LANGUAGE AND VERBAL INTERACTION
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
COM 100 - INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION
ASSIGNMENT 2024
A. Brief Overview of Course Content
This chapter discusses language as a system of symbols and meanings, barriers in language
and verbal interaction, principles and social aspects of language and verbal interaction.
B. Guidelines for Studying the Material
Clearly understand the content of the material on language as a system of symbols and
meanings, barriers in language and verbal interaction, principles and social aspects of
language and verbal interaction.
C. Learning Objectives
1. Students are able to explain about language as a system of symbols and meanings.
2. Students are able to explain the barriers in language and verbal interaction
3. Students are able to express the principles and social aspects of language and verbal
interaction.
Course Content:
a. Language as a System of Symbols and Meanings
3.1.1 Language as a Symbol System
Language is the revealer of all reality and the backbone of communication. Language
can be said to be a code, a system of symbols used to form human verbal messages.
Language can be defined as a productive system that is transferable and consists of symbols
that are rapidly disappearing, have free meaning and are culturally transmitted.
Some characteristics of language as a symbol system are
a. Language is productive
New elements can be added to the system and the elements can be arranged in new
ways to form new sentences.
b. Language is transferable
Language can be used to talk about issues that are far away from a person both in terms
of time and distance.
c. Spoken language consists of symbols that quickly disappear.
d. The symbols of language are free.
There is no real or inherent link between a word and the thing or things it symbolizes.
e. Language is transmitted culturally, not biologically. Language is learned from the
culture in which one is raised
The nature of language has some important implications for communication between
people. The implications are:
a. Effective communication begins with and within the confines of language rules.
b. Diversion and productivity make lying possible.
c. Language disappears quickly, so spoken messages must be easy to understand
immediately.
d. Meaning must be sought in the person speaking and not merely in the words used.
3.1.2 Language as a Meaning System
Language is a human need to communicate meaning. All language functions, the
communication of meaning is essential from one person to another. Therefore, meaning
must be placed in a central position in any attempt to explain language.
Meaning is created by the person doing the communicating and is a function of the
message as well as the interaction of the message with the thoughts, feelings and attitudes of
the person concerned.
Wendell Johnson's meaning process in Devito has implications for human
communication, namely:
a. Meaning exists within human beings.
b. Emotional meanings are constantly changing even though words themselves remain
static.
c. Words only have meaning when associated with certain references in the real world.
d. Disagreements often arise when people forget that the same word can have multiple
meanings.
e. Words only communicate a fraction of the meaning that exists in the human mind.
Meaning can be divided into two: denotative and connotative meaning. Denotative
meaning is objective meaning and connotative meaning is emotional, subjective or personal
meaning. Denotative meaning is quite general or universal. This means that most people
agree or have the same understanding of denotative meaning. Whereas connotative meaning
is very personal, and not many people have the same understanding of the connotative
meaning of a word.
b. Barriers to Language and Verbal Interaction
The barriers that occur in verbal communication are mostly sourced from the process of
sending messages from communicators to communicants. This barrier is called cognitive
distortion.27 The barriers are:
a. Polarization
Polarization is the tendency to see the world in terms of opposites and to describe it in
terms of two unrealistic extremes, such as black and white, or good and bad, or beautiful
and ugly.
b. Intentional orientation
This happens when we take what is as reality, a tendency to take things more as they are
and not according to what people say they are.
c. Chaos due to inferring facts
This happens when we treat inferences as facts.
d. Cut the compass
This happens when communicators and communicants misunderstand each other's
intended meaning. In addition, it occurs when different words are used for the same
meaning or the same word is used for different meanings.
e. Findings
Convenience refers to the tendency to assume that the person who knows a certain thing
must know everything, or that what has been said must be the whole truth.
f. Static evaluation
This happens when we ignore change and assume that reality is static.
g. Indiscrimination
This happens when we group things that are not the same into one group and assume
that they are in the same group, and that they are all the same.
In addition to the above barriers, the verbal messages we inflict on others can have a
negative impact, therefore, avoid the principles below:
a. Internal conversations occur when members of a particular group talk about their
group's problems or use their group's language in the presence of others.
b. Condescending talk refers to the tendency to put others down, and not view them as
equals.
c. Lying creates communication problems because it reduces credibility, creates
psychological imbalance, and the arena can alienate the liar from society.
d. Self talk-other talk, when excessive, creates communication problems because it distorts
the normal give-and-take situation.
e. Gossip, while inevitably problematic when it betrays trust, is untrue and known to be
untrue, or is used to hurt others.
f. Disconfirmation refers to the process by which we discount the presence and
communication of others.
