1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Worldwide Crisis and Education
One sector that was obviously affected by the current worldwide crisis (COVID-
19 pandemic) was education. Izumi, Sukhwani, Surjan, and Shaw (2021) state that the
pandemic has impacted public and higher education systems in numerous ways. Having
previously been hit by MERS and COVID-19, Education is considered the most affected
service sector by the pandemic, besides the health service sector. The pandemic’s impact
causes’ problems and stress for educators, families, and students (Izumi et al., 2021).
Therefore, higher education institutions and schools need to be good at facing crises and,
importantly, be aware of how to manage them and adjust to this very dynamic and
dangerous scenario (Miller, 2021).
The disruption of education on a worldwide scale caused by the COVID-19
epidemic has exacerbated preexisting global and regional inequities. Different countries
have responded to this change in various ways, including widespread deschooling,
limited access for students and instructors, and a primary dependence on parental
involvement in the schooling process (Green et al., 2020).
In the autumn of 2020, educational institutions began the new academic year
under very exceptional conditions due to the COVID-19 crisis. Due to the
unpredictability of the conditions surrounding admissions and finances at these
2
organizations, developing and putting into action an appropriate, productive, and long-
lasting response will be a challenging but essential job in the administration of colleges
and universities (Koch, 2020). According to the Saudi Ministry of Education, Saudi
Arabia is among the nations that has implemented standards and preventative measures to
terminate attendance education, transition in record time and with high professionalism to
distance education, and finish the school year of 2020 with nearly six million students
while maintaining high flexibility and efficiency (A year of distance education,
2020/2021).
The Kingdom of Saudia Arabi
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is geographically situated in southeastern Asia
(Figure 1.) Geopolitically, it possesses a prominent position in the region presently
referred to as the "Middle East." Saudi Arabia shares borders with eight nations and two
oceans. Its western coastline is bordered by the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea, both of
which are the most vital trade waters globally. The country's eastern border is the Persian
Gulf. Both seas are vital commercial corridors (Anishchenkova, 2020). Egypt, Sudan, and
Eritrea are on the other side of the Red Sea. From the north Syria and Iraq. From the East
Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and U.A.E. From South Yemen and Oman.
3
Figure 1. Map of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Saudi Arabia Maps).
Higher Education System in The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
An overview of the Higher Education system in Saudi Arabia, as illustrated in
articles 29 and 30 of the Basic Law of Governance, was enacted by Royal Decree 90/A
on February 3, 1992, and stipulates that the Kingdom sponsors literature, science, and
culture. It is concerned with promoting scientific research and preserving Islamic and
Arab heritage. It also contributes to Arab, Islamic, and human civilizations. The country
is concerned with public education and is devoted to combating illiteracy. In addition, the
"Education Policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" document adopted by Cabinet
Resolution No. 779 on 11/27/1969 specified the objectives and planning for education in
its phases, from kindergarten to higher education. In 1994, the Kingdom established the
Council for Higher Education and Universities by Royal Decree No. M8, as a distinct
entity from the higher education system (Basic Law of Governance in the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia, 2008; Basic Law of Governance).
Established in the year of (1975), the Ministry of Higher Education is the
government agency in charge of planning and implementing higher education. Before it
had its own ministry, higher education was within the jurisdiction of the Education
4
Directorate. The Ministry of Higher Education, which had been a separate ministry,
amalgamated with the Ministry of Education in 2015 to turn into the current Ministry of
Education. No. M/8 of the Royal Decree dated 11-19-1993 established the Council of
Higher Education and Universities in 1993 (University’s Regulation, 2023, p. A-D;
Universities Affairs Council, 2020).
The previous system remained in place until the new higher education laws or
system were established by Royal Decree (M/27) and Cabinet Resolution (183), both
dated October 30, 2019. In the opening to the first version of the system, the Minister of
Education, "Chairman of the Universities Affairs Council," stated that the Ministry of
Education in Saudi Arabia initiated an enormous endeavor throughout the previous
period to construct an infrastructure for institutions of higher education to aid them in
accomplishing their intended objectives by striking a balance between the government's
role as a regulator of higher education institutions and their independence and financial
and social involvement, plus, on a worldwide scale. Therefore, to establish laws for Saudi
higher education institutions, designate them as not-for-profit public educational
organizations. These regulations aim to ensure effective administration, financial
stability, and scholarly autonomy, all in alignment with the governance overarching
strategy; Royal Decree No (M/27) dated 10/31/2019 was issued with the approval of the
High Commissioner on the university system. The results are achieved by creating a
university relations board consisting of emissaries from many government divisions,
including the private departments, and by creating several councils within individual
universities to achieve governance within those institutions. The university system also
stands out by the founding of international advisory councils, student councils, and
5
faculty councils to broaden the base of involvement in decision-making in an approach
that guarantees a high degree of professionalism, effectiveness, and rationality in its
decisions and fosters a university institution that is more resilient to challenges, holding
greater capacity to meet all society demands, and devoid of operational, management,
and potentially restrictive limitations (University’s Regulation, 2023, p. A-D;
Universities Affairs Council (2020).
In Saudi Arabia, the statement was made within the context of higher education
regulations issued in their updated version in 2007 in the regulations regulating university
finances in the initial chapter of the budget for universities that: Each university shall
have its own independent budget issued by approval of a royal decree that determines its
revenues and expenditures (Al-Hamid et al., 2007). In addition, the deduction of the
country's budget for education budget for the year (2022) in Saudi riyals is considered to
be 185 billion (Statement of the country's general budget, 2023, p. 40).
Najran University as one of Saudi's Higher Education Institutions
This study's core concern subject focus is on the University of Najran, which is
situated in the Najran Region south of Saudi Arabia. The territory of Najran possesses a
strategic location near Yemen's frontier. The capital is Najran, which also serves as the
administrative and economic core of the region, as it is home to nearly all the region's
revenue-generating industries, such as the large-scale agricultural production of
vegetables, citrus fruits, and dates. Government management, defense, retail and
wholesale commerce, and education are the most significant economic sectors in the area,
employing the majority of the labor force (The Future of Saudi Cities, 2019. p.40).
6
According to the Najran University website, Najran University is the Kingdom's
most extensive university campus, covering 18 million square meters on the city's eastern
borders. The University involves male and female campuses. It has fifteen male
institutions, ten female institutions, and forty-five thousand pupils (Najran University).
The Administration of Faculty Members Affairs reports that 529 international contract
faculty members and 862 Saudi residents were employed in 2022 (Report of the
Deanship of Human Resources for the year 2022. p.17). The institution includes a
medical city, research center, sports and entertainment venues, faculty members, and
student housing (Najran University).
As for the local problems in the Najran Region, the Najran area faces several
unique challenges. First, Najran shares the hot, arid conditions of the rest of the Arabian
Peninsula with its desert environment. Rainfall occurs seldom and often as isolated,
moderate downpours. In addition, water shortages are a problem because the region relies
on underground aquifers (Najran). Second, the infiltration phenomenon across the
southern border with Yemen is unsettling to the locals living nearby because the
infiltrators engage in a wide range of criminal activities, comprising theft, assault, drug
smuggling, reconnaissance, and communicating the locations of strategic targets in the
Kingdom to the Houthis so they can launch attacks against them (AlShaiban, 2021).
Moreover, as shown in Figure 1, the map of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Najran
Region, is beside the borders with Yemen. In light of the ongoing Saudi-Yemeni conflict
that broke out in 2015, Saudi Arabia's southern frontier with Yemen remains its most
difficult border-related issue (Anishchenkova, 2020). Following the southern boundary
crisis between Saudi Arabia and Yemen and its effect on the Najran region, the higher
7
education institution shifted its focus to offering more online courses, particularly
theoretical ones. This was implemented to guarantee the security of its employers and
pupils (Nafie & Abdel Ghaffar, 2018). Last but not least, Najran University deals with its
experience during crises, beginning with its impact on the southern border crisis and
concluding with reflecting on the university's response to the Corona pandemic crisis.
COVID-19 and Higher Education Institutions
COVID-19 impacted public education and educational establishments at higher
levels as universities and colleges around the world and in the US; almost all switched to
distance or online learning simultaneously in March 2020. This happened so quickly and
on such a large scale that it had never happened before, leaving institutions’
administrators and directors, faculty, instructors, students, and staff without a
straightforward way to return to on-campus activity. In May 2020, the CDC advised how
colleges and universities should run during the 2020–2021 school year (Moreland et al.,
2023).
Islam et al. (2022) conclude that the latest COVID-19 epidemic has caused and
altered many significant systems in higher education, demanding safety and social
distance standards and switching from in-person to online instruction. Administrators
also devised methods to ensure the learning process continued without ministry
supervision and orders. All educators and administrators acknowledge the importance of
managing crises at universities and colleges.
The COVID-19 Crisis and Saudi Higher Education
According to Alshahrani (2021), Saudi Arabian Universities faced some
pandemics in the years before the COVID-19 epidemic, and the Ministry of Education of
8
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia spent numerous millions of dollars on IT infrastructure
upgrades. As a vital component concerning Vision 2030 of Saudi Arabia, the country's
public universities have modern infrastructure and installations to facilitate learning.
Most of Saudi Arabia's educational institutions have made significant investments in
various areas that facilitate digital transformation, such as digitizing learning materials,
endorsing mobile schooling, and creating platforms and portals for learning.
No school in the world could have prepared for the unexpectedness of COVID-
19. From the beginning of March 2020 until the conclusion of the Spring semester, which
typically finishes in mid-May, the Ministry of Education of Saudi Arabia appropriately
organized and choreographed the universities in light of the announced pandemic. There
was a need for universities to use a wide variety of facilitating instruction and acquiring
knowledge. The Ministry of Education declares that many resources were deployed due
to the COVID-19 epidemic. The Ministry of Education has also facilitated open access to
the mobile learning systems of all institutions throughout the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
(Alshahrani, 2021).
Higher Education Administrators’ Reaction
Higher education worldwide has been placed in disarray due to COVID-19’s
sudden and mandatory transition to online instruction. This has opened the door to
worldwide possibilities and obstacles (Badr & Elmaghraby, 2021).
According to Housel (2022), higher education administrators have transformed
traditional classroom teaching in educational institutions throughout the globe into a fully
online operation. Also, higher education administrators were responsible for ensuring that
all administrators, instructors, staff, and students had the resources they needed to ensure
9
a seamless shift to online education contexts that put the requirements of individual
learners first. More importantly, consistency and cohesiveness may be challenging to
achieve when teaching online, especially for teachers who have not had much experience
with educational technology, either as administrators or teachers.
The administrator of an academy plays a crucial role in delegating authority. The
administrator has the authority to form a leadership team composed of administrators and
educators, and these groups may be formed and dissolved at will to accommodate the
requirements of the academy and its current crisis. The academy leadership team is
responsible for guiding day-to-day operations, figuring out how to improve the
institution, and caring for instructors and students (Greatbatch & Tate, 2018; Wells,
2022).
Saudi's Higher Education Administrators’ Reaction
Regarding the Saudi Higher Education administrators' reaction, Al-Qahtani and
Al-Salem (2021) report that the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Education has released the
Operational Plan for Institutions of Higher Education to avoid COVID-19 in response to
these worldwide shifts. With this strategy, Saudi Higher education institutions will be
better equipped to handle the Covid-19 dilemma. The Ministry additionally stressed the
significance of taking action and coordinating with other organizations to finish an
emergency strategy for dealing with the epidemic within higher education institutions'
premises. In addition to conducting a comprehensive awareness and instructional strategy
for higher education institutions and society, the strategies emphasize establishing a
national plan to address the epidemic's medical and social components (Qahtani & Al-
Salem, 2021).
10
Al-Khathlan (2021) explained that the administrative services at Saudi Arabian
higher education institutions have been ground to a standstill since the onset of the
Coronavirus epidemic. Therefore, the need for "administrative process re-engineering"
(Al-Khathlan, 2021, p.2) is emphasized. The influences of COVID-19 on Saudi Arabia's
higher education institutions may be broken down into two categories: administrative
(management) and educational. Because of the increased use of distance education
platforms and learning administration systems, the effect of the Coronavirus on higher
education has been significantly mitigated. It takes careful preparation to fully utilize the
benefits of crisis management experts' past work. Institutions must completely restructure
their operations if they want to stay in business. It helps respond to emergencies, which
demands expert knowledge and hands-on experience. The most important abilities for
handling a crisis are successfully outlined. Capabilities in handling crises, crisis
benefiting, crisis monitoring, crisis recovery, and prevention of crises are all part of this
category (Al-Khathlan, 2021).
