THEORIES IN ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
COM 400 - COMMUNICATION IN PROFESSIONS
WEEK 3
A. COMMUNICATION CONCEPTS ORGANIZATION:
Organizational communication according to Wiryanto (in Khomsahrial Romli, 2011) is
the sending and receiving of various organizational messages in formal and informal groups
of an organization. Formal communication is communication that is approved by the
organization itself and is oriented towards the interests of the organization. The content is in
the form of how to work in the organization, productivity, and various work that must be
done in the organization. Informal communication is socially approved communication. Its
orientation is not to the organization, but rather to its members individually.
Meanwhile, according to Arni Muhammad (2009) that organizational communication
can also be defined as the process of creating and exchanging messages in a network of
interdependent relationships to overcome an uncertain or changing environment. S. Djuarsa
(2007) in his book "Communication Theory" that organizational communication is
communication between people (human communication) that occurs in the context of the
organization. Therefore, when an organization is considered just a group of people who
interact, then organizational communication will center on symbols that will enable the life
of an organization, either in the form of words or ideas that encourage, authorize coordinate
and realize organized activities in certain situations.
The correlation between communication science and organizations lies in the review that
focuses on the humans involved in achieving the goals of the organization. Communication
science questions what forms of communication take place in the organization, what
methods and techniques are used, what media are used, how the process is, what factors
become obstacles, and so on.
Based on various literature related to the definition of organizational communication,
the important functions of organizational communication according to Brent D. Ruben in
Alo Liliweri, (2004) are as follows:
a. Coordinate the activities of individuals, groups or other units within the organization.
b. Provide overall organizational direction.
c. Facilitate information exchange within the organization.
d. Ensure a two-way flow of information between the organization and the external
environment (outside) of the organization.
B. BARRIERS TO ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION :
Communication that occurs in organizations or institutions is certainly inseparable from
obstacles. These obstacles can then disrupt the communication process and cause noise.
According to Harun (2008), these barriers include the following:
1. Background (Frame of Reference)
Different people can interpret the same communication message differently depending on
their previous experiences. This then leads to differences in the process of creating and
decoding. Communication experts agree that this is the most important factor that can
interfere with commonness in communication.
2. Selective Listening
This is a form of selective perception where one tends to obscure new information,
especially if it contradicts one's beliefs. So if someone is briefed by their management, then
they will only pay attention to things that reinforce their beliefs.
3. Value Judgements
In every communication situation, the receiver will make value judgments. Basically, this
consideration involves assigning an overall value to a message before accepting the entire
communication.
4. Source Credibility
The trustworthiness of the source is the recipient's belief, trust, confidence and recognition
of the communicator's message and actions. The recipient's level of trust in the
communicator then directly affects the recipient's views and reactions to the communicator's
words, ideas and actions.
5. Semantic Problem
This is because sometimes words have different meanings for different people, so it is
possible for communicators to speak the same language as communicants.
6. Filtering
Filtering is common in the upward flow of communication within an organization or
institution. It deals with the "manipulation" of information in such a way that it can be
positively perceived by the recipient.
7. Status Differences
Often organizations or institutions explain hierarchical levels through various symbols such
as titles, offices, and so on. It is this kind of status difference that can pose a threat to
someone who is lower in status position in the hierarchy, which can lead to deviations in
communication.
8. Time Pressures
Time pressure is an important barrier to communication. Short circuits are failures of
formally defined communication systems, often due to time pressure. This means that
someone is left out of the formal channels of communication that would normally be
included.
C. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION STRATEGY:
Communication strategy is essentially planning and management to achieve a goal. To
achieve this goal, the strategy does not function as a road map that only shows the direction,
but must show how the operational tactics. According to Effendi (2003), communication
strategy is a combination of communication planning and communication management to
achieve one goal.
Developing a communication strategy is an art, not a science and there are many
different approaches to this task. As with strategy in any field, communication strategy must
be underpinned by theory, as theory is knowledge based on tested experience.
According to Ruslan (2002), in order for a strategy to be effectively implemented in a
program, it must include several things:
1. Clear and decisive objectives all efforts are directed towards achieving a clear, decisive
understanding and can achieve the overall goal. The objective need not be in writing but it is
important that it is understandable and decisive.
2. Maintaining initiative, it is important to recognize that initiative strategy preserves freedom
of action and enriches commitment. Strategies should set the pace and establish actions
against events, rather than reacting to events.
3. Concentration, by concentrating great power for a decisive time and place.
4. Strategies should be intended to include buffers and dimensions for flexibility and
maneuverability.
5. Strategy should provide leadership that is committed and accountable to the achievement of
key objectives.
6. Strategies should be prepared to utilize secrecy and intelligence to attack the opponent at an
unexpected moment.
7. The strategy secures the entire organization and all critical operations of the organization.
D. DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATION ORGANIZATION:
To see the communication that occurs in an organization can be seen from its
dimensions. According to Onong Uchjana Effendy (2007), there are two dimensions of
communication in organizational life, including the following:
1. Internal Communication:
The organization as a framework shows the division of tasks between the people in the
organization and can be classified as the leadership force and the led force. To organize and
supervise the implementation of the goals to be achieved, the chairman and the board make
rules in such a way that there is no need to communicate directly with all members. The
members create groups according to the type of work and appoint someone to be in charge
of the group. Thus, the chairperson only has to communicate with those in charge of the
group. The number of groups and their size depend on the size of the organization.
