GROUP COMMUNICATION AND COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
COM 400 - COMMUNICATION IN PROFESSIONS
WEEK 4
A. INTRODUCTION:
In everyday life it is very important that we socialize with the people around us as the
nature of social beings. Humans will always group in order to interact with other individuals
by communicating with various media in order to establish good and efficient interactions.
Good communication will be reflected in the communication network of each individual
with other individuals in the group.
B. DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION GROUP:
Group communication is included in interpersonal communication and passes the
intrapersonal stage. Interpersonal communication is communication that occurs between the
conveyer of information (communicator) and the communicant/recipient of information
(Iskandar & Syueb, 2018). Group communication can be defined as a group of individuals
who have a common goal who interact with each other so that the common goal of group
communication is achieved, know each other and consider them as part of the group
(Mulyana, 2017). Meanwhile, according to Iskandar and Syueb, group communication is a
communication that occurs between a communicator and a group of individuals who number
more than two individuals (Iskandar & Syueb, 2018).
To better understand the various components contained in interpersonal communication
can be explained in below:
•
Encoding: the process of transforming a thought into communication through media
•
Decoding: the process of translating or interpreting a message/information.
•
Communicator: an individual who acts to convey a message to a communicant.
•
Communicants: individuals who receive messages from communicators
•
Feedback: a response from the individual to the message/information that has been received.
A communication in a group is the main thing in creating harmonious and dynamic
conditions in group life. A group will appear to have cohesiveness or closeness can be seen
from the communication that occurs in its group members so that its existence can be
maintained. Cohesiveness or group cohesiveness is an emotional allure between work group
members, where there is a sense of mutual help, liking, and providing mutual support
together in order to survive to achieve common goals in the work group (Salesman, 2018).
With the existence of a communication, it will further support the cohesiveness in a
group and cannot be separated from a person's life, where the existence of a group can help
in various ways such as sharing various things (experience, information, knowledge) with
other group members.
The group itself is divided into two parts (Tutiasri, 2016), namely:
1. Primary Group
The primary group is the family, which is the first group we are born into and relate to other
individuals. We are taught for the first time about how to interact with the group, present
arguments, how to communicate mainly from the teachings of the father, mother and
siblings who support positively because of blood relations.
2. Secondary Group
Secondary groups are groups that can be used to actualize the interests of an individual, such
as educational institutions or schools, workplaces, community organizations, religious
institutions, communities, and so on.
There is a difference between interpersonal communication and group communication
which lies in achieving goals. In this case group communication focuses on achieving
individual goals, while interpersonal communication is oriented towards achieving group or
shared goals.
C. CHARACTERISTICS COMMUNICATION GROUP AND INTERPERSONAL :
The characteristics of communication in a group can be determined by two things,
namely norms and roles. Norms are agreements about how all people in a group behave with
each other (Bungin & Burhan, 2009). Based on norms, a task will focus on attention on how
a job should be done (Sendjaja, 2018). Meanwhile, role is a dynamic aspect of a status),
where if an individual carries out his rights and obligations in accordance with his status,
then he carries out a role (Bungin & Burhan, 2009).
The characteristics of group communication include the following, (Fajar, 2009):
1. Communication is homogeneous.
2. The opportunity to take action right away.
3. Feedback occurs directly, this is because the communicator can know the communicant's
reaction during the communication.
4. Communicants receive messages that are rational (communication in small groups) and
emotional (communication in large groups).
5. Communicants can still be recognized and known by the communicator even though they
have a relationship that is not as close as that in interpersonal communication.
6. Communication will lead to mutual consequences to achieve the desired goal.
In group communication, each group member must be able to hear and see their other
colleagues so that feedback can be measured from each group member. In group
communication to allow interaction between members, the number of members is around 3
to 20 individuals, if more will reduce the involvement of members in interacting (Tutiasri,
2016).
The following will present a chart of communication patterns that exist in a group
(Johnson, 1997):
Meanwhile, according to Pearson, there is a classification of interpersonal
communication (Suranto, 2011), as follows:
1. Interpersonal communication begins with the self, where all communication perceptions
related to self-centered meaning are influenced by observation and experience.
2. Interpersonal communication is transactional, this stigma refers to individuals who
communicate simultaneously and are equal in nature, i.e. delivering and receiving messages.
3. Interpersonal communication covers various aspects of message content and interpersonal
relationships, where the content of the message is strongly influenced by the relationship
between individuals who communicate.
