked to write a topic
(serious or not, the facilitator should plan the topic
in advance.)
2. Two people speaking at once: Two
people deliver a 30 second- or one-minute speech
at the same time. This persuades students to
speak with energy and enthusiasm. The audience
110
can vote for the best speaker and that winner goes
to the next round. This can be a loud but enjoyable
game.
3. Pull an item out of a bag: The instructor
or facilitator puts random items in a paper bag (a
stapler, a sock, a rock, a clothes pin, e.g.)
Participants reach into the bag and pull out the
first thing they feel and proceed to give a
persuasive speech convincing the audience they
need to purchase the item.
4. A desperate situation: The instructor
describes a desperate situation. You are about to
be suspended for your low grades and for
repeatedly playing practical jokes in your classes,
you have two minutes to persuade the appeals
board to give you another chance.
5. A serial speech: One participant starts
to tell a story and speaks for 30 seconds to one
minute, the next person picks up where the first
speaker left off, and so on.
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12:25-12:45 pm “In just a few minutes, we are going to divide you up into
groups of 3. I am passing around a list of 5 different types of
impromptu speech games. You will play the first 4 games in
your group following the prompt. On the bottom of
the prompt, you will see some suggestions on ways to
answer impromptu situations, if you want ideas. The
objective is to engage, have a good time and this is not
about a right or wrong way to impromptu speak, this is about
practice.
“Since there is some fear connected with this method it
induces a dual neurological state called alpha-gamma; it is
a very relaxed state where you are alert to perform optimally.
People in alpha-gamma state perform their best. You simply
breathe into the count of 5 seconds. Hold your breath for 5
seconds, and then blow out your breath for 5 seconds.
Repeat this 5 times. Let us practice this now.”
(Facilitator, when leading the group in the breathing exercise
below, hold up one hand and count off out loud and use your
fingers to guide the group in their breaths)
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“Breathe in through your nose 1,2,3,4,5. Now hold your
breath 1,2,3,4,5. Now blow out your breath from your mouth
1,2,3,4,5. (Pause for 5 seconds while participants can
process how they feel in that moment)
Notice the way you feel after doing 5,5,5.”
“Now I will divide you up into groups of 3. Starting here, with
the person in front on this side, you are the 1st group
member, then the person next to you is the 2nd group
member, the person next to you is the 3rd group member.
Now the three of you are in a group.”
Facilitators repeat putting people in groups of 3 according to
who is the next five sitting near each other until all are in a
group of 3. Larger groups can be used if desired or needed.
Ideally, the groups will have 3-5 people in them. Remind
participants to move their chairs so they are in a circular
manner to maximize listening with eye contact, privacy, and
to best hear members speak. As groups form and begin to
go through the prompt and start engaging in the impromptu
exercises, walk around the room, observe, and offer
suggestions if needed.
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12:45 -12:55 pm Groups engage with prompt exercises 1-4 or until allotted
time is over.
12:55-1:00 pm “That is all the time we have for group exercises. Now we
are going to end our session with one final exercise to
participate in as a group. This is a serial impromptu exercise
where we will introduce the person next to you and say their
name. After you say their name, you will say something about
them or how you met them, something completely made up.
So, for example, I might say (speak to an imaginary friend
next to you), “Hi everyone, this is my friend Chris. I met Chris
at the mall when he was trying to buy a manikin at Hot Topic.
He was arguing with the manager that it should not cost one
thousand dollars to buy the manikin. Then Chris might say
“Yes, that was such a crazy day, and I got that manikin for
ten dollars after I told the manager I was
related to Taylor Swift. But y’all, I really want to introduce to
you my friend Roman, he is applying to be an astronaut in the
upcoming NASA space program, and so on. We will go all
around the room. Have fun with this.”
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(Facilitator begins and motion with hand who will speak after
you-start from one side of the room)
1:00 pm Final announcements (facilitator plan to stay after for at
least 10 min.)
Facilitator will provide contact information
Thank participants for attending
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SUPPORT MATERIALS PROMPT
1. Pull an item out of a bag: The instructor or facilitator puts random
items in a paper bag (a stapler, a sock, a rock, a clothes pin, e.g.)
Participants reach into the bag and pull out the first thing they feel and
proceed to give a persuasive speech convincing the audience they
need to purchase the item.
2. A desperate situation: The instructor describes a desperate
situation. You are about to be suspended for your low grades and for
repeatedly playing practical jokes in your classes, you have two
minutes to persuade the appeals board to give you another chance.
3. A serial speech: One participant starts to tell a story and speaks for
30 seconds to one minute, the next person picks up where the first
speaker left off, and so on.