The dimensions of internal communication consist of vertical and horizontal
communication, as follows:
a. Vertical Communication:
Vertical communication, namely downward communication and upward communication,
which is communication from leaders to subordinates and from subordinates to leaders in a
reciprocal manner (two-way traffic communication). In vertical communication, leaders
provide instructions, instructions, information and explanations to their subordinates. In
communication from subordinates to leaders, subordinates provide reports, suggestions and
complaints to leaders. This reciprocal two-way communication in the organization is very
important because if there is only one direction from the leader to the subordinates, the
wheels of the organization will not run well. Leaders need to know reports, responses or
suggestions from members so that a decision or policy can be taken in order to achieve the
goals that have been set.
b. Horizontal Communication:
Horizontal communication is horizontal communication, between staff members and
staff members, employees and employees and so on. Unlike vertical communication which
is more formal in nature, horizontal communication often takes place informally. They
communicate with each other not when they are at work, but during free time. In this kind of
communication situation, rumors quickly spread and spread, and the subject of conversation
is often about work-related matters or leadership actions that are detrimental to them. The
spread of rumors among members about something is often caused by a wrong
interpretation. Between vertical communication and horizontal communication, there is
sometimes what is called diagonal communication. Diagonal communication or also known
as cross communication is the communication of division leaders with other members.
2. External Communication:
External communication is communication between organizational leaders and
audiences outside the organization. External communication consists of two reciprocal
channels, namely communication from the organization to the audience and communication
from the audience to the organization.
a. Communication from Organization to Audience
Communication from the organization to the audience is generally informative, which is
done in such a way that the audience feels involved. This activity is very important in trying
to solve a problem if it occurs unexpectedly.
b. Communication from Audience to Organization
Communication from the audience to the organization is feedback as an effect of
communication activities carried out by the organization. If the information disseminated to
the audience has a controversial effect (causing pros and cons among the audience), it is
called public opinion. This public opinion is often detrimental to the organization.
Therefore, it must be tried to be resolved immediately in the sense that it does not cause
problems.
E. COMMUNICATION THEORIES:
According to Littlejohn (1989), based on the method of explanation and the scope of the
object of observation, communication theories can generally be divided into two groups. The
first group is called the "general theories" group. The second group is the group of
"contextual theories". There are four types of theories classified into the general theories
group: (1) functional and structural theories, (2) behavioral and cognitive theories, (3)
conventional and interactional theories, and (4) critical and interpretive theories. While the
contextual theories group consists of theories on (1) interpersonal communication, (2) group
communication, (3) organizational communication, and (4) mass communication.
1. Functional and Structural Theories
Characteristic of this type of theory is the belief or view of the real functioning of
structures that are outside the observer. According to this view, an observer is part of the
structure. Therefore, his perspective will also be influenced by structures that are outside of
him.
Although these functional and structural approaches are often combined, each has a
different point of emphasis. The structuralist approach, which originated in linguistics,
emphasizes its study of matters concerning the organization of language and social systems.
Functionalism, derived from biology, emphasizes its study of the ways in which the system
is organized and maintained. When examined both These approaches share the same
emphasis on systems as functioning structures.
According to S. Djuarsa (2004), these two approaches also have some similar
characteristics as follows:
a. Both structuralism and functionalism are more concerned with synchrony (stability over
time) than diachrony (change over time).
b. Second approaches both have tend to focus on "unintended consequences" rather than
intended outcomes. Structuralists distrust the concepts of 'subjectivity' and 'consciousness'.
For them, what is observed are primarily factors that are beyond human control and
consciousness.
c. Both approaches share the belief that reality is essentially objective and independent.
Therefore, knowledge, according to this view, can be discovered through careful empirical
observation.
d. Both structuralism and functionalism are dualistic in that they separate language and
symbols from the thoughts and objects symbolized in communication. According to this
view, the world exists for its own sake, while language is just a tool to represent what
already exists.
e. Both approaches also share the principle of the correspondence theory of truth. According to
this theory, language must correspond to reality. Symbols must represent things accurately.
2. Behavioral and cognitive theories:
As with structuralist and functional theories, behavioral and cognitive theories are also a
combination of two different traditions. Its assumptions about the nature and way of
determining knowledge are also the same as the structuralist and functional schools. The
main difference between the behavioral and cognitive schools with the flow of The only
difference between structuralist and functional theories is the focus of observation and
history. Structuralist and functional theories developed from sociology and other social
sciences tend to focus their studies on matters concerning social and cultural structures.
Meanwhile, behavioral and cognitive theories that developed from psychology and other
behavioralist sciences tend to focus their observations on individual human beings. One of
his famous concepts is the "S-R" (stimulus-response) model that describes the information
process between "stimulus" (stimuli) and "response" (response).
"Behavioral and cognitive" theories also prioritize "variableanalytic" (variable analysis).
This analysis is basically an effort to identify cognitive variables that are considered
important, as well as looking for correlation relationships between variables. This analysis
also describes the ways in which cognitive and information process variables cause or
produce certain behaviors. Communication, according to this theoretical view, is considered
a manifestation of behavior, thought processes, and "bio-neural" functions of the individual.
Therefore, the determining variables that play an important role in a person's means of
cognition (including language) are usually beyond the person's control and awareness.
3. Conventional and interactional theories:
This theory holds that social life is a process of interaction that builds, maintains and
changes certain habits, including in this case language and symbols. Communication,
according to this theory, is considered the glue of society. This group of theories developed
from the "symbolic interactionism" approach of sociology and the philosophy of language
ordiner. For supporters of these theories, knowledge can be found through the method of
interpretation.
In contrast to structuralist theories that see social structure as determinant, interactional
and conventional theories see social structure as a product of interaction. The focus of these
theories' observations is not on structure but on the language used to social structure, and
language and other symbols are reproduced, maintained and changed in use. Meaning,
according to this group of theorists, is not an objective entity transferred through
communication but arises from and is created through interaction. In other words, meaning
is a product of interaction.
According to interactional and conventional theories, meaning is essentially habits
acquired through interaction. Therefore, meaning can change over time, from context to
context, and from one social group to another. Thus, the objectivity of meaning is relative
and temporary.
4. Critical and Interpretive Theories:
The fourth group of theories is the group of critical and interpretive theories. Its ideas
come from various traditions, such as interpretive sociology, Max Weber's thought,
phenomenology and hermeneutics, Marxism and the Frankfurt School, as well as textual
approaches, such as rhetorical, "biblical" and literary theories. This group of theories is
particularly popular in European countries.
