Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning, learning produced by the pairing of stimuli and
responses in time and place. It contributes to likes and dislikes, emotional reactions, and reflex-like
responses to things. Below, explain the situation being described in terms of classical conditioning. For
each description, identify or suggest the US, UR, CS, CR, as well as the principles likely to be at work.
1. While caring for a friend’s dog, you notice that it displays a fear-like posture as you roll up a
newspaper. You try this several times more and become convinced that this dog is generally
afraid of rolled up newspapers.
2. Joan, an animal trainer, has been phobic about monkeys since an earlier attack. However,
because of the money, she has agreed to work with monkeys for a movie studio. At first, just
going anywhere near cages makes Joan tense, sweaty, and apprehensive. Lately, though, things
have changed. Working with such cuddly, affectionate, human-like creatures is causing Joan to
wonder why she ever felt such extreme distress.
3. At a red light, Bob and Fred automatically tensed and felt chills when they heard the screech of
tires behind them. Later, while watching a car race, Bob remarked how the screeching of tires
was having little effect then. Fred agreed and wondered why they reacted at all, because neither
had as much as a dent on his driving record.
4. Early in their relationship, the mere sight of Janet excited Alvin. This gradually died out, however,
as Janet behaved tolerantly but indifferently. When the relationship ended, Alvin was bored with
Janet and didn’t even think about her for the next year. Now, he was surprised at how excited he
was becoming as he saw Janet through the window of a bus.
5. Bill couldn’t ever remember being so sick and nauseated. He would never go to that restaurant
again, and he would never again eat turkey. All he could think about was the good dinner his
mother would prepare for his homecoming. As he entered the kitchen, be became flushed and
felt nauseated when he saw the golden brown turkey sitting on the table.
Handout Master 5.3
Applying the Principles of Classical Conditioning
Handout Master 5.4
Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Instructions. For each example presented below, identify whether positive reinforcement (PR), negative
reinforcement (NR), or punishment (PUN) is illustrated by placing the appropriate abbreviation in the
blank next to the item.
PR___ 1. Police pulling drivers over and giving prizes for buckling up
PUN 2. Suspending a basketball player for committing a flagrant foul
PUN 3. A soccer player rolls her eyes at a teammate who delivered a bad pass.
PUN 4. A child snaps her fingers until her teacher calls on her.
PR__ 5. A hospital patient is allowed extra visiting time after eating a complete meal.
PR___ 6. Receiving a city utility discount for participating in a recycling program
PUN___ 7. Grounding a teenager until his or her homework is finished
PUN_ 8. Scolding a child for playing in the street
PUN__ 9. A prisoner loses TV privileges for one week for a rule violation.
PUN__ 10. A parent nagging a child to clean up her room
NR _ 11. A rat presses a lever to terminate a shock or a loud tone.
PR___ 12. A professor gives extra credit to students with perfect attendance.
PUN___ 13. A dog is banished to his doghouse after soiling the living room carpet.
PUN___ 14. A defendant is harassed and tortured until he confesses.
PR__ 15. A young child receives $5 for earning good grades in school.
PR___ 16. A mother smiles when her child utters “Mama.”
PUN___ 17. A child is put into “time out” for misbehaving.
PR__ 18. Employee of the month gets a reserved parking space.
PUN_ 19. At a party, a husband becomes sullen when his wife flirts with a colleague.
PR__ 20. A woman watching a football game gives her child candy for playing quietly.
Handout Master 5.6
Chapter Review: Fill-in-the-Blank Key Terms Exercise
1. In a _______________________ schedule, a reinforcer is given after the first correct response
following a varying time of nonreinforcement based on an average time.
2. _____________________________ involves learning to avoid events or conditions associated with
dreaded or aversive outcomes.
3. _________________________ is the weakening and often eventual disappearance of a learned
response by repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.
4. _________________________ is the use of sensitive equipment to give people precise feedback
about internal physiological processes so that they can learn, with practice, to exercise control over
them.
5. _____________________________ is an increase behavior that occurs because increasing the
behavior results in the termination of an unpleasant stimulus.
6. _________________________ is the greater resistance to extinction that occurs when a portion,
rather than all, of the correct responses are reinforced.
7. _______________________________ occurs without apparent reinforcement but that is not
demonstrated until sufficient reinforcement is provided.
8. ____________________________ is an increase in behavior that occurs because of an added
consequence.
9. _______________________ is an operant conditioning technique that consists of gradually molding a
desired behavior (response) by reinforcing responses that become progressively closer to it.
10. A response that is invariably elicited by the unconditioned stimulus without prior learning is called a(n)
____________________________.
11. A decrease in behavior that results from a removed consequence is called a
______________________.
12. __________________________ is a type of learning in which the frequency of a voluntary behavior
changes because of the consequences that the behavior produces.
13. A(n) ________________________________ elicits a specific response without prior learning.
14. __________________________________ occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an existing
conditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it, and gains the power to elicit the same conditioned
response.
15. ____________________________ involves learning by observing the behavior of others and the
consequences of that behavior.
