i
Ce
ll
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s
U
n
de
rst
a
n
d
ing
a
n
d
th
e
r
e
l
a
tionshipin inh
e
rit
a
n
ce
B
r
ad
for
d Haa
g
i
Tab
l
e
of
c
ont
e
nts
P
r
e
f
ace I
Tab
l
e
of
c
ont
e
nts
II
I
ntro
d
u
c
tion
1
1
.
1
Bac
kgroun
d
1
1
.
2
P
ro
b
l
e
m formul
a
tion
2
1
.
3
P
urpos
e
2
1
.
4
Be
n
e
fits
2
C
h
a
pt
e
r
II
3
He
rit
a
g
e
3
2
.
1
Ge
n
e
ti
c
un
de
rst
a
n
d
ing
3
2
.
2
Ge
n
e
ti
c b
r
a
n
c
h
e
s
4
2
.
3
Ge
n
e
ti
c
su
b
st
a
n
ce
4
2
.
4
I
nh
e
rit
a
n
ce
11
2
.
5
He
r
ed
ity in hum
a
ns
14
C
h
a
pt
e
r
III
18
C
ov
e
r
18
3
.
1
C
on
c
lusion
18
3
.
2
S
ugg
e
stion
18
Re
f
e
r
e
n
ce
s
19
1
I
ntro
d
u
c
tion
1
.
1
Bac
kgroun
d
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s h
a
s
bec
om
e a c
on
ce
rn of hum
a
ns for
ce
nturi
e
s
,
in
c
lu
d
ing
c
hoosing
a
lif
e
p
a
rtn
e
r
.
E
v
e
ryon
e
usu
a
lly
c
onsi
de
r th
e
origin of th
e
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s of th
e
ir prosp
ec
tiv
e
p
a
rtn
e
rs
,
wh
e
th
e
r it
c
om
e
s from goo
d
offspring or not
.
Ma
ny
a
lso fin
d
out mor
e ab
out
th
e bac
kgroun
d
of th
e
f
a
mily of prosp
ec
tiv
e
p
a
rtn
e
rs to fin
d
out wh
e
th
e
r th
e
r
e
is
a
history of
d
is
ab
ility
.
T
his h
a
s
bee
n
d
on
e
to g
e
n
e
r
a
tion from
a
n
c
i
e
nt tim
e
s to pr
e
v
e
nt
offspring to
e
xp
e
ri
e
n
ce
physi
ca
l
a
n
d
m
e
nt
a
l
d
is
ab
iliti
e
s
.
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s
,
whi
c
h is
a
lso known
a
s th
e
s
c
i
e
n
ce
,
c
om
e
s from th
e La
tin wor
d
"
Ge
nos
"
whi
c
h m
ea
ns tri
ba
l or origin
.
E
tymologi
ca
lly
,
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
ca
m
e
from th
e
s
a
m
e
La
tin wor
d
,
m
ea
ning th
e
origin of th
e e
v
e
nt
.
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s is
a b
r
a
n
c
h of s
c
i
e
n
ce
th
a
t
stu
d
i
e
s how
b
iologi
ca
l inform
a
tion is tr
a
nsf
e
rr
ed
from on
e
g
e
n
e
r
a
tion to th
e
n
e
xt
.
B
ri
e
fly
,
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s is th
e
s
c
i
e
n
ce
of inh
e
rit
a
n
ce
prop
e
rti
e
s
.
I
n this s
c
i
e
n
ce
,
w
e
l
ea
rn how
th
e
prop
e
rti
e
s
a
r
e
inh
e
rit
ed a
n
d
v
a
ri
a
tions th
a
t might o
cc
ur
.
U
n
de
rst
a
n
d
ing import
a
nt g
e
n
e
ti
c
s so th
a
t w
e ca
n know th
e
g
e
n
e
ti
c
c
h
a
r
ac
t
e
risti
c
s of ours
e
lv
e
s
a
n
d e
v
e
ry org
a
nism liv
e
s
a
roun
d
us
.
A
s hum
a
ns
,
w
e d
on
'
t
liv
e a
lon
e a
n
d
isol
a
t
ed
from oth
e
r
c
r
ea
tur
e
s
a
roun
d
us
,
b
ut form
ec
osyst
e
ms with
th
e
m
.
T
h
e
r
e
for
e
,
w
e a
lso n
eed
to know th
e
g
e
n
e
ti
c c
h
a
r
ac
t
e
risti
c
s of th
e b
o
d
y
a
n
d
pl
a
nts
a
n
d a
nim
a
ls
.
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s
ca
n
be
pur
e
or
a
ppli
ed
s
c
i
e
n
ce
.
A
s pur
e
s
c
i
e
n
ce
,
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s must
be
support
ed b
y oth
e
r
ba
si
c
s
c
i
e
n
ce
s su
c
h
a
s
c
h
e
mistry
,
physi
c
s
,
a
n
d
m
a
th
e
m
a
ti
c
s
,
a
n
d ba
si
c
s
c
i
e
n
ce
in
b
iology su
c
h
a
s
ce
ll
b
iology
,
histology
,
b
io
c
h
e
mistry
,
physiology
,
a
n
a
tomy
,
e
m
b
ryology
,
t
a
xonomy
,
a
n
d e
volution
.
A
s
a
ppli
ed
s
c
i
e
n
ce
,
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s supports m
a
ny
a
r
ea
s of s
c
i
e
ntifi
c ac
tiviti
e
s
a
n
d
m
ee
t th
e
n
eed
s of
th
e c
ommunity
.
2
1
.
2
P
ro
b
l
e
m formul
a
tion
1
.
I
swh
a
t is m
ea
nt
b
y g
e
n
e
tik
a
?
2
.
W
h
a
t
a
r
e
th
e b
r
a
n
c
h
e
s of g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
?
3
.
W
h
a
tonly su
b
st
a
n
ce
from g
e
n
e
tik
a
?
4
.
W
h
a
t is m
ea
nt
b
y th
e
inh
e
rit
a
n
ce
of th
a
t tr
a
it
?
5
.
H
ow is hum
a
n h
e
r
ed
ity
?
1
.
3
P
urpos
e
1
.
F
or m
e
ng
e
t
a
huiun
de
rst
a
n
d
ing of g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
.
2
.
F
or m
e
ng
e
t
a
hui
Ge
n
e
ti
c b
r
a
n
c
h
e
s
.
3
.
F
or m
e
ng
e
t
a
hui
a
ny su
b
st
a
n
ce
of g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
.
4
.