4. Interpersonal communication has a requirement that there is physical proximity to the
various parties to the communication.
5. Interpersonal communication involves parties who depend on each other in the
communication process.
6. Interpersonal communication cannot be repeated or changed (what has been said cannot be
changed).
D. DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY GROUPS:
Bruce Tuckman in 1965 identified four stages in the development of a group, including
forming stage, storming stage, norming stage, and performing stage (Tuckman, 1965). But
Tuckman in 1977 added five stages, namely forming stage, storming stage, norming stage,
performing stage, and adjourning stage (Tuckman & Jensen, 1977).
Here is an explanation and also a picture related to the development of the group:
1. Forming Stage is the initial stage for group members in learning various things related to the
task and the process of introducing members in the group.
2. Storming Stage, at this stage the group members have started working but are still firm in
their respective opinions and stances, for example related to deciding leadership issues and
conflicts still occur.
3. Norming Stage, in this third stage the group members have begun to work together, maintain
cohesiveness and cooperation because they have found an effective and efficient way of
communicating.
4. Performing Stage, the fourth stage of the spirit, cooperation, creativity, and innovation of the
group members experienced rapid development and achieved cohesiveness.
5. Adjourning Stage, is the last stage where all tasks are completed or the group dissolves,
where the fifth stage only applies to non-permanent organizations.
E. GROUP COMMUNICATION FUNCTION:
The existence of groups in society shows the implementation of a function, where these
functions include (Sendjaja, 2018):
1. The first function is to establish a social relationship, where a group can form, maintain, and
provide various opportunities in carrying out various leisurely activities.
2. The second function is related to the education that formal and informal groups have as a
means of sharing knowledge. Education depends for its function on three factors, namely
how much information each member provides, and then the amount of involvement of
members in the group.
3. The third function is persuasion, where each member has a function to persuade other group
members not to do something that is contrary to the norms in the group and will cause
conflict.
4. The fourth function is problem solving and decision making, where the group has the task of
finding a solution and other alternatives to problems that cannot be solved by other group
members.
5. The fifth function is therapy, where group members focus on interaction with other group
members in order to help the problems they face.
Meanwhile, according to John Dewey, the functions of group communication are
divided into six, namely as follows (Littlejohn & Foss, 2018):
1. Raising difficulties.
2. Explaining each problem.
3. Conduct a problem analysis.
4. Provide a solution.
5. Comparing alternatives, testing against opposing objectives and criteria.
6. Implement the best solution.
F. DEFINITION OF NETWORK COMMUNICATION:
In a company or organization, communication networks have a very important role.
Communication has an influence on employee performance (Wardhani, Leonardo Budi, &
Maria Magdalena, 2016), where communication networks in a company or organization
sometimes arise a problem and can become an obstacle in organizational performance that
has an impact on achieving the goals of the company or organization itself (Zusrony,
Purnomo, Yulianto, & Prasetyo, 2019).
The communication network according to Arni Muhammad is the exchange of a
message between a number of individuals who have this position or role or certain media
through the road (Pengestu, 2015). Communication networks are channels to convey a
message from one individual to another (Utami, 2018).
Phenomena related to communication networks occur in all aspects of life, especially in
everyday social environments and even at the organizational and academic levels.
Communication networks occur as a result of a person or individual joining a group and
interacting with other individuals in the group.
The nature and extent of a network is greatly influenced by various factors (R. Wayne
Pace Don F, 2006), including:
1. Role relationship
2. Message direction and flow
3. Serial nature of message flow
4. Content of the message
Communication networks are very important so that organizations can run efficiently
and as they function, where there are seven functions or roles (Pengestu, 2015), including:
1. Click
It is a group of individuals who are few in number and have low or little interaction with
other members. Clicks will be formed when half the communication is done by a group of
individuals with individuals in one group.
2. Opinion Leader
It is a leader in an organization, which in this case is not always an individual who has
formal power and authority but is able to guide and influence the behavioral attitudes and
decisions of members in the organization.
3. Gate Keepers
It is an individual who controls the flow of information between fellow members of the
organization and also has the authority to decide whether or not information is important.
4. Cosmopolites
An individual who has a liaison role between the organization and the external environment
or the public. They have the task of collecting all information from all sources and informing
it to certain people in the organization.