16. ____________________________ is a relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge,
capability, or attitude that is acquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or
maturation.
17. The tendency to make the learned response to a stimulus similar to the one for which it was originally
reinforced. is _____________________.
18. __________________________ is an increase in the frequency of a behavior that occurs as the
result of the consequence that the behavior produces.
19. Mental processes such as thinking, knowing, problem solving, and remembering.are called
____________________________.
20. Thorndike’s law of learning, __________________________, states that connections between a
stimulus and a response will be strengthened if the response is followed by a satisfying consequence
and weakened if the response is followed by discomfort.
21. _____________________________ is a behavior modification technique that reinforces desirable
behaviors with tokens that can be exchanged later for desired objects, activities, and/or privileges.
22. A response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated pairing with
an unconditioned stimulus is a(n) ____________________.
23. A(n) ____________________ is learned reflex rather than a naturally occurring one.
24. In _______________________, an extinguished response (in a weaker form) reappears when an
organism is exposed to the original conditioned stimulus following a rest period.
25. A _________________________ is anything that follows a response and strengthens it or increases
the probability that it will occur.
26. ______________________________ is administered after every desired or correct response; the
most effective method of conditioning a new response.
27. A(n) ____________________________ is any event or object in the environment to which an
organism responds; plural is stimuli.
28. ____________________________ is the systematic application of the principles of operant
conditioning, classical conditioning, or observational learning to individuals or groups in order to
change behavior.
29. ___________________ is the learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that a
conditioned response occurs only to the original conditioned stimulus but not to similar stimuli.
30. A decrease in behavior that results from an added consequence involves
________________________.
31. A(n) ________________________ is a soundproof chamber with a device for delivering food and
either a bar for rats to press or a disk for pigeons to peck; used in operant conditioning experiments.
32. In the ________________________, a learner displays a previously suppressed behavior because a
model does so without receiving punishment.
33. The sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the
solution apparent, is __________________________.
34. A(n) __________________________ is a neutral stimulus that becomes reinforcing after repeated
pairings with other reinforcers.
35. A(n) __________________________ is an individual who demonstrates a behavior or serves as an
example in observational learning.
36. In the process of behavior change, gradual steps, each of which is more like the final desired
response, are called ________________________.
37. A reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning.is a(n)
__________________________.
38. _________________________ is the learned response of resigning oneself passively to aversive
conditions, rather than taking action to change, escape, or avoid them; learned through repeated
exposure to inescapable or unavoidable aversive events.
39. A neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated
with it and elicits a conditioned response is a(n) _______________________.
40. A systematic program for administering reinforcements that has a predictable effect on behavior.is
a(n) ____________________________.
41. A(n) ________________________ is a decrease in the frequency of a behavior caused by some kind
of consequence.
42. In a(n) ________________________________, a reinforcer is given following the first correct
response after a fixed period of time has elapsed.
43. A(n) __________________________ is a mental representation of a spatial arrangement such as a
maze.
44. Learning a new behavior from a model through the acquisition of new responses is called the
_________________________.
45. A(n) ____________________________ signals whether a certain response or behavior is likely to be
followed by reward or punishment.
46. In the _____________________________, a learner suppresses a behavior because a model is
punished for displaying the behavior.
47. ___________________________ is a learning process through which one stimulus comes to predict
the occurrence of another stimulus and to elicit a response similar to or related to the response
evoked by that stimulus.
48. ______________________________ is the tendency to make a conditioned response to a stimulus
similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
49. A schedule in which a reinforcer is given after a fixed number of correct responses is a(n)
__________________________.
50. The dislike and/or avoidance of a particular food that has been associated with nausea or discomfort
is called __________________________.
51. A schedule in which a reinforcer is given after a varying number of nonreinforced responses based on
an average ratio.is a(n) _______________________.
52. In _____________________, a learned response is weakened by withholding reinforcement
extinction.
53. A(n) ______________________________ is a genetically programmed tendency to acquire
classically conditioned fear responses to potentially life-threatening stimuli.
54. A voluntary behavior that accidentally brings about a consequence is a(n)
_______________________.
Key Terms Bank
1. avoidance learning
2. behavior modification
3. biofeedback
4. biological predispositions
5. classical conditioning
6. cognitive map
7. cognitive processes
8. conditioned response (CR)
9. conditioned stimulus (CS)
10. discrimination
11. discriminative stimulus
12. disinhibitory effect
13. escape learning
14. extinction (in classical conditioning)
15. extinction (in operant conditioning)
16. facilitation effect
17. fixed-interval schedule
18. fixed-ratio schedule
19. generalization (in classical conditioning)
20. generalization (in operant conditioning)
21. higher-order conditioning
22. inhibitory effect
23. insight
24. latent learning
25. law of effect
26. learned helplessness
27. learning
28. model
29. modeling effect
30. negative punishment
31. negative reinforcement
32. observational learning (modeling)
33. operant
34. operant conditioning
35. partial reinforcement effect
36. positive punishment
37. positive reinforcement
38. primary reinforcer
39. punishment
40. reinforcement
41. reinforcer
42. schedule of reinforcement
43. secondary reinforcer
44. shaping
45. Skinner box
46. spontaneous recovery
47. stimulus
48. successive approximations
49. taste aversion
50. token economy
51. unconditioned response (UR)
52. unconditioned stimulus (US)
53. (1) variable-interval schedule
54. variable-ratio schedule
Answers:
avoidance learning
learning to avoid events or conditions associated with dreaded or aversive outcomes.