F
or m
e
ng
e
t
a
hui
U
n
de
rst
a
n
d
ing of inh
e
rit
a
n
ce
prop
e
rti
e
s
.
5
.
T
o fin
d
out hum
a
n
beed
ity
.
3
2
.
1
Ge
n
e
ti
c
un
de
rst
a
n
d
ing
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s is
a
s
c
i
e
n
ce
th
a
t stu
d
i
e
s inh
e
rit
ed
prop
e
rti
e
s
.
De
s
ce
n
da
nts
a
r
e a
b
iologi
ca
l pro
ce
ss in whi
c
h g
e
n
e
s
a
r
e
inh
e
rit
ed
from p
a
r
e
nts to
c
hil
d
r
e
n
.
T
h
e
wor
d
"
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
"
c
om
e
s from
D
ut
c
h
"
Ge
n
e
ti
ca
,"
ada
pt
ed
from
E
nglish
"
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s
,"
a
n
d c
om
e
s
from th
e G
r
ee
k wor
d
"
Yé
vvo
"
whi
c
h m
ea
ns
"
giving
b
irth
."
T
his s
c
i
e
n
ce
is
a b
r
a
n
c
h of
b
iology th
a
t stu
d
i
e
s th
e
inh
e
rit
a
n
ce
of th
e
prop
e
rti
e
s of org
a
nisms
a
n
d
su
b
org
a
nisms
su
c
h
a
s virus
e
s
a
n
d
prions
.
I
n short
,
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
ca
n
be de
fin
ed a
s s
c
i
e
n
ce ab
out g
e
n
e
s
a
n
d a
ll
a
sp
ec
ts
.
T
h
e
t
e
rm
"
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
"
w
a
s first intro
d
u
ced b
y
W
illi
a
m
Ba
t
e
son in his l
e
tt
e
r to
Ada
m
C
h
ad
wi
c
k
a
n
d
us
ed a
t th
e
3
r
d Ge
n
e
ti
c I
nt
e
rn
a
tion
a
l
C
onf
e
r
e
n
ce
in
1906
.
I
n th
e
c
ont
e
xt of g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
,
DNA
h
a
s
a
n import
a
nt rol
e a
s
a ba
si
c
g
e
n
e
ti
c
m
a
t
e
ri
a
l th
a
t
c
ontrols th
e
prop
e
rti
e
s
L
iving org
a
nisms
,
e
xpr
e
ss
ed a
s polyp
e
pti
de
s
,
a
n
d
som
e
tim
e
s
a
s
ca
t
a
lyti
c RNA
su
c
h
a
s
SNRP
.
F
r
a
n
c
is
C
ri
c
k
de
s
c
ri
bed
th
e
flow of
DNA
inform
a
tion through th
e c
on
ce
pt of
Ce
ntr
a
l
D
ogm
a
,
wh
e
r
e
inform
a
tion in
DNA
is r
e
pli
ca
t
ed a
n
d ca
n
be e
xpr
e
ss
ed
into
RNA
,
whi
c
h is th
e
n tr
a
nsl
a
t
ed
into polyp
e
pti
de
s
,
c
ompiling ph
e
notyp
e
s of org
a
nisms
.
I
n
b
iology
,
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s stu
d
i
ed
g
e
n
e
s
,
inh
e
rit
a
n
ce
of prop
e
rti
e
s
,
a
n
d d
iv
e
rsity of
living org
a
nisms
.
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s
a
ppli
ed
to r
e
s
ea
r
c
h v
a
rious living things in
c
lu
d
ing
bac
t
e
ri
a
,
pl
a
nts
,
a
nim
a
ls
,
a
n
d
hum
a
ns
.
Ob
s
e
rv
a
tions to
de
v
e
lop pl
a
nt
a
n
d a
nim
a
l v
a
ri
e
ti
e
s h
a
v
e
bee
n
ca
rri
ed
out sin
ce a
n
c
i
e
nt tim
e
s
.
M
o
de
rn g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
be
g
a
n
b
y
G
r
e
gor
Me
n
de
l in th
e
mi
d
-
19
th
ce
ntury
.
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s s
ee
ks to
e
xpl
a
in th
e
m
a
t
e
ri
a
l th
a
t
ca
rri
e
s inh
e
rit
ed
inform
a
tion
(
g
e
n
e
ti
c
m
a
t
e
ri
a
l
),
how this inform
a
tion is
d
is
c
los
ed
(
g
e
n
e
ti
c e
xpr
e
ssion
),
a
n
d
how this inform
a
tion is
de
riv
ed
from on
e
in
d
ivi
d
u
a
l to oth
e
r in
d
ivi
d
u
a
ls
.
2
.
2
Ge
n
e
ti
c b
r
a
n
c
h
e
s
4
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s is
d
ivi
ded
into two m
a
in
b
r
a
n
c
h
e
s
:
pur
e
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
a
n
d a
ppli
ed
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
.
T
h
e
s
e b
r
a
n
c
h
e
s
a
ris
e d
u
e
to
dee
p fo
c
us on
ce
rt
a
in
a
sp
ec
ts of th
e
o
b
j
ec
t of th
e
stu
d
y
.
P
ur
e
g
e
n
e
ti
c b
r
a
n
c
h
e
s in
c
lu
de
:
1
.
M
ol
ec
ul
a
r g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
2
.
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s of
ce
lls
(
c
ytog
e
n
e
ti
c
s
)
3
.
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s popul
a
tion
4
.
Q
u
a
ntit
a
tiv
e
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
5
.
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s of
de
v
e
lopm
e
nt
Mea
nwhil
e
,
a
ppli
ed
g
e
n
e
ti
c b
r
a
n
c
h
e
s in
c
lu
de
:
1
.
Med
i
c
in
e
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
2
.
B
r
eed
ing s
c
i
e
n
ce
3
.
Ge
n
e
ti
ca
l
e
ngin
ee
ring or g
e
n
e
ti
c e
ngin
ee
ring
2
.
3
Ge
n
e
ti
c
su
b
st
a
n
ce
C
hromosom
e
T
h
e
t
e
rm
c
hromosom
e
w
a
s intro
d
u
ced b
y
W
.
Wa
l
da
y
e
r
.
T
h
e
wor
d
"
c
hromosom
e
"
c
om
e
s from
G
r
ee
k
,
n
a
m
e
ly
"
K
rom
a
"
whi
c
h m
ea
ns
c
olor
a
n
d
"
SOMA
"
whi
c
h m
ea
ns th
e
b
o
d
y
.
T
h
e
r
e
for
e
,
c
hromosom
e
s
ca
n
be
int
e
rpr
e
t
ed a
s
c
olor
ab
sor
be
nt o
b
j
ec
ts
.