Confirmation refers to the process by which we accept, support and recognize the
importance of others.
Some of the above effects should be avoided as annoying verbal habits. By avoiding
these habits, communication will be more positive.
3.3. Principles of Language and Interaction Verbal
Julia T. Wood in Nurudin suggests that there are three principles in language and
verbal interaction, namely: interpretation creates meaning, communication is a guided rule,
and emphasis affects meaning.
a. Interpretation creates meaning
There are many interpretations of a verbally expressed statement. The interpretation of a
message has consequences for the meaning that is understood. It may be that the meaning of
the same message is understood differently by oneself and others.
Differences in interpretation occur because they are influenced by a person's
knowledge, background, interests, purpose of communication or psychological aspects. All
of these factors affect how meaning is captured based on the interpretation built in the mind.
Example: "Congratulations, you are great". The meaning of these words can be sincerely
congratulating, can be also because of jealousy due to not being able to afford it but jumping
on the bandwagon of congratulations, sarcasm, and other interpretations.
Thus, everyone is able to verbalize a message, but it may mean something else,
depending on who gives the message meaning. So, interpretation creates meaning, and that
meaning varies depending on the person receiving the message.
b. Communication is a guided rule
Communication rules are shared understandings of the meaning of communication and
the kinds of communication that are appropriate or not for various situations. Most rules are
not explicit or intentionally constructed.
In certain groups of people, there is a secret agreement or language that only that group
knows. This is an example of shared understanding. For example, when I was in college, my
friends had a special language to say they wanted to go to the movies. If they said, let's go to
the library, it meant that the friend was inviting to watch a movie. In the company of peers,
they will usually have a shared understanding of the meaning of communication.
There are two rules that guide communication: the regulative rule and the constitutive
rule. The regulative rule details when, how, where, and with whom to speak. about certain
things. Whereas the core rules explain what communication means by telling us how to
judge certain types of communication.
In the basic rules, when one learns that giving attention and motivation is seen as
showing respect, hugging and kissing shows affection, and interrupting is seen as rude. We
are also taught that when we clap our hands it is an affirmation that we support the person,
and to clap if someone wants to make a speech and leave the podium. These are all basic
rules that explain the meaning of communication by telling us how to judge certain types of
communication.
So, a person who communicates verbally is guided by certain rules. Even those rules
can be unwritten simply because of the general agreement or custom where the
communication takes place. Every community has certain rules that are unknown to other
communities. The rules reflect what they say, what language choices they make, how they
express themselves and in what context they are conveyed.
Thus, both the regulative rules and the basic rules must be of concern to people who
communicate verbally, so that unwanted things do not happen in communication.
c. Emphasis affects meaning
Emphasis becomes a general agreement within the community. This is also true in
language. Language is community agreement that results in different meanings between
communities. For example, when we say eat, the language of eating is Indonesian, when I
say manre, it is Bugis-Bone and when I say eat, it is English.
It is different in written communication. Punctuation is an emphasis. A full stop, for
example, in the rules of language, a full stop signals the end of a sentence. A full stop also
means explaining ideas when we start and end a piece of writing. A full stop also means
emphasizing the sentence that is written. Thus, emphasis in communication will give and
create meaning, just like a full stop or punctuation mark.
3.4. Social Aspects of Language and Interaction Verbal
Language is a social institution. It is called a social institution, because language exists
because humans interact in social groups and language also reflects and influences society,
and language becomes one of its parts. There are several social aspects of language and
verbal interaction, namely examining language as a social institution, some functions of sub-
languages, and learning about taboos and euphemisms in language that reflect the society
that uses it.30 These aspects can be explained below:
1. Language as a social institution
Language is a social institution that is designed, modified and developed by people who
are very concerned about good and correct grammar, and even termed as distortion to meet
the needs of a constantly changing culture or subculture. Therefore, the language of one
culture differs from the language of another, and just as importantly, the language of one
subculture differs from the language of another subculture.
Subcultures are cultures within a larger society. Each subculture develops its own
language and has its own rules for effective interaction.