A breathing exercise to practice: Breathe into the count of 5 seconds. Hold
your breath for 5 seconds, and then blow out your breath for 5 seconds. Repeat
this 5 times.
Tips from a club within Toastmasters International
(a worldwide speaking organization)
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Suggested impromptu speaking methods to consider incorporating
a. Restate the question (works as a good
introduction).
b. Restate the problem/discuss
possible solutions.
c. Take time to think (embrace silence to
think, people will appreciate your
thoughtfulness. There is “power in the
pause”).
d. You may list pros and cons, discuss past
and present, broaden the topic.
e. Be enthusiastic (makes a difference)
f. Open with a smile and enthusiasm, even
if you don’t know what you are going to
say exactly.
g. State your answer as best as you can
h. Summarize what you said
i. Do your best to end with a
strong conclusion
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NETWORKING/LISTENING WORKSHOP
THEORETICAL RATIONALE AND WORKSHOP STRUCTURE:
Many sources assert that most jobs are never actually advertised but are
filled by word-of-mouth (Cash &Stewart, 2011). Networking seems to be the most
successful way to locate positions before jobs become available to the public.
Surveys have confirmed that somewhere between 41 to 80 percent of applicants
have gotten their jobs by networking; it goes back to the old saying, “It’s not what
you know but who you know.” There are several important components involved
in successful networking. How well you know who you know will depend on many
factors. Listening is one multiplex communication skill that is very important in this
process. However, here we begin by assessing the basic concept of
networking.
How do people go about networking? Some start by writing out a network
tree where you apply a method of organization to compiling information from
people you know. This compilation includes names, contact information, and
other specific details which may have been collected (e.g., what their position is,
the company they work for.). These people may include relatives, friends,
colleagues, acquaintances, neighbors, co-workers, friends from high school,
college, church, and the gym. When you do have your network in some sort of
order, you re-establish your relationship with each person and are more
intentional in conversation with them. Importantly, one should not start by
asking for help, rather engage in informal “catching up.” It is important the
communication process is intentional and does not include interference, to
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maximize the benefit for both parties. You would not want to be distracted by
something in the room or going on in the environment. Keep in mind that at the
core, networking is the belief that every person has something to learn and gain
from networking as an event or networking during normal day to day to
interactions.
When you do have a conversation with the person within your network,
you do not want to say, “I am looking for a different job”, instead, you do want to
say, “I am looking for a position as a bank manager.” You should share what your
situation is and your goals. When you get some information about a potential
lead, you should write down the full name, position, organization, and phone
number under the contact’s name so you know who suggested the lead and ask
if you can use the contacts name. When you do request help, be specific.
Although there are many ways to network in person, social media, websites,
career centers, and employment agencies are all networking tools that you do
not want to overlook. Networking is an imperative part of career life. However,
there is one communication element that is a building block which can keep
people from successful networking if they are not intentional in its use: listening.
People often think of listening and hearing as the same thing. Hearing is
defined as the vibration of the sound waves on the eardrums and the firing of
electrochemical impulses in the brain. Listening is defined as paying
close attention to, and making sending of, what we hear (Lucas, 2015). When we
are listening carefully, we only actually grasp 50% and after 24 hours, it’s 10%.
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Most of us only listen at about 25% efficiency. Furthermore, we spend more time
listening than any other communicative activity; more than reading, writing, or
speaking. Moreover, we do not have a class in academics solely dedicated to
teaching listening; having better listening skills will improve our networking,
making this an important workshop.
One of the reasons lack of listening does not always seem like a problem is
because people practice pseudo listening. Pseudo listening is fake listening
where people can have wandering minds, yet, have a habit of giving nonverbals
that they are engaged. Common nonverbal behaviors of pseudo listening can be
nodding, smiling, and making eye contact with the speaker. This is especially
problematic due to the fact it often misleads the speaker to believing the
communication process has not had interference.
There are many other logical reasons that motivate people to practice
bettering their listening skills. Students with best grades usually have the
strongest listening skills and top business performers have excellent listening
skills. Being a good listener means less mistakes at work. One study says over
60% of errors made in business come from poor listening (Lucas, 2015). How
can we improve our listening skills so that we can be competent communicators
and improve our networking experiences? First, notice that you have room for
improvement by developing this communication skill. Next, be aware of
the causes of poor listening. Four primary causes of poor listening are listening
too hard, jumping to conclusions, focusing on delivery, and personal appearance.
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To take listening seriously, there are several things you will need to practice.
Being an active listener means you will give undivided attention and genuine
effort to understand the speaker's point of view, resist distractions, not be
preoccupied by appearance, suspend judgement, and take some key word
notes. All these skills will help you improve your overall communication skills for
personal and professional developments.