Statement of the Problem
The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted an extraordinary occurrence that has
taken place all over the world. It posed a significant risk to various domains, one of
which was the field of education in every region of the globe. This catastrophe was
perhaps the most difficult to affect humanity in recent history. There have been more than
a billion students across all nations of the world, including Saudi Arabia, which
suspended classes because of the COVID-19 epidemic. Moreover, the Saudi Ministry of
Education emphasized the significance of continuing academic learning from a distance
via technological methods such as online classes and meetings. The educational process
11
was also disrupted at several universities, which added to the overall difficulty (Al-
Otaibi, 2020; Manchini, 2020; Cipriani et al., 2021).
Remote communication and education patterns, which forced a new reality of
education on academic institutions, are some of the most observable effects of
technological improvement in education. For this reason, educational institutions would
need to alter their digital settings. Having the proper facilities, emergency plans, and
expertise to cope with emerging technologies is essential. Nonetheless, due to the COVID
conditions that everyone suffers from, especially in Saudi Arabia, maintaining
progression and communicating with the university community via the internet and the
means that support it was the only way the higher institutions and other organizations
used it for the continuity’s sake and sustainability. It takes extra time and money for the
administration to offer the resources needed to continue the educational process in higher
education and remote communication since it depends on prior experiences that most
students, professors, and administrators do not possess (Al-Shobaki, 2022; Mustafa,
2020; Yulia, 2020).
Wells (2022) depicted how involved parties in university education acted in such
dangerous altered environments via rules and procedures at the beginning of the outbreak
when emergency options were undertaken, as well as the subsequent effects necessary for
the establishment's survival. He also insisted on the importance of the administrators'
roles in any current crisis or future in decision-making and preparing the suitable process
for the working mechanisms of the higher education establishment. Moreover, the roles
of leadership, administrators, faculty members, and the rest of the evolving staff are all
connected, and no part exists without the other.
12
A crisis happens to any facility, and educational institutions are certainly part of
these facilities. Many crises have occurred during the past few years in many universities.
The crisis does not end here; it transcends other types of disaster, such as floods, wars, or
epidemics. One of its consequences is the disruption of educational sources and
resources. For leaders to contribute to the success of educational work and the
educational institution they run, they need to be familiar with the types of crises and
methods of managing them (Al-Qarni, 2012).
Different educational institutions have different ways of dealing with the crisis,
depending on the skills of the people in charge of those institutions. Also, among the
leaders, those who deal with the methods negatively, such as escaping from the crisis,
leave dealing with it and its effects altogether. They do not acknowledge their inability to
confront it, claiming that the reason is weakness in the performance of the rest of the
administration, employees, and faculty members (Al-Qarni, 2012).
The work team method involves everyone cooperating because each member has
a task to complete. The method of containing the crisis is to freeze it at the stage it has
reached and absorb the pressures that generate it (Al-Qarni, 2012).
Aqouni (2019) declares that managing and running a crisis is challenging. When
something occurs that the stakeholders do not anticipate from the leaders and those who
follow them, they question how to deal with the crisis and unplanned occurrences. It
might be claimed that no administration can be adequately examined outside of a crisis.
Management is the most essential resource in businesses or institutions, and there is no
substitute for the presence of skilled individuals with a high level of competence who can
act swiftly and efficiently to discover radical solutions to crisis-related issues. Moreover,
13
he assures that the leaders of the facility or organization must go directly to the
employees and provide them with a crisis plan, soliciting support for every one of them.
In addition, they must teach the employees alongside them to test the viability of the
proposed solutions so that the employees get used to dealing with crises as a routine
aspect of their jobs over time (Aqouni, 2019).
During a crisis, particularly in the Saudi education environment, it was
challenging to attend schools and universities to obtain an education, and the
accumulation of virus-spread problems and obstacles caused schools and universities to
close. In order to address these issues and surmount these obstacles, it was necessary to
utilize modern technology, which allowed for Internet-based education. But between the
occurrence of the crisis and the decision to quarantine, and then the decision to offer
online education, there were many gaps and the loss of some individuals, including
educational staff and students. It is evident that the crisis management was being poorly
managed, particularly its occurrence. After that, however, the Saudi government
endeavored to continue education outside of schools and universities. Instructors were
trained in using modern technology to teach across multiple platforms. The necessary
funds have been allocated to satisfy the e-learning requirements. Digital education is now
necessary, as it is indispensable in times of crisis and calamity (Al-Mikhlafi, 2022).
Mukhtar (2015) pointed out that these crises can be confronted and managed by
finding specific strategies for managing crises, planning to manage them scientifically,
and preparing well to avoid their occurrence. This is even though various administrative
organizations, including Saudi educational institutions, face various crises. In addition,
14
there is the possibility of lessening the amount of financial damage that may be incurred
by educational institutions.
Some Saudi universities can establish a systematic process before and during
crisis management, while others do not. This is a significant issue. Some universities in
Saudi Arabia handled the outbreak of COVID-19 successfully, whereas many others did
not. In addition, previous research on crisis management shows that different
administrators react in various ways. Attending conferences there allowed the researcher
to pinpoint the root of the problem, proving without a shadow of a doubt that certain
educational institutions can still not handle a crisis on their own and must rely on the
government for support. The suggested research shows a strong link between the crisis
(COVID-19) and the management of higher education institutions.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the proposed research is to identify the reality of managing the
COVID-19 crisis at Najran University in Saudi Arabia from the perspective of their
employees. Furthermore, it aims to present administrators’ and faculty’s perspectives on
COVID-19 crisis management to comprehend the lowest aspects of managing the
COVID-19 epidemic at academic institutions. Additionally, ascertain whether there are
statistically significant differences in the mean estimations of the research sample
regarding educational crisis management predicated on gender, job title, and experience.
Research Questions
This dissertation aimed to respond to this research inquiries:
1- What is the level of crisis management (COVID-19) at Najran University
from the perspective of faculty members and administrators?
15
2- What are the lowest levels of COVID-19 crisis management in Higher
education institutions?
3- Does demographic variables and crisis management differ during COVID-
19?
Significance of the Study
Attempting to shed light on the COVID-19 crisis, assisting several higher
education institutions. Moreover, educational literature will be enhanced with research on
the effect of the coronavirus outbreak on educational institutions and communications.
On top of that, this study is helpful for many educators, particularly administrators in
higher education, in preparing for potential crises in the future. Educational
administrators can also employ this study to learn why other institutions were ineffective
at crisis management and get suggestions for development and alternate strategies. The
research provides some answers and suggestions that educational decision-makers might
use to develop their systems and platforms to attain the intended outcome.
Limitations of the Study
Najran University is the Saudi university that was determined for this dissertation.
This institution is not among Saudi academic institutions' best or most representative.
Still, it is famous for its scientific quality and productivity. This higher education
institution is located in the Southwest of Saudi Arabia, where the weather is usually
unstable. Besides, they are near the borders, and they have some war crises that would be
suitable for crisis management of this study.
The study population will be those who work in higher education, namely within
government-funded universities, and those in charge of an academic rank are called
educators. They are later graded based on their scientific output for instructor, assistant
16
professor, associate professor, and professor positions. They are considered teaching staff
and all administrative employees of the Saudi University.
Delimitations of the Study
The limitations of this research are as follows:
1- Only faculty members and administrators of Najran University were employed
for the purpose of this research.
2. This research was only undertaken among faculty members and administrators
of Najran University in order to aid in the gathering of data. As a consequence, the
generalizability of the findings to the general populace may be limited.
3. Descriptive information was incorporated into the survey through random
sampling. Only employees who were present throughout COVID-19 pandemic were
assigned.
4. Descriptive statistics were used to compile our data from an online survey.
Theoretical Framework
The fact that crises arise and cause disruptions in daily life is common knowledge.
These crises are similar to intractable challenges in that they emerge out of the blue and
catch everyone off guard. They may not be physical or psychological emergencies but
social, environmental, economic, educational, or political emergencies that seem
intractable by conventional means. Concepts of susceptibility, risk, danger, inciting
event, progression, and the result are all brought within the crisis method. It doesn’t care
where the danger is coming from; thus, it may be used to address a wide range of
disasters, including tsunamis, hurricanes, flu epidemics, and the financial system's
collapse. It acknowledges the need for precaution and crisis management yet
17
acknowledges the inevitable occurrence of catastrophes. It stresses the need to be ready
for any emergency, no matter how little (Boin & ‘t Hart, 2007, p. 42).
In numerous recent research, terminology such as “crisis,” “disaster,” “danger
cause,” and “emergency” have been used interchangeably. Although it is feasible to
differentiate between them, they all highlight the need for confrontation and
management. The attention of the educational administration is focused on the influential
crises that have long-lasting impacts, particularly in the university setting. Thus, crisis
management theory, in the face of natural catastrophes, threats, environmental disasters,
and wars, signifies the impact and imbalance of university education regarding its
environment, education, communication, and productivity (Baghdadi, 2019).
This research examines the most significant theoretical components of crisis
management processes and the emergency situation in general. Testing the effectiveness
of management between administrators and workers and the efficacy of the numerous
gadgets utilized in the confrontation process while emphasizing the significance of sound,
scientific planning in advance for this procedure. Furthermore, this research guides that it
may be used entities to initiate crisis management in minimizing risks in Saudi higher
education institutions.
One of the most influential crisis theories, the crisis management theory, is the
SCCT situational crisis communication theory. Management of a crisis could be defined
as “a set of factors designed to combat crises and to lessen the actual damages inflicted”
(Coombs, 2007a: p. 5; 2007b: p.21).
Coombs (2007a; 2010;2015) and Benoit (1995) discussed the situational crisis
communication theory. The theory of communication during situational crises is a theory
18
that attempts to establish the most effective response approach to the circumstance
depending on how much the reputation of the organization has been damaged. According
to the stakeholders' perspectives, the strategies have been categorized into four categories
or stances (Coombs, 2007a,2013,2015; Benoit, 1995).
This theory frames the work environment in crisis times. The crisis is an adverse
and unexpected event with which stakeholders attribute accountability to the
establishment based on their feelings; therefore, the theory of communication during
situational crises determines the appropriate response strategy to the situation according
to the degree of threat to the organization’s reputation, and organizes response strategies
by defining the purpose of its use, whether it is the goal to alter public opinion towards
the crisis or the institution. According to stakeholder viewpoints, the strategies have been
categorized into four positions or groups (Coombs, 2007a,2013,2015).
The most important communication strategies can be classified as follows
(Coombs, 2007a; 2015):
1. The position of denial: the organization resorts to it when it is involved in a
crisis or when it is responsible for its occurrence, so it seeks to use the denial strategy to
break the organization's association with the disaster, and it includes attacking the
accused, denying, and scapegoating.
2. The position of minimization: The strategy of minimization efforts to cut down
the characteristics of administrative management and responsibility for the crisis or its
negative effects, including excuses or justifications.
3. A rebuilding situation: Rebuilding strategies work to improve the
organization’s reputation, whether through words or actions taken to benefit stakeholders,
19
compensate for the crisis's unfavorable consequences, and include the following:
compensation and apology.
4. Attitude of Reinforcement: These include reminding, flattering, or
communicating subtly with the victim as seen in Figure 2 (Coombs, 2007a; 2015).
Figure 2. SCCT The Four Crisis Strategies (Coombs, 2007a; 2015)
20
According to Brown (2014, p.22), organizations prioritize crisis management as
Coombs (2007b) listed five reasons why companies need good crisis management. First,
a good reputation in contemporary culture boosts public confidence in an organization.
Second, technology has transformed communication by connecting parties. Third,
interested parties are more vocal once a corporation fails to meet its objectives through a
breakdown. Fourth, interested parties define a crisis broadly. Organizations are riskier
because interested parties sense a crisis. Lastly, post-crisis management strategies are
now mandated by statute to handle all foreseen hazards (as mentioned by Brown, 2014,
p.22).
This dissertation's framework of SCCT communication during crisis situations
was established theoretically. This approach is founded on effective communication,
which is the art, skill, and science of communicating with the internal audience of the
organization. Before a crisis, one of the essential responsibilities of the institution is to
develop a positive image and reputation for the company, as well as strong connections
with its internal parties and later with the external public. Communication in crises is
mainly about supplying the parties to the crisis with information, data, and truthful, clear,
and accurate facts that advise, warn, educate, and make them aware of strategies for
overcoming obstacles, which is one of the most important ethics of management. Since
every one of them is an active party in these ties within the company and a collaborator in
deciding to address the situation (Abu Arqoub, 2020).