C
hromosom
e
s
a
r
e
lo
ca
t
ed
within th
e ce
ll
'
s nu
c
l
e
us
a
n
d ca
n
be
s
ee
n
a
t th
e
m
e
t
a
ph
a
s
e
st
a
g
e d
uring mitosis
a
n
d
m
e
iosis
.
C
hromosom
e
-
O
nly visi
b
l
e
wh
e
n th
e ce
ll
d
ivi
de
s
.
5
-
T
h
e
l
e
ngth of th
e c
hromosom
e
r
a
ng
e
s from
0
.
2
to
40
mi
c
rons
.
-
C
hromosom
e
s on prok
a
ryoti
c ce
lls
a
r
e
only on
e a
n
d a
r
e
not in th
e ce
ll
'
s nu
c
l
e
us
,
whil
e
th
e
num
be
r of
c
hromosom
e
s in
e
uk
a
ryoti
c ce
lls v
a
ri
e
s
acc
or
d
ing to th
e
typ
e
of
org
a
nism
a
n
d a
r
e c
ont
a
in
ed
in th
e
nu
c
l
e
us
.
-
C
h
e
mi
ca
l
a
rr
a
ng
e
m
e
nt of
c
hromosom
e
s g
e
n
e
r
a
lly
c
onsists of
60
%
c
hrom
a
tin
e
,
35
%
prot
e
in
(
histony
a
n
d
non
-
non
-
n
a
tur
e
),
a
n
d
5
%
DNA a
n
d RNA
.
-
Ha
s s
e
v
e
r
a
l
e
nzym
e
s involv
ed
in
DNA a
n
d RNA
synth
e
sis
.
C
hromosom
e c
l
a
ssifi
ca
tion
T
h
e c
hromosom
e
is
d
istinguish
ed ba
s
ed
on its
e
ff
ec
t on
de
t
e
rmining s
e
xu
a
l
a
n
d
physi
ca
l
c
h
a
r
ac
t
e
risti
c
s
:
1
.
A
utosom
c
hromosom
e
:
known
a
s som
a
ti
c c
hromosom
e
,
d
o
e
s not
de
t
e
rmin
e
th
e
g
e
n
de
r of th
e
org
a
nism
.
H
um
a
ns h
a
v
e
46
som
a
ti
c c
hromosom
e
s
,
c
onsisting of
44
a
utosom
e
s
(
writt
e
n
a
s
44
a
or
22
aa
)
a
n
d
2
s
e
x
c
hromosom
e
s
.
2
.
G
onosom
:
known
a
s s
e
x
c
hromosom
e
,
de
t
e
rmin
e
s th
e
s
e
x of th
e
org
a
nism
.
H
um
a
ns
h
a
v
e
46
som
a
ti
c c
hromosom
e
s with
44
a
utosom
e
s
a
n
d
2
gonosom
e
s
(
x
a
n
d
y
).
T
h
e XX
c
hromosom
e de
t
e
rmin
e
s th
e
s
e
x of f
e
m
a
l
e
,
whil
e XY de
t
e
rmin
e
s m
e
n
.
S
om
a
ti
c
c
hromosom
e
writing
(
2
N
)
is
44
a
+
xy
(
m
a
l
e
)
or
44
A
+
xx
(
f
e
m
a
l
e
),
a
n
d
for g
a
m
e
t
ce
lls
(
N
)
is
22
a
+
x or
22
a
+
Y
.
Ba
s
ed
on th
e
lo
ca
tion in in
d
ivi
d
u
a
ls
,
th
e c
hromosom
e
is
d
istinguish
ed
into
:
1
.
P
rok
a
ryoti
c c
hromosom
e
:
T
h
e
r
e
is
a
prok
a
ryot
a
,
v
e
ry simpl
e
.
F
or
e
x
a
mpl
e
,
th
e
to
bacc
o mos
a
i
c
virus
c
hromosom
e
is in th
e
form of
SEUTAS RNA
,
a
n
d
th
e E
.
C
oli
c
hromosom
e
in th
e
form of
a
singl
e DNA
str
a
n
d
roll
ed
with
RNA
mol
ec
ul
e
s
.
2
.
E
uk
a
ryoti
c c
hromosom
e
s
:
F
oun
d
in multi
ce
llul
a
r org
a
nisms
,
c
onsisting of two v
e
ry
long
DNA
str
a
n
d
s
(
s
e
ns
e a
n
d a
ntis
e
ns
e
)
a
n
d a
r
e
surroun
ded b
y
c
or
e
m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e
s
.
C
hromosom
e
stru
c
tur
e
-
Ce
ntrom
e
r
(
K
in
e
tokor
):
C
onn
ec
ting
a c
hromosom
e
with
a
noth
e
r
,
th
e
pl
ace a
tt
ac
h
ed
6
to th
e
spin
de
l fi
be
r wh
e
n th
e c
hromosom
e
mov
ed
tow
a
r
d
s th
e ce
ll pou
b
on
a
n
a
f
a
s
e
.
-
C
hromon
e
m
a
:
S
pir
a
l ri
bb
on pl
ace
s
a
tt
ac
h
ed
to
c
romoyol
a
n
d c
hromom
e
rs
.
-
C
hromom
e
rs
:
C
hromon
e
m
a
th
a
t thi
c
k
e
n
ed
in s
e
v
e
r
a
l pl
ace
s
,
form
ed
th
e
up
da
t
ed
nu
c
l
e
oprot
e
in m
a
t
e
ri
a
l
a
n
d beca
m
e
th
e
lo
ca
tion of th
e
g
e
n
e
ti
c
lo
c
us
.
-
K
romiol
:
sm
a
ll p
a
rti
c
l
e
s on
c
hromosom
e
s with
a
littl
e
thi
c
k
e
ning
.
-
Te
lom
e
r
:
T
h
e e
n
d
of th
e c
hromosom
e
th
a
t pr
e
v
e
nts th
e c
hromosom
e
s from going to
eac
h oth
e
r
.
-
Ma
trix
:
C
ytopl
a
smi
c
liqui
d
th
a
t is thi
c
k in
c
hromosom
e
s
.
-
Ge
n
e
ti
c
lo
c
us
:
p
a
rt th
a
t
ca
rri
e
s h
e
r
ed
it
a
ry prop
e
rti
e
s
.
-
Sa
t
e
llit
e
:
C
ompl
e
m
e
nt
a
ry
a
t th
e e
n
d
of th
e c
hromosom
e
,
not
a
lw
a
ys on
eac
h
c
hromosom
e
.