5. Bridge
It is a clique or group member in an organization that connects the group with other group
members. This individual has the ability to coordinate between one group and another.
6. Liaison
A liaison has a similar role to a bridge but is an independent individual who is not a member
of an organizational group but can connect between various groups.
7. Isolate
These are organizational group members who have minimal contact with other individuals in
the organization. These individuals are isolated in the organization by their peers and thus
have little contact with other group members.
G. COMMUNICATION PATTERN:
Communication patterns are defined as patterns of relationships between two or more
people in a process of sending and receiving in an appropriate way so that an intended
message can be understood or understood (Pengestu, 2015). Relationships or
communication patterns can be described by complementarities, where a complementary
relationship is one of the following The dominant form of behavior from a person can bring
other submissive behavior or symmetrical, where there is a level of a person interacting
based on similarity (Pengestu, 2015). So it can be seen that compliance meets compliance or
dominance meets dominance and it can be seen how a system structure is created based on
the interaction process and individuals respond to other individuals to determine the type of
relationship they have (Pengestu, 2015).
1. Chain Network
Chain networks rank next highest in centralization. Only two people communicate with each
other, and in turn they have only one person to communicate with. Information is generally
sent through such a network in a relay fashion. A typical chain network would be one where
an employee (B) reports to a division head (C), who in turn reports to a manager (A), who
reports to a supervisor (D).
2. The "Y" Network
Network Y is similar to a chain network except that two members are outside the chain
network. In network Y, for example, members A and B can send information to C, but they
cannot receive information from anyone, then C and D can exchange information while E
can receive information from D but cannot send any information. For example, two assistant
managers, (A and B) reports to the manager (C). The manager, in turn, reports to the
assistant superintendent (D), who reports to the superintendent (E).
3. Wheel Network
The wheel network, a two-level hierarchy, is the most structured and centralized pattern as
each member can only communicate with one other person. For example, a supervisor
(SPV) and those who are direct reports such as assistant supervisors, might form a wheel
network. The supervisor is A, and the assistant supervisors are B, C, D, and E respectively.
The four subordinates send information to the supervisor, and the supervisor sends the
information back to them, usually in the form of a decision.
4. Circle Network
The circle network, a three-level hierarchy, is very different from the wheel, chain, and Y
network. It is a symbol of horizontal communication and decentralization. The circle gives
every member equal communication opportunities. Each member can communicate with
people on his right and left. Members have identical boundaries, but the circle is a less
restricted condition than the wheel, chain, or Y network. For example, the circle network has
more two-way channels open for problem solving (five) than the four channels of the
aforementioned networks. In a circle network, everyone becomes a decision-maker.
5. All Channel Network
The all-channel network is an extension of the circle network. By connecting everyone in
the circle network, the result is a star or all-channel network. A star network allows each
member to communicate freely with everyone else (decentralized communication). A star
network has no central position, and no communication restrictions are placed on any
member. A committee where no member formally or informally takes a leadership position
is a good example of a star network.
H. SUMMARY MATERIAL:
Group communication is included in the category of interpersonal communication and
passes the intrapersonal stage, where interpersonal communication is communication that
occurs between the conveyer of information (communicator) and the communicant or
recipient of information. In a group or group, communication is the main and important
thing in maintaining cohesiveness through interaction between group members. The
existence of a group can help in various ways such as sharing various things (experience,
information, knowledge) with other group members. In a company or organization,
communication networks have a very important role, where communication has an influence
on employee performance. Sometimes communication networks in a company or
organization sometimes arise a problem and can become an obstacle in organizational
performance that has an impact on achieving the goals of the company or organization itself.
To be able to map the communication network, it is necessary to understand the
communication patterns of group members, namely the relationship patterns of two or more
people in a process of sending and receiving in the right way so that an intended message
can be understood or understood so that efficient and effective communication can be
created.
TASKS AND EVALUATION:
1. Explain what group communication is and give one example in everyday life!
2. Explain and briefly describe the theory of group development!
3. Explain and give examples of group functions related to education (second function)!
4. Briefly explain the opinion leader in the communication network function!
5. Explain what is meant by a wheel network in communication patterns!
COMMUNICATION AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
A. INTRODUCTION:
Communication plays a very important role in a social interaction, therefore it is
influential in the world of work. The workplace is a social community that focuses on the
role of communication, so that work activities can be optimized. The use of communication
both verbally and nonverbally has a considerable effect on the work environment which is
manifested in the vision and mission of the organization. Indirectly, an effective
communication is needed in moving the course of the organization, the more effective the
communication fostered in each department, the more productive the behavior of employees
in carrying out their work (Sutrisno, 2016).