21
Consequently, the SCCT theory constitutes theoretical underpinnings for the
research that the researcher is doing. It provides the basis for comprehending and
selecting effective and appropriate reaction methods to the organization’s crises.
There are various entities that encounter the situation of crisis, dealing differently
based on various aspects. For instance, the National Crisis Management Core Manual, as
Francisco (2020) mentioned, the National Crisis Management Core Manual (NCMCM)
includes "five major components: Predict, Prevent, Prepare, Perform, and Post-Action
and Assessment" (Francisco, 2020). First, the Predict element involves generating
"foresight" and communicating warnings. The system monitors the surroundings for
possible and developing elements that might lead to a disaster. It creates scenarios and
alert items to assist decision-makers at both national and local levels. Second, the Prevent
element recommends taking intentional steps to prevent future damage by addressing its
root causes. Prevention is reducing the negative impacts if a certain incidence cannot be
avoided. Third, the Prepare element emphasizes developing and increasing skills,
including arranging, preparing, training, supplying, exercising, assessing, and enhancing.
These phases make up the "preparedness cycle." Fourth, the Perform phase involves
carrying out emergency or crisis response plans. The focus changes from improving
talents to preserving lives and safeguarding assets, among other things. Finally, the post-
Action and Assessment phase takes place following the crisis as the situation starts to
return to normal. This stage focuses on assessing activities and enhancing strategies for
prevention, anticipation, and execution.
Furthermore, Goodwin (2008) explaining the Federal Emergency Management
Agency (FEMA) provides access to national resources. FEMA coordinates the
22
government response to catastrophes in the U.S. using an all-hazards strategy. As FEMA
can carry out mitigation, response, and recovery operations because of the efforts made in
the last fifteen years. Before Hurricane Andrew, FEMA could handle the recovery
process but had limited assets to dedicate to response, much alone mitigation. As well
Goodwin (2008) assures that there are "several components makeup the framework of a
National Incident Management System (NIMS), they are: Command and management,
Preparedness, Resource management, Communications and information management,
Supporting technologies, Ongoing management, and maintenance (Goodwin, 2008;
p.63).
Moreover, effective communication is essential for every firm. Effective
communication is essential for carrying out the fundamental management processes of
planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. Management has a significant role in
recognizing possible crisis causes, planning, giving direction, making choices, and
managing emotions in high-pressure environments. Effective management relies on good
communication (Zakiri, 2020).
In addition, Duncan and Moriaty (1998) contend that communication is a human
endeavor that brings individuals together and establishes relationships between different
individuals. This indicates that people communicate with one another in order to form
relationships with one another. Without good communication, it is impossible to fulfill
the fundamental responsibilities of management, which include planning, organizing,
leading, and managing. The incapacity of managers in any business to organize a flawless
and smooth process of communication contact among workers during times of crisis may
have a negative impact on the organization (as mentioned in Zakiri, 2020).
23
There are different entities that engage differently, for instance. Dr. Al-Qanadili
(2015) assures that planning is essential to crisis management. A crisis cannot be handled
without organizational preparation. Also, crisis management elements include First,
Preemptive planning: In the event of a disaster, there is insufficient time to make
preparations. Organizations should possess a well-documented program to promptly hire
in times of crisis. Second, Organizational and communication: Prior to the occurrence of
a crisis, it is important to provide this essential information and make necessary
determinations, ensuring its inclusion in the crisis management strategy. The
organizational and communication hierarchy displays the key authorities accountable for
addressing the situation inside the company. Third, determining potential crises: An
effective crisis management plan should include several aspects, such as environmental,
technological, product, service, and financial concerns. The crisis management plan
should include techniques to handle each crisis throughout its different phases. Fourth,
Crisis prevention: involves the development of a comprehensive plan for crisis
management, which includes the implementation of various approaches aimed at
avoiding the occurrence of crises. Fifth, Supervision and regulation: System of checks
and balances: Utilize the facility's crisis management approach to guarantee adherence to
established rules when faced with inevitable situations. Sixth, Human and material
resources: Ensure that the crisis management procedure includes a comprehensive roster
of names and pertinent material information to provide quick and convenient access
during emergency situations. Finally, Evaluation: It is crucial to document and
analytically review incidents in order to have a successful crisis management plan. The
evaluation component evaluates the progression of deteriorating conditions, the
24
subsequent remedial measures, and potential strategies for enhancing situations to avert
future crises (Al-Qanadili, 2015).
Definition of Terms
A crisis is a condition of imbalance and upheaval that causes a disturbance in the
everyday routine of institutions, prevents the focus of their personnel from carrying out
their work, threatens the institution's continued existence and capacity to fulfill their
goals, and necessitates prompt action. A variety of terminologies were used in this study.
The terms are crisis, crisis management, COVID-19, and institution of higher education.
First, the meaning of crisis as Mitroff (2004) and Mitroff and Anagnos (2001) define it:
A crisis is an event that affects or has the potential to affect the whole
organization. If something affects only a small part of an organization, it may not
be a crisis. In order for a crisis to result, it must exact a major toll on the lives,
property, financial earnings, reputation, and general well-being of an
organization. (Mitroff, 2004, p. 63; Mitroff & Anagnos, 2001, p. 34-35)
Roher and Warner (2006) define a crisis as a one-of-a-kind occurrence that might
majorly affect regular business procedures. A crisis might be anything from a prolonged
power outage to a catastrophic disaster or a mass massacre (Roher & Warner, 2006, p.
31). As well, Fink (1986) defines it as:
An unstable time or state of affairs in which a decisive change is impending either
one with the distinct possibility of a highly undesirable outcome or one with the
distinct possibility of a highly desirable and extremely positive outcome. (Fink,
1986, p.15)
25
The definition of crisis management is a situational administrative strategy for
dealing with crises, preparing for them, and planning to address and resolve them in
educational establishments; a technique based on effective forecasting, defining tasks,
and swift action that accompanies the phases of crisis occurrence (Derbas, 2012: p. 34).
Also, Martinet and Kreysa (2007) define crisis management as preparing for and
planning to find potential problems early, preventing them when necessary, or dealing
with existing problems in a way that leads to the desired results.
Good crisis management can be defined as the collection of actions taken in
response by administrators to a crisis to reduce its severity (Boin et al., 2013). In general,
it can be stated that it is the science and practice of preventing, mitigating, and/or
recovering the institution from emergencies and disasters by identifying risk factors,
preparing for and responding to crises, maximizing the effectiveness of decision-making
in the face of adversity, and limiting damage.
COVID-19 is a large category of possible viral infections in various human
illnesses, starting with the typical cold and progressing to acute severe respiratory
syndrome. This category of viruses also causes various animal diseases (Al-Arifan, 2021;
CDC, 2019; World Health Organization, 2020).
The meaning of the term institution of higher education is as follows:
Provides an educational program for which it awards a bachelor’s or higher
degree, or provides a program which is acceptable for full credit toward such a
degree, or offers a program of training to prepare students for gainful employment
in a recognized occupation. (Ch 291 WASHINGTON LAWS, 1977 1st Ex. Sess.
p.1053)
26
Saudi Arabia is commonly known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the biggest
nation in the Middle East and Southeast Asia. Through such a geographical size of
around 2,250,000 square kilometers, the majority of which is desert and enormous oil
deposits buried deep below, Saudi Arabia is a country of great strategic importance. The
oil market and its price have an enormous influence on the Saudi economy (Walston et
al., 2008).
General Methodology
Effectively study employees' perceptions of crisis management and the influence
of COVID-19 at Najran University in Saudi Arabian. This means covering the following:
Planning for Crisis Management (PCM), Communication in Crisis Management (CCM),
Information in Crisis Management (INFO), Material and Human Resources in Crisis
Management (MHR), and Involvement in Crisis Management (INV).
The method that has been used is quantitative research utilizing the descriptive-
analytical approach. The research instrument will be a descriptive (survey) questionnaire.
The study has been done by distributing questionnaires online. As regards the population,
there are faculty members and administrators at Najran Higher Education Institution. The
sample was selected randomly from all departments' academic faculty members and
administrative staff categories.
The questionnaire survey used in this research was divided into five portions:
Planning for Crisis Management (PCM), Communication in Crisis Management (CCM),
Information in Crisis Management (INFO), Material and Human Resources in Crisis
Management (MHR), and Involvement in Crisis Management (INV). To address the
study questions, descriptive statistics were employed to examine the data using SPSS.
27
Organization of the Chapters
The necessity has been presented for more research on the interaction and
relationship of administrators, staff, and faculty members in higher education regarding
crisis management during COVID-19. The institution’s success depends on how well
they work together in times of trouble.
Chapter Two, a literature review, discusses these topics; modern crises, crisis
theory (which is crisis theories history, the new theoretical support), management of
epidemics and crisis, the crisis of COVID-19, infectious pandemics of crisis management
in the university sector, then, leadership in managing crisis, challenges facing leaders in
the management of the crisis, leaders and practice management of the crisis, leaders and
dealing with the management of the crisis, leaders and management of the crisis strategy,
leaders and crisis management planning, the covid-19 and its impact on education, the
crisis in educators and educational procedures, educational instructors and crisis,
educational processes, and crisis. Then, the conceptual framework.
Chapter Three, Study Methodology, discusses the study population, sample, tool,
the tool's validity, the stability of the questionnaire, the statistical treatment methods, and
the study outcomes. Chapter Four is about data analysis and the study results. Lastly,
Chapter Five discusses the summary, conclusions, implications, and recommendations.
Summary
Chapter One discusses the introduction, which covers the Worldwide Crisis and
Education, COVID-19 and Institutions of Higher Education, and Higher Education
Administrators’ Reaction. After that, the statement of the problem is basically about how
the COVID-19 epidemic crisis has impacted Najran University in Saudi Arabia. The
28
purpose of this study is to see how the employees of Najran University Saudi Arabian
manage the COVID-19 epidemic. Research questions have three main questions. The
study seeks to illuminate the epidemic of COVID-19 affecting various institutions of
higher education. The study’s limitations and delimitations. The term’s definition is a
crisis, crisis management, COVID-19, and institution of higher education. Then, a
general methodology is used in quantitative research utilizing the descriptive-analytical
approach (survey). Moreover, the theoretical framework uses the Coombs (2007a, 2007b,
2010, 2015) approach (SCCT, which is the situational crisis communication theory).
Finally, at the end of Chapter One is the organization of the chapters.
29
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Modern Crises
The contemporary world is witnessing a series of crises and events characterized
by diversity, speed, and the element of surprise, as the fields of administrative and
economic life are filled with successive crises that stand in the way of the growth and
progress of individuals and societies. Thus, a crisis has an inherent nature in life; as
Khudairi (2003) puts it,
We are a part of a world of crises, and it is a part of us, and our consciousness,
thought, and management of these crises must be more present so we can
influence their course, avoid risks, and reap the positives. Therefore, crises
represent the landmarks of the path through which humanity has traveled and built
its civilizations. Not all crises were terrible evils; rather, they were motives for a
scientific and intellectual renaissance, which enriched human knowledge and
helped in its development. (p. 264)
This research aims to investigate how educational institutions deal with the
COVID-19 epidemic from the viewpoint of their personnel and to identify the difficulties
that prevent the adoption of crisis management of COVID-19. The objective of Chapter 2
is to provide a thorough review and discussion of seven distinct issues in COVID-19
crisis management in higher education. The first will start with a discussion of crises in
the modern world. Then, there is a brief historical overview of crisis management as an
30
establishment of old and current theories. After that, epidemics, the crisis management,
and the emerging COVID-19 crisis. Also, the emerging pandemic of crisis management
is related to higher education. Furthermore, leadership and crisis management involves
challenges, practice, dealing, strategy, and planning, as well as an overview of how the
crisis of COVID-19 affected and impacted the institutions of education. Lastly, discuss
how crises impact educators and educational procedures.
Crisis Theory
Crisis Theories History
Numerous academics have concluded that crisis management is both the science
and the art of regulating balances, reacting to many variables, and analyzing the effects of
these factors in all aspects of society. As one of the more prominent occurrences in
management science, crisis management has been the subject of research in many
different studies.