Every individual belongs to several subcultures. The degree of importance of affiliation
with a particular subculture varies by person, context, time or situation. For example, if a
person is born a Muslim, but does not fulfill his religious obligations, then he does not feel
attached to the Islamic subculture. If this person marries a Christian, the feeling of
attachment to this subculture will be greater. Therefore, a common interest is a subculture.
And with subcultures come sublanguages. Sublanguages help group members to
communicate with each other. In addition, sublanguages have another function. Sublanguage
is used to refer to the distinctive language used by a particular group or subculture within a
larger and more dominant culture.
2. Language function of the sublanguage
Sublanguages have many functions, depending on the subculture, the context of
communication, and other language and non-language variables. Here are some of the more
common functions:
a. Facilitate subcultural communication
Concepts that are important to a culture have many terms. For example, in American
culture, money is very important, hence the many terms finances, capital, assets, cash,
funds, pocket money, spending money, change, bread, loot, swag, and others.
Without knowing a particular culture, we can't guess the important concepts in that
culture until we look it up in a dictionary.
The same principle applies to sublanguages. One of the functions of a sublanguage is to
provide convenient synonyms for concepts that are very important to a subculture.
b. Means of identification
By using a particular sublanguage, the speaker shows himself as a member of that
subculture. People who belong to a particular subculture often throw foreign words or
phrases into their conversations to identify themselves to their audience.
c. Maintain confidentiality of communication
Sublanguages allow members of a subculture to communicate with each other by
keeping their meaning secret from outsiders. For example, it is common to hear certain
terms when we in American stores and it's something we don't realize. Saleswoman
store clerk usually categorize shoppers into J.L (just looking), skank (cheap shoppers),
T.O (leave it to experienced shop assistants), palooka (liquor buyers).
d. Impress and confuse people
One of the not-so-good functions of sublanguage utilized by professionals is to impress
and confuse people.
3. Taboo and euphemism language
Language taboos refer to verbal behaviors that are forbidden in society for reasons that
are not always clear, generally rather vague and seemingly irrational. When we think of
taboos we often imagine primitive societies that provide punishment for those who utter
certain words and expressions. However, language taboos are universal, all languages and
societies have language taboos embedded in their social structure.
Apart from language taboos, euphemisms are also a function of sublanguage.
Euphemisms are expressions used to replace taboo expressions. Euphemisms are often too
polite. Euphemisms are sweet words designed to replace taboo expressions and to sweeten
unpleasant or unwelcome topics.
Non-Verbal Communication:
1.1.1 Definition:
Humans in communicating besides using verbal codes also use nonverbal codes.
Nonverbal codes are commonly called sign language or silent language. Communication
with this code attracts a lot of attention from experts, especially in anthropology, language,
and even in the field of medicine. The attention of experts to study nonverbal language is
thought to have started in 1873, especially with the emergence of Charles Darwin's writings
on the language of human facial expressions. The interesting thing about the nonverbal code
is Albert Mahrabian's study which concluded that the level of trust in people's conversations
only 7% comes from verbal language, 38% comes from vocal sounds, and 55% comes from
facial expressions. In addition, he also suggested that if there is a contradiction between
what a person says and what he does, others will tend to believe nonverbal things.31
Non-verbal communication is all aspects of communication other than words. It
includes not only gestures and body language, but also spoken words infection, pauses, tone,
volume and accent. Non-verbal signs are seen in facial expressions and hand gestures.
Nonverbal communication can be done with presentational codes such as gestures, eye
movements, or voice quality. These codes can only give a message at the time of
communication. Tone of voice can indicate the attitude of a person when talking about a
subject and also the attitude of the listener. It cannot send a message about how someone felt
last week.33 Thus, presentational codes as non-verbal communication are limited to face-to-
face communication or communication when the communicator is present.
1.1.2 Functions and Universals of Non-Verbal Communication:
The function of nonverbal communication carried out with presentational codes
according to John Fiske is twofold:
a. Provide information about the speaker or the situation so that the listener can learn
various things related to the speaker such as identity, emotions, attitudes, social
position and so on.
b. Interaction management. Presentational codes are used to organize the relationship as
desired by the sender of the message or communicator with the other party being
communicated with.
By using body language, posture and tone of voice, a person can attempt to dominate,
attract sympathy or shut down others.
Both of the above functions can also be performed by representationals insofar as
presentational codes can appear or appear in representational messages. For example, a
photograph can display depression or happiness. However, social psychologists say that
there is a code function that can only be performed by representationals. That function is
cognitive or ideational. This function is to convey information or ideas about something that
is absent (not present in the text or message) and involves creating a message or text that is
independent of the communicator and the situation.
