Introduction to cell biology and biochemistry
Cell constituent blocks consist of biochemical molecules that mostly
consist of six binding elements: carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen,
supported by sulfur and phosphorus. The most important element in
bringing together these atoms is electrons.
Chemical bonds always contain electrons, the smallest part of atoms.
Electron is negatively charged and located outside the atomic core. The
amount and type of bond formed by atoms is determined by the number
of electrons that can be divided, lost, or stolen.
Most cells consist of liquids in the form of hydrogen which are covalently
bound by oxygen-hydrogen dioxide. Oxygen can form 2 bonds; Each
hydrogen can only form a bond. More importantly, they share each
other's electrons. Other elements that are very important for the
formation of bonds in biochemistry also want to share.
The element that the atom might be the most important for life is carbon.
The importance of carbon can be traced directly to the electron. It has
reactive electrons, all of which share with other atoms. Sometimes the
division is even, sometimes not, but carbon never completely releases its
electrons or takes it from another atom.
Cell chemical components
Each organism consists of one of two types of cells, namely prokaryotic
cells and eukaryotic cells.
The fundamental difference between these two types is whether nucleus
is covered by the membrane.
Prokaryotic cells do not have a separate core while eukaryotic cells have
separate cells. The existence of a core membrane that causes fluids in
nucleus (nucleoplasma) apart from thickened liquid outside the nucleus
(cytoplasm). The core and plasma cytoplasm are thick liquids consisting
of chemical compounds.
Macromolecular compounds consisting of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
and nucleic acids are found in structural form such as phospholipids,
proteins, glycoipids and others and in a non-structured form such as food
reserves and compounds that exist in Metabolism.
Molecules mix, react and interact with each other through chemical
reactions. Almost all building blocks of living things continue to change
through chemical activity as a characteristic of those who grow and
reproduce.
Carbohydrate
Carbohydrates are in cytoplasm with composition of around 13% carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen.
Carbohydrates are divided into glucose, sucrose, starch and cellulose. The
main function of carbohydrates is energy production.
Carbohydrates in plasma membranes bind to lipids or proteins in
glycolipid and glycoprotein form.
Glycolipid is a collection of different monosaccharide units such as
simple sugar D-glucose, D-galactose, D-mannose, L-fructose, L-Arabinosa,
D-Xylose etc.
These carbohydrates play an important role in various cellular functions,
including the immune system.
Carbohydrates in plasma membranes are the results of cell secretions and
remain attached to the membrane forming glycochalics.
Carbohydrates are alcohol polyhydroxy with potentially active carbonyl
groups, which can be an aldehyde or keto group.
Carbohydrates can be classified based on carbohydrates in carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are classified into four types: monosaccharides,
disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides cannot be hydrolyzed further into a simpler form.
Disakarida forms two monosaccharides after hydrolysis.
Polysaccharides can be homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides.
Monosaccharide
The most common monosaccharide is Aldohexosa 6-C, which includes
aldohexosa d-glucose, and is usually found in a ring structure called a
pyranosa ring rather than in the open chain structure.
In oligo- and polysaccharides, aldoPentosa can occur as a 5-C ring
structure known as a ring of furanosa. D-glucose, given all the combined
forms, is the most abundant monosaccharides that are naturally in nature.
The most abundant shear is D-Arabino-Hexulose, known to be more
common with his small name, D-fructose
Three triosa include the heart of dihidroxicetone and the second form of
an enantiomer of glycheraldehyde.
Erythrose and threose are tetrosa, and pentose including ribose,
arabinose, xylose, and fire.
Maltosa, lactose, and sucrose are hydrolyzed into monosaccharide units
of their respective constituents by Maltase, Lactase and Sukrase enzymes.
Complex
α
-glucosidase maltase-glucoamilase and sucrase-isomaltase
contained in the small intestinal brush brush break down glycosidic
bonds in maltose and sucrose, each, with most of Maltase activities comes
from the sucrase-isomaltase complex.
The monosaccharide produced from disaccharide digestion is easily
absorbed in the small intestine. Lactase, an
β
-galactosidase, is also
expressed by young mammals that digest lactose into monosaccharida the
compiler which is then absorbed in the small intestine.
Disaccharide
Two monosaccharide units connected by acetal or tental bonds are
referred to as disaccharides.
The glycosidic bond joins 2 monosaccharide units and can be an
α
-
glycosidic bond if the hydroxyl hydroxyl cluster of sugar is in the
α
configuration or
β
-glycosidic bond if it is in the configuration
β
.