For instance, in the development of crisis theories of Shaikh’s (1978) study, when
used in this context, the word “crisis” often refers to a standardized collection of failures
in the political and economic relationships of capitalist reproduction. Specifically, the
kind of crises they want to investigate are ones the system causes for itself by acting
under its operating principles. It is inherent in the nature of capitalist production to be
perpetually subjected to a wide range of dislocations and disruptions that are created both
internally and externally. This cannot be changed, but these “shocks” can only bring
about global catastrophes at specified times. If the system is robust, it can quickly recover
from almost any setback; however, if it is ill, its demise might be brought on by virtually
anything (Shaikh, 1978).
31
Moreover, Lindemann’s groundbreaking work from 1944 and Gerald Caplan’s
subsequent contributions from 1961 and 1964 provided a solid theoretical framework for
crises and crisis therapy. To enhance and improve the existing body of knowledge,
succeeding researchers and doctors expanded on the previous foundation by relying on
pertinent psychological and social ideas (Black et al., 2020).
As James and Gilliland (2016) point out, anyone can experience transient
pathological symptoms during a crisis; hence, it is essential to consider a diverse set of
factors, including those related to an individual’s development, psyche, society,
environment, and the specifics of the crisis itself. The ideas are based on contributions
from adaptational, psychoanalysis, interpersonal, chaotic, and systems theories. They
represent the framework of extended crisis theory (James and Gilliland, 2016, as
mentioned in Black et al., 2020).
Hitchcock et al. (2021) state that when educating in a crisis, some theories may
assist instructors in analyzing the requirements of students and staff in the present and
over time, particularly for a crisis that impacts the whole community. This
comprehension is a crucial first step in applying trauma-informed teaching practices in
online classrooms. Regardless, according to Aldwin’s (2009) theory of fear and stress,
emergency circumstances brought on by environmental or technological catastrophes,
also known as focused stressful events, occur suddenly and pose a substantial risk to
individuals’ mental and physical well-being. Personal control in these circumstances is
quite limited (as mentioned in Lovrić et al., 2020). On the other hand, Maslow’s (1943)
theory of needs hierarchy provides a means for social work instructors to comprehend
how pupils may react to the COVID-19 epidemic. Most people focus on fundamental
32
physiological and safety concerns in the first weeks of a crisis. This contained personal
protection equipment and other resources for the COVID-19 epidemic. Economic, ethnic,
and health inequities also influence fundamental needs. After addressing fundamental
requirements, people meet psychological wants like belonging, love, and respect. For
instance, students transitioning from in-person to online classes may feel less engaged
with their classmates, alienated from their university community, and seek methods to
interact remotely. Academic achievement and receiving a college degree are linked to
esteem demands of feeling an achievement or prestige; however, COVID-19
interruptions may decrease students’ capacity and motivation to engage with course
material since they focus on more fundamental needs (Hitchcock et al., 2021).
The New Theoretical Support
In light of the theoretical background, the purposes of Nasser’s (2003) study
demonstrate managing crises that considered modern/contemporary trends in the science
and discipline of management techniques, approaches, and methods. The researcher
discussed the following subjects: the origin of the philosophical academic recognized as
managing the crisis, the idea of a crisis, its characteristics, causes, types, and life cycle. In
addition, it suggested the following courses of action: Research and studies associated
with crisis management in Kuwait are receiving greater attention and care, whether
directed by the high authority or the Higher Education Ministry. Additionally, it
suggested the formation of administrative departments specifically for crisis
management.
Accordingly, AlZaki’s (2012), Alghafary et al. (2021), and Abu Aliwa’s (2021)
studies agree that crisis management is a branch of public administration used to deal
33
with these crises and is concerned with managing balances of power and monitoring their
movements and trends. Hence, it has also been recognized as one of the essential future
sciences and disciplines, concentrating on adjusting to unexpected crises and mishaps and
achieving direct effects in human sectors, regardless of whether they are political,
industrial, social, or spiritual. When multiple factors working on the world, national,
regional, and local scales converge, knowledge of crisis management may be seen as a
branch of contemporary sciences that has grown in importance. The crisis management
method can be used in education, especially since the aspects of the crisis in education
are multiple and require powerful and successful solutions as a necessary condition to
enable it to affect the formation of the citizen positively. It follows and obeys innovation
and creativity (AlZaki, 2012; Alghafary et al., 2021; and Abu Aliwa, 2021).
Al-Mousa’s (2006) study also intended to distinguish the theoretical foundations
of handling and managing a crisis in light of contemporary administrative thought and
crisis management in the real world in public education schools in Riyadh. The study
found that student conflicts are the most common source of crises in Riyadh’s public
schools, whereas terrorism is the least common. As for Al-Mousa’s (2006)
recommendations, the proposed vision was adopted in public education schools to
address the weaknesses and shortcomings in facing the crises that occur in schools and to
assist in providing a safe and positive educational environment that encourages students
to learn in a constructive manner, which is the primary function of schools.
Based on these perspectives, crisis management is integral to every management
plan. Predicting future crises and monitoring environmental, local, and security variables
that generate disasters are essential for the survival of the educational institution, as is the
34
management of internal and external disasters and crises, in addition to structuring
resources to enable their most productive usage in crisis avoidance and management. To
minimize interruptions to the educational process and keep all parties connected as much
as feasible. Also, regulating administration to ensure courses continue by applying safety
measures that do not negatively impact the academy’s budget or reputation. This
interruption of the educational procedure emphasizes the necessity of clarity for all
involved in the learning process and its problems in times of predicament to finding
solutions to switch from in-person or face-to-face to meetings and courses via the internet
(Bozkurt et al., 2020).
In considering the rapid and successive effects that the outbreak of the global
epidemic had on all society and education, Al-Asmai (2020) believes it is necessary to
seek out a new theory for management in educational institutions to address this
catastrophe. He advocates dubbing it the modern idea of coronavirus pandemic
management. This includes the primary management operations of planning,
coordination, guidance, follow-up, and feedback by building models and providing
examples; the distribution of the scope of authority among all partners, including parents,
teachers, and school principals; and partnership with officials from all regional, local, and
national authorities. They are all responsible for ensuring effectiveness in the school’s
crisis management planning and decision-making processes. It is essential to underline
that these models are constructed employing an information system that must be
accessible to educational institutions, higher management departments, and the Education
Ministry to increase consciousness in the academic community as a whole (Schleicher,
2020; Schleicher et al., 2020).
35
The philosophy of the new management theory of the coronavirus epidemic was
based on four topics: pandemic management personnel and the scope of their powers, as
well as several principles, such as conscious leadership in crisis management, imagining
alternatives to confronting this pandemic, cooperation in implementing simulation
models, and continuous training. Accordingly, Al-Asmai (2020) presented a set of
recommendations, including the following: Educational institutions should consider
launching a unit to manage the coronavirus within each school system so that it is
accountable for supplying the required details regarding this disease outbreak. A guide or
directory must also be created and distributed to all educational institutions to avoid this
virus infection. This guide should also be made available to all members of educational
institutions. Methods of transmission, symptoms, and procedures for persons suspected of
contracting this virus are described (Al-Asmai, 2020).
Management of Epidemics and Crisis
As a foreword to crisis and pandemic management, according to the availability
of educational plans to support those plans, Pustjens (2020) asserts that crises can take
various forms. Every emergency is different and requires a tailored response from the
authorities. A terrorist attack is not the same as a health crisis like an epidemic or
pandemic. Similarly, a financial crisis is not the same as a natural disaster like an
earthquake, hurricane, or flood. Nevertheless, there are commonalities among crises and
the responses to them that are appropriate. As a result of the novel and new Coronavirus
epidemic, politicians on various levels face issues. These challenges include restricting
the spread of infection, taking the Universal health care guidelines, monitoring the
involved community, and providing facilities to local communities (Occupational safety
and health administration, 2020). Assisting neighborhood companies and residents who
36
are at threat of losing their jobs and experiencing financial instability, all of which comes
on top of a general decline in government revenues and increased economic strain
(Pustjens, 2020).
The crisis of COVID-19
The World Health Organization has announced and warned about the universal
crisis status and the new coronavirus disease Coronavirus outbreak, which significantly
influences people’s lives, families, and societies. As international response efforts
continue to evolve, they recognize that organizations face daunting challenges that
require a rapid response on their part. They are working closely with many organizations
around the world to help them prepare for and respond to this pandemic by sharing their
experience working with companies, governments, regulators, non-governmental
organizations, and international organizations around the world in response to many
major disease outbreaks, including Ebola virus and H5N1, MERS, and SARS
(Abdurahiman et al., 2020).
Infectious Pandemics of Crisis Management in the
University Sector
Igrirah and Alafaid (2020) assure that Higher education is widely recognized as a
critical pillar in the pursuit of economic and social progress due to its significant
contribution, in a variety of ways, to the enhancement of fundamental inputs for
industrial and service processes, as well as its actions in addressing issues of insecurity,
unemployment, and crime. Their study enhances the discourse on crisis management in
the Libyan context and fills a knowledge void, as research examining this subject
concerning tertiary education in Libya is exceedingly scarce. Igrirah and Alafaid’s (2020)
research aims to investigate and ascertain the actual state of crisis management in Libyan
37
educational institutions of higher learning. They used a descriptive and analytical
methodology to examine crisis management in Libyan higher education institutions.
Their result showed that, regarding gender, there is no statistically significant difference
in crisis management aspects between females and males across all aspects of crisis
management techniques, including planning, decision-making, communication, and
information.
Furthermore, the outcomes of an analysis examining the distinctions among study
participants concerning crisis management practices and their facets at Sebha University
are contingent on the job category (academic or administrative). There are no statistically
significant differences between Sebha University administrators and academics regarding
crisis management practices' information, communication, planning, and decision-
making aspects. Also, the years of experience variable does not result in any statistically
significant differences in crisis management procedures and their aspects, as perceived by
the sample members (Igrirah & Alafaid, 2020).
As an overview of the epidemic of crisis management in universities, Al-Arifan’s
(2021) study reveals the difficulties that higher education institutions face in
accomplishing their goals and putting their ideals and ambitions into action. The most
significant obstacle is concentrated on the efficacy of the educational system and the
educational procedures across nations with differing philosophies and teachings. The
appearance of the emerging virus Covid-19 directed the change of numerous educational
strategies locally, nationally, and universally, which requires a fresh crisis management
approach through educational management and facilities and educational strategies to
help them (Al-Arifan, 2021).
38
Leadership in Managing Crisis
Challenges Facing Leaders in Crisis Management
The coronavirus epidemic has challenged leaders. In addition to the alarm
produced by the “Covid-19” virus’s human toll, its exponential proliferation and
unpredictability provide a problem for leaders. The virus outbreak has revealed a lack of
organizational regulation, social confusion, uncertainty about the future and how best to
prepare, and mental despair from overthinking the problems (Leonard & Howitt, 2007).
Moreover, the organization’s leaders have then had to realize that the company is in a
crisis. This is the first step, but it is challenging, particularly at the outset of crises that do
not emerge abruptly but rather explode due to the aggravation of familiar situations that
disguise their character. In other words, this is the first step, but it is a difficult step
(Tourish, 2020).
A hypothesis was made by Batayneh (2021) that secondary school administrators
in Koura face challenges and have to deal with educational difficulties and disasters. The
survey found that Koura Region secondary school administrators face instructional issues
in crisis that occurred on an overall average of 3.75 out of 5. There are a high number of
challenges facing school principals in confronting and managing crises. The researcher
claimed problems should be avoided and tried to be solved by forming partnerships with
the relevant sectors and learning from what developed countries have done to handle
educational crises well. In the same way, people need to plan ahead for educational crises
and keep up with changes in technology that help them deal with crises well.
The global pandemic which caused by the Coronavirus is serving as a litmus test
for leaders who run organizations in a wide variety of fields all across the globe. Its
repercussions may continue for an extended time frame and provide challenges beyond
39
anyone’s expectations or imagination. In this time of crisis, long periods of confusion and
ambiguity make it essential for leaders to stick to their plans and approaches. Accepting it
may help strengthen actions and ideas that maintain their organizations and communities
through the epidemic, irrespective of how long it persists, and also develop the necessary
skills for the future (Doria and de Smit, 2020).