While there are some differences among the theories belonging to this group, there are
two common characteristics. First, there is an emphasis on the role of subjectivity based on
individual experience. Second, meaning is a key concept in these theories. Experience is
seen as "meaning centered" or the basis for understanding meaning. By understanding the
meaning of an experience, a person will become aware of his or her life. In this case,
language becomes a central concept because language is seen as the driving force of human
experience.
Besides the general similarities, there are also fundamental differences between
interpretive theories and critical theories in terms of their approach. The interpretive
theoretical approach tends to avoid prescriptive properties and absolute decisions about
observed phenomena. Observations according to interpretive theory, is only something that
is tentative and relative. While critical theories usually tend to use decisions that are
absolute, prescriptive, and also political in nature.
Based on the context or level of analysis, according to S. Djuarsa (2004) communication
theories can generally be divided into five contexts or levels as follows. (1) Intrapersonal
communication (intra-personal communication), (2) interpersonal communication
(interpersonal communication), (3) group communication (group communication), (4)
organizational communication (organizational communication), and (5) mass
communication (mass communication).
Intrapersonal communication according to S. Djuarsa (2004) is a communication
process that occurs within a person. The center of attention is the course of information
processing that a person experiences through his nervous system and senses. Meanwhile,
Interpersonal communication or interpersonal communication is communication between
individuals and is personal, whether it occurs directly (without a medium) or indirectly
(through a medium). Activities such as face to face communication, telephone conversations,
personal correspondence, are examples of interpersonal communication. Theories of
interpersonal communication generally focus on the forms and nature of relationships,
discourse, interaction, and communicator characteristics.
Group communication focuses on interactions between people in small groups. Group
communication also involves interpersonal communication. Theories of group
communication address group dynamics, efficiency and effectiveness of information
delivery in groups, patterns and forms of interaction, and decision-making, among others.
Organizational communication refers to the patterns and forms of communication that
occur within the context and network of an organization. Organizational communication
involves formal and informal forms of communication, as well as forms of interpersonal
communication and group communication. The discussion of organizational communication
theories includes the structure and function of the organization, the relationship between the
organization and the people, communication, and organizing processes, as well as
organizational culture.
Mass communication according to S. Djuarsa (2004) is communication through mass
media aimed at a large number of audiences. The mass communication process involves
aspects of intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication, group
communication, and organizational communication. Theories of mass communication
generally focus their attention on matters concerning the structure of the media, the
relationship between the media and society, the relationship between the media and the
audience, the cultural aspects of mass communication, and the impact or results of mass
communication on individuals.
F. KEY CONCEPTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION :
In achieving the goals of an organization, that an organization must have a commitment
in achieving its goals. The success of an organizational communication is determined by
various aspects in its implementation. According to Arni Muhammad (2009) that
organizational communication contains seven key concepts, namely as follows:
1. Process
An organization is a dynamic open system, creating and exchanging messages among its
members, because the symptoms of creating and exchanging information are continuous and
continuous, it is said to be a process.
2. Order
Messages are meaningful arrangements of symbols about people, objects, events that result
from interactions with people. To communicate a person must be able to compose a mental
picture, give that picture and develop a feeling towards it. Communication is effective if the
message sent or interpreted is the same as what the sender intended. The symbols used in the
message can be verbal and nonverbal.
3. Network
Organizations consist of several people, each of whom occupies a specific position or role in
the organization. The creation and exchange of messages from these people to each other
occurs through a set of small pathways called communication networks.
4. Interdependence
The fourth key concept of organizational communication is the state of interdependence
between one part and another. This has become the nature of an organization which is an
open system.
5. Relationship
Human relationships in organizations range from simple relationships between two people
or dyads to complex relationships, namely relationships in small and large groups in the
organization.
6. Environment
What is meant by the environment is all the totality of physical and social factors that are
taken into account in making decisions about individuals in a system. This environment can
be divided into internal and external environments.
7. Uncertainty
Uncertainty is the difference between available information and expected information. To
reduce this uncertainty factor, organizations create and exchange messages among members,
conduct research, develop organizations, and face complex tasks with high integration.
G. SUMMARY MATERIAL:
Organizational communication is the sending and receiving of various organizational
messages in formal and informal groups of an organization. Formal communication is
communication that is approved by the organization itself and is oriented towards the
interests of the organization. The content is in the form of how to work in the organization,
productivity, and various work that must be done in the organization. Informal
communication is socially approved communication. Its orientation is not to the
organization, but rather to its individual members. Developing a communication strategy is
an art, not a science and there are many different ways to approach this task. As with
strategy in any field, communication strategy must be supported by theory, because theory is
knowledge based on experience that has been tested. in general, communication theories can
be divided into two groups. The first group is called the "general theories" group. The
second group is the group of "contextual theories". There are four types of theories that are
classified into the group of general theories: (1) functional and structural theories, (2)
behavioral and cognitive theories, (3) conventional and interactional theories, and (4)
critical and interpretive theories. While the contextual theories group consists of theories
about
(1) interpersonal communication, (2) group communication, (3) organizational
communication, and (4) mass communication.
TASKS AND EVALUATION
1. Explain the meaning of organizational communication comprehensively?
2. Explain the barriers to organizational communication comprehensively?
3. Describe an organizational communication strategy?
4. Describe the dimensions of organizational communication?
5. Describe four types of communication theories that include general theories?
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT
A. INTRODUCTION:
Organizations are entities that continue to develop due to the influence of technology
and changing times, but one thing that is understood is that organizations are containers that
bridge related units and hierarchical relationships in achieving goals (Muhammad, 2011).
Given that the organization is a system that is interrelated and influences each other, the role
of communication in an organization is a very important component to coordinate and
supervise the activities of individuals involved in the organization (Jablin & Putnam, 2001).