Representational codes are codes that can perform referential functions. This code is
most efficient for functions related to behavior and emotions. There are several
presentational codes and the meanings they can transmit according to Argyle in John Fiske,
namely:
a. Body contact
b. Proximity distance
c. Orientation
d. Appearance
e. Nod your head
f. Facial expressions
g. Body language or gesture
h. Posture
i. Eye movements or eye contact
j. Nonverbal aspects of the speaker34
The main functions of non-verbal communication according to Ekman and Knapp in
Rd. Nia Kania Kurniawati, identified six main functions, namely: To emphasize. We use
nonverbal communication to accentuate or emphasize some part of a verbal message.
a. To complement. Using nonverbal communication to reinforce the general color or attitude
communicated by verbal messages
b. To show contradiction. We can deliberately contrast our verbal messages with nonverbal
gestures
c. To organize. Nonverbal gestures can control or signal your desire to regulate the flow of
verbal messages.
d. To repeat. We can also repeat or reformulate the meaning of a verbal message
e. To replace. Nonverbal communication can also replace verbal messages. For example,
saying okay with your hand without saying anything.35
1.2 Tub' Communication
The tool used for non-verbal communication is the body. Body, facial and eye
movements are used to communicate thoughts and feelings. Body movements can be
classified as emblems, illustrators, affect displays, regulators and adapters.36
Emblems are non-verbal behaviors that directly translate words or expressions.
Emblems include gestures like okay, don't fight, come here, and so on. Emblems are non-
verbal substitutes for specific words or expressions, learned unconsciously and through a
process of imitation. They are natural and meaningful, and have freedom of meaning.
Illustrators are non-verbal behaviors that accompany, literally illustrate verbal
messages. For example, a downward glance can indicate sadness or depression, moving the
head upwards indicates to wake people up, circular hand movements illustrate circles, and so
on. They are more natural, less free, and more universal than emblems.
Affect displays are facial movements that contain emotional meaning. It shows anger,
hate, fear, joy, sadness, excitement, and fatigue. They are less dependent on verbal messages
than illustrators.
Regulators are non-verbal behaviors that regulate, monitor, maintain, or control the
speech of others. Regulators are culture-bound and not universal. For example, when
listening to others talk, we are not passive, we usually nod our heads, purse our lips, adjust
our eye focus, and make various paralinguistic sounds such as mm-mm, tsk.
Adaptors are non-verbal behaviors that are done in private or in public but are not
invisible, serve to meet certain needs and are carried out. to completion. For example, if we
are alone, we will scratch our head until the itch disappears, but if we are in public, if other
people are watching, then we will perform this adaptor behavior only partially, such as
putting a finger on our head and scratching it a little and not scratching hard enough to
relieve the itch.
In addition to body movements, facial movements can also communicate thoughts
and feelings. Facial movements communicate different kinds of emotions, qualities or
dimensions of emotions. Facial messages can communicate groups of emotions namely
happiness, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust or contempt. Facial movements also
communicate confusion and determination. The above groups of emotions are called
primary affect displays.
Furthermore, another movement is eye movement. The eyes are seen as the most
important non-verbal message system. The messages communicated by the eyes vary
depending on the duration, direction, and quality of the eye behavior. There are four
functions of communication with eye movements: seeking feedback, informing the other
party to speak, signaling the nature of the relationship, and compensating for physical
distance. A person who avoids eye contact may signal a lack of interest in a particular
person, conversation or visual stimuli. Staring continuously at someone is a simple attempt
to dominate, leering at someone indicates a desire for affiliation or approach. Making eye
contact at the onset or beginning of a verbal statement indicates a desire to dominate the
listener, to make him or her pay attention something, and eye contact at the end or after a
verbal statement indicates a closer relationship, a desire for feedback or a response to see the
reaction when listening.37
In addition to eye movements, the size of the pupils or the enlargement/decrease of
the pupils also indicates interest and the level of emotional arousal. Enlarged pupils indicate
that we are interested in something, an attitude or object that is rated positively, and
shrunken pupils indicate that the reaction to the attitude or object is rated negatively.
1.3 Space, Territory and Communication The Touch
In addition to communication with the body, face and eyes, humans also communicate
with space, territory and touch. These forms of communication are found in every
communication transaction. These forms of communication can be explained below:
a. Communication Space
The use of space reveals the human self as clearly and precisely as words and sentences.