By conducting field trips and interviews with administrative officials at the
institution, Baghraib and Al-Nakhai (2021) observed a range of crises that differed in
intensity, frequency, and outcomes. This may be attributed to the disparities in
economics, politics, society, and cultural aspects of the surrounding environment,
particularly in recent years. The lack of preparedness and prevention among university
administrative leaders has had a detrimental impact on their ability to handle crises
effectively. This is evident in their tendency to either deny the existence of crises or
attempt to minimize the resulting losses. To successfully manage such crises, university
administrative leaders must possess the necessary skills and stay proactive in anticipating
and addressing them. The organization employs methodical methodologies and processes
to accomplish its objectives and ensure its long-term existence. Proficiency in crisis
management is crucial, and each skill varies in its approach to addressing the problem.
Their study aimed to ascertain the degree to which individuals in administrative
leadership positions at the University of Aden practice crisis management.
Baghraib and Al-Nakhai’s (2021) research yielded several findings, the first of
which was that the degree of proficiency in crisis management skills was average across
all domains (which involve negotiation, planning, creative thinking, communication, and
problem-solving). Also, in every field of the skills, including planning and
40
communicating, statistically significant differences can be linked to gender (more men
than women) and job title (more university administrators than other job titles).
Regarding the years of experience variable, no statistically significant differences exist in
any discipline, including planning and communication. Regarding the outcomes of the
gender variable, there were statistically significant differences among the average values
of the sample's replies in all skills and the overall tool. The gender variable significantly
influenced the opinions of the sample, with a clear bias towards males. Specifically,
males exhibited higher average scores in planning skills, with a difference of 0.98, and in
communication abilities, with a difference of 0.7. Concerning the outcomes of the job
title variable, there are statistically significant differences among the mean values of the
sample’s responses in every skill and in the overall tool. This is because the researchers
used a significance level of (α = 0.05). The administrators at the institution had a higher
average score of 5.00 in each skill and the overall tool, compared to other positions, with
a difference of 2.04. Concerning the findings of the factors measuring years of
experience, there were no statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the
sample’s responses across every skill and the overall tool. The tool itself had a
significance level of (0.750), which is higher than the study’s level (0.05). This indicates
that the sample’s perspectives on crisis skills are not influenced by years of experience
(Baghraib and Al-Nakhai, 2021).
Leaders and Practice Crisis Management
Al-Taie’s (2021) study reported in the comprehensive international conference
regarding the practice of crisis management that the speed of the transition to a remote
work response contradicts the perception that changes in public institutions are happening
41
at a slow pace, as the rapid response of many public institutions in the majority of
countries that were exposed to the COVID-19 crisis was facilitated by the existence of
actual systems of joint leadership that were able to make local decisions. Especially
institutions that run a model of joint leadership that is based to a large extent on
flexibility, innovation, and cooperation, but it faces complexities and uncertainties in the
scope of crises such as the comprehensive Corona pandemic crisis, which necessitated
dealing with problems at the time of their occurrence, and then placing institutions in an
inappropriate strategic position. The change in work methods forced many workers to
perform their work, which made them feel nervous, uncertain, and even fearful of their
new reality with the change of many work procedures and the prevalence of flexibility
and adaptation in leadership practices (Kezar & Holcombe, 2017).
Al-Yahawi’s (2006) research is an example of the challenges of such a procedure,
particularly at the outset of crises in which problems don’t reveal themselves
immediately. Al-Yahawi (2006) intended to determine how much managers (crisis team
leaders) practice crisis management operations. All participants were included in the
research sample, including principals, vice principals, administrators, and teachers who
make up the school crisis team. The study’s main findings were the members of the study
sample believe that directors practice crisis management operations to a moderate degree.
The failure of school administrators to utilize contemporary administrative ideas
can be ascribed to the lack of proficiency of teachers in crisis management and online
learning. Modern administrative theories combine the positive elements of traditional
theories represented by the personal characteristics of the leader with subordinates, the
structure of the tasks assigned to the subordinates, the degree of their clarity, and the
42
leader’s strength to reach a modern concept that enables leadership to respond to and
confront the challenges of the times and to advance the school with all of its elements,
such as transformational leadership. Transformational leadership is a new idea that
enables leadership to respond to and tackle current difficulties and improve the school in
all its aspects (Qarwani, 2017).
Al-Ghamdi (2021) and Abdullah et al. (2016) found that the school principal’s
use of transformational leadership in school management empowered teachers to fulfill
their roles and responsibilities effectively in their job performance. It also strengthened
their morale, increased job satisfaction and effectiveness, and developed instructors’
entrepreneurial spirit, positively impacting their job performance. Furthermore, Al-
Momani (2022) related the experience of Jordanian public universities from the
standpoint of academic authorities, which indicated that the actuality of the management
of the crisis at Jordanian public institutions was modest in all domains (pre-crisis
management, dealing with crises, and university readiness to manage crises). According
to the study’s findings, there are significant statistical discrepancies in the estimations of
persons based on their job titles in favor of department heads, as well as enhancing
university infrastructure and ensuring crisis management preparation.
Hussein and Rateel’s (2016) study attempted to evaluate the degree to which high
school managers in Aden Governorate used crisis management practices. This research
aimed to ascertain significant differences in the sample’s assessments of the extent to
which high school administrators engage in crisis management based on aspects of
gender, years of experience, and academic degree. The researcher used a descriptive
methodology. The study findings indicated the degree to which secondary school
43
principals handle crises practice was moderate. Besides, there were no statistically
significant differences in the estimates of the management of crisis practice among the
research sample depending on gender, academic credentials, and years of professional
experience (Hussein & Al-Rateel, 2016).
Mohammed et al. (2021), in their study titled “The Reality of Applying Crisis
Management Methods for Workers in Service Institutions in Light of COVID-19”
(Mohammed et al., 2021, p. 16), found that the application of teaching techniques for
handling emergencies (like COVID-19) to those who work in critical service industries,
predicting them in advance, avoids significant disasters. They concluded that workers
must be trained to face crises through workshops in the field to know how and what to do
during their occurrence. In addition, they assert that crisis management methods are
applied with a very weak to non-existent percentage in the service institutions represented
in the Alreaadhiy Markeb of the state of Souk Ahras since the workers have no
knowledge or concepts about crisis management.
Leaders and Dealing with Crisis Management
Moreover, Aljarab’ah (2021) aimed to explore the challenges and obstacles that
confronted school administrators when dealing with the Coronavirus. The study’s results
showed that the widespread coronavirus outbreak presented challenges for school
administrators in Jordan to handle any problems that may arise. The overall average was
3.78 out of 5, the difficulty level was high, and there were no discernible differences
among the schools. There were no substantial differences statistically at the level of
significance (0.05 ≥ 𝛼), especially investment strategies for educational crises (0.05 ≥ 𝛼)
to successfully address crises. The researcher concluded that they should take advantage
44
of what developed countries have learned about handling educational crises well and the
need to plan and stay up-to-date on technological changes that help deal with them well
(Aljarab’ah, 2021).
In the study conducted by Al-Widyan (2021), a descriptive survey approach is
used to examine the challenges faced by school leaders in crisis management and their
ability to anticipate future situations related to such crises. The research found that the
leaders' proficiency in crisis management within the present circumstances and their
ability to predict potential emergencies was lacking. However, their performance in crisis
management in their current circumstances was very favorable. As in Al-Widyan's (2021)
research, there were no statistically significant differences (α=0.05) that may be
connected to the influence of gender on the current condition of educational leadership in
crisis and disaster management and its predicted future.
Abdel-Al’s (2009) research aimed to determine precisely how public school
administrators handle crisis management and how that relates to strategic planning. The
impact of gender, years of experience, educational attainment, level, and educational
district on the implementation of crisis management and strategic planning techniques by
administrators of government schools. The research employed the descriptive-analytic
approach, in which 355 principals of public institutions in the Gaza Governorate were
surveyed via questionnaire. The study’s findings indicate a direct relationship between
crisis management approaches (confrontation, collaboration, and containment) and
strategic planning and an inverse relationship between escape techniques and strategic
planning. Besides, there are no statistically significant differences among the average
estimates of government school leaders in the Gaza province regarding the extent of their
45
strategic planning practices considering the factors of gender, academic standing, years of
service, educational level, and educational region (Abdel-Al, 2009).
It is not just difficult to deal with the COVID-19 crisis at schools; it is also, as Al
Madawi and Badawi (2021) claimed, that there is a link between psychological stress and
pandemic crisis management among academic leaders at the University of King Khalid.
Lastly, they conclude that there is a need to teach academic leaders how to deal with
crises by making clear rules for handling them and regularly holding training sessions in
crisis management.
Moreover, Al-Shamrani’s and Al-Sharida’s (2004) study results indicate a high
level of response for workers and administrators in dealing with crises by using the five-
phase processes arranged in order of importance: learning, preparedness, prevention,
restoring activity, and containing the damage. The humanity and technology facing them
are average, and their response is low towards the ability to control and control
organizational obstacles. The researcher recommended several commandments regarding
the training and qualification of administrative workers who can predict and discover
alarm signals, focusing on information and communication systems and conducting more
field studies.
Leaders and Crisis Management Strategy
During times of crisis, leaders are not required to adopt a response plan
established in advance. Instead, individuals need to cultivate the behaviors, mentalities,
and strategies that will keep them from overreacting to past events and assist them in
looking forward to the future, such as Al-Mawadiah and Al-Zu’bi’s (2021) study, which
examined how Jordanian kindergarten directors handled the COVID-19 crisis and their
46
opinions on distance learning. The essential thing that came out of their study was that
they didn’t use crisis management very much in their administrative work. Also, the
results of their study showed that people didn’t like the idea of distance learning. They
concluded that training kindergarten directors to manage educational crises is necessary
based on the most prominent aspects of crisis management: planning, communication,
information, and making decisions.
Using a survey covering the entire Al-Balqa Applied University, Abdelrahman
(2018) discovered that the situation regarding crisis management at Balqa Applied
University was “average,” with a mean score of 3.38 out of 5. There were deviations
from the norm that were statistically significant (05.0) among those with fewer than five
years of experience and with eleventh or more years of experience, and those with 11
years of experience were favored. Also, no statistically significant difference (α = 0.05) is
attributed to gender. This study concluded by mentioning that crisis management ensures
higher education institutions’ survival, continuity, and growth. Faculty must be involved
in creating and implementing crisis management strategies. Motivate them to handle
crises and make quick decisions with a flexible network, collect data for disaster
prediction, and improve university performance and crisis management.
Leaders and Crisis Management Planning
Regarding procedures and crises, Samataha & Al-Khaddam (2016) state that
recent years have witnessed the implementation of strategic planning in crisis
management, which represents a modern administrative mode matters that organizations
must embrace and implement in their administrative endeavors if they are to accomplish
the objectives they were founded to accomplish in light of the crises to which every
47
category of organizations are exposed. Samataha and Al-Khaddam’s (2016) study was to
ascertain the techniques used in the association between strategic planning and crisis
management in the Jordanian Ministry of the Interior. Also, the research aims to assess
the extent to which strategic planning procedures are implemented within the Jordanian
Ministry of Interior, as seen by the administrators employed in the organization.
Additionally, it elucidates the influence of each research factor (gender,
educational qualification, years of service) on the strategic planning procedures within
the Jordanian Ministry of Interior, as seen by the administrators employed in that
organization. Researchers revealed a notable level of enthusiasm among the
administrative personnel of the Department of the Interior in the techniques used for
crisis management, as well as an exclusive approach to containment. The data study
results show the computed value (T=1.13) is less than the tabular value (T=1.96) for the
variable (gender). This suggests that statistically significant disparities are associated
with the gender factor (men and females), with males having an advantage over females.
While the calculated (F=1.312) is less than the tabulated (F=3.01) for the variable (years
of professional experience), the variable of years of professional experience does not
provide any statistically significant differences at a significance level (α=0.05). The
researchers credit this to the Jordanian Ministry of Interior’s commitment to
implementing strategic planning procedures for all personnel, irrespective of their length
of service, regardless of whether it is less than five years or exceeds 15 years (Samataha
& Al-Khaddam, 2016).
It appears that crisis management should be examined continuously, according to
Al-Qahtani (2019). It includes regularly training the crisis management team and
48
strengthening communications between schools and other community institutions when
crises occur. Since the researcher’s results showed that the things that secondary school
leaders did for girls in crisis management were about average, the results indicated that,
aside from the issue of leadership in crises, the research participants’ replies were not
significantly different depending on education, years of experience, or crisis management
training. This was influenced by the school leaders’ practices in the city of Abha for
addressing emergencies.