The purpose of this workshop is to draw attention to the importance of
networking and draw attention to the connection between successful networking
and using superior listening skills. Furthermore, this session will provide methods
to practicing active listening in networking situations that can be applied in all
areas of communication. This workshop will begin with a discussion of the
importance of networking and give a general idea of how it is done. This will be
followed why active listening is imperative. The differences between listening and
hearing will be explained, things that interfere with listening, and ways we can
improve our skills. In this session we will break out the audience and practice a
real networking situation following a prompt. The breakout
networking portion provides a real-life networking situation where individuals can
practice what they have just learned about active listening and apply it to the
communication process to include creating their own responses reflecting in
active listening techniques. This workshop targets
reducing situational communication apprehension, audience-based
communication apprehension, and context-based communication
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apprehension. The knowledge and practice acquired in the breakout networking
practice can provide communication skills that benefit not only professional
developments but also interpersonal communication.
Workshop Objectives
By the end of this workshop, participants will be able to:
1. Identify what networking is and the importance of it in
professional development
2. Summarize basic steps to creating a network tree
3. Identify theoretical perspectives and research
about networking
4. Examine correlations in networking and listening
5. Recognize what listening is and give examples of its
role in professional development
6. Distinguish the differences between listening
and hearing
7. Recognize theoretical perspectives and research
about listening
8. Summarize problems that interfere with active
listening and learn techniques for improving active listening
skills.
9. Apply effective networking and listening practices in
an actual networking situation
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Intended Audience: Students will be the primary audience of this workshop.
Students will learn that networking is a key component that
can improve their career development. In addition, they will
understand the basics of how to organize a network tree and
how to obtain maximum utilization of their networking
opportunities, and career advancement, through improving
their active listening skills. Faculty can benefit by thinking
more deeply about how they teach and talk about
networking.
Instruction Details: This workshop is written with the facilitator using
a discussion method format for 15 minutes. The following 15
minutes the facilitator explains research and theoretical
applications. The next 15 minutes participants participate in
a networking event following where the audience engages in
practicing active listening skills. The facilitator walks around
the room to offer support through praise and
encouragement. The session closes with the
facilitator debriefing and calling on participants to offer their
comments on the networking experience or what they
learned in the workshop.
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Materials: Agenda of workshop for participants
Dry erase marker/board or digital note taking method
Certificates of completion (sent by email after session is
recommended)
Time Schedule Content
11:50 am Facilitator arrives at least 10 minutes before the workshop
begins.
Greet participants as they arrive
12:00-12:05 pm Welcome participants
Distribute agenda
Document attendance (pass around an attendance sign in
sheet with name, participant information for tracking, and
email address for certificate of completion to be emailed
after session).
12:05-12:20 pm Facilitator Introduction
“Who here can complete the following phrase, “It is not
what you know but ____ you know? (Let the audience say
“who”) Sometimes when people hear this, they seem
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skeptical. The fact is that many sources assert that most
jobs are never actually advertised but are filled by word-of-
mouth (Cash & Stewart, 2011). Networking seems to be the
most successful way to locate positions before they are
available to the public. Surveys have confirmed
that somewhere between 41 to 80 percent of applicants
have gotten their jobs by networking, which confirms some
truth to that old saying, “It’s not what you know but who you
know.” There is a lot involved in networking. How well you
know who you know will depend on many factors. Listening
is one multiplex communication skill very important in this
process. In today’s workshop we are learning how important
networking is, some basics to creating a network tree, and
then we will learn about listening in a way that will maximize
your chances at successful networking. You will have an
opportunity during this session to apply the knowledge you
gain through practice for an actual
breakout networking portion. This practice is
situated to provide communication skills that improve
professional developments and apply to interpersonal
interactions. First, we begin by discussing the basic concept
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of networking. Let us think about what it is and begin a
conversation there.
(Estimate spending 3-4 minutes on each question to follow
this timeline)
Sample answers are in italics
Q. What do you think of when you think of when you hear
the term “networking”?
Write down any participant answers, thank them.
A. Webster's dictionary definition of
networking: the exchange of information or
services among individuals, groups, or
institutions: specifically: the cultivation of
productive relationships for employment or
business
Q. Other than getting a good job or a business deal, where do
we practice networking?
Write down any participant answers, thank them.
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A. Sharing knowledge/resources for
mutual benefits
a. Neighborhood watch
groups
b. Schools
c. Workplaces
(jobs/business)
d. Support groups
e. Nonprofit organizations
“At the core of networking is the belief that every
person has something to learn and gain from being
active in this type of communication, whether it is as
an event or in normal activities of daily life. How do
people go about networking for career advancement?
A common practice is to start by writing out a network
tree where you apply a method of organization to
compiling information from people you know.”