In managing organizations, managers in Indonesia have generally known and applied
modern management principles such as the use of structural approaches, systems, strategies,
management by objectives and so on. However, there are still many experts and practitioners
who pay less attention to organizational culture, even though organizational culture can be
used as one of the tools for managing organizations management to achieve efficiency,
effectiveness, productivity, work ethic and can make the organization successfully run
effectively (Sutrisno, 2016).
B. COMMUNICATION:
1. Communication Functions
According to Sendjaja (1994) communication in organizations has four functions,
namely:
a. Informative Function
The informative function in the organization considers that the organization is an
information processing system, which means that all members in an organization need
information to carry out their work in accordance with the job descriptions of each field.
b. Regulative Function
Related to the rules that apply in an organization as a basis for doing something. In an
organization there are two important points that affect the regulative function, namely
superiors who are in control of management and messages. A superior has the authority and
controls subordinates for all orders given. The meaning of messages in an organization is
directly oriented to work.
c. Persuasive Function
Conducted by the leader to give a touch of how a job is done by subordinates without giving
formal orders. Often happens if the boss gives an instruction On the other hand, if an
instruction is given persuasively, the subordinates who do the work will feel that they own
the results of the work.
d. Integrative Function
Attempting to unite the perceptions of all members in an organization, both upper and lower
structural circles, about the goals and mission of the organization through communication
channels that exist in an organization. In general, there are two communication channels in
the organization, namely formal and informal channels. Formal channels can be in the form
of publishing news sheets or bulletins about the organization concerned which are intended
as information for all members of the organization both superiors and subordinates. While
informal channels can be through interpersonal talks during work breaks, non-formal
activities, and so on. Thus this activity will foster self-awareness or great participation from
all members of the organization.
2. Communication Styles in Organizations:
Communication style is a set of specialized interpersonal behaviors and is used in a
particular situation. Communication style can describe how a person behaves in an
organization when conveying ideas or ideas. According to Tubb and Moss (1996), there are
six communication styles that are often used in an organization, these styles are adjusted to
the purpose and purpose of sending messages, namely:
a. Controlling Style
This communication style is controlling, regulating, limiting and even forcing the behavior
and thoughts of others. In the process this communication style is similar to one-way
communication. This style emphasizes on the aspect of sending messages without caring
about the feedback aspect. This communication style is usually used to persuade others to
work effectively.
b. Equailitarian Style
This communication style emphasizes the aspect of similarity or balance of messages. This
means that the spread of messages can occur orally or in writing which is two-way or
reciprocal. This communication style is appropriate for maintaining empathy and
cooperation, because of the openness in communicating between members of the
organization.
c. Structuring Style
This communication style is structured, that is, through the structure of receiving and
sending both orally and in writing to solidify the orders that must be carried out. In this
style, the flow of messages follows the existing structure in the organization.
d. Dynamic Style
This communication style has an aggressive tendency, because it realizes that the work
environment is action-oriented, usually used by supervisors who oversee sales. The goal is
to stimulate workers to work effectively and efficiently. This communication style is
effective in addressing critical issues.
e. Relinquishing Style
This communication style is accommodating, meaning that although a superior has the right
to command and control others, it is more willing to accept the suggestions and opinions of
others. This style is effective when the person being worked with is knowledgeable,
experienced and responsible.
f. Withdraw Style
This communication style is more about avoiding responsibility. This communication style
is not suitable to be applied in organizations, because of the desire to avoid responsibility,
there is no desire to communicate.
3. Communication Direction:
Communication can flow vertically or laterally. Robbins and Judge (2013) further divide
the direction of communication into three, namely Downward Communication, Upward
Communication, and Lateral Communication.
a. Downward Communication
Downward Communication is communication that flows from one level of a group or
organization to a lower level. Group leaders and managers use it to set goals, provide job
instructions, explain policies and procedures, point out issues that need attention, and offer
feedback on performance. When engaging in downward communication, managers should
explain the reasons why decisions are made. One study found that employees were twice as
likely to commit to a change when the reasons behind it were fully explained. While this
seems like common sense, many managers feel too busy to explain things. However,
evidence clearly shows that downward communication can increase employee commitment
and support for decisions. In addition, while managers may think that sending a message
once is enough to get to lower-level employees, most research suggests managerial
communication should be repeated several times and through a variety of different media to
be truly effective. Another problem with downward communication is its one-way nature;
generally, managers tell employees but rarely ask for their advice or opinions. A study
revealed that nearly two-thirds of employees said their bosses rarely or never ask for their
advice. The study noted, "Organizations are always striving for higher employee
engagement, but evidence suggests they are unnecessarily making a fundamental mistake.