The suggestions of Hussain’s (2014) research showed that most educational
institutions’ strategic plans included conflict resolution and crisis communication; just a
few schools did not. All institutions of higher learning ought to comply with this standard
and really ought to have a risk policy. Public relations and communication must be
included. Hazards are recognized and prepared for through the process of strategic issue
management. Problem management ought to be prioritized at educational institutions of
higher learning, and these institutions should incorporate this responsibility into their risk
policy. The majority of emergency response teams include key stakeholders, which is
advantageous. This should be the top priority for senior management to minimize
financial damage. In addition to that, educate these members. Communication during a
crisis can be made more difficult by factors such as a large staff or student population,
many campuses, and legal and health problems. These issues call for a plan of action to
be developed. Enhanced interactions and social communication will reduce uncertainty
and promote clarity (Chen et al., 2019; Van Der Bles et al., 2020). As asserted by
AlGahtani et al.'s (2022) study, it is mainly about pinpointing demographic,
socioeconomic, and occupational traits for efficient catastrophe risk mitigation (COVID-
49
19), as well as seeks to determine the influence of organizational, technical, coordination,
individuals and surroundings on Saudi Arabia's preparedness for handling emergencies
and natural catastrophes. As Drzewiecki (2020) assures that further education makes
people more adaptable, the study reveals that KSA workers' brief disaster risk
management training affects all four disaster management phases. Disaster risk
management-related education for emergency response workers may improve
organizational readiness. This is anticipated, and the KSA research supports disaster
response organizations investing in staff education (as mentioned in AlGahtani et al.,
2022). AlGahtani et al. (2022) research conducted in Saudi Arabia did not recognize any
statistically significant differences in the effect of educational specialization on crisis
management (Drzewiecki, 2020; AlGahtani et al., 2022). Studies have shown that
demographic factors, including age, educational attainment, occupation, and academic
field, exhibit a comparatively minor impact on readiness to manage crises and
catastrophes.
Alanati et al. (2018) state that crises impact almost every organization.
Consequently, there has been a surge in attention to strategic planning to identify
forthcoming possibilities and adjust to abrupt and unforeseeable changes. Mitigating
challenges and crises at the university and state levels. The study aimed to ascertain the
impact of strategic planning on crisis management at the official Jordanian institutions.
The research revealed a significant influence of strategic planning components, namely
vision, values, and strategic objectives, on crisis management in Jordanian universities.
Furthermore, an apparent association between emergency preparedness (crisis
management) and long-term planning (strategic planning) was identified. Also, the results
50
suggest a statistically significant difference, which is at a significance level of 0.05 or
less, between the two arithmetic means of the replies provided by the research members
of the sample based on their gender and years of experience. Besides, there is no
statistically significant variation in workers’ views depending on the factor for the job
title in the research domains, at a significance level of α ≤ 0.05 (Alanati et al., 2018).
Moreover, Al-Otaibi’s (2024) study attempted to discover the reality of
emergency management at Umm Al-Qura University during COVID-19 and how the
institution’s long-term goals and the quality of its educational services were affected. As
a result, its service to the community, the community partnership, the exchange of
experiences, and the understanding of the university’s challenges in light of its current
epidemic management. The results demonstrated that most respondents concurred that
the reality of managing the crisis at Umm Al-Qura University after the Corona outbreak
was substantial. The participants sampled in the study all agreed that the quality of the
educational services offered by the university was exceptional. Additionally, it
demonstrated the university’s dedication to and participation in social responsibility
programs in all fields. The most substantial obstacle is the absence of administratively
and technically prepared human cadres to work in crisis management at the institution.
The study recommended making crisis management planning a part of strategic planning
in the institutions of higher education and focusing on the goals of Vision 2030.
Institutions of higher education need to focus on the electronic digital transformation
strategy and the needs of life after the end of the coronavirus pandemic as starting points
for adopting distance education as one of the main ways to deal with disasters and crises.
As with colleges and universities, they need to improve and update how they use
51
technology and communication tools, switch to electronic management, and keep up with
changes in this area because it is crucial to the learning process.
The COVID-19 and Its Influence on Education
Non-pharmacological interventions such as social distancing affected all stages of
education, and one of their effects was the inability of learners and teachers to meet face-
to-face in schools and universities. These limitations on selectivity during the pandemic
will likely limit students’ opportunities to absorb the duration of distance from society. It
is common knowledge that the amount of time devoted to learning, also known as
learning time, is one of the most trustworthy measures of the availability of learning
opportunities. Researchers have studied and recorded the consequences of education in
the United States. Interruption during the summer vacation: It was found that prolonged
interruption of study leads to the loss of students’ abilities and understanding. A similar
study examination and review shows that a student in the summer vacation loses what is
equivalent to one month of learning in the school year. Math skills decrease more than
reading skills, and the skill decrease increases according to the school stage, and students
from low-income families are more affected by this (Reimers et al., 2020; Al Muslim,
2021).
According to a 2020 United Nations report, the epidemic has locked down many
different sectors and impacted the school system more than ever, as school closures are
still affected. This impacted billions of students and educators on all continents. Over
90% of students during Covid were negatively impacted by school closures (United
Nations report, 2020). To confront these effects, the distance education system was
started, using electronic platforms and social networking sites in most countries to
52
preserve students’ safety and keep the learning and teaching experience uninterrupted.
However, this system has not proven successful in all countries, especially in some
smaller countries, and in light of the educational gap between students, the educational
institution, and parents. Also, the distance education system requires a lot of material
resources and the availability of many essential items, all connected to country status and
family wealth, as well as technology and its accessibility. All of this led to the difficulty
of implementing apprenticeship systems and applying work-based learning methods,
which are essential elements of any technical and vocational system that performs its
functions and is responsive to market requirements (Kachra & Brown, 2020; Khalfawi &
Fadsi, 2021).
Crisis in Educators and Educational Procedures
In times of the COVID-19 crisis, students, professors, and administrators all
increasingly rely on online learning, and assessment procedures have evolved. This is due
to the crisis-ridden state of the education system. The study by Looi et al. (2022)
illustrates that the exploitation of emergency online learning in the event of future
disasters can significantly impact the learning outcomes relevant to the supply of
sustainable higher education. Alves dos Reis et al.’s (2021) exploratory study in Portugal
on students’ pre- and post-COVID-19 perceptions also changes the education method.
Direct interaction to interaction through the Internet did not influence students’
impression of the performance given by the professor, nor did direct participant
appreciation. Because of this, traditional methods of evaluation have evolved. In addition,
Cahapay’s (2020) research on changing Philippine instructor teaching evaluation
techniques amid COVID-19 shows that only student attendance was graded. The grading
53
system had become unfavorable, and GPA calculations were lowered. Most of the system
changed to eventually negatively impact students (Cahapay, 2020).
As an educator, I believe that this catastrophe marked the beginning of a
prosperous age for online education, similar to Al-Karaki et al. (2021), who assure that
digital platforms help the remotely educated and their instructors in many ways.
Consequently, this relocation caused several difficulties for students, educators, families,
administrators, and government laws. Al-Karaki et al. (2021) examine how distance
learning educators see from their point of view and how considerations for online
distribution of their teaching and learning tools help students in distance learning. So,
their result was the appreciation of online teaching and learning as the best way rather
than coming to schools and being exposed to the virus spread. However, teaching
approaches differ in how they encourage student involvement and engagement. All
participants also agreed that the primary home infrastructure (for remote learning) was
still not fully efficient since some low-income families could not meet the school
requirements (Al-Karaki et al., 2021, pp. 6-9).
Educational Instructors and Crisis
Educators are the backbone of every education system, serving as a crucial
channel for transmitting material and assisting students to achieve learning objectives
regardless of the topic or venue in which they teach. Teachers have evolved into front-
line professionals worldwide, and their primary responsibility now is to ensure that
learners continue to study regardless of whether or not they are physically present in a
school facility. Teachers were compelled to provide a high-quality and quantity
curriculum to their learners who were prevented from attending due to the pandemic.
54
They also had diverse degrees of access to various forms of technology when the
COVID-19 school closures began. Instructors now communicate with students, parents,
and schools about education, COVID-19, emotional and social development, health,
security, poverty, and readily available services. During those times, many educators
were juggling the responsibilities of their households and their worries about their
finances and health, both of which were impacted by the COVID-19 epidemic (Dugger,
2021).
Karasavidou (2019) conducted an objective study to find out how, in academic
institutions, teachers’ attitudes toward pandemic management. The writer’s outputs were
founded on a sample of 249 teachers, of whom 62.4% were not trained in crisis
management. 63% want to get practical training by holding workshops and seminars in
the school and training, caring, consistency, and a secure environment. According to
Varadharajan (2020), when students are worried and fearful for the future of their
families and friends, instructors have claimed to adapt by becoming educators who
provide compassion, consistency, and safety.
When schools are closed for an extended time, the instructors and staff there play
a vital role in helping the students readjust to studying in a traditional classroom setting.
As schools were suspended, instructors maintained the many strategies they had been
using to protect their kids’ academic and mental health (Eight Ways Teachers Can
Support Students; Tang, 2021). Teachers’ multitasking schooling online required them to
do more in an online setting, take care of their students, and consider the surrounding
conditions caused by the epidemic. The confusion and worry that many teachers may feel
because of the COVID-19 outbreak have also been exacerbated by financial worries
55
about budget cutbacks and reallocations for education, childcare costs, and probable
unemployment (Dugger, 2021).
Al-Eisi and Al-Alfi’s (2019) research conducted in the Al-Qunfudhah region
found that school administrators’ practices were moderate. Also, the quality of their
decisions came to an average degree. And that the quality of their decision-making in
crisis management is correlated with its degree of implementation. Because of the above,
the researchers recommend the following: First, granting school leaders more power to
make appropriate decisions enhances their ability to manage crises better and more
successfully. Second, they should provide intensive crisis management training and
decision-making courses for school leaders. Training school leaders to analyze problems
and crises in an accurate scientific way will help them make appropriate decisions in
solving them. Third, continuous follow-up of school administration supervisors and
procedures is vital in dealing with the crisis in schools from its occurrence to make
appropriate decisions, follow up on its development, and how to control it. Fourth, school
plans should include precise mechanisms and tasks for crisis management to handle
crises appropriately when they occur. Fifth, allocating an appropriate budget is necessary
to deal with school crises and address their effects. Sixth, school leaders must seek
assistance from crisis management specialists when developing a plan for managing and
confronting school crises. Finally, it’s vital to provide computer programs to process data
and information related to school crises (Al-Eisi & Al-Alfi, 2019).
Moreover, Al-Hajry’s (2020) research aimed to understand school crisis
management in the Al-Farwaniyah Educational Area through teachers’ perspectives (Al-
Hajry, 2020, p. 216). “The study indicated that school employees and quick response
56
teams were ineffective at crisis management during and after disasters. Crisis
management has a lack of assigned duties. The research stresses educating school
workers about disasters and creating teacher crises and management teams. Training and
school-government workshops teach team members their roles” (Al-Hajry, 2020, pp.
212-215). When a crisis happens in a separate school, to derive maximum advantage
from crisis management activation and its implementation in schools. Establishing a
database for school crisis management is important because it allows the school to utilize
past experiences to solve future school crises (Al-Hajry, 2020, p. 213).
Wong and Moorhouse’s (2020) research findings imply that the incredible
experiences of the 2019 to 2020 academic year bolstered teachers’ enthusiasm and
appreciation for the intrinsic worth of teaching. Mainly, instructors are more committed
to education and willing to go with their pupils as they confront societal uncertainty. This
dedication may help teachers become more resilient during moments of uncertainty and
position them to assist younger members of society as they attempt to make sense of
terrible situations.
Moreover, teachers recognize this responsibility. They adapt their methodology
and teaching to meet the demands of dangerous circumstances while conceiving their job
beyond the delivery of specific topics to the natural growth of the learner, focusing on
fostering critical thinking among students. Instructors must be able to modify material
and teaching to emphasize students’ well-being above academic accomplishment (Wong
& Moorhouse, 2020).
57
Educational Processes and Crisis
According to several studies by d’Orville (2020), Al-Maliki (2021), and
Ghanayem (2020), the Corona pandemic directly affected education, as studies were
suspended in schools and universities, which had direct effects on the educational
process. These effects are as follows: First, loss of education and increased school
dropout rates. Second, inequality in educational systems distinguishes those who have
alternative technologies from those who do not. Moreover, the education system differs
in the different educational stages, whether in university or pre-university education.