-
Me
m
b
r
a
n
e
:
thin l
a
y
e
r
c
ov
e
ring th
e c
hromosom
e
.
T
yp
e
s of
c
hromosom
e
s
Ba
s
ed
on th
e
l
e
ngth of his
a
rm
,
c
hromosom
e
s
a
r
e d
ivi
ded
into four typ
e
s
:
m
e
t
ace
ntri
c
,
su
b
m
e
t
ace
ntri
c
,
ac
ro
ce
ntri
c
,
a
n
d
t
e
lo
ce
ntri
c
.
-
Me
t
ace
ntri
c
:
T
his typ
e
of
c
hromosom
e
h
a
s
a
n
a
rm th
a
t is
a
lmost th
e
s
a
m
e
l
e
ngth
,
so th
e ce
ntrom
e
r is in th
e
mi
dd
l
e
of th
e c
hromosom
e
.
-
S
u
b
m
e
t
ace
ntri
c
:
T
his
c
hromosom
e
h
a
s on
e a
rm short
e
r th
a
n th
e
oth
e
r
,
so th
e
ce
ntrom
e
r is
a
littl
e
outsi
de
th
e
mi
dd
l
e
.
-
Ac
ro
ce
ntri
c
:
T
his
c
hromosom
e
h
a
s on
e
of th
e a
rms th
a
t is mu
c
h short
e
r th
a
n
oth
e
r
a
rms
.
-
Te
lo
ce
ntri
c
:
T
his
c
hromosom
e
only h
a
s on
e a
rm
,
with th
e ce
ntrom
e
r
a
t th
e e
n
d
of
th
e c
hromosom
e
.
N
um
be
r of
c
hromosom
e
s
7
Eac
h
e
uk
a
ryot
a
h
a
s
a d
iff
e
r
e
nt num
be
r of
c
hromosom
e
s
.
I
n
b
o
d
y or som
a
ti
c ce
lls
,
th
e
num
be
r of
c
hromosom
e
s is usu
a
lly
e
v
e
n
beca
us
e c
hromosom
e
s
a
r
e a
lw
a
ys p
a
ir
ed
.
S
om
a
ti
c ce
lls h
a
v
e
2
s
e
ts of
c
hromosom
e
s
(
d
iploi
d
,
2
n
)
whi
c
h
c
om
e
s from th
e
m
a
l
e
a
n
d
f
e
m
a
l
e
p
a
r
e
nt
.
W
h
e
r
ea
s in g
a
m
e
t
ce
lls or g
e
nit
a
l
ce
lls
,
su
c
h
a
s
e
ggs
a
n
d
sp
e
rm
,
th
e
num
be
r of
c
hromosom
e
s is only h
a
lf of th
e b
o
d
y
'
s
ce
lls
,
n
a
m
e
ly
a
s
e
t or h
a
ploi
d
(
N
).
I
n hum
a
ns
,
som
a
ti
c ce
lls h
a
v
e
46
c
hromosom
e
s
,
whil
e e
gg
ce
lls
a
n
d
sp
e
rm h
a
v
e
23
c
hromosom
e
s
.
Ge
n
e
Acc
or
d
ing to
W
.
J
oh
a
ns
e
n
,
g
e
n
e
s
a
r
e
th
e
sm
a
ll
e
st units of living org
a
nisms th
a
t
c
ont
a
in g
e
n
e
ti
c
m
a
t
e
ri
a
l
,
foun
d
on g
e
n
e
s
.
Ge
n
e
s
c
onsist of prot
e
in
a
n
d
nu
c
l
e
i
c ac
i
d
(
DNA a
n
d RNA
),
with
a
siz
e be
tw
ee
n
4
to
8 μ
m
(
mi
c
ron
).
Ge
n
e
prop
e
rti
e
s
Ge
n
e
s h
a
v
e
th
e
following prop
e
rti
e
s
:
1
.
C
ont
a
ins g
e
n
e
ti
c
inform
a
tion
.
2
.
Eac
h g
e
n
e
h
a
s
d
iff
e
r
e
nt t
a
sks
a
n
d
fun
c
tions
.
3
.
Ca
n
d
upli
ca
t
e d
uring mitoti
c c
l
ea
v
a
g
e a
n
d
m
e
iosis
.
4
.
De
t
e
rmin
ed b
y th
e c
omposition of nitrog
e
n
ba
s
e c
om
b
in
a
tions
.
5
.
Be
ing in
a c
hromosom
e
.
Ge
n
e
fun
c
tion
Ge
n
e
fun
c
tion in
c
lu
de
s
:
1
.
C
onv
e
y inform
a
tion to th
e
n
e
xt g
e
n
e
r
a
tion
.
2
.
De
t
e
rmin
e
th
e
prop
e
rti
e
s th
a
t
a
r
e
r
e
v
ea
l
ed
.
3
.
Ma
n
a
g
e de
v
e
lopm
e
nt
a
n
d
m
e
t
ab
olism
.
S
ym
b
ols of g
e
n
e
s
8
-
T
h
e d
omin
a
nt g
e
n
e
:
g
e
n
e
s th
a
t
c
ov
e
r th
e e
xpr
e
ssion of oth
e
r g
e
n
e
s so th
a
t th
e
prop
e
rti
e
s h
e ca
rry
e
xpr
e
ss
ed
in th
e
offspring
,
a
r
e
usu
a
lly
e
xpr
e
ss
ed
in upp
e
r
ca
s
e
(
e
x
a
mpl
e
:
a
).
-
Re
s
e
ssiv
e
g
e
n
e
s
:
g
e
n
e
s th
a
t
a
r
e c
ov
e
r
ed b
y th
e d
omin
a
nt g
e
n
e
so th
e
n
a
tur
e
h
e
ca
rri
e
s is not
e
xpr
e
ss
ed
in his offspring
.
-
He
t
e
rozygous g
e
n
e
s
:
a c
om
b
in
a
tion of two g
e
n
e
s of sp
e
rm
ce
lls
(
a
)
a
n
d e
gg
ce
lls
(
a
).
-
d
omin
a
nt homozygous g
e
n
e
s
:
a c
om
b
in
a
tion of two
d
omin
a
nt g
e
n
e
s from m
a
l
e
a
n
d
f
e
m
a
l
e
g
e
nit
a
l
ce
lls
(
e
x
a
mpl
e
:
AA
).
-
Ge
n
H
omozygot
Rece
ssiv
e
:
a c
om
b
in
a
tion of two r
ece
ssiv
e
g
e
n
e
s from two
g
e
nit
a
l
ce
lls
(
e
x
a
mpl
e
:
AA
).