People need to be respected and listened to". A company can actively listen to employee
suggestions, a practice that is critical to innovation. The best communicators don't just
explain the rationale behind downward communication but also solicits communication
from the employees being supervised.
b. Upward Communication
This direction of communication flows to a higher level in the group or organization.
Upward communication is used to provide feedback to superiors, inform superiors of job
progress, and communicate current issues. Upward communication keeps managers aware of
how employees feel about their jobs, co-workers, and the organization in general. Managers
also rely on Upward communication to get ideas about how conditions can be improved.
Given that most managers' job responsibilities have grown, upward communication is
increasingly difficult because managers are overwhelmed and easily distracted. Things that
can be done to achieve effective Upward communication include: a) Trying to reduce
distractions; b) Communicating in headlines rather than paragraphs; and c) Supplementing
headlines with actionable items.
c. Lateral Communication
Lateral communication is described as when communication occurs between members of
the same work group, members of the same level work group, managers at the same level, or
other horizontally equivalent workers. Why is lateral communication necessary if vertical
communication of a group or organization is effective? Lateral communication saves time
and facilitates coordination. Lateral communication is often made informally to break the
vertical hierarchy and speed up actions. So from a management point of view, lateral
communication can be good or bad. Since strictly adhering to a formal vertical structure for
all communication can be inefficient, lateral communication that occurs with management
knowledge and support can be beneficial. But it can create conflict when formal vertical
channels are violated and when superiors discover actions have been taken or decisions
made without their knowledge.
4. Interpersonal Communication:
Group/organization members transfer meaning between each other through oral, written,
and nonverbal communication (Robbins and Judge, 2013).
a. Oral Communication
The primary means of conveying messages is oral communication. Speeches, formal one-
on-one and group discussions, and informal rumors or grapevines are popular forms of oral
communication. The advantages of oral communication are speed and feedback. We can
deliver an oral message and receive a response in a short period of time. In oral
communication, if the receiver of the message is unsure of the message conveyed, it can be
immediately given feedback to the sender of the message and allows the sender of the
message to quickly detect and correct it. The main disadvantage of oral communication
arises when a message has to pass through a number of people: the more people, the greater
the potential for distortion. Each person interprets the message in their own way. The
content of the message, when it reaches its destination, is often very different from the
original. In an organization, where decisions are passed verbally up and down the hierarchy
of authority, there are many opportunities for messages to become distorted.
b. Written Communication
Written communications include memos, letters, fax transmissions, emails, instant
messages, organizational periodicals, notices placed on bulletin boards (including electronic
ones), and other devices transmitted through written words or symbols. Why do senders
choose written communication? Written communications are tangible and verifiable. Both
the sender and receiver have a record of the communication; and messages can be retained
indefinitely. If there is any question about its content, the message is physically available for
reference. This feature is especially important for complex and lengthy communications. A
marketing plan for a new product, for example, is likely to contain a number of tasks spread
over several months. By writing them down, those who have to initiate the plan can with
easily refer to it during its lifetime. The ultimate benefit of all written communication comes
from the process itself. People are usually forced to think more deeply about what they want
to convey in a written message than in an oral message. As such, written communication is
more likely to be well thought out, logical and clear. Written messages have the
disadvantage of being time-consuming. What can be instantly spoken in 10 to 15 minutes
may take an hour to write. Another drawback is the lack of a built-in feedback mechanism.
Oral communication allows the recipient to respond quickly to what was thought and heard.