Communication also plays an important role for organizations when facing changes both
internally and externally. Communication is the key to identifying and coordinating between
stakeholders, building a process of social interaction between the parties involved,
structuring and making decisions (Lewis, 2019). If effective communication cannot be
applied in the organization, it will lead to The domino effect arises and causes various
problematic issues that are difficult to overcome. The McKinsey report (Lewis, 2019) states
that only one-third of organizational leaders are successful in making changes. Other
statistics also mention that at the implementation level, 80 global companies fail to deliver
organizational values (Knodel 2004, in Lewis, 2019). This failure can certainly affect the
sustainability of the organization ranging from decreased worker productivity, impact on the
brand, to loss of trust from stakeholders and consumers (Lewis, 2019).
In Indonesia, a number of studies mention that there are a number of effects of
organizational communication for the sustainability of organizations in various fields. In
private organizations, organizational communication is suspected to make employees more
active at work which can have a positive impact on achieving company goals (Ernika, 2016).
Organizational communication also has an influence on performance satisfaction (Afianto &
Utami, 2006). In government organizations, organizational communication has an influence
on apparatus performance (Afifi & Nugroho, 2018).
To develop individual organizational communication skills, supervisors and superiors
can conduct open communication by providing direction, understanding, and building
cooperation between supervisors and workers (Hariandja 2002, in Afianto & Utami, 2006).
In addition to this, leaders can also develop personal closeness and utilize technology to
facilitate communication (Akbar & Chatamallah, 2019).
From various studies, it is mentioned that communication is inseparable in
organizational life so that the terminology of organizational communication is growing
along with the times. To understand this, there are a number of approaches used to
understand organizational communication consisting of organizational communication only
understood as limited to divisions that carry out communication functions in general. The
second approach has developed which focuses on communication activities or phenomena
that occur in the organization. Finally, the approach that emphasizes communication as a
way to It describes and explains organizations through exchanged symbolic interactions. The
latter approach has expanded the meaning that organizational communication not only
includes interactions that occur within organizations but is also used to look at interactions
between organizations and various other components such as social structure, knowledge,
worker characteristics (Jablin & Putnam, 2001).
In general, organizational communication has an understanding as an interaction that
occurs in a very complex open system and affects the environment both internally and
externally. In understanding the definition of organizational communication, there are 7
(seven) components consisting of process, message, network, dependency, relationship,
environment, and uncertainty (Goldhaber, 1974) with the following details:
1. Process in organizational communication:
It is an activity of exchanging messages that is carried out continuously. As an effort to
respond to organizational change is faced with uncertainty and to reduce this, organizations
continue to process to be able to adapt to change.
2. Order:
It is a symbol to give meaning to information. Communication is said to be effective
when the interlocutor can describe the concept and meaning conveyed by the messenger.
Given that a message is more than a symbol, its scope is not only limited to verbal language
but also non-verbal language that has meaning. In organizations, individuals involved in
these entities exchange verbal messages in written and written forms such as letters, memos,
conversations, and speeches. In non-verbal communication, messages refer to body
language, physical characteristics, voice intonation, personal distance, and environment.
Messages in organizational communication also include a person's purpose or background
where the message has the purpose of completing tasks, managing the organization which in
this case is in policy making or maintaining organizational stability, or messages that have
the purpose of developing interpersonal relationships.
3. Network:
Communication patterns in organizations consist of downward communication which is
a form of communication from leaders to workers that can be found in military organizations
by prioritizing the function of completing work. Giving orders, work direction, and
discipline direction are forms of downward communication. Conversely, in upward
communication, interaction occurs from workers to leaders, which can be found when
workers expect evaluation or feedback on work and also provide suggestions. Even so, in
organizations there is also interaction between lines or what is referred to as horizontal
communication. In this communication, messages are exchanged in positions of equal
authority and are used to coordinate, resolve conflicts or gossip.
4. Addiction:
Organizations are open entities which are interconnected and inseparable from each
other. As a system, there are subsystems that have an attachment. Whenever there is one
component that has a problem, it will affect the organization as a whole. For example, when
the manager makes a decision about cutting salaries for all employees, it will give a
tremendous response to the organization as a whole. From an internal perspective, workers
can perform demonstrations which in turn external parties such as the media can cover this
and can affect the company's reputation.
5. Relationship:
Organizations as open social systems have a function to connect individuals with each
other at various levels consisting of interpersonal communication, small group
communication, and audience communication. This shows that organizations have
interactions that are established dyadically to a wider scope. In interpersonal
communication, there are at least two individuals exchanging messages and having personal
closeness. In group communication, there are at least three to twelve individuals interacting
with each other. In audience communication, at least thirteen to a whole lot of individuals
are involved.
6. Environment:
Duncan (in Goldhaber, 1974) defines the environment as physical and social factors in
the decision-making process for individuals who are members of a system. There are two
components in understanding the environment as part of the organization, namely internal
and external. In the internal component, the environment refers to the individuals involved
in the organization, functions and staff, goals, products or services, and integration. The
external component refers to customers, suppliers, competitors, and technology.
7. Uncertainty:
An organization creates and exchanges messages between the individuals involved.
These interactions cause uncertainty, especially for organizations or divisions that have
complex tasks. For example, when a foreign company wants to expand to a region but the
destination area has limited information to regulatory uncertainty, it makes leaders and
workers overwhelmed with uncertainty in making decisions. Uncertainty can also occur
because the information received by the organization is too much than needed.
In basic relationships, organizations involve conversations between individuals that
occur in two directions in the form of superior-to-subordinate, subordinate-to-superior, and
line-to-line communication known as interpersonal communication. Supervisor-to-
subordinate conversations are the most common type of communication found in
organizations. Providing feedback on subordinate performance, conducting performance
appraisals, and providing information are forms of communication carried out from
superiors to subordinates. These various activities are part of the organization's efforts to
develop their commitment to improving relationships between individuals involved in the
organization (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001; Tansky & Cohen, 2001).
There are three forms of commitment that exist in an organization, namely affective,
normative, and sustainability (Mayer, 1990). Affective is a form of commitment
conceptualized through attachment. Normative is a form of commitment conceptualized
through responsibility and implementing norms. Sustainability commitment can be seen
through individual investment and sacrifice. Through these three forms of commitment, it is
hoped that the interpersonal communication of an organization can be developed.