-
homologous
c
hromosom
e
:
c
hromosom
e
s from f
e
m
a
l
e
p
a
r
e
nt simil
a
r to
c
hromosom
e
s from th
e
m
a
l
e
p
a
r
e
nt
.
-
Fe
notyp
e
:
th
e
prop
e
rti
e
s of offspring
a
r
e
visi
b
l
e
in
F
1
,
F
2
,
a
n
d F
3
,
su
c
h
a
s high
,
c
olor
,
a
n
d
sh
a
p
e
s
.
-
Ge
notyp
e
:
th
e
prop
e
rti
e
s of th
e de
s
ce
n
da
nts th
a
t
a
r
e
not visi
b
l
e
,
for
e
x
a
mpl
e AA
,
AA
,
a
n
d AA
.
DNA a
n
d RNA
N
u
c
l
e
i
c ac
i
d
is
a
polinu
c
l
e
oti
de c
onsisting of mononu
c
l
e
oti
de
units
.
I
f th
e c
onstitu
e
nt
unit is
d
ioxinu
c
l
e
oti
de
,
it is
ca
ll
ed d
ioxiri
b
onu
c
l
ea
t
(
DNA
),
a
n
d
if th
e c
onstitu
e
nt unit is
ri
b
onu
c
l
e
oti
de
,
it is
ca
ll
ed
th
e R
i
b
onu
c
l
e
ut
Ac
i
d
(
RNA
).
DNA a
n
d RNA
h
a
v
e a
simil
a
r
physi
c
s
a
n
d c
h
e
mi
ca
l prop
e
rti
e
s
beca
us
e
th
e
mononu
c
l
e
oti
de
unit is
c
onn
ec
t
ed
through th
e
phospho
d
i
e
st
e
r
b
ri
d
g
e be
tw
ee
n th
e
position of
3
'
mononu
c
l
e
oti
de
with
a
noth
e
r
5
'
mononu
c
l
e
oti
de
position
.
T
h
e
two m
a
in typ
e
s of nu
c
l
e
i
c ac
i
d
s
a
r
e DNA a
n
d RNA
.
DNA
is m
a
inly foun
d
in th
e
ce
ll
'
s nu
c
l
e
us
a
n
d ca
rri
e
s g
e
n
e
ti
c c
o
de
th
a
t
ca
n
be c
opi
ed
to form n
e
w
ce
lls
.
I
n most
org
a
nisms
,
ce
ll
DNA
p
e
rforms th
e
synth
e
sis of
RNA
,
su
c
h
a
s
Me
ss
e
ng
e
r
RNA
(
MRNA
),
whi
c
h l
ea
v
e
s th
e ce
ll
'
s nu
c
l
e
us
a
n
d d
ir
ec
ts prot
e
in synth
e
sis in
acc
or
da
n
ce
with th
e
DNA c
o
de
.
Ge
n
e
ti
c c
o
de
Ge
n
e
ti
c c
o
de
is inform
a
tion th
a
t us
e
s l
e
tt
e
rs
a
s nitrog
e
n
ba
s
e
sym
b
ols
(
A
,
T
,
C
,
a
n
d G
)
to tr
a
nsl
a
t
e a
mino
ac
i
d
s in th
e b
o
d
y
.
T
h
e
g
e
n
e
ti
c c
o
de de
t
e
rmin
e
s th
e
s
e
qu
e
n
ce
of
a
mino
ac
i
d
s
d
uring prot
e
in synth
e
sis
.
P
rot
e
in synth
e
sis
be
gins with
a
ug
c
o
d
on whi
c
h
9
e
n
c
o
de
s m
e
thionin
e a
mino
ac
i
d
(
initi
a
tion
c
o
d
on
)
a
n
d e
n
d
s with u
aa c
o
d
on
,
u
a
g
,
a
n
d
e
xp
a
nsion
(
in prok
a
ryoti
c
)
or u
aa
(
in
e
uk
a
ryoti
c
),
whi
c
h is
a c
o
d
on t
e
rmin
a
tion
/
c
o
d
on
N
ons
e
ns
e beca
us
e
it
d
o
e
sn
'
t
e
n
c
o
de a
ny
a
mino
ac
i
d
.
Ge
n
e
ti
c c
o
de
is univ
e
rs
a
l
,
a
ppli
e
s to
a
ll typ
e
s of org
a
nisms
.
T
h
e
fun
c
tioning
c
o
d
on is th
e ba
s
e
s
e
qu
e
n
ce
be
tw
ee
n th
e
initi
a
l
c
o
d
ons
a
n
d
t
e
rmin
a
tion
c
o
d
ons
.
DNA a
n
d RNA d
iff
e
r
e
n
ce
s
RNA
h
a
s som
e d
iff
e
r
e
n
ce
s with
DNA
,
in
c
lu
d
ing th
e
following
:
1
.
S
iz
e a
n
d
sh
a
p
e
:
RNA
mol
ec
ul
e
s
a
r
e
g
e
n
e
r
a
lly short
e
r th
a
n
DNA
mol
ec
ul
e
s
.
DNA
h
a
s
a d
ou
b
l
e
h
e
lix form
,
whil
e RNA
is
a
singl
e
ri
bb
on
.
H
ow
e
v
e
r
,
on som
e
pl
a
nt virus
e
s
,
RNA
is
a d
ou
b
l
e
ri
bb
on in th
e
form of not
be
ing
c
ompos
ed
in
a
spir
a
l
.
2
.
C
h
e
mi
ca
l
c
omposition
:
RNA
mol
ec
ul
e
s
a
r
e a
lso nu
c
l
e
oti
de
polym
e
rs
,
b
ut th
e
r
e a
r
e
d
iff
e
r
e
n
ce
s with
DNA
,
n
a
m
e
ly
:
-
T
h
e c
onstitu
e
nt sug
a
r is ri
b
os
e
,
not
de
oxyiri
b
os
a
.
-
T
h
e
pyrimi
d
in
ba
s
e
is ur
ac
y
,
not
a
timin lik
e DNA
.
3
.
L
o
ca
tion
:
-
DNA
is usu
a
lly foun
d
in
c
hromosom
e
s
.
-
RNA de
p
e
n
d
s on th
e
typ
e
,
su
c
h
a
s
:
-
MRNA
(
Me
ss
e
ng
e
r
RNA
)
w
a
s foun
d
in th
e
nu
c
l
e
us
a
n
d
w
a
s print
ed b
y on
e
of th
e
DNA
str
a
n
d
s in th
e
nu
c
l
e
us
.