Glycosidic bonds are named according to the position of the carbon
atomicated atoms, such as
α
-glycosidic bonds that connect C-1 from
glucose molecules and C-4 from other glucose molecules in maltosa called
α
- (1, 4) bonds glycosidik.
The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose.
Maltose is reducing sugar which is the result of starch hydrolysis by
α
-
amylase enzymes.
Lactose is reducing sugar consisting of D-glucosyl units and
α
-d-
galactopyranosyl units connected by
β
- (1.4) glycosidic bonds and are in
milk and dairy products such as skim milk and whey.
Sukrosa consists of glucose and fructose connected by
α
- (1,2) glycosidic
bonds. Contrary to the general bond head-to-tail (anomeric carbon atoms
to carbon atoms containing hydroxyl groups) in the structure of oligo- and
polysaccharides, in sucrose the glycosidic bond connects the
α
-D-unit
Glucopiranosil and
β
-d-fructofuranosil units in a head-to-head
(anometeric carbon atoms become anometeric carbon atoms) makes it a
reduced sugar.
Sukrosa is synthesized through photosynthetic processes to provide
energy and carbon atoms for other compound synthesis in plants.
Maltosa, lactose, and sucrose are hydrolyzed into monosaccharide units
of their respective constituents by Maltase, Lactase and Sukrase enzymes.
Complex
α
-glucosidase maltase-glucoamilase and sucrase-isomaltase
contained in the brush border the small intestine break down glycosidic
bonds in maltose and sucrose, respectively, with most of Maltase
activities comes from the sucrase-isomaltase complex.
The monosaccharide produced from disaccharide digestion is easily
absorbed in the small intestine.
Lactase, an
β
-galactosidase, is also expressed by young mammals that
digest lactose into monosaccharida the compiler which is then absorbed
in the small intestine.
Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides consist of galacto-oligosaccharides, fructo-
oligosaccharides, and mannan-oligosaccharides that cannot be digested
by the enzyme pancreas or intestines, but dissolve in 80% ethanol.
Galacto-oligosaccharide, or
α
-galactoside, which is in large quantities of
nuts, consists of rafinosa, stakiosa, and verbaskosa, which has a structure
consisting of one sucrose unit associated with one, two, or three units D-
galactose, respectively.
These oligosaccharides cause flatulence in pigs and humans due to the
lack of enzyme,
α
-galactosidase, which hydrolyzes glycosidic bonds that
connect monosaccharides that form this
α
-galactocide and, therefore, is
used by bacteria in intestine
. In Rafinosa, D-galactose binded to sucrose through
α
-(1.6) bonds, while
two units and three D-galactose units binded to sucrose, also through the
α
-(1.6) glycosidic bond, in stakiosa and Verbaskosa, respectively.
Transgalakto-oligosacakaride is another type of galacto-oligosaccharide
which may have a prebiotic effect in young pigs and commercially
synthesized from the transxy actions of
β
-glycosidase in lactose, creating
β
- (1.6) Galactose polymers related to the terminal glucose unit. through
the
α
-(1.4) glycosidic bond. However, transgalakto-oligosacakarides are
not naturally synthesized.
Polysaccharides
Polisaccharides are carbohydrates with high molecular weight which are
polymers from monosaccharides.
Polysaccharides consist of sugar polymers which are varied and can be
linear or branched.
Polysaccharides can be classified as homopolysaccharides if they only
contain one type of sugar residue (for example, starch, glycogen, and
cellulose) or as heteropimpisakarides if it contains two or more different
types of sugar residues in their structure (for example, Arabinoxilan,
Glucomannan, and Hialuronic Acid; 2).
Pati can be linear or branched and is a form of carbohydrate storage in
plants, while glycogen is very branched and is only found in animal tissue,
especially in muscles and liver.
Pati is one of the most abundant carbohydrates in nature. It is synthesized
to store energy for plant growth and stored in seeds, tubers, roots, stems,
leaves, and some fruit.
Pati is a D-glucose polymer consisting of two types of molecules, amylose
and amylopectin.
Fat
Fat or lipids consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen elements, fats
formed by glycerol and fatty acids. Chemical fat decomposition produces
energy which is greater than the resulting carbohydrates.
Each lipid molecule is amphifatic. Amphifatic lipids contain hydrophobic
tail components (do not like water) and hydrophilic head components
(water likes). Membrane lipids consist of 3 main classes namely:
phospholipid, glycospingolipid, and sterol
Lipid or fatty acids are carbon chains with methyl groups at one end of
the molecule (appointed omega, o) and carboxyl groups at the other end.