Currently, interpersonal communication is one of the skills required by every modern
organization for leaders including workers to be able to improve organizational performance
(Singh & Lalropuii, 2014). A number of studies state that the intensity and quality of
interpersonal communication plays an important role in employee satisfaction (Goldhaber,
1974) and can also improve employee performance (Rahardja, 2004). Through open
communication between superiors to subordinates, subordinates to superiors and at the same
level can help individuals understand the importance of respecting others, improve
performance and organizational activities in the long term, and increase individual loyalty to
the company (Nicolae & Alina, 2013). McCroskey (in Goldhaber, 1974) analogizes
organizational communication as "hot talk in cool buildings" which means hot talk in a cold
building, so that every individual involved in the organization without exception must be
open, honest, trust and respect each other. Leaders are also required to show more respect to
employees.
B. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION:
Interpersonal communication is the process of exchanging messages between individuals
which is a major component in organizational behavior that affects the success of work to
relationships between colleagues, fellow levels, or subordinates. Vardaman & Halterman (in
Singh & Lalropuii, 2014) defines communication as Interpersonal interactions that occur
within the scope of the organization as verbal and non-verbal interactions between
stakeholders with the aim of building understanding and perception through various
channels, communication systems, networks, and organizational structures.
Furthermore, in interpersonal communication, individuals involved in interactions have
the aim of building and developing personal relationships. Interaction can be built through
conversation, communication through writing, to using body language both face-to-face and
virtual (Saxena, 2015). In an organizational context, interpersonal communication can be
found in formal interactions when discussing a project, regular meetings, employee
performance appraisals, and informal interactions. Interpersonal communication can also be
found outside the organization such as employee interactions with clients to leadership
conversations with shareholders (Sethi & Seth, 2009).
Given the relationship built in interpersonal communication is a personal relationship
and seeks to develop closeness, then every individual who is part of the organization
including leaders and workers, is encouraged to be able to develop these competencies.
Someone who has interpersonal communication competence can interact well with all
workers and leaders effectively and efficiently, they can resolve conflicts, negotiate, assess
things objectively, and be open to different opinions and views (Singh & Lalropuii, 2014).
Some companies even expect managers to have effective interpersonal communication
competencies in conveying messages honestly and openly, having the ability to listen, and
the ability to lead and collaborate (Bambacas & Patrickson, 2008).
There are a number of fundamental components in interpersonal communication (Sethi
& Seth, 2009), which consist of:
1. Communicator; involves at least two individuals in a two-way interaction
2. Message; information exchanged in conversation both verbally and non-verbally.
3. Noise; distortions in interaction in the form of cultural differences, distractions from the
surrounding environment and things that can hinder the smooth flow of communication. For
example, a manager invites his assistant to talk face-to-face but their conversation is slightly
interrupted because the office is undergoing renovations. The noise makes it difficult for
both of them to fully understand the words.
4. Response; feedback from a conversation can be in the form of words or body language. For
example, when an employee wants to apply for vacation leave to the leader because he feels
stressed and needs a vacation. The leader agrees by nodding and saying that the employee
needs to rest. The statement given by the leader is a response to the employee's words.
5. Background; all forms of interaction involve situational, social and emotional backgrounds.
In the situational background, the conversation refers to the place where the interaction is
carried out such as the office, meeting room, cafeteria, leader's room, and pantry. In the
situational background, the interaction refers to the roles and responsibilities of individuals.
In the emotional background, the interaction can affect a person's psychological state.
6. Channel; refers to the physical means used to convey a message from one person to
another. In the case of interpersonal communication, speeches to the organization's mission
statement become the channel to convey the message.
7. Communication Channel; the media used in conveying messages. There are two types of
media used in interpersonal communication, namely direct and indirect channels. In direct
channels, interactions can be carried out using media that involve the five senses while in
indirect channels, interactions emphasize body language, facial expressions, and voice cues.
Carl Rogers (in Goldhaber, 1974) states that interpersonal communication is said to be
successful and effective when the parties involved fulfill the components below:
1. Engage in personal interactions such as having conversations outside of work hours, asking
how you are doing, and exchanging stories about your personal life.
2. Develop empathy by respecting and seeking to understand each other's situation.
3. Build a positive climate by supporting each other to help each other prosper.
4. Respect each other unconditionally.
5. Show sincerity, accept each other, and respect each other's feelings.
6. Show openness and support each other to reduce misunderstandings.
7. Demonstrate trustworthy behavior and at the same time reinforce each other's feelings of
security.
Each individual involved in the organization can develop interpersonal communication
competence with a number of strategies, one of which can be pursued by understanding
oneself, understanding others with effective listening and communication processes, and the
ability to resolve conflicts.
C. ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND SELF
1. Self Awareness:
In a competitive work environment consisting of various backgrounds of individuals
with different cultures, emotional intelligence is important to be owned and honed by each
individual. Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize, understand, and respond to
emotions in ourselves and others (Hynes, 2015). Through good emotional intelligence, one
can create a climate of supportive communication, be open to differences of opinion and
criticism, make decisions even under pressure, and develop personal relationships for mutual
progress.
One way to develop emotional intelligence is through having self-awareness. Goleman
(in Rahmasari, 2012) revealed that self-awareness is one of the five components of
emotional intelligence that can affect one's success.
Self-awareness is an individual's state of paying attention to their thoughts, behaviors,
feelings, and their impact on others. Given that it is not an easy thing, it takes commitment
to develop it because each of our internal factors can affect the way we interact with others,
so we must identify and evaluate each of our actions. The following are the benefits of
having the ability to understand oneself (Janasz, Dowd, & Schneider, 2009), namely:
a. Develop yourself.
b. Understand and develop relationships with others.
c. Helps with more informed career and life planning. Knowing your potentials and obstacles
can help you choose the right career or job. (add example).
d. Understand differences.
e. Increase productivity.
f. Increase the ability to contribute to the organization.