Spatial communication is also called proxemics. A term introduced by anthropologist
Edward T. Hall in 1963. Proxemics or proximity is a nonverbal code that indicates the
proximity of two objects that contain meaning. Proximity is distinguished by territory or
zone. Edward T. Hall in Joseph A. Devito divides proximity according to territory into four
categories. The four kinds that describe the kinds of relationships that are allowed and each
of these distances has a near and far phase.38 The four proximities are :
1. Intimate distance
This distance is an intimate or confidential distance that is 3-18 inches or 15 to 45
cm away. One's presence is very clear. Each party can hear, smell, and feel the breath of
the other. In this proximity phase, muscles and skin communicate, while actual
verbalization plays only a minor role. In the near phase the sound of whispering has the
effect of increasing the psychological distance between the two people involved. In the
distant phase it is possible to touch each other by extending the hand. This distance is
still too close to be considered inappropriate in public.
2. Personal distance
This distance is called personal territory, which is the proximity of 18 inches to 4
feet or between 45 to 75 cm (near phase) or 75 to 120 cm (far phase). This distance
protects the self from the touch of others.
3. Social distance
At this distance we lose the visual detail gained from personal distance. Social
distance can also be called social area, which is proximity between 4 to 12 feet or 120 to
210 cm or 210 to 360 cm. This distance can be used when conducting business meetings
and interactions at meetings of a social nature. This distance should make eye contact
very important, otherwise communication will be lost. Voices are generally louder, but
shouting or raising your voice will have the effect of reducing this social distance to a
personal distance.
4. Public distance
This distance is called the public area, which is the proximity of 4 to 12 feet or until
sound is heard within 25 feet or 360 to 450 cm for the near phase, more than 750 cm for
the far phase. In the near phase, a person is protected by distance and can take defensive
action if threatened. At this distance, one cannot observe the details of a particular
person's face and eyes, but is still close enough to see what is going on. In the distant
phase, one sees people not as separate individuals but as part of a complete whole. At
this distance, gestures and sounds must be slightly exaggerated to be captured in detail.
As such, these four distances allow one to communicate something with another person
through space as part of non-verbal communication.
There are several factors that affect spatial communication, namely status, culture,
context, issues discussed, age and gender, and positive and negative evaluations.39
Status. People of equal status usually keep a closer distance between them than people
of higher status. People of higher status will be closer if they approach people of lower
status.
Culture. Americans usually stand quite far away when having a conversation. Arabs,
on the other hand, will stand quite close when they are communicating.
Context. Generally, the larger the physical space a person is in, the smaller the
interpersonal distance. For example, the distance between two people talking on the street
will be smaller than at home. The larger the room, the more it is necessary to get closer to
each other to make the communication context manageable.
The issue discussed. If one is talking about personal matters or sharing secrets, then one
will keep a close distance. When talking about general matters that are not personal, the
distance taken will be greater.
Age and gender. Women will stand closer to each other than men, and women are more
likely to touch each other than women and men. Thus, this suggests that distancing is a
learned behavior.
Positive and negative evaluation. A person will stand closer when he is with his friends,
and conversely a person will stand further away from his enemies. Therefore, one will keep
a greater distance when with people who are negatively evaluated.
The six factors above affect how we utilize space in communication.
b. Territory
Territoriality refers to a person's possessive reaction to a certain area or object. If
someone owns a strategic and prestigious territory, then it is certain that they have a lot of
money because they can buy the territory. The trait of territoriality is innate and proves the
innate aggressive nature of humans. Territoriality is a learned behavior and is based on
culture.
Territoriality is identified with control. When a person enters another person's territory,
they must abide by the rules that have been determined. If not, then he commits an offense.
There are three kinds
violations, namely desecration, invasion and contamination.40 The following will be
presented using a table, namely :
When there is a violation of territory, then someone will react to the violation. The
reaction to the violation can be defense of territory, isolation, linguistic conspiracy, and
withdrawal.41
Territorial defense is defending the territory and trying to get rid of people who would
take our territory. Isolation is creating a barrier or a barrier between ourselves and the
invader. For example, in communication, one uses glasses to avoid eye contact. Next,
linguistic conspiracy is separating oneself from the invader by using a language that is
unfamiliar to the outsider, using professional jargon that they do not know, or using other
linguistic codes. Finally, withdrawal is leaving the territory. In order to prevent this from
happening, one can create tools or means of identifying certain areas as ours, called
markings.