behavior modification
method of changing behavior through a systematic program based on the learning principles of classical
conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning.
biofeedback
the use of sensitive equipment to give people precise feedback about internal physiological processes so
that they can learn, with practice, to excercise control over them
classical conditioning
a type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another.
cognitive map
mental representation of a spatial arrangement such as a maze
cognitive processes
mental processed such as thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering, and forming mental
representations
conditioned reflex
learned involuntary responses
conditioned response (CR)
the learned response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated
pairing with an unconditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus (CS)
a neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with
it and elicits a conditioned response.
continuous reinforcement
reinforcement that is administered after every desired or correct response; the most effective method of
conditioning a new response
discrimination
the learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the conditioned response occurs only to
the original conditioned stimulus but not to similar stimuli.
discriminative stimulus
a stimulus that signals whether a certain response or behavior is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or
punished
disinhibitory effect
displaying a previously suppressed behavior because a model does so without receiving punishment
elicitation effect
exhibiting a behavior similar to that shown by a model in an unfamiliar situation
extinction
in classical conditioning, the weakening and eventual disappearance if the conditioned response as a
result of repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.
fixed-interval schedule
a schedule in which a reinforcer is given following the first correct response after a specific period of
time has elapsed
fixed-ratio schedule
a schedule in which a reinforcer is giver after a fixed number of correct, non-reinforced responses
generalization
in operant conditioning, the tendency to make the learned response to a stimulus similar to that for
which the response was originally reinforced
generalization
in classical conditioning, the tendency to make a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the
original conditioned stimulus
higher-order conditioning
conditioning that occurs when conditioned stimuli are linked together to form a series of signals
inhibitory effect
suppressing a behavior because a model is punished for displaying the behavior
insight
sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the
solution apparent.
latent learning
learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not demonstrated until the organism is
motivated to do so.
law of effect
one of Thorndike's laws of learning, which states that the consequence, or effect, of a response will
determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or
weakened.
learned helplessness
a passive resignation to aversive conditions that is learned through repeated exposure to inescapable or
unavoidable aversive events
model
individual who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated.
modeling effect
learning a new behavior from a model through the acquisition of new responses
negative reinforcement
an increase in a behavior that occurs because increasing the behavior results in the termination of an
unpleasant condition or stimulus
observational learning (modeling)
learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by
imitation.
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which the frequency of a voluntary behavior changes because of the consequences
that the behavior produces
partial reinforcement
a pattern of reinforcement in which some but not all correct responses are reinforced
partial-reinforcement effect
the greater resistance to extinction that occurs when a portion, rather than all, of the correct responses
are reinforced.
positive punishment
a decrease in behavior that results from an added consequence
positive reinforcement
an increase in a behavior that occurs as the result of an added consequence
primary reinforcer
a reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning
punishment
a decrease in the frequency of a behavior caused by some kind of consequence
reflex
an involuntary response to a particular stimulus, such as the eyeblink response to a puff of air or
salivation when food is placed in the mouth.
reinforcement
an increase in the frequency of a behavior that occurs as the result of the consequences that the
behavior produces
reinforcer
anything that follows a response and strengthens it or increases the probability that is will occur
schedules of reinforcement
systematic processes for administering partial reinforcement that produce distinct rates and patterns of
responses and degrees of resistance to extinction
secondary reinforcer
a reinforcer that is acquired or learned through association with other reinforces
shaping
an operant conditioning technique that consists of gradually molding a desired behavior (response) by
reinforcing any movement in the desired response, thereby gradually guiding the responses toward the
ultimate goal.
skinner box
a soundproof chamber with a device for delivering food to an animal subject; used in operant
conditioning experiments
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of an extinguished response (in a weaker form) when an organism is exposed to the
original conditioned stimulus following a rest period.
stimulus
any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds; plural is stimuli.
successive approximations
a series of gradual steps, each of which is more similar to the final desired response
taste aversions
the intense dislike and/or avoidance of particular foods that have been associated with nausea or
discomfort
token economy
program that motivated socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens that can be exchanged
for desired items or privileges
trial-and-error learning
learning that occurs when a response is associated with a successful solution to a problem after a
number of unsuccessful responses
unconditioned responses (UR)
a response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning
unconditioned stimulus (US)
a stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response without prior learning
variable-interval schedule
a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after the first correct response that follows a varying time of
non-reinforcement, based on an average time.
variable-ratio schedule
a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after a varying number of non reinforced responses, based on
an average ratio