Q. Who are people that could be included in your networking
tree?
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Write down any participant answers, thank them.
A. Anyone you know
1. Relatives
2. Friends
3. Colleagues
4. Acquaintances
5. Neighbors
6. Co-workers
7. Friends from high school
8. College
9. Any organization you
volunteer with
10. The gym
“Your networking tree is created by you writing down names,
contact information, and other specific details you may have
collected (the company they work for, what their position is,
e.g.). When you do have your network in some sort of order,
you re-establish your relationship with each person and
engage in conversation with them. Actively listening is
important so communication process is intentional and is not
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interrupted. Your communication should not include
interference, to maximize the benefit for both parties. You
also want to be sure to begin by “catching up” and not with
asking for help.”
“Now that we can see the benefits of networking, whether it
be at a structured event or during day-to-day activities, and
how to create a basic network tree, it is time to assess
one communication. Do you know what kind of
communication we use the most and yet are taught the least
about? It is listening. People often think of listening and
hearing as the same things. Let us think about what each of
these really are.”
Q. What is listening? What do we notice when someone is
listening?
Write down any student answers, thank them.
A. Listening is defined as
paying close attention to, and
making sense of, what we hear (Lucas,
2015)
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Q. What is hearing? What do we notice when someone is
hearing?
Write down any student answers, thank them.
A. Hearing is defined as the
vibration of the sound waves on
the eardrums and the firing of
electrochemical impulses in the
brain.
Q. What are reasons you might want to develop good
listening skills?
Write down any student answers, thank them.
A. There are many
reasons why
1. Students with best
grades usually have the strongest
listening skills
2. Top business
performers have excellent
listening skills
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3. Avoiding errors-
over 60% of errors made in
business come from
poor listening
4. Employers and
managers assert strong
communication skills are one of
the most sought-
after characteristics in hiring,
more than a candidate's major
in college
5. Better interpersonal
relationships
“If networking is about establishing or re-establishing a
relationship and most people have challenges engaging in
active listening continuously, you can see why learning more
about listening and how to improve your listening skills would
contribute to more effective networking.”
1. “In what ways can we improve
our listening skills so that we can be competent
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communicators and improve our networking
experiences?
Be aware of your listening strengths and
weaknesses.
2. Notice that nobody
listens perfectly, and you have room to improve
your listening skills
3. Learn and pay attention to the
causes of poor listening
a. listening too hard
b. jumping to
conclusions
c. focusing on delivery
and personal appearance
1. Learn the several ways
you will need to practice becoming an
active listener
a. Give
undivided attention
b. Make genuine effort
to understand the speaker's point
of view
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c. Resist distractions
d. Do not be
preoccupied by appearance
e. Suspend judgement
f. Focus on
your listening
g. Take some
key notes
All of these skills will help you improve your overall
communication skills for personal and professional
developments.”
12:30-12:45 pm “In just a few moments we are going to take some time to
engage in a practice networking event. Turn to your
right and introduce yourself to the person next to
you. Practice what you have learned in this session, not only
obtaining information to add to your network but also
applying the techniques to practicing active listening. As we
engage in this time, I want you to write down the information
from the connection you have made. Afterwards, we can
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check to see how accurate we were in our active listening. I
will ask for a few volunteers to share what they learned and
ask the person they spoke to if the information
was accurate.”
12:45-12:55 pm Facilitator debrief by calling on a few participants to
sharing information on a few people they spoke with. Ask the
person in the audience if what was shared is accurate to
assess active listening.
12:55-1:00 pm Final announcements (facilitator plan to stay after for at least
10 min.)
Facilitator will provide contact information
Thank participants for attending
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AUDIENCE ANALYSIS AND ENHANCING DELIVERY WORKSHOP
THEORETICAL RATIONALE AND WORKSHOP STRUCTURE:
Before 300 B.C., Aristotle's model of communication determined the
importance of the role of the audience. Aristotle's communication process model
focused on public speaking more than on interpersonal communication. The
model includes the following variables:
1. Speaker, 2. Speech, 3. The occasion, 4. The audience, 5. Effect. In
sum, the model advises speakers to build speeches for different times and
different effects. Audience-centeredness is the practice of keeping the audience
as the highest priority during each step of the speaking process, from planning
through presenting. Audience-centeredness is crucial in deciding what to present
and how to present it; there are many audience analysis methods that can help a
speaker be audience centered.