Fourth, the 2019 coronavirus epidemic's influence on educational arrangements
worldwide led to the almost full closure of schools, colleges, and universities. Pandemic
cancellations impacted “1.725 billion” schoolchildren. Education cutbacks hurt all parties
(Srivastava & Agarwal, 2020, p. 43). The epidemic has badly impacted many in the
education and non-education sectors, at home and away from home. Most disadvantaged
children were severely affected by poverty and school dropouts (d’Orville, 2020; Al-
Maliki, 2021; Ghanayem, 2020).
Both Awda’s (2008) and Talib and Kazem’s (2021) studies examine this
phenomenon that crises are among the events that have a considerable influence on the
educational and university processes in particular because the crisis has become an
essential part associated with organizational entities and is forming the focus of a mission
to export concern to managers, particularly in light of sudden changes in the system and
the administrative, legal, social, cultural, and scientific laws that change imposes on
people. Developing university education at all stages, including graduate studies, has
become a significant issue that constitutes a crisis and requires increasing attention as the
58
stages of university education, generally, and postgraduate studies in particular, are
considered. Because crises and challenges bring with them a multitude of problems, and
since education has become the best way to confront crises, there is a distinct phase that
plays a part in the preparation of specialized human resources to assist in the building of
society, the overcoming of crises, and the attainment of the appropriate path toward
progress and knowledge (Awda, 2008, p. 2; Talib & Kazem, 2021).
Regarding material and human resources and crisis management, Bin Ubaid and
Balalam’s (2020) research seeks to determine human resources' influence on crisis
management methods in the following years of the COVID-19 pandemic undertaken by
the Public Organization of Neighborhood Health. They concluded that human resource
management practices had an influence on crisis management. Also, there are no
statistically significant variations in the reactions of the individuals in the study sample to
the dependent variable, crisis management, related to the following personality
characteristics at a level of significance of α=0.05: (gender, Academic qualifications, and
years of experience).
Al-Ataiwi (2023) declares that many crises and threats have affected many Social
and organizational leaders. Officials are concerned about these crises because they are
hard to control due to sharp and sudden changes in the exterior surroundings and the
responsible departments’ incapability to adopt an appropriate administrative model that
allows the organization to confront its crises quickly and effectively. One of the most
crucial cornerstones. Successful organizations must have efficient and effective
management to harness and direct their human and material resources. Early crisis
identification, size and type determination, and scientific and rational crisis management
59
are essential to finding a solution and a procedure tailored to unavoidable emergencies.
Al-Ataiwi’s (2023) study shows the importance of strategic planning in addressing
educational crises encountered by public school administrators in the Northern Jordan
Valley Education Directorate and its influence on student learning and to effectively use
and appropriately manage the human and material resources at its disposal. He concluded
that regarding the variables (gender, years of experience), there are no statistically
significant differences observed in the arithmetic averages of the responses provided by
the sample member regarding the extent to which strategic planning is utilized to address
educational crises confronting public school principals in Jerash Governorate (Al-Ataiwi,
2023).
Al-Awda’s (2021) study assures that Saudi education uses more creative
schooling programs and systems based on artificial intelligence data to prepare for the
future. The pandemic’s ramifications necessitated increasing this component to continue
advancing educational processes while ensuring the protection and safety of pupils. Dr.
Ohood Al-Faris, General Supervisor of the General Department of E-Learning and
Distant Education at the Ministry of Education, says that the return of distance learning
coincides with a new turning point in developing educational technologies and
methodologies. E-learning has become the most significant and enduring method to
improve the quality of educational development (as mentioned in Al-Awda, 2021).
Conclusion
To conclude, the results of Bailey et al.’s (2022) study confirm that shifting from
traditional classroom instruction to online education presented several difficulties. The
transition from a group that existed in the physical world to one that existed online was
60
challenging to manage. Because of the transformation, the faculty and the students had to
act beyond their comfort zones and into previously unexplored territories of teaching and
learning. The data that was collected demonstrated not only the wide range of
experiences and perspectives held by the participants in terms of development and
introspection but also revealed the beauty of the process itself, which was to unearth and
discuss the unique perspectives of each participant as genuine truths, rather than to
compile a set of principles or procedures that apply to all individuals in the same manner.
Bailey et al. (2022) assure that it should also serve as their guiding concept
regardless of whether they are teaching during a pandemic, using technology affordances
in the classroom, or doing anything else since it helps them understand themselves and
their students as human beings who need connection with one another to learn.
Regardless of how demanding and stressful their current circumstances may be, they
must keep moving forward down the road of development and growth and resist the urge
to give up. They often hear from many people how terrible COVID-19 was academically.
On the other hand, they suggest that a “negative narrative” may be turned around via a
succession of mindsets and the formation of habits of the mind (Bailey et al., 2022, 505).
It is essential to research various topics, including how COVID-19 has affected
society and the educational system worldwide. Despite this, studies and research are still
being conducted on the epidemic and its influence on the educational process, which can
be observed in our daily living practices here. Most of the earlier studies employed in this
inquiry were carried out within the setting of higher education because of the novelty of
the subject matter. COVID-19's influence on higher education is still in its infancy. This
covered the expansion of the subject matter and the growth of its abilities among
61
administrators and faculty members throughout most stages and in all academic
disciplines. (Al Muslim, 2021).
To conclude, this literature study explored further studies to highlight educational
institutions’ actual crisis management situation (COVID-19). Thus, Chapter Two gives a
comprehensive overview responding to seven general categories. Starting with a concise
historical overview of crisis management theories as a collection of ideas and a relatively
new finding in management science. This will be followed by a quick discussion of how
the field has evolved. Then, the issue that will be discussed is the extent to which leaders
are involved in handling crises.
Moreover, the staff members and instructors who work for the academic
institution agree that it is vital for them to be aware of the crisis and address the urgent
matter. In addition, the researcher was able to locate issues that had already been
researched and learn how to incorporate those studies’ conclusions into the theoretical
framework with the support of past research. This data and information from previous
studies helped the researcher understand it and the tools established in earlier
investigations to accomplish this goal. This collection of studies is essential for many
reasons. That seems to be among the relatively few topics in Saudi Arabia that examine
leadership and crisis management from the viewpoint of academic employees. This
distinguishes it from other research that has been done in a similar vein.
62
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This study is to determine the actuality of handling the COVID-19 pandemic in
Saudi colleges and universities from the perspective of their staff members and what the
difficulties are that restrict the operation of COVID-19 crisis management in their
institutions. In addition, it sought to approach proposals that would assist in addressing
hurdles, and it sought to give proposals to avoid these obstacles in the future.
Chapter Three explains the study's methodology, limitations, and a brief overview
of the study design, population, and sample. It also discusses the study instrument’s
construction and the procedures used to confirm its validity and reliability. In addition, it
describes the statistical methods used to process the study’s data and answer its queries.
Population
The study’s intended population is the administrators and faculty members
working during the 2020–2022 academic year at Najran University in Najran City in
southwestern Saudi Arabia (N = 384). The Administration of Faculty Members Affairs
declares that the statistical indicators in the number of faculty members during the year
2022 were foreign on the contract system (529), and Saudi citizens were (862) (Report of
the Deanship of Human Resources for the year 2022. p.17).
63
Sampling
In quantitative studies, the emphasis is placed on the use of probability or random
sampling, the selection of people who are intended to be typical of a population, and
finally, the extrapolation of findings from these people to the community as a whole.
Examining “theories” that seek to shed light on the population can frequently be the end
outcome of this procedure (Creswell, 2019). The current study sample consisted of
several employees at Najran University, Saudi Arabia. Where the total number of
samples was 862, to determine the sample size for 862 participants with a confidence
level of 95% and with a margin of error of 0.05, the researcher can use the formula for
determining the sample size: [n = (Z^2 * p * q) / E^2]. The researcher used these to
calculate sample size; since we have 862 participants, which exceeds to determine the
necessary sample size of 384.16; so, 862 is more than sufficient for a 95% confidence
level and a margin of error of 0.05. Also, they were chosen randomly. The study tool was
applied to them in 2023. The study sampled individuals in light of each job classification
(administrators and faculty members).
Research Design
For the study approach, the researcher relied on quantitative cross-sectional
research (descriptive survey approach) to analyze how crisis management is implemented
in Saudi higher education institutions from the perspective of its employees. Schmidt and
Brown (2019) state that a quantitative cross-sectional study means collecting information
from a sample of people at just one specific point. Burns and Grove (2005) state that
quantitative studies are organized procedures, have goals, and are methodical. This
approach is used for identifying and evaluating correlations and analyzing connections
64
among using variables to identify whether there is an effect (Burns & Grove, 2005).
Using a descriptive quantitative (a survey design) for the research might, as Van Dalen
(1979) describes it,
Collect factual information that would explain existing situations, make
comparisons and evaluations, identify special problems or justify existing
conditions or practices, and determine what other people are doing about
similar problems and make suggestions for future courses of action. (as
mentioned in Adaboh, 2014, p. 10)
As Obeidat et al., 2020 ensure that the descriptive survey approach is
A method of research that is done by collecting information and data about a
phenomenon, an incident, or a reality, with the aim of identifying the reality
that we are studying and determining its current situation, as well as its
strengths and weaknesses in it, in order to know the validity of this situation
or the extent of the need to bring about partial or fundamental changes in it.
(Obeidat et al., 2020, p. 263)
Thus, the researcher can benefit from this approach to obtain the desired results
from this study.
Data Collection Procedures
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Andrews
University for the Dissertation Proposal Defense Committee and the Dissertation
Committee. After that, permission to conduct this research was obtained from the
Research Office at Najran University in Saudi Arabia, and the approvals are included in
the appendices. After being approved by the IRB and Research Office at Najran
65
University, the questionnaire was distributed to all employees at Najran University with
the help of four doctors who offered initial approval to help publish the questionnaire.
The questionnaire was published through a link between groups and academic emails.
The survey was distributed to the employees of Najran University and then
collected in the fall semester of the 2023 academic year, which took place at the end of
September. After Najran University employees completed the questionnaire, it was
collected via Google Forms and saved electronically. The data had been stored on the
researcher’s personal hard drive and locked cloud, and only the researcher could view
and analyze the data.
As Creswell (2019) describes it, a population is a collection of people who share a
particular quality or attribute (p. 141). The study population is composed of
administrators, staff, and faculty. In 2022, the Administration of Faculty Member Affairs
reported 529 international contract faculty members and 862 Saudi natives (Report of the
Deanship of Human Resources for the Year 2022, p. 17). A “sample is a subgroup of the
target population that the researcher plans to study for generalizing about the target
population. In an ideal situation, a researcher can select a sample of individuals
representative of the entire population” (Creswell, 2019, p. 140). To have an excellent
descriptive research sample, the sample number should be this sample (N = 384), which
is a good number for simple random sampling. As Creswell (2019) describes it, simple
random sampling is the most common and stringent method for drawing samples from a
population using probability (p. 141).
A sample of 384 employees of Najran University were requested to participate.
After returning the surveys, they were checked for the number of complete and
66
incomplete responses. After that, the researcher collected the complete responses. The
data was collected from Google Forms, Excel, and statistical software like SPSS.
Data Analysis
The data analysis for research questions used descriptive statistics. So, the
researcher used statistical processing methods to analyze the study data obtained through
the questionnaire (survey) to accomplish the study's purposes. Loeb et al. (2017) state
that “quantitative descriptive analysis characterizes the world or a phenomenon by
identifying patterns in data to answer questions about who, what, where, when, and to
what extent. Descriptive analysis is data simplification” (p.1). As well, capabilities,
needs, methodologies, procedures, policies, demographics, and settings are presented in a
way that is useful for answering an analysis or topical problem via a well-described
context. Data dumps, general-purpose data monitors, and basic tables of statistical
information can have a function. Yet, they cannot be considered descriptive research
(Loeb et al., 2017).
For the data analysis, computer programming was used, and a statistical program
from the software service contained in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS) was used. Rahman and Muktadir (2021) declare that in the field of social science
research, some advantages of using SPSS include data authorization in addition to
cooperation, as well as the deployment of data collected from surveys for strategic
information extraction and statistical analysis. Suppose a researcher is familiar with the
fundamental ideas behind how SPSS works. In that case, using the program to accurately
analyze quantitative data will be much simpler for them. As a result, it supports the
researcher in conquering obstacles throughout the procedure.