Carbon atoms next to a carboxyl group called carbon A, and the next is
called carbon b. Letter n is also often used as a substitute for Greek O to
indicate the position of double bonds closest to the tip of methyl.
Systematic nomenclature for fatty acids can also show the location of
double bonds with reference to the carboxyl group (D).
Chemical building blocks that compose amino acids, nucleotides, sugar,
and phospholipid. The structure, function and assembly of protein,
nucleic acid, polysaccharides and biomembranes.
Protein
Amino acid is a building block of protein. Amino acids are important
organic compounds that contain amine function groups (-NH2) and
carboxyl (-COOH), and side chains (R groups) that are specific to each
amino acid. Twenty different amino acids are generally found in protein.
All 20 public amino acids are
α
-amino acid unless proline and structure
are generally shown below. They have carboxyl groups and amino groups
that are bound covalently with
α
-carbon atoms.
The properties of this side chain may be polar, nonpolar (aliphatic),
hydrophilic, hydrophobic, acid, base and aromatic. This amino acid has
been abbreviated using the word three letters or one letter.
Based on its position on the membrane, there are two kinds of proteins,
namely: integral proteins: globular, amphypatic with two-end hydrophils
separated hydrophob region in the lipid biolayer layer and peripheral
protein: bound to the hydrophil protein Integral.
Protein molecules on the outer surface gives each cell of its unique nature,
and the type of protein can vary depending on cell differentiation.
Peripheral proteins do not interact with membrane hydrophobic cores
but bind directly through binding to integral membrane proteins or
interact directly with the polar part of the membrane lipid.
For example, cytoskeletal protein, protein kinase (on the surface of the
membrane cytoplasm) and extracellular matrix protein (surface of the
exoplasm). Transmembrane proteins contain long hydrophobic amino
acids embedded in a lipid double layer.
There are two types of interactions that stabilize integral membrane
proteins, namely ionic interactions with polar head areas and
hydrophobic interactions with hydrophobic intermediates such as
glycophorine.
Some proteins remain binding to the membrane through covalent bonds
in the hydrocarbon chain. Three types of integral proteins are known
based on their attachment to the carbohydrate chain, namely:
glycosylphosphatidylinocytol -
Protein, Myrstate Protein and Farnesyl Protein. The position and
orientation of protein in membranes varies depending on the type of
membrane, cells and networks. This can be an integral protein or
peripheral protein.
Glycoprotein erythrocyte membrane is a protein that penetrates the cell
membrane. Integral membrane proteins consist of four classes namely
type A protein, type B protein, type C protein and type D protein.
Protein type A and C are structurally the same, but embedded in a
different membrane layer
Protein B is a complex protein that plays a role in the transportation
system.
Protein D is a transmembrane protein. Protein type B is a set of molecules
whose structures consist of NA +, K +, ATPASE, and anion transport
proteins. Examples of type-D protein are glycophorine in red blood cell
membranes. Plasma membrane proteins can function as enzymes.
The enzyme plasma membrane can be divided into two categories based
on the place of catalytic activity, namely: ectoenzyme, which is an enzyme
that the catalytic activity occurs on the outer surface of the plasma
membrane.
Endoenzyme, which is an enzyme that the catalytic activity occurs on the
surface in plasma membranes.
The polymer chain folded into a different three-dimensional form which
was stabilized mainly by interaction between regions in the linear order
of amino acids.
The key concept in understanding the way the protein work is that the
function is often derived from a three-dimensional structure, and a three-
dimensional structure is determined by the sequence of amino acid
proteins and intramolecular non-novalent interactions.
Protein structure is divided into four organizational levels: primary,
secondary, tertiary, and stronger.
Nucleic acid
The sequence of polypeptide amino acids is programmed by genes, which
are genetic inheritance units in the form of DNA pieces which are
polymer compounds known as nucleic acid.
Two types of nucleic acids are deoxiribonucleatic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). The existence of nucleic acid allows living
organisms to reproduce the complex components of generation to
generation.
DNA is genetic material inherited by organisms with hundreds or even
thousands of genes from their parents.
DNA contains all the information needed to build cells and networks in
organisms.
Accurate and precise reproduction of information contained in DNA is
inherited from generation to generation for individual development.
DNA genetic messages pass through a process called transcription, where
the message is transmitted in the form of the basic triplet code called a
codon, and RNA transmits it through a translation mechanism. Both
important functions are an important mechanism in protein synthesis.