Communication Professor Lon Schiffbauer points out that there are
different ways to analyze an audience. However, people often fall back on using
demographics. Demographics are at least a "slippery slope," if not "stereotyping,"
and many argue using demographics may lead (or at least contribute) to biases
and prejudices. Nevertheless, on many occasions, we see demographic analysis
as a primary way to consider the audience today. When people make
demographics a "go-to" in rhetorical strategy, which can create less obvious
challenges; often speakers are not aware of biases and prejudices they
may have subconsciously which may unknowingly guide their decisions during
their analysis.
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The purpose of this workshop is to look at audience analysis through a
wider lens by confronting demographics as stereotyping and points out it is often
the primary method used. Besides, it limits us from finding more valuable
knowledge about our audience and about ourselves. The session expands
audience analysis to include psychographics and stakeholders. Participants will
be aware of methods of delivery, another part of considering the audience.
Moreover, learning about potentially unknown audience biases is encouraged by
using a tool called Project Implicit.
Project Implicit was created by three scientists in 1998. The project is a
non-profit organization and international collaboration that gathers data for
research on implicit social cognition (i.e., how people think and feel about things
outside of their awareness because subconscious thoughts are not something
we are aware of). Project Implicit is a virtual-based laboratory that collects data of
thoughts. According to their website, "Project Implicit also provides consulting
services, lectures, and workshops on implicit bias, diversity, and inclusion,
leadership, applying science to practice, and innovation." Fourteen different tests
on the website (e.g., testing age, gender, skin tone) allow people to evaluate
prejudices. When we have biases or prejudices, we engage differently. These
biases or prejudices can keep us from positively and/or fully connecting with our
audience (e.g., we can unknowingly show nonverbals that appear
as disapproval). Project Implicit helps us know if we have these biases;
awareness gives us an opportunity to make a conscious effort to set
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biases/prejudices aside. With this awareness and conscious intention, we are apt
to be more engaging and open to interaction from audiences who are different
from us.
This workshop explains Aristotle’s foundations of audience importance. In
the session we explore the common method of audience analysis and why this
can be problematic. The content encourages participants to be more thorough in
audience analysis using psychographics (measuring attitudes, beliefs, values).
Acknowledging psychographics is more difficult to quantify, however, it offers
unique and valuable information that traditional analysis methods do not include.
Also, stakeholders in the environment are referenced as an essential
consideration in audience analysis. Further, we explore how to detect our own
biases and how that knowledge can benefit both the speaker and the audience.
Project Implicit is discussed as a tool for workshop participants to use. A group
activity consists of groups of 5 evaluating some potential situations with biases. A
variety of delivery methods are introduced, as well as ways to be considerate of
the audience when deciding what methods to use to enhance
delivery using a handout. This workshop targets reducing audience-based
communication apprehension, context-based communication apprehension, and
situational communication apprehension.
Workshop Objectives
By the end of this workshop, participants will be able to:
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1. Identify Aristotle as the original theorist of
audience centeredness
2. Recognize application of traditional audience analysis
methods
3. Understand that demographic analysis has limitations
and can contribute to stereotyping
4. Extend audience analysis to analyzing
psychographics, stakeholders, and speaker biases
5. Apply the Harvard Implicit Project as a tool for
detecting one’s own unknown biases
6. Recognize ways to intentionally set their biases aside
to connect better with their audiences.
7. Explain ways to implement specific delivery modes,
methods, and techniques to presentations
Intended Audience:
Students are the primary audience of this workshop. Additionally,
faculty will benefit from this information due to the emphasis
of using a broader lens of audience analysis which
includes delivery method selection. Participants will be more
confident in audience analysis and will apply their analysis to
selecting appropriate and effective delivery methods to
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their presentations. The workshop will give faculty fresh ideas on
the way they present audience analysis to improve its
effectiveness.
Instruction Details: The workshop is formatted to last for one hour. The script
is written with the facilitator using the discussion method.
If the facilitator prefers to, the script can be used as a monologue
instead of a dialogue. During the next portion, the
facilitator explains theoretical applications. The facilitator
demonstrates how to take the IAT. The last part of the workshop a
handout with two fictional audiences for groups of 3-5 to assess
through discussion a fictional audience and delivery is reviewed
and explained. Announcements will be made at the conclusion of
the session.
Materials: Workshop agenda for participants
Dry erase marker/board or digital note taking method
Certificates of completion (sent by email after session is
recommended)
Time Schedule Content
11:50 am Facilitator 10 minutes early
Greet participants as they arrive
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12:00-12:05 pm Welcome participants
Document attendance (pass around attendance sign in
sheet with name,
participant information for tracking, and email address for
certificate of completion to be emailed after session).
12:05-12:15 pm Facilitator Introduction
“By a show of hands, who is a student here? Are there any
faculty here today? Who is here because you are getting
extra credit or attending is an assignment for a class? Who
is here with a friend? Who is here because you are
interested in audience analysis and delivery?