-
TRNA
(
RNA
tr
a
nsf
e
r
)
is foun
d
in th
e c
ytopl
a
sm
.
-
RRNA
(
RNA
ri
b
osom
e
)
w
a
s foun
d
in ri
b
osom
e
s
.
4
.
F
un
c
tion
:
-
DNA
fun
c
tions to provi
de
g
e
n
e
ti
c
inform
a
tion
.
-
RNA
fun
c
tion
de
p
e
n
d
s on th
e
typ
e
,
n
a
m
e
ly
:
-
MRNA
r
ece
iv
e
s g
e
n
e
ti
c
inform
a
tion from
DNA
through
a
tr
a
ns
c
ription pro
ce
ss th
a
t
t
a
k
e
s pl
ace a
t th
e ce
ll
c
or
e
.
-
TRNA
r
ec
ogniz
e
s th
e c
o
d
on
a
n
d
turns it into
a
mino
ac
i
d
s in ri
b
osom
e
s
.
10
-
RRNA ac
ts
a
s
a
prot
e
in form
a
tion sit
e
.
2
.
4
I
nh
e
rit
a
n
ce
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s s
c
i
e
n
ce e
xp
e
ri
e
n
ced
r
a
pi
d de
v
e
lopm
e
nt sin
ce a
monk from
a
mon
a
st
e
ry
in
B
runn
,
A
ustri
a
,
n
a
m
ed G
r
e
gor
J
oh
a
nn
Me
n
de
l
,
who w
a
s l
a
t
e
r known
a
s
M
r
.
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s
,
foun
d
th
e
prin
c
ipl
e
of g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
.
Me
n
de
l w
a
s th
e
first p
e
rson to
d
o
e
xp
e
rim
e
nts in this fi
e
l
d
.
He c
ross
ed
v
a
rious typ
e
s of
ERCIS
pl
a
nts or pi
a
w
a
p nuts
(
P
isum
Sa
tivum
)
in th
e
mon
a
st
e
ry p
a
rk
.
T
h
e
s
e
pl
a
nts h
a
v
e a
v
a
ri
e
ty of v
a
ri
a
tions
,
su
c
h
a
s r
ed a
n
d
whit
e
,
roun
d
sh
a
p
e a
n
d
wrinkl
e
s
,
a
n
d
high
a
n
d
short st
e
ms
.
Me
n
de
l
c
hos
e
p
ea
s of p
ea
s for his r
e
s
ea
r
c
h for s
e
v
e
r
a
l r
ea
sons
:
p
e
rf
ec
t flow
e
rs th
a
t
ca
n
b
rok
e
th
e
ms
e
lv
e
s
,
ea
sy pollin
a
tion of
c
ross
,
a
short lif
e
p
e
rio
d
so th
a
t it qui
c
kly pro
d
u
ce
s
offspring
,
a
s w
e
ll
a
s
a
striking prop
e
rti
e
s
.
I
n th
e
first
de
s
ce
n
da
nts
(
f
)
with th
e MM
g
e
notyp
e
,
two typ
e
s of g
a
m
e
t
e
s
a
r
e
pro
d
u
ced
in th
e
s
a
m
e a
mount
.
F
or
e
x
a
mpl
e
,
if th
e
r
e a
r
e
50
poll
e
n
,
25
poll
e
n h
a
v
e Ge
notyp
e
s
M
a
n
d
25
oth
e
rs h
a
v
e
g
e
notyp
e
s m
.
T
h
e
s
a
m
e a
ppli
e
s to th
e e
gg
.
T
his h
a
pp
e
ns
beca
us
e
wh
e
n th
e
form
a
tion of g
a
m
e
t
e
s
,
th
e MM
g
e
n
c
oupl
e
s
e
p
a
r
a
t
e
s fr
ee
ly
.
A
s
a
r
e
sult
,
e
v
e
ry s
e
xyl
e
(
poll
e
n or
e
gg
ce
ll
)
only g
e
ts on
e
g
e
n
e
,
n
a
m
e
ly
M
or m
.
T
his
e
v
e
nt is
ca
ll
ed
th
e
prin
c
ipl
e
of fr
ee
s
e
p
a
r
a
tion
.
I
n inh
e
rit
a
n
ce
prop
e
rti
e
s
,
th
e
r
e a
r
e
s
e
v
e
r
a
l
ba
si
c
l
a
ws
de
v
e
lop
ed b
y
Me
n
de
l
(
1822
-
1884
),
known
a
s
Me
n
de
l
'
s l
a
w
.
Me
n
de
l
'
s l
a
w is
d
ivi
ded
into two
,
n
a
m
e
ly
:
Me
n
de
l
I La
w
(
La
w
Se
gr
e
g
a
tion
F
r
ee
or
Se
p
a
r
a
tion of
Ge
n
A
ll
e
l
e
s
):
I
n th
e
form
a
tion of
g
a
m
e
t
e
s
,
two p
a
ir
ed
g
e
n
e
s will
be
s
e
p
a
r
a
t
ed
into two
c
hil
d ce
lls fr
ee
ly
.
E
x
a
mpl
e
s of
Me
n
de
l
I e
xp
e
rim
e
nts
:
Me
n
de
l
c
ross
e
s two in
d
ivi
d
u
a
l
Pea
nuts th
a
t h
a
v
e
on
e d
iff
e
r
e
nt prop
e
rti
e
s
(
monohi
b
i
d
),
n
a
m
e
ly
be
tw
ee
n roun
d
-
s
eeded a
n
d
wrinkl
ed
s
eed
s
.
T
h
e d
omin
a
nt roun
d
n
a
tur
e
of wrinkl
e
s
.
11
Ge
n
e c
omposition
:
-
B
:
Ge
n for
R
oun
d
,
D
omin
a
nt to
B
-
B
:
Ge
n for wrinkl
e
s
P
1
:
BB
(
roun
d
)
x
BB
(
wrinkl
e
s
)
F
1
:
F
1
x
F
1
F
2
:
BB X BB
T
h
e
n it is g
e
n
e
r
a
t
ed
:
Ra
tio
Fe
notyp
e
=
roun
d
wrinkl
e
s
3
:
1
Bb Ge
notyp
e Ra
tio
:
BB
:
Bb
:
1
:
2
:
1
a
.