But sending a message via email provides no guarantee that the message has been received
and no guarantee that the recipient of the message will interpret it as the sender intended.
c. Nonverbal Communication
Glances, stares, smiles, frowns and provocative body movements all convey meaning. As
such, no discussion of communication is complete without considering nonverbal
communication which includes body movements, the intonation or emphasis we put on
words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between sender and receiver. We can
argue that every body movement has meaning, and no movement is involuntary (although
some are unconscious). The two most important messages conveyed by body language are
(1) the extent to which one likes the other person and is attracted to their gaze and (2) the
perceived status between the sender and receiver. One is more likely to position oneself
closer to people one likes and touch them more often. Body language augments, and often
complicates, verbal communication. Body position or movement can communicate
something of the emotion behind the message, but when associated with spoken language, it
gives a fuller meaning to the sender's message. Facial expressions also convey meaning. A
snarling face says something different than a smile. Facial expressions, along with
intonation, can indicate arrogance, aggressiveness, fear, shyness, and other characteristics.
C. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE:
1. Organizational Culture Characteristics:
Seven main characteristics of organizational culture (Robbins and Judge, 2013):
a. Innovation and risk-taking
Relates to the extent to which employees are encouraged to be innovative and take risks.
b. Attention to detail
Relates to the extent to which employees are expected to demonstrate precision, analysis and
attention to detail.
c. Result orientation
Relates to the extent to which management focuses on results rather than the techniques and
processes used to achieve them.
d. People orientation
Related with to what extent to what extent decisions consider
the effects of outcomes on people within the organization.
e. Team orientation
Relates to the extent to which work activities are organized in teams rather than individuals.
f. Aggressiveness
Relates to the degree to which people are aggressive and competitive rather than relaxed.
g. Stability
Relates to the extent to which organizational activities emphasize maintaining the status quo
in contrast to growth.
2. Level of Organizational Culture
According to Schein (2010) organizational culture consists of three levels, namely:
a. Artifacts
Artifacts are something that humans can see, hear and feel about a subject, object or
event. Artifacts can be in the form of products, services, and even human behavior. For
example, if you enter a large company, you may see that the office equipment is mediocre,
but other companies use very neat office equipment and use very good and expensive
equipment. A product stands out from other products in its packaging and quality. Another
example we can see, a bank serves its customers mediocre, but in other banks the service is
extraordinary, every customer who comes is given a drink or confectionery. From the
examples above, we can see and feel the difference between the two companies. Artifacts
are cultural results that are visible and easily observed by a person or group of people both
inside and outside the organization Schein (2010). The following are examples of artifacts
that fall into the physical, behavioral, and verbal categories:
b. Espoused beliefs and values:
Espoused beliefs and values are a sacrifice for improvement in work. At this level,
something that cannot be seen because it exists in the mind and can be realized by humans.
Schein (2010) says that some organizations have cultures that can trace the espoused values
back to the inventor of the culture. These espoused values can create artifacts.
c. Underlying assumption:
Underlying assumption is a belief that is considered by members of the organization.
This level shows that there is an assumption that an organization has at a certain place and
time in carrying out its activities. A bank has basic assumption that the service strategy
carried out will be favored by its customers.
3. Types of Organizational Culture:
Some organizations have a dominant type of culture; others have multiple cultures
working simultaneously in different locations, departments, or projects. There is no superior,
ideal, or fixed culture. However, there is a preference by employees for certain cultures. For
example, if an employee works in a bureaucratic culture and prefers an entrepreneurial
culture, then the employee may find it difficult to thrive. If cultural alignment causes the
employee to become stressed, it will result in the possibility of the individual eventually
leaving the organization.
The vertical axis shows the orientation of control in the company or department, ranging
from stable to flexible. The horizontal axis depicts the focus of attention from internal to
external. The four cells present four different cultures: bureaucratic, clan, entrepreneurial,
and market.
a. Bureaucratic Culture
Organizations that emphasize rules, policies, procedures, chains of command, and
centralized decision-making have a bureaucratic culture. The military, government agencies,
and companies started and managed by autocratic managers are examples of bureaucratic
cultures. Some individuals prefer the certainty, hierarchy, and strict organization of such
cultures.
b. Clan Culture
Being part of a working family, following traditions and rituals, teamwork, passion, self-
management and social influence are characteristics of clan culture. Employees are willing
to work hard for a fair and equitable compensation and benefits package. In a clan culture,
employees are socialized by other members. Members help each other celebrate success
together. Nordstrom department stores rely on experienced "Nordies" to induct new
employees and show them the ropes treating customers. New employees can observe the
teamwork, traditions, and rituals that perpetuate Nordstrom's commitment to customer
service. Nordstrom is an example of how clan culture can influence employee behavior and
performance.