(Remember to pause for responses)
“What did I learn by asking you these questions?”
“These questions are a starting point for evaluating this
audience in this room, however the answers tell me very
limited information. These simple questions do not tell me
enough to qualify to be a thorough audience analysis and
are not what we call being audience-centered, they are just
questions to use to get the attention of my audience and find
out some basic information about your attendance. Today
we are going to discuss the way we traditionally analyze our
audience and look at our audience through a wider lens, to
140
include looking within ourselves. Additionally, we will review
delivery techniques and methods appropriate for a variety of
audiences. Let us begin with thinking about the term
audience centered.”
(Estimate spending 3-4 minutes on each question to follow
this timeline)
Sample answers are in italics
Q. What do you know about being audience centered, and
why is it important?
Write down any student answers, thank them.
A. Audience-centeredness is the
practice of keeping the audience as the
highest priority during each step of the
speaking process, during the entire
planning and delivery process.
“Before 300 B.C., Aristotle's model of communication
determined the importance of the audience role. Aristotle's
communication process model focused on public speaking
141
more than on interpersonal communication (citation). The
model includes the following variables:
1. Speaker
2. Speech
3. The occasion
4. The audience
5. Effect
“In sum, the model advises speakers to build speeches for
different times and different effects. Audience-centeredness
is crucial in deciding what to present and how to present it;
we want to ask: 1. Who am I speaking to? What do I want
them to know, believe or do because of my speech? Another
part of audience analysis is situational analysis, which is
about finding information in the situation such as things
about your setting-the room (e.g., size, temperature, podium,
microphone, potential distractions, the size of the audience,
disposition towards occasion and topic). There are many
audience analysis methods to consider.”
Q. What do you know about demographic analysis?
142
Write down any answers, thank them.
C. Demographic analysis is a type of audience analysis
that focuses on factors such as:
1. Age
2. Gender
3. Religion
4. Sexual orientation
5. Group membership
6. Racial, ethnic, or cultural
background
“Demographic analysis is the most common starting point for
looking at an audience. However, limiting an audience
analysis to demographics can also be problematic.”
Q. In what ways might limiting audience analysis to
demographics be problematic?
Write down any student answers, thank them.
143
A. Stopping at a demographic analysis is a
“slippery slope” and can lead to stereotyping.
1. Stereotyping is creating an
oversimplified version of a particular group of
people, generally by making assumptions that all
members of the group are similar. (e.g., assuming
a Black male is good at and plays basketball,
assuming a woman is or wants to be a biological
mother)-it can be offensive and very inaccurate
when we make assumptions about a group of
people.
2. We are not seeing other information that
is often available. Expanding our audience
knowledge to a broader lens can help us create a
much more audience centered topic. For example,
2 types of information often overlooked that are
important to consider are
a. Psychographics-(has
some elements included in situational
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analysis. Differs in psychographics is
more values/attitudes based and does
not include set up/setting).
Psychographics measures, attitudes,
beliefs, values Articulating that this is
more difficult to quantify, however, it is
more valuable information than
traditional analysis methods.
(e.g., Finding out if people in your
audience feel strongly that social
change is an urgent matter for all, or an
audience that places highest value on
scientific data, or people in the audience
that believe the family unit is a top
priority). Psychographics are hard to
get, it is very valuable to get this type of
information about an audience
(conversations, polls, questionnaires are
some ways to gather psychographic and
other audience information).
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b. Stakeholders-
Stakeholders are people that have an
interest in something, especially a
business interest. Stakeholders may not
be present in the presentation, however,
they need to be considered in
conducting an audience analysis (e.g., if
you are speaking to an audience of 14–
16-year-old about driving you need to
consider their parents/guardians, if you
are a speaker hired to talk to an office
about time management techniques,
you want to consider stakeholders
goals/wishes).
“Now that we have covered traditional and broader ways to
look at an audience, we are going to talk about analyzing
ourselves to be more audience centered. Many times, people
have biases towards certain groups of people that they are
not even aware of because they are on a subconscious
level. This could be as simple as having a look of disgust on
your face if you learn someone loves to eat eggplant and
146
you can’t stand the taste of it. They don’t necessarily have to
be about serious matters like prejudices of different race and
ethnic backgrounds. These unknown biases can negatively
affect the way an audience engages with each other (e.g., a
speaker might unknowingly demonstrate
negative nonverbal behaviors that show disapproval like
turning their body away from a person or a facial expression
showing disgust) Being aware of our own biases gives us an
opportunity to set them aside, work on them, intentionally
being more open to and getting to know the people we have
biases towards. Many biases can be unknown, again, deep
within our subconscious. There is a tool that I want to share
with you today that can help speakers to find out information
about their own biases. It is called Project Implicit. I am
passing out a handout about Project Implicit so that you
know how you can test to see if you have biases and at what
level those biases exist.”