The ability to understand oneself for a manager or leader can increase the trust and
professionalism of workers. This is because they can learn to appreciate, respect, and also
try to empathize with workers. Managers or leaders who have high self-awareness, can
manage conflict with a cool head and are open to differences. They try to listen to workers
by creating a supportive climate (Janasz, Dowd, & Schneider, 2009). Stanford considers soft
skills such as self-awareness to be a more important component of successful leadership than
IQ or technical skills. In addition to having knowledge about the organization and the field,
a leader must have self-awareness as part of the leadership team of self-actualization and
also effective leadership (Showry & Manasa, 2014). For a worker or employee, self-
awareness which is part of emotional intelligence can improve performance, productivity,
and increase one's happiness (Rahmasari, 2012).
Janasz, Dowd, & Schneider (2009, p, 7) describe the stages in developing self-awareness
which include:
a. Self-analysis:
The ability to examine the factors that influence attitudes, thoughts and interactions. To
be able to identify the various influencing components, individuals must evaluate their
thoughts and feelings to gain new insights. For example, a leader can discover obstacles in
the team's work when he or she can self-reflect by looking at the beginning of the decision-
making process, how he or she behaves and how his or her behavior may be an obstacle to
the team.
Self-analysis skills are also obtained by evaluating behavior and personality. In behavior,
self-reflection can be done by observing reactions to events that have been experienced. In
personality, self-image can be seen through characteristics, temperament, tendency towards
certain issues formed through social, cultural, and environmental factors.
b. Self-Monitoring:
Self-monitoring is the ability to control oneself before speaking or acting. Understanding
social situations and work environments can help individuals to adjust their behavior and
interactions. Self-monitoring ability is obtained by assessing attitudes and behaviors by
analyzing elements that can increase satisfaction or vice versa. Individuals who have a high
level of self-monitoring are usually sensitive to the environment and try to hide their true
identity. Conversely, those with low levels of self-monitoring will generally be more
expressive and responsive to every situation.
In organizational situations, individuals are advised to be able to control themselves
within reasonable limits or not excessive considering that it will have an impact on
performance and interpersonal relationships. Individuals do not need to always think about
criticism or other people's responses nor be a person who always acts to please others, but
they can be open, listen to differences of opinion, be assertive and professional.
c. Self-openness:
One of the ways a person can increase self-awareness is through sharing thoughts,
feelings, and ideas without hiding or what is referred to as self-disclosure or openness. By
trying to be open about personal information, we open up the possibility of others to
understand us with all the strengths and weaknesses we have. In self-awareness, openness is
an important component to equalize perceptions between individuals involved in the
conversation. For example, when we get an unsatisfactory score on a performance appraisal,
instead of being shackled in the subjective perceptions we create, we try to share with the
closest people such as coworkers. As they listen and provide feedback, we become more
open to the possibilities that influenced the unsatisfactory score.
Self-openness can also bring both psychological and physiological benefits.
Psychologically, individuals can feel calmer and have a variety of thoughts that allow them
to think more objectively. Physiologically, those who are more open can reduce worry and
tension. In addition to this, openness can improve personal relationships between
individuals, affect performance productivity, create a supportive climate and mutual trust,
and improve long-term relationships.
d. Enhance the experience:
Another way to increase self-awareness is to gain a lot of experience in diverse
situations. For example, studying or working in a country or environment with a high level
of heterogeneity. In addition to this, we can do so by seeking out new information that can
broaden our experience and knowledge. Negative events or something unpleasant is also
considered to add to one's experience.
As we gain more experience, we learn the good things as well as the failures and take
responsibility to organize a better life in the future. It is for this reason that when we
encounter new situations, we strive to adapt with the knowledge and experience we have.
Being open to new experiences broadens our horizons and improves our ability to interact
with the world and become more confident.
2. Self Management:
In addition to self-awareness, self-management ability is one of the components of
emotional intelligence that can affect a person's success (Goleman in Rahmasari, 2012). The
ability to manage oneself is an effort made by individuals by identifying problems,
developing specific goals, and strategies for making decisions to overcome problems
(Janasz, Dowd, & Schneider, 2009).
There are a number of strategies used to improve self-management skills, namely
assessing one's abilities, asking for feedback from others, being confident in one's abilities,
not being excessive, thinking about actions at the right time, developing abilities, being
motivated when doing things, tracking work progress, thinking about all decisions, and
making time for others (Janasz, Dowd, & Schneider, 2009).
In addition to this, individuals who have the ability to manage themselves can also
manage their time well or what is known as time management. Time management is an
attitude in achieving activities or goals that are adjusted to the schedule or time. These skills
require individuals to be able to prioritize activities that can support life goals. In the world
of work or organizations, time management can create work-life balance conditions or a
balance between personal and work life which is considered to increase individual
productivity. The adage "work smart, not hard" represents good time management. By
focusing on the energy used to prioritize certain activities, the outcome of an activity can be
measured. Managing time well is also thought to reduce stress by focusing on important
things that can improve quality of life (Janasz, Dowd, & Schneider, 2009).
Self-management skills are also related to managing stress over unexpected events or
circumstances that are considered unpleasant (Janasz, Dowd, & Schneider, 2009). Stress can
trigger feelings of pressure, worry, frustration, anger, sadness, inequality, confusion, and
isolation (Clarke in Crampton et al., 1995). Although stress has an unfavorable meaning and
can cause health and psychological disorders, it turns out that there are positive types of
stress that can be found when someone gets a promotion or goes on a business trip
(Crampton et al., 1995). This situation on the one hand causes pressure but also brings its
own blessings. Meanwhile, negative stress can be found in the condition of workers who
experience disasters, are fired, pay cuts, or leaders who are entangled in conflict or fail to
make a profit (Crampton et al., 1995). There are a number of strategies that can be done by
individuals to manage stress, namely identifying stressors and their levels, applying time
management skills, learning to share and be open, writing notes, talking to the closest person
or people who can be trusted, using visualization or imagining something. A person
suffering from stress can also practice breathing techniques, meditation, consultation with
experts such as psychologists and psychiatrists (Janasz, Dowd, & Schneider, 2009).