c. Entrepreneurial Culture
Innovation, creativity, risk-taking, and aggressively seeking opportunities describe an
entrepreneurial culture. Employees understand that dynamic change, individual initiative,
and autonomy are standard practices. 3M is an example of an entrepreneurial culture. The
internal philosophy is captured by 3M's motto, "Never kill a product idea." Employees are
encouraged and given autonomy to work on projects. 3M intends to create new markets. The
company's compensation package, training programs, team-building strategies, and goal-
setting programs encourage risk-taking, autonomy, and innovation to achieve that goal.
d. Market Culture
Emphasis on sales growth, increased market share, financial stability, and profitability are
attributes of market culture. Employees have a contractual relationship with the company.
There is little sense of teamwork and cohesiveness in this type of culture. Examples of
market culture organizations include Nike, Citigroup, Wells Fargo, and Allstate. Employees
cooperate and work together to achieve market share and financial performance goals. This
results in cooperation when necessary, but not deeply embedded relationships.
Based on the Information process, Robert E. Quinn and Michael R. McGrath (1985)
divide organizational culture into four types, namely:
a. In a rational culture, individualized information processes (goal clarification logical
reasoning, directive tools) are assumed to be the means to demonstrated performance goals
(efficiency, productivity, and profit or impact).
b. Ideological culture, in which intuitive information processing (from deep knowledge,
opinions and innovations) is assumed to be the means to the end of revitalization (external
support, resource acquisition and growth).
c. Consensus culture, in which collective information processing (discussion, participation, and
consensus) is assumed to be a means to the end of cohesion (group climate, morale, and
cooperation).
d. Hierarchical culture, in which formal information processing (documentation, computation,
and evaluation) is assumed to be a means to the end of continuity (stability, control, and
coordination).
4. Elements of Organizational Culture:
Organizational culture consists of two main elements, namely idealistic elements and
behavioral elements. The following is an explanation of each of these elements (Sobirin,
2007):
a. Idealistic Elements
It is said to be idealistic because this element becomes an organizational ideology that is
not easily changed even though on the other hand the organization naturally must always
change and adapt to its environment. This element is elusive, not visible to the surface
(hidden), and only certain people know what their ideology really is and why the
organization was founded. The idealistic element is attached to the owner in the form of
doctrine, philosophy of life, or individual values of the founders or owners of the
organization usually stated formally in the form of a vision and mission statement of the
organization.
b. Behavioral Elements
Behavioral elements are elements that are visible, come to the surface in the form of the
daily behavior of its members and other forms such as the design and architecture of the
organization, this element is easily observed, understood, and interpreted although
sometimes not the same as the interpretation with people directly involved in the
organization. The easiest way to identify organizational culture is by observing how the
members of the organization behave and the habits they have (Sobirin, 2007). Schein (2010)
says that daily habits appear in the form of artifacts including the behavior of organizational
members. Artifacts can be in the form of building architecture, logos or jargon, ways of
communicating, ways of dressing, or ways of acting that can be understood by outsiders to
the organization.
5. Assessing Organizational Culture:
There are several instruments that can be used to assess organizational culture. Assessing
organizational culture is not easy because culture deals with subjective beliefs and
unconscious assumptions (which may be difficult to measure), and with observed
phenomena such as norms and behavioral artifacts. The following instruments are often used
in assessing organizational culture:
a. Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (Cameron and Quinn, 2006)
The research instrument in describing the Organizational Culture Profile is to use a
questionnaire of two parts, namely questions for the current condition of the organization,
and questions for the condition of the organization that should occur. The questionnaire
consists of six groups representing six cultural attributes. Each group has four questions,
namely A, B, C, and D. Each question is scored in increments of 5, and the total score of
each group must add up to 100. The instrument is a framework developed from research on
key indicators of effective organizations. Evidence of validation of the culture instrument is
revealed when the type of culture matches the area or areas of effectiveness in which the
organization excels, and with the type of decision-making, structures, and strategies
employed. Cameron and Quinn (2011) have proven the validity of the Organizational
Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) in organizational culture studies that the OCAI
describes 4 types of organizational culture namely Clan, Adhocracy, Hierarchy, Market.
This approach to the OCAI framework used to diagnose and change organizational culture
provides benefits, namely:
1) Practical
Capturing the key dimensions that have been known to make a difference in organizational
success.