1. Project Implicit (aka IAT)
(https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/)
147
a. Created by three scientists
at Harvard University in 1998.
b. Non-profit organization
c. International collaboration
that gathers data for research on
implicit social cognition (i.e., how
people think and feel about things
outside of their awareness because
subconscious thoughts are not
something we are aware of).
d. Project Implicit is a virtual-
based laboratory that collects data of
thoughts.
e. Project Implicit
also provides consulting services,
lectures, and workshops on implicit
bias, diversity, and inclusion,
leadership, applying science to
practice, and innovation (from
website)
148
Facilitator notes: Go to the website, ideally, on a computer that is
connected to a projector to allow the audience to watch what you
are doing easily.
https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/
Show participants:
1. How to register or continue as a guest
2. The list of different tests
3. Go through a few questions so they
understand the way the tests look
4. Show and explain the report from
an exam
“If you are aware of your biases, you have taken the first step to
address them. On the handout there are four tips on addressing
personal biases.”
149
4 Tips on Addressing Personal Biases
1. Personal awareness
2. Acknowledgement (this is
problematic to connecting with certain
people)
3. Empathy (learning to attempt to
see the world from this perspective)
4. Education (learn as much as
possible about the people you are biased.
What is their world experience? What have
been their hardships? e.g.)
12:30-12:45 pm “Let us get into groups of 3-5 and practice audience
analysis. I am handing out a prompt with two audiences for
your group to discuss and analyze. For efficiency, I will put
you in a group. Starting here, with the person in front on this
side, you are the 1st group member, then the person next to
you is the 2nd group member, and the person next to you is
the 3rd group member… (Facilitator repeat putting people in
groups of 5 according to who is in the next chair and sitting
near each other, until all are in a group of 5.)
150
Remind participants to move their chairs so they are in a
circular manner to maximize listening with eye contact,
privacy, and to best hear members speak. Read, review, and
explain the group prompt out loud.
As groups form, walk around the room to offer support by
answering questions or to make suggestions of how to get
group members started.
12:45-12:55 Facilitator asks for volunteers to share their groups findings.
12:55-1:00 pm Final announcements (facilitator plan to stay after for at least
10 min.)
Facilitator will provide contact information
Thank participants for attending
151
SUPPORT MATERIALS PROMPT
As a group, read about the two audiences below. You will
discuss analyzing your audience. Your group will consider demographics,
psychographics, stakeholders, potential biases.
Audience #1 You are going into a job interview next week and need to think
ahead about your audience. There will be five people interviewing you at a
company that manufactures organic gluten free dog treats. The company is
in San Francisco. You do not know the gender identification of any of your
interviewers. However, you did learn from someone you spoke with three of the
people are founders of the company, which has been in business for 40
years. Two of the interviewers are new managers.
What ideas do you have as you attempt to analyze this audience?
Demographics
Psychographics
Stakeholders
Potential biases (you or interviewers)
How might you adjust for this audience based on the information you have?
Dress for interview
Is there anything you would prepare or plan to say to this audience?
152
Audience #2 You have been invited to be a student guest speaker at a university
you want to be a teacher after you graduate. You will be speaking to a group of
30 different professors and instructors for a luncheon during and
for teacher’s appreciation week. The school is in New York.
What ideas do you have as you attempt to analyze this audience?
Demographics
Psychographics
Stakeholders
Potential biases (you or interviewers)
How might you adjust for this audience based on the information you have?
Dress for interview
Is there anything you would prepare or plan to say to this audience?
(Handout)
Audience Analysis and Enhancing Delivery
Project Implicit (aka IAT) (https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/)
a. Created by three scientists at Harvard University in
1998.
b. Non-profit organization
c. International collaboration that gathers data for research
153
on implicit social cognition (i.e., how people think and feel
about things outside of their awareness because
subconscious thoughts are not something we are aware of).
d. Project Implicit is a virtual-based laboratory that collects
data of thoughts.
e. Project Implicit also provides consulting services,
lectures, and workshops on implicit bias, diversity, inclusion,
leadership, applying science to practice, and
innovation (from website)
4 Tips on Addressing Personal Biases
1. Personal awareness
2. Acknowledgement (this is problematic to connecting
with certain people)
3. Empathy (learning to attempt to see the world from
this particular perspective)
4. Education (learn as much as possible about the
people you are biased. What is their world experience? What
have been their hardships? e.g.)