D. LISTENING SKILLS:
To develop interpersonal communication competence, individuals must not only
improve their speaking skills but also learn to listen. Often people neglect to pay attention to
their interlocutors and focus on delivering something to the interlocutor. In fact, to create
interpersonal communication effectiveness, individuals must learn to listen first to
understand themselves and the other person.
In the world of work, individuals spend half to two-thirds of their time elevating. Despite
the time spent listening, 75 to 90 percent of individuals involved in conversations do not
really feel heard and tend to feel ignored, forgotten, and misunderstood (Hynes, 2015). In
fact, to achieve effective communication, the parties involved in the interaction must have
active listening skills (Janasz, Dowd, & Schneider, 2009). Through this, we can conclude
that listening skills are difficult to do and require experience to develop.
Listening is an individual process of observing, capturing the intent, and providing
responses to the interlocutor. The effectiveness of listening can be seen through three
dimensions consisting of sensing, evaluating, and responding (Janasz, Dowd, & Schneider,
2009) with the following details:
1. Sensing, individuals not only pay attention to the verbal words spoken by the interlocutor
but capture nonverbal language (Janasz, Dowd, & Schneider, 2009) displayed through facial
expressions, eye contact, and body posture with the aim of emphasizing verbal language and
reducing uncertainty in communication (Molen & Gramsbergen-Hoogland, 2005).
2. Evaluation involves the ability to understand the meaning conveyed by the interlocutor
either verbally or nonverbally and remember the message conveyed (Janasz, Dowd, &
Schneider, 2009).
3. Giving a response involves individuals engaging in the interaction and listening to what is
being said (Janasz, Dowd, & Schneider, 2009).
There are a number of strategies that can be used to improve active listening skills
(Hynes, 2015), which consist of:
1. Choosing an appropriate place when interacting with interlocutors reduces unwanted noise
or distractions. When a leader wants to open an informal discussion session with employees,
the activity can be done in the leader's room or meeting room. Discussing in the pantry or
open space can make the atmosphere more fluid but noise interference from the environment
cannot be avoided.
2. Choosing the best time to communicate. Timing is considered to affect motivation, emotion,
and willingness when building a conversation. For example, if the leader wants to discuss
personal matters with employees, pay attention to the time chosen by looking at the
conditions, the tasks being done, and body language. Vice versa, if an employee wants to
convey the desire for a raise or promotion to the boss, it must be able to pay attention to the
overall activity and also the body language of the leader. Speaking at the wrong time will
make us lose the ability to listen actively.
3. Thinking about personal biases that can affect interactions. If we are not aware of them, then
we tend to hear what we want to hear. In this case, each individual must place themselves
objectively and neutrally when building interactions with others.
In addition to building on the three things mentioned above, individuals must also read
nonverbal language and provide feedback. Active listening is not only understanding the
words conveyed through verbal language or those conveyed in a straightforward manner but
also non-verbal language and the ability to provide responses or reactions (Hynes, 2015).
Individuals can also show interest in the other person, try to focus, make eye contact, do not
interrupt, show empathy, and paraphrase to emphasize and avoid misunderstanding, and not
talk too much (Janasz, Dowd, & Schneider, 2009).
Individuals involved in the interaction must also understand that there are a number of
barriers to active and effective listening (Janasz, Dowd, & Schneider, 2009), which include:
1. Physiological limitations; listening is a tiring activity because the process of understanding
things emphasizes vision.
2. Speaking or listening range; the average person is able to speak about 120-150 words per
minute, while the human brain has the capacity to process information at about 275-300
words per minute. However, when thinking, the human brain can process up to 500 minutes
of information per word which can make it easier for us to tune in or tune out when
interacting. So one strategy to overcome this gap is to develop presentation techniques to get
the attention of the other person.
3. Judgmental towards the interlocutor; when individuals have unfavorable judgment towards
the interlocutor, it is difficult for them to listen fully or be objective to every word delivered.
4. Listening is only partial; for some people, the listening process is only listening to words
conveyed verbally or spoken through the mouth even though nonverbal language also
participates when someone speaks. As a worker who says that he is good even though facial
expressions or body language have shown signs of fatigue. If the leader only listens to what
is said, then he fails in active listening.
5. Prepare arguments to defend and try to gain the upper hand in the conversation.
6. Listen to information that only want to to hear or ignoring information that they do not want
to hear.
7. Insufficient information.
8. Concern about being influenced or persuaded.
9. Boredom.
10. Influenced by emotions.
Furthermore, the discussion on listening styles focuses more on the formal context
within the organization. However, listening in informal contexts is also considered
important, especially for leaders. Leaders need to be responsive and alert to such matters as
sometimes important information is contained in gossip and leaders can also identify
potential conflicts. Nonetheless, it is important that those who hear such things do not
interfere too much or get fully involved but stay tuned to the news as research reveals that
70 to 90 percent of what is exchanged in gossip is often accurate (Hynes, 2015).
E. COMMUNICATE EFFECTIVELY
Often people think that communication is an easy thing because it is considered just
conveying a message, whereas to be able to communicate effectively, individuals must
understand the style of communication, the interlocutor, the message conveyed, and the
media used. Although complex and not easy, there are a number of strategies that can be
used to develop effective communication, especially for individuals who are members of
organizations.
The fundamental rule for effective communication in organizations is to apply the
golden rule "treat others as you would like to be treated" (Hynes, 2015). The following are
golden rule strategies in effective communication (Hynes, 2015):
1. Cultivate an empathetic attitude
As a manager or leader, fostering empathy for workers can be done by involving
individuals in a team or job. The individuals involved will interact with each other and
establish ground rules or common ground that increase empathy between them. If this can be
achieved well, then the work will be easier to complete because of the close personal
relationship that is built. In addition, managers can also open consultation sessions, eat or
vacation together, celebrate birthdays, give awards for achievements, and conduct
information interactions outside of working hours.