2) Timely
The process of diagnosing and creating a change strategy that can be implemented in a
reasonable amount of time.
3) Involving
Steps in a process that can include any member of the organization, but primarily concerns
those responsible for setting direction, reinforcing values, and guiding fundamental change.
4) Quantitative and Qualitative
The process relies on quantitative measurements of cultural dimensions as well as qualitative
methods, which include historical events, incidents, and symbols that describe
organizational characteristics that are perceived or thought to be true.
5) Manageable
This process of diagnosing and change can be undertaken and implemented by a team within
the organization, usually by the Management Team who will drive the successful
implementation.
b. Organizational Culture Inventory (Cooke and Lafferty, 1989) This instrument assesses
organizational culture in 12 dimensions, namely:
1) Humanistic/helpful: The organization is managed in a participatory and people-centered
manner.
2) Affiliation: An organization that places a high priority on constructive relationships.
3) Consent: An organization where conflict is avoided and interpersonal relationships are
pleasant - at least superficially.
4) Conventional: Conservative, traditional and bureaucratically controlled organization.
5) Dependent: A hierarchically controlled and non-participative organization.
6) Avoidance: Failed organizations reward success but punish mistakes.
7) Opposition: An organization where confrontation wins and negativism is rewarded.
8) Power: An organization that is structured on the basis of the authority attached to a
member's position.
9) Competitive: A culture where winning is rewarded and members are rewarded for
outperforming each other.
10) Competent/Perfectionist: An organization where perfectionism, perseverance and hard work
are rewarded.
11) Achievement: Organizations that do things well and reward members who set and achieve
challenging but realistic goals.
12) Self-actualization: An organization that values creativity, quality over quantity, and both
task accomplishment and individual growth.
c. Organizational Ideology Questionnaire (Harrison, 1972):
This questionnaire addresses the four orientations referenced earlier (power, role, task
and self). The questionnaire was filled out with ranking statements according to views of
what is closest to the actual position of the organization. Statements included:
1) A good boss is strong, decisive and firm but fair;
2) Good subordinates are obedient, hardworking and loyal;
3) People who perform well in organizations are smart and competitive, with a strong need for
power;
4) The basis for task assignment is the need and personal judgment of those in authority;
5) Decisions are made by the people with the most knowledge and expertise on the matter.
D. SUMMARY MATERIAL
1. Communication:
a. Organizational communication is the process of creating and exchanging messages in a
network of interdependent relationships to cope with an uncertain or changing environment.
b. The functions of communication in the organization consist of: Informative Function,
Regulative Function, Persuasive Function and Integrative Function.
c. There are 6 communication styles in organizations, namely: a) Controlling Style; b)
Equailitarian Style; c) Structuring Style; d) Dynamic Style; e) Relinquishing Style; and f)
Withdraw Style.
d. The direction of communication is divided into 3 namely: Downward Communication,
Upward Communication, and Lateral Communication.
e. Group/organization members transfer meaning between each other through oral
communication, written communication, and nonverbal communication.
2. Organizational Culture:
a. Organizational culture is a system of shared meaning shared by members that distinguishes
an organization from other organizations.
b. Organizational Culture characteristics consist of: a) Innovation and risk-taking; b) Attention
to detail; c) Results orientation; d) People orientation; e) Team orientation; f)
Aggressiveness; g) Stability.
c. Organizational culture consists of three levels, namely: a) Artifacts; b) Espoused beliefs and
values; and c) Underlying assumptions.
d. There are four types of organizational culture, namely: Bureaucratic Culture, Clan Culture,
Entrepreneurial Culture, Market Culture.
e. Organizational culture consists of two main elements, namely idealistic elements and
behavioral elements.
f. Some instruments that can be used to assess organizational culture are: a) Organizational
Culture Assessment Instrument (Cameron and Quinn, 2006); b) Organizational ideology
questionnaire (Harrison, 1972); c) Organizational culture inventory (Cooke and Lafferty,
1989).
TASKS AND EVALUATION:
1. List and explain the functions of communication
2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Downward Communication
3. A company has a culture that emphasizes sales growth, increased market share, financial
stability, and profitability. Describe the type of organizational culture implemented by the
company.
4. Explain the division of types of organizational culture according to Robert E. Quinn and
Michael R. McGrath (1985).
5. What culture assessment instrument can describe 4 types of organizational culture namely
Clan, Adhocracy, Hierarchy, Market.