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Information on Delivery (Modes, Vocal, Physical)
Modes of Delivery
1. Extemporaneous: The speaker prepares uses a brief
outline with key terms and quotes. The
speaker demonstrates knowledge and understanding of the
contents. This method allows the speaker to maintain eye
contact, adapt to the audience, and speak in a dynamic
conversational style. Most speakers prefer
the extemporaneous method; there is more flexibility in language
and thought than impromptu speaking, however, unlike the
manuscript, it is adaptable to a wide range of situations. This
flexibility to adapt gives space to concentrate on delivery
techniques such as making eye contact and talking with the
audience instead of recalling words you memorized or are
reading.
(Appropriate in most situations when the speaker has notice and
manuscripts are not necessary)
2. Impromptu: The speaker has limited time to prepare,
usually less than 5 minutes. Often the impromptu speaking
155
happens when someone asks you to “share a few words.” He or
she can generate three main points and a first and last line by
taking a moment to gather thoughts. This method can often
seem spontaneous and dynamic.
(Appropriate in many situations such as class discussions,
committee report, responding to a speaker)
3. Memorized: Memorizing speeches is an older method
rarely used. It can be effective if desired in very short speeches.
Practice it so well that you can speak in a natural way and are
able to communicate with your audience.
(Appropriate, for some people, in situations such as toasts,
congratulatory remarks, acceptance speeches, introductions,
and the like)
4. Manuscript: Certain speeches must be delivered word
for word like an engineer's report to a professional meeting
where absolute accuracy is essential. For example, a President
misstating a phrase could lead to an international incident. If you
need to read from a manuscript, be sure you
practice including vibrant and conversational speaking.
(Appropriate in formal situations where accuracy is essential
156
such as a speech where the press will be analyzing the speaker
word for word or a report with specific details that are required
to be precise)
Vocal Delivery Skills
Vocal Variety-When speaking, you should strive for vocal variety, changes in
volume, rate, pitch
Volume-Remember your own voice always sounds louder to you than to a
listener. It is a good practice to check the expressions for engagement on the
people furthest away from you and speak louder if they look puzzled or are
leaning forward.
Rate-There is no uniform rate. The average speaker in the United States talks
120-150 words per minute. If you speak too slow your audience may get bored. If
you speak too fast, they don’t process all the information. The vocal attributes
depend on the mood the speaker wants to create, who is in your audience, and
the nature of the occasion.
Pitch-Changes in pitch are used innate in ordinary conversations. You want to
include different voice inflections; these will help your audience stay engaged.
157
Sometimes intentional and dramatic changes in pitch improve a presentation
because the audience may not expect sudden variations. Word emphasis can
add significant appeal to the audiences listening experience.
Pauses-Pauses can be tricky for new speakers to implement. Practice using
them and you will notice they are powerful and often keep your audience
engaged because they are curious what you will say next. In addition, using the
pauses can help train you to not say filler words and give your mind time to find
the word you want to say instead. Pauses are often thought of negatively to new
speakers. Try to remember, there is power in the pause!
Physical Delivery
Appearance
How you look is the first message you will send your audience. Ask yourself what
you want to say to your audience through your dress, hair, and accessories. You
may dress for the occasion, dress for your topic, consider how you want your
audience to see you (a costume may be appropriate in some instances).
Movement
For formal speeches you may want to use a podium. If you plan to use one,
consider practice beforehand. Do not lean or grip the podium if you do.
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For informal speeches there is something called the speaker’s triangle. Imagine
a triangle in the middle of your speaking area and you can use that to guide your
movement. When using it, walk slowly and pause at each angle.
How much movement is enough?
A moderate amount of movement is expected in most situations. If you move
much more than this you will seem energized, nervous or excited. Less
movement seems more detached, and formal. If your movements do not seem
natural, your audience will feel less comfortable with you and your presentation.
Eye contact
Eye contact is very important. For small audiences, try to engage each person in
the room by meeting his or her eyes for three seconds before looking at
someone else. If you have lights glaring in your eyes, do your best to try to look
around the room. The point is to allow people to feel as if you are talking to them.
Use eye contact to keep the pulse of your audience. Do you have them hanging
on your every word or is it time to speed up your speaking before you lose
them. Don’t overthink these observations-a thoughtful audience can still be hard
to read.
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Facial expressions
If you know your material and have an emotional connection to it, facial
expressions will likely happen naturally. Make sure your expressions agree with
your message (e.g., if you talk about death and smile, your audience will think
you are insensitive)
Gestures
Use hand movements like those you would normally use in conversation.
Gestures should coincide with the meaning of your message.
The larger the room, the more animated your movement and gestures should
be.
If you are describing a large balloon, hold your arms in the shape of the balloon.
This will reinforce your verbal message and help the audience remember your
speech.