With coworkers, individuals can also develop empathy through celebrating birthdays,
celebrating the success of a team or individual, having lunch together, spending the day off
to go somewhere, and doing activities or hobbies together. This not only improves personal
relationships, but can also reduce tension and stress in the workplace.
A study conducted by the Great Place to Work Institute found that employees can enjoy
their work when they trust and feel comfortable working with individuals in the organization
and have pride in working in the organization (Hynes, 2015).
2. Building trust:
Trust is the foundation of everything that often affects many things from personal
relationships, work productivity, to organizational success. Trust can be built when leaders
must first be trustworthy by being consistent in their words and behavior and being
transparent. Furthermore, leaders strive to put workers first, involve them in every task and
obligation, and commit to their well-being. By trusting the workers, their independence will
be trained and they will also be more free to express their opinions (Hynes, 2015).
One of the characteristics of a supportive organizational climate is a high level of trust
between individuals and is characterized by; a comfortable atmosphere, everyone
participates in discussions and is free to express opinions, is committed to completing work,
listens to each other, decision making is based on a variety of factors consensus, constructive
criticism for organizational progress, leaders do not dominate (Hynes, 2015).
A number of studies mention that trust can increase worker satisfaction and productivity.
In the organization of higher education institutions such as universities, trust has a positive
and significant effect on the work motivation of education personnel (Farida, Iqbal &
Kurniasih, 2016). In addition to increasing satisfaction, the level of trust in superiors also
has a significant positive effect on worker productivity found in manufacturing companies
such as PT. Nyonya Meneer Semarang (Widodo, 2009).
F. STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CONFLICT:
Conflict is an expression of contention between individuals and individuals, between
groups, or between institutions (Pace & Faules in Suharta, 2010) caused by differences of
opinion, struggle for expertise, overly ambitious desires of top management, and external
factors (Heridiansyah, 2014). In interpersonal relationships, conflicts often arise due to
differences in personality, opinions, and also roles such as managers and workers
(Heridiansyah, 2014).
In general, conflict is seen as a negative form that can destroy even though well-
managed conflict can have a positive influence because conflict can open up learning space
between workers and leaders. Without conflict, organizational life would be stagnant
(Hynes, 2015). Well-managed conflict can also increase creativity as it requires people to
think outside the box and is thought to lead to better decisions (Hynes, 2015).
Hynes (2015, p, 108) reveals conflict management strategies that consist of:
1. Avoid
The conflict avoidance style is the most common strategy used by the majority of
workers. Generally, individuals who use this style do not like to engage in tensions,
arguments, or situations that encourage discomfort such as frustration, and consider conflict
as unimportant.
The avoidance style can be done when the parties involved in the interaction experience
tension, so that cool down is the best strategy for managing conflict. In addition to this, the
avoidance style can be used in situations that can cause significant potential damage and
leave it to the experts to resolve the conflict.
2. Accommodate:
The second style of conflict management strategy is accommodation. In this strategy,
individuals try to ignore their feelings and let the other person be happy or "win." This is
done because personal relationships are considered important. Maintaining relationships
with superiors, workers, or coworkers is the goal in this strategy.
Accommodation style can be applied to certain conflicts when harmony is considered
much more important in the survival of the organization and prioritizes personal
relationships.
3. Compromise:
Compromise is the third strategy in conflict resolution. The assumption that half a loaf is
better than none is considered to provide advantages for both parties rather than one-sided
wins or losses. Some individuals find this approach preferable to the previous strategies.
Compromise is used when one of two conditions exists: (1) neither party is coercing the
other, (2) one or both people believe that winning may not be worth the material, time, or
energy spent. In other words, the compromise style can be successfully employed when the
individuals involved in the conflict have equal power and the other person rejects the
agreement.
4. Force:
Individuals who use the force style make every effort to fulfill their goals without regard
to the needs or acceptance of the workers or team. While this may be effective for some, it
can lead to conflict follow-up at a later date. Although considered negative, in certain
situations force can be successfully used. Crisis situations that require quick decisions,
individuals know that the decision or what is conveyed is right and correct, and as part of an
effort to protect themselves are considered situations that allow this style to be used.
5. Collaborate:
Collaborating is the fifth or so-called win-win strategy. The ideal complex strategy
requires strategic skills and communication. The key to this strategy is that all parties
involved in the conflict participate in joint problem solving. At least to implement this style,
leaders must go through stages such as finding and analyzing the problem, brainstorming
solutions, developing solution criteria, and finding the best solution. Although it is
considered a long and tiring process, this strategy is the best solution for all parties involved
in the conflict.
The collaboration style can be successful when the parties involved in the conflict care
about each other, commitments are considered more important, personal feelings are
ignored, and permanent solutions are expected.
G. SUMMARY MATERIAL:
Currently, interpersonal communication is one of the skills required by every modern
organization for leaders including workers to be able to improve organizational
performance. Each individual involved in the organization can develop interpersonal
communication competence with a number of strategies, one of which can be achieved by
understanding oneself, understanding others with the process of listening and
communicating effectively, and the ability to resolve conflicts. In the part of understanding
oneself, a leader or worker must build emotional intelligence which can be achieved through
self awareness and self management. Then, individuals or leaders can develop
understanding others by learning to listen and communicate effectively. Given that both are
difficult activities and are gained through experience, there are a number of strategies that
must be applied such as learning to respect others, understanding nonverbal language, and
applying the golden rule. In addition, individuals involved in a conflict can also resolve it by
using five types of conflict management strategies consisting of avoidance, giving in,
compromise, force, and cooperation.
TASKS AND EVALUATION:
1. How does interpersonal communication play an important role in organizations?
2. How a leader can build family relationship in the work environment?
3. Why listen to is activity important for building personal relationships?
4. How do you manage stress and time in a work environment?
5. Describe the best conflict strategy to apply when you as a leader resolve a problem between
two workers who are involved in a personal issue such as a love triangle?