Markings include central, boundary and tactical markings.42 Central markings are
objects placed in an area designated for us. For example, we place a drink or bag on our
table or bench, a jacket on our chair as a signal that the territory is occupied. Boundary
markings establish boundaries that separate our area from other areas. For example, a chair
arm is a barrier between one chair and another. Tactical markings are markings that identify
by showing one's ownership of an area or object. For example, putting initials on a hat, a
trademark, a name plate on a DD car, and so on.
c. Touch Communication
Touch is formally known as haptics which is putting a part of the body in contact with
something. It is a form of nonverbal communication that is commonly experienced. For
toddlers, touch is the primary means of receiving messages of affection and comfort.
Touching behavior is a fundamental aspect of nonverbal communication in general and of
self-presentation in particular. The body parts commonly used for touching are hands, arms,
other body parts for patting, embracing, pinching, hitting, kissing, holding, tickling, and
hugging. Through this communication, a person communicates various emotions and
messages.43
Touch communication, in terms of development, is the first sense we use. From the
womb, babies are stimulated by touch, and after birth they are cuddled, stroked, patted and
petted. Subsequently, the baby gets to know the world through touch, and in a short time the
baby learns to communicate various meanings through touch.
Touch has the meanings of positive affection, joking, control, ritual, and task-
relatedness.44 Positive affection or positive emotions occur primarily between intimate
partners or someone in a relatively close relationship. Joking is touch that communicates our
wishes in an affectionate or aggressive manner. When one communicates affection in a
playful way, emotions are loosened and this signals to the other person not to take it too
seriously. A playful touch will enliven the interaction. Besides playful, another meaning of
touch is directing or controlling. Touch directs the other person's behavior, attitude, or
feelings. Directing can communicate many messages. In the form of a command, one person
touches another to communicate "move, stay, and do it." Furthermore, another meaning is
ritual. Ritualistic touch is centered on greetings and farewells. Shaking hands to say hello or
goodbye. This is a clear example of ritualistic touch. Ritualistic touch also includes hugging,
kissing, or putting an arm around another person's shoulder when greeting or saying
goodbye. The last meaning is task-related. Task-related touch is done in connection with the
performance of a specific function. This can range from removing dust from someone's shirt
to helping someone out of their car or touching someone's forehead to determine if they are
sick or have a fever.
According to its form, body touch is divided into three types, namely:
a.
Kinesthetic
This touch is a gesture shown by holding hands with each other as a symbol of intimacy
or intimacy.
b.
Sociofugal
This touch is a gesture shown by shaking hands or embracing each other.
c.
Thermal
This touch is a gesture that is shown by an overly emotional touch of the body as a sign
of intimate friendship. For example, patting your back because you have not seen each
other for a long time.45
Humans have a need to touch and be touched. They also have a tendency to avoid touch
from certain people or in certain situations. This avoidance refers to a person's desire not to
touch others and to avoid touching others; it is known to be related to feelings of
apprehension, self-disclosure, age and gender. Generally, women touch and are touched
more than men. Touch patterns differ greatly from culture to culture. Both gender and
cultural differences in touch behavior are more learned than carried from birth.46 Thus,
touch is a form of nonverbal communication that has a variety of meanings and has existed
in primitive times.
1.4 Parabahasa and Time
Grammar and timing are two elements of nonverbal communication that often function
subconsciously. However, speakers or listeners who misapply the unwritten rules in this area
are seen as lacking social communication skills.
Paralanguage refers to the vocal but nonverbal dimensions of speech. It includes
speed, stress, volume, resonance, and vocal quality, pauses and hesitant tone. With
paralanguage, one can make judgments about people, turn-taking, and trustworthiness.
Time can be viewed from at least two perspectives: cultural and psychological.
Cultural time concerns how one's culture defines and teaches about time, and concerns the
difficulties posed by the different meanings people ascribe to informal time terms.
Psychological time concerns a person's time orientation, whether past, present or future. The
messages communicated by time are strongly influenced by status considerations and social
rules of propriety and impropriety.
The length of time we spend with others can be an important factor in relationship
development. Like space, the time dimension is tied to the information dimension. The
longer a person is in contact with another person, the more likely it is to get information
about that person regarding the development of interpersonal communication relationships.
Both elements of speech and time must be well understood in order to avoid mistakes
concerning the rules of social communication.