Mede
l l
a
w i
I
Na
m
e
ly th
e
l
e
g
a
l group of g
e
n
e
s is fr
ee
ly
,
if two in
d
ivi
d
u
a
ls
d
iff
e
r on
e
with th
e
oth
e
r two in th
e
n
a
tur
e
of or mor
e
,
th
e
n th
e dec
r
ea
s
e
in th
e
n
a
tur
e
of
on
e d
o
e
s not
de
p
e
n
d
on th
e
oth
e
rs
.
E
x
a
mpl
e
of
Me
n
de
l
II
l
e
g
a
l tri
a
l
:
Me
n
de
l
c
on
d
u
c
t
ed a c
rossing
e
xp
e
rim
e
nt on th
e
p
ea
s of
Pea
nuts with two
Bed
bed
Bed
BB
(
roun
d
)
BB
(
roun
d
)
bed
BB
(
roun
d
)
BB
(
wrinkl
e
s
)
12
d
iff
e
r
e
nt prop
e
rti
e
s
(
d
ihi
b
ri
d
),
n
a
m
e
ly
c
olors
a
n
d
sh
a
p
e
s of s
eed
s
.
B
:
roun
d
,
d
omin
a
nt
a
g
a
inst wrinkl
e
s
B
:
wrinkl
e
s
K
:
y
e
llow
,
d
omin
a
nt tow
a
r
d
s gr
ee
n
K
:
gr
ee
n
C
ompl
e
tion of
:
Q
:
BBKK
(
Ye
llow
R
oun
d
)
X BBKK
(
gr
ee
n wrinkl
e
s
)
Ga
m
e
t
e
s
:
B
k x
b
k
F
1
:
BBKK
(
Ye
llow
R
oun
d
)
P
2
:
F
1
X F
1
P
2
:
Bb
kk x
Bb
kk
Ga
m
e
t
:
BK
,
BK
,
BK
,
BK
x
BK
,
BK
,
BK
,
BK
B
k
B
k
b
k
b
k
B
k
Bb
kk
Bb
kk
Bb
kk
Bb
kk
B
k
Bb
kk
Bb
kk
Bb
kk
Bb
kk
b
k
Bb
kk
Bb
kk
bb
kk
bb
kk
b
k
Bb
kk
Bb
kk
bb
kk
bb
kk
P
ossi
b
ly g
e
notyp
e a
n
d
ph
e
notyp
e
on f
2
is
:
N
um
be
r
b
ox
Ge
notyp
e
P
h
e
notyp
e
Σ
1
Bb
kk
R
oun
dYe
llow
1
2
,
5
Bb
kk
R
oun
dYe
llow
2
3
,
9
Bb
kk
Ha
z
e
2
13
4
,
7
,
10
,
13
Bb
kk
Ha
z
e
4
6
Bb
kk
R
oun
d
1
8
,
14
Bb
kk
R
oun
d
2
11
bb
kk
Ye
llow wrinkl
e
s
1
12
,
15
bb
kk
Ye
llow wrinkl
e
s
2
16
bb
kk
G
r
ee
n wrinkl
e
s
1
T
h
e
n th
e
ph
e
notyp
e
r
a
tio is
R
oun
d
y
e
llow
:
roun
d
gr
ee
n
:
y
e
llow wrinkl
e
s
:
gr
ee
n wrinkl
e
s
9
3
3
1
2
.
5
He
r
ed
ity in hum
a
ns
H
um
a
n g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
a
n
d
inh
e
rit
a
n
ce
p
a
tt
e
rns
H
um
a
n g
e
n
e
ti
c
s stu
d
i
ed
inh
e
rit
a
n
ce a
n
d ab
norm
a
liti
e
s in hum
a
ns
.
H
um
a
n inh
e
rit
a
n
ce
in hum
a
nity is
d
ivi
ded
into two typ
e
s
:
th
e
n
a
tur
e ad
r
a
v
ed b
y
b
o
d
y
c
hromosom
e
s
(
a
utosom
e
s
)
a
n
d
th
e
n
a
tur
e
of s
e
x
c
hromosom
e
s
(
gonosom
e
s
).
A
utosom
a
l prop
e
rti
e
s
ca
n
a
ris
e
in
b
oys
a
n
d
girls
,
whil
e
th
e
n
a
tur
e
of gonosom
a
l is influ
e
n
ced b
y s
e
x
a
n
d ca
n
a
pp
ea
r only in
b
oys or wom
e
n
.
A
utosom
a
l
dec
r
ea
s
ed
n
a
tur
e
or
de
f
ec
ts
A
l
b
inism
A
l
b
inism is
a
g
e
n
e
ti
c de
f
ec
t wh
e
r
e
som
e
on
e d
o
e
s not h
a
v
e
tyrosin
a
s
e e
nzym
e
s th
a
t
turn tyrosin
e
to m
e
l
a
nin
,
ca
us
e
s h
a
ir
,
skin
a
n
d e
y
eb
rows
a
n
d e
y
e
s s
e
nsitiv
e
to light
.
14
T
h
e
g
e
n
e ca
us
e
s
a
l
b
inism is r
ece
ssiv
e
,
whil
e
th
e d
omin
a
nt
a
ll
e
l
e
s
c
ontrol th
e
norm
a
l
n
a
tur
e
.
A
l
b
ino
'
s son w
a
s
b
orn to p
a
r
e
nts
b
oth
ca
rrying
a
l
b
ino g
e
n
e
s
(
ca
rri
e
r
).
-
P
:
AA X AA
-
F
:
AA
(
N
orm
a
l
),
2
AA
(
N
orm
a
l
Ca
rri
e
r
),
AA
(
A
l
b
ino
)
Id
iot
/
im
b
isil
T
his
de
f
ec
t is
ca
us
ed b
y th
e
l
ac
k of
e
nzym
e
s th
a
t
c
onv
e
r ph
e
nyl
a
l
a
nin
e
into tyrosin
e
,
ca
using f
e
nil
a
l
a
nin
e b
uil
d
up th
a
t inhi
b
its
b
r
a
in
de
v
e
lopm
e
nt
,
known
a
s
ph
e
nylk
e
tonuri
a
(
PKU
).
C
hil
d
r
e
n who
a
r
e
i
d
iots
/
i
b
isil usu
a
lly h
a
v
e
low
IQ
s
,
slow
motion
,
a
n
d
h
a
ir short
a
g
e
of pigm
e
nts
.
-
P
:
II X II
-
F
:
II
(
norm
a
l
),
2
II
(
N
orm
a
l
Ca
rri
e
r
),
II
(
i
d
iot
)
T
h
a
ll
a
s
e
mi
a
T
h
a
ll
a
s
e
mi
a
is
a
n
ab
norm
a
lity wh
e
r
e
r
ed b
loo
d ce
lls
a
r
e
irr
e
gul
a
r
a
n
d
low
HB
l
e
v
e
ls
,
ca
us
e
hypox
e
mi
a
.
T
h
e
r
e a
r
e
two typ
e
s of
T
h
a
ll
a
s
e
mi
a
:
Ma
jor
(
T
hth
)
a
n
d M
inor
(
T
hth
).
T
h
a
ll
a
s
e
mi
a
m
a
jor suff
e
r
e
rs
a
r
e
g
e
n
e
r
a
lly
Le
th
a
l
,
whil
e T
h
a
ll
a
s
e
mi
a
minor suff
e
r
e
rs
ca
n surviv
e
with r
e
gul
a
r
b
loo
d
tr
a
nsfusions
.
-
P
:
T
hth x
T
hth
-
F
:
T
hth
(
th
a
ll
a
s
e
mi
a
m
a
jor
),
2
thth
(
th
a
ll
a
s
e
mi
a
minor
),
T
hth
(
norm
a
l
)
T
h
e
n
a
tur
e
or
de
f
ec
t
dec
r
ea
s
e
s gonosom
a
l
T
h
e
n
a
tur
e ad
r
a
v
ed
of s
e
x
c
hromosom
e
s is
d
ivi
ded
into two
:
X a
n
d Y c
hromosom
e
ad
rift of th
e X c
hromosom
e
g
e
n
e ca
n
be
r
ed
u
ced
to
b
oys
a
n
d
girls
,
whil
e
th
e
g g
e
n
e
ad
rift of
c
hromosom
e
s is only low
e
r
ed
in
b
oys
.
15
De
f
ec
t
dec
r
ea
s
e
s
b
y
c
hromosom
e
x
He
mofili
He
mophili is
a
n
ab
norm
a
lity in whi
c
h
b
loo
d
is
d
iffi
c
ult to fr
ee
z
e
,
ca
us
ed b
y
a
r
ece
ssiv
e
g
.
T
h
e ca
rri
e
r wom
a
n h
a
s on
e G Ge
n
a
n
d
on
e G Ge
n
,
whil
e
m
e
n suff
e
r from h
e
mophili
if th
e
y h
a
v
e
g
e
n
e
s
H
on th
e X c
hromosom
e
.
-
P
:
N
orm
a
l
X Me
n
W
om
e
n
Ca
rri
e
r
(
XHY X XHXH
)
-
F
:
XHXH
(
N
orm
a
l
W
om
a
n
),
XHXH
(
W
om
e
n
Ca
rri
e
r
),
XHY
(
N
orm
a
l
Ma
n
),
XHY
(
Me
n
He
mophili
)
B
ut
a
w
a
rn
a
B
utl
a
m
a
is
a
g
e
n
e
ti
c de
f
ec
t wh
e
r
e
som
e
on
e ca
nnot
d
istinguish
c
olor
,
e
sp
ec
i
a
lly r
ed
a
n
d
gr
ee
n
.
Ca
us
ed b
y r
ece
ssiv
e
g
e
n
e
s
c
.
-
P
:
Ma
l
e B
utl
a
m
a X W
om
e
n
Ca
rri
e
r
(
XCY X XCXC
)
-
F
:
XCXC
(
W
om
e
n
'
s
Ca
rri
e
r
),
XCXC
(
B
utl
a
m
a W
om
e
n
),
XCY
(
N
orm
a
l
Ma
n
),
XCY
(
Ma
l
e
B
ut
a
w
a
rn
a
)
De
f
ec
t
dec
r
ea
s
e
s
b
y
c
hromosom
e
Ge
n
-
g
e
n
-
ad
rift of y
c
hromosom
e
s is only inh
e
rit
ed
in
b
oys
,
ca
ll
ed
th
e H
oll
a
n
d
rik g
e
n
e
.
E
x
a
mpl
e
s of
ab
norm
a
liti
e
s
:
hyp
e
rtri
c
hosis
,
hystrixgr
a
viour
,
a
n
d
w
ebbed
to
e
s
.
H
yp
e
rtri
c
hosis
T
h
e HT
g
e
n
e
on
c
hromosom
e
s y
ca
us
e
s th
e
growth of h
a
ir on th
e ed
g
e
of th
e ea
rlo
be
,
m
a
ny p
e
opl
e a
r
e
foun
d
in
Pa
kist
a
ni m
e
n
.
-
P
:
XYHT X XX
16
-
F
:
XYHT
(
Ma
l
e H
yp
e
rtri
c
hosis
)
H
ystrixgr
a
viour
D
isor
de
rs
ca
us
ed b
y
HG
g
e
n
e
s
,
ca
using th
e
growth of long
a
n
d
rigi
d
h
a
ir throughout
th
e b
o
d
y
(
h
ed
g
e
hog f
ea
th
e
r
d
is
ea
s
e
).
Webbed
to
e
s
D
isor
de
rs wh
e
r
e
to
e
s grow m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e
s su
c
h
a
s frog l
e
gs
,
ca
us
ed b
y
Ge
n
WT
.
C
h
a
pt
e
r
III
C
ov
e
r
3
.
1
C
on
c
lusion
T
h
e
wor
d
"
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
"
c
om
e
s from
La
tin
'
Ge
nos
',
whi
c
h m
ea
ns th
e
origin of
a
n
e
v
e
nt
.
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s is
a b
r
a
n
c
h of s
c
i
e
n
ce
th
a
t stu
d
i
e
s in
de
t
a
il
ab
out th
e
tr
a
nsf
e
r of
b
iologi
ca
l inform
a
tion from on
e
g
e
n
e
r
a
tion to th
e
n
e
xt
.
Ge
n
e
ti
c
s s
c
i
e
n
ce
is
d
ivi
ded
into two m
a
in
a
r
ea
s
:
ba
si
c
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
a
n
d a
ppli
ed
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
.
T
hrough g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
,
w
e ca
n
l
ea
rn
ab
out inh
e
rit
a
n
ce
.
T
h
e
pro
ce
ss of inh
e
rit
a
n
ce
prop
e
rti
e
s is
e
xpl
a
in
ed b
y s
e
v
e
r
a
l
l
a
ws th
a
t
a
r
e
th
e ba
sis of th
e de
v
e
lopm
e
nt of mo
de
rn g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
b
y
Me
n
de
l
(
1822
-
1884
).
Me
n
de
l
'
s l
a
w is
d
ivi
ded
into two p
a
rts
:
Me
n
de
l
I La
w
a
n
d La
w
Me
n
de
l
II
.
17