67
Moreover, SPSS helps extract the results using the following statistical methods:
Frequencies and percentages to characterize study sample members. Singh (2015)
illustrates that the frequency process generates data and graphical representations that
help summarize many variables like actual values and anticipated values, including
percentages. These may all be found in the output of this study process. Arithmetic means
and standard deviations: to determine survey averages and scores. According to Singh
(2015), the arithmetic mean is the proportion of all data collected to the total number of
observations (p.43). Also, Cronbach's Alpha was computed to determine whether or not
there was internal consistency among the data obtained for each subscale. As mentioned
at Tavakol and Dennick (2011):
Alpha was developed by Lee Cronbach in 1951 to provide a measure of the
internal consistency of a test or scale; it is expressed as a number between 0 and
1. Internal consistency describes the extent to which all the items in a test measure
the same concept or construct, and hence it is connected to the interrelatedness of
the items within the test. Internal consistency should be determined before a test
can be employed for research or examination purposes to ensure validity. In
addition, reliability estimates show the amount of measurement error in a test. Put
simply, this interpretation of reliability is the correlation of a test with itself.
(Tavakol & Dennick, 2011, p. 53)
After completing the data collection, the questionnaires valid for statistical
analysis were reviewed and coded based on the five-point Likert scale (from Likert,
1932) to compute the lengths of the scale’s each cell. The range has been calculated (1–
5+4). After that, dividing by the number of scale classes required to get an accurate cell
68
length (5/4 = 0.80); after that, the value will be rounded up to the minimum scale number
(or the proper scale’s starting) to establish the cell’s maximum limit (Al-Omar, 2004, p.
322). Thus, Table 1 shows cell length.
Table 1
The study’s cell length is based on the Likert scale.
Cell Length
Class on a Likert scale
The Degree of Effectiveness
of Positive Phrases
From 1 to less than 1.80
Strongly Disagree
Very poor practice
From 1.80 to less than 2.60
Disagree
Poor practice
From 2.60 to less than 3.40
Neutral
Medium practice
From 3.40 to less than 4.20
Agree
Elevated practice
From 4.20 to 5.00
Strongly Agree
Very high practice
For Question Three, the researcher did two other examinations: the Mann-
Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis H tests. The Mann-Whitney U test was performed to
ascertain the importance of the variations in the means of the participant's responses,
specifically for binary variables (Mann & Whitney, 1947). The binary variables in
question are gender, which can be either male or female, and occupation, which can be
either administrative or professorial. Moreover, the Kruskal-Wallis H test was employed.
The Kruskal-Wallis-Wallis is a non-parametric test that was employed as a substitute for
the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test since there was heterogeneity in the
distributions of the study subjects' categories based on the years of experience variables
(Nwobi and Akanno, 2021).
Ethical Considerations
Researchers must provide information on the Ethical Considerations of their study
work. The majority of individuals can tell whether the study was completed with the
69
permission of all participants and if it was authorized by an ethics committee. In addition
to these two primary difficulties, readers of a study report should be aware of additional
ethical implications (Connelly, 2014).
Roberts and Allen (2015) ensure that when conducting a study using online
surveys, maintaining the confidentiality of respondents, anonymity, and integrity are
crucially critical ethical considerations. At each and every one of the stages of the
procedure for conducting research, educational scholars are obligated to take measures to
ensure that the confidentiality of participants is protected to the greatest extent. Because
they are seen as more invasive, unwelcome attempts to participate in online surveys have
a higher probability of violating the rights of a person’s right to confidentiality than
traditional paper demands do (Roberts & Allen, 2015). On the other hand, in comparison
to more conventional approaches, online surveys are quicker and more productive.
The researcher must acquire consent from subjects after choosing them. This
authorization will describe their research, anticipated participation, and methods. They
also consent to the study’s goal and the researcher’s ethical treatment. Federal law
compels researchers to give them rights and obtain authorization to study them (Creswell,
2019). Moreover, Creswell (2019) claims that obtaining approvals, maintaining the
respondents’ confidentiality, conducting the research while minimizing disruptions in the
situation, and conveying the research objectives are all examples of quantitative
difficulties (p. 564).
The consent and registration forms were sent electronically to the participants
after acquiring the approval of the Andrews University dissertation committee and the
IRB. Then, applicants were given a consent and registration form without personal
70
information (as part of the questionnaire), ensuring ethical data collection. After that, it
has been added to the appendices.
Validity of Research
The idea of validity or credibility, as Sireci (1998) defines,
The concept of validity applies to all measures used in the social sciences,
be they personality inventories, attitude questionnaires, surveys, educational
tests, or behavioral checklists. Thus, a specific type of indicator is not being
implied herein by the use of the term test, assessment, scale, or measure.
(Sireci, 1998, p.84)
According to Wynd, Schmidt, and Schaefer (2003), the reliability of the material
of the final tool relies primarily on the opinion, rational thought, and perception of the
scholar, with confirmation from a group of arbitrators whom the subject matter experts
trust of content. So, the arbitrators’ validity will determine the instrument's validity.
When the initial draft of the tool was offered to a group of experienced and specialized
arbitrators, the number of arbitrators in the fields of educational administration and crisis
management reached five. This is to express their observations regarding the areas of the
study aid and its paragraph, its degree of relevance to the field in which it was placed,
and the clarity and appropriateness of the wording, as some paragraphs were rewritten
and others were eliminated. As Fitzpatrick (1983) states, validity content is studied and
analyzed to determine how content validity has been defined by test professionals to
establish how this validity should be best seen.
71
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Introduction
This quantitative research aims to identify, from the employees' point of view, the
actuality of managing the COVID-19 crisis at Najran University in Saudi Arabia.
Additionally, it determines the lowest level in the category of COVID-19 crisis
management at Najran University in Saudi Arabia. It also intends to provide any changes
to demographic characteristics and crisis management during COVID-19.
This chapter is about analyzing the data that has been obtained from the electronic
survey conducted by the University of Najran. The data from the five categories
(Planning for Crisis Management (PCM), Communication in Crisis Management (CCM),
Information in Crisis Management (INFO), Material and Human Resources in Crisis
Management (MHR), and Involvement in Crisis Management (INV)) is presented in
tables. An electronic survey was sent randomly to all employees at Najran University.
The goal sample was for those who witnessed the recent COVID-19 crisis from
administrators and faculty members. All questions in the electronic survey were required,
therefore preventing users from skipping to the next question without completing the
previous one. After examining the data, it was noticeable that all questions had been
answered since it took less time to choose from the five available selections (strongly
agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree).
72
Demographic Characteristics
The survey was completed by 445 participants, consisting of 51.2% females (n =
228) and 48.8% males (n = 217) (see Figure 3). Most respondents were professors (n =
307, 69.0%), while administrators comprised 31.0% of the sample (n = 138) (see Figure
4). In terms years of experience, 133 individuals had less than five years’ experience
(29.9%), 180 had between five to ten years (40.4%), and 132 had more than ten years of
experience (29.7%) (see Figure 5 and Table 2).
Table 2
Participant Demographics Characteristics in the Dataset (N=445)
Characteristic
N
%
Gender
Male
217
48.8
Female
228
51.2
Years of Experience
Less than 5
133
29.9
5-10 years
180
40.4
More than 10
132
29.7
Job Title
Professor
307
69.0
Administrator
138
31.0
73
Figure 3. Pie chart Showing Gender (N=445).
Figure 4. Pie Chart Showing Job Title
74
Figure 5. Pie Chart Showing Years of Experience.
Construct validity
Given the translation of the scale into a new language and culture, exploratory
factor analysis (EFA) has been applied to ascertain the configuration of the scale’s
fundamental structures and investigate the grouping of its items, as presented in table 3
and in Figure 6. The EFA was employed to evaluate internal reliability (Abdulghani,
2023).
The EFA is applied to ascertain the observed variables' factor structure and
loadings and validate the anticipated outcomes based on the underlying or pre-existing
theory. Scholars propose that the assessment of construct validity may be accomplished
by scrutinizing the factor loadings of indicators and the composite dependability
(Arrindell & Van der Ende, 1985).
The decomposition of the value distribution around the mean was assessed using
the skewness test, which was incorporated into the descriptive statistics. On the contrary,
75
the kurtosis test quantifies whether the distribution is skewed or level. Furthermore, to
evaluate each item's normality, the Shapiro-Wilk test (p-value) was done (Moore, 2023;
George & Mallery, 2019). According to George and Mallery (2019), skewness indicates
the distribution between values around the mean. A skewness rating between +/- 1.0 is
considered great. Kurtosis measures the degree of peakedness in a distribution. A kurtosis
value falling within the range of +/- 1.0 is considered to be excellent (George & Mallery,
2019).
Figure 6. Exploratory Factor Analysis.
As the instrument failed to demonstrate a pattern of normality among the
components, the unweighted least squares (ULS) technique was used. This technique is
comparable to calculating the smallest residuals (minimum residuals). (Rock et al., 1977,
as mentioned in Moore, 2023) (See Table 3).
76
For more clarification regarding the abbreviations of the items listed in Table 3,
these are the categories with their abbreviations. Material and Human Resources in Crisis
Management (MHR) (MHR 1 to MHR 9), Planning for Crisis Management (PCM) (PCM
1 to PCM 8), Communication in Crisis Management (CCM) (CCM1 to CCM 4),
Information in Crisis Management (INFO) (INFO 1 to INFO 5), Involvement in Crisis
Management (INV) (INV 1 to INV 4).
In this study, the analytic technique used to accurately determine the number of
elements to keep while conducting a test on an instrument is the Parallel analysis. Parallel
analysis (PA) (Horn, 1965) is one of the most accurate instrument testing methods. Still,
it is also one of the least used techniques for figuring out how many elements to keep (as
mentioned in Hayton et al., 2004). The instrument had been subjected to a parallel
analysis, which yielded only five factors due to the varying levels of saturation shown by
each item. Once again, no discernible patterns were observed.
The computation used the IBM SPSS 28 statistical program for statistical
analysis. The function of factor analysis was operated, along with Bartlett's Test of
Sphericity and KMO, to perform tests that demonstrated the sample’s high level of
adequacy. Using Sampling Adequacy, like the Measure of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO),
is a metric that is a statistical measure that quantifies the extent to which the variability in
the variables can be ascribed to latent causes. When values approach 1.0, it may be
advantageous to conduct a factor analysis of the data (Li et al., 2020).
77
Table 3
Skewness and Kurtosis of the Items (N=445)
Skewness
SE
Kurtosis
SE
W
P
INV1
-0.925
0.116
0.96452
0.231
0.791
< .001
INV2
-0.742
0.116
0.41902
0.231
0.831
< .001
INV3
-0.886
0.116
0.80347
0.231
0.797
< .001
INV4
-0.804
0.116
0.86175
0.231
0.787
< .001
PCM 1
-0.759
0.116
0.36048
0.231
0.811
< .001
PCM 2
-0.946
0.116
0.68933
0.231
0.788
< .001
PCM 3
-0.964
0.116
1.16414
0.231
0.771
< .001
PCM 4
-0.929
0.116
0.86742
0.231
0.788
< .001
PCM 5
-0.927
0.116
0.98397
0.231
0.777
< .001
PCM 6
-0.994
0.116
1.04917
0.231
0.747
< .001
PCM 7
-0.994
0.116
0.99091
0.231
0.756
< .001
PCM 8
-0.847
0.116
0.81836
0.231
0.787
< .001
CCM1
-0.930
0.116
1.67156
0.231
0.754
< .001
CCM2
-0.760
0.116
0.72599
0.231
0.791
< .001
CCM3
-0.985
0.116
0.89541
0.231
0.778
< .001
CCM4
-0.929
0.116
0.82590
0.231
0.784
< .001
INFO1
-0.874
0.116
0.90238
0.231
0.800
< .001
INFO2
-0.825
0.116
0.47330
0.231
0.795
< .001
INFO3
-0.913
0.116
0.70883
0.231
0.781
< .001
INFO4
-0.822
0.116
0.20672
0.231
0.784
< .001
INFO5
-1.040
0.116
0.73907
0.231
0.757
< .001
MHR1
-1.162
0.116
1.66604
0.231
0.731
< .001
MHR2
-0.897
0.116
0.50636
0.231
0.788
< .001
MHR3
-1.052
0.116
0.68343
0.231
0.754
< .001
MHR4
-0.876
0.116
0.29102
0.231
0.788
< .001
MHR5
-1.097
0.116
0.98603
0.231
0.762
< .001
MHR6
-1.155
0.116
1.17309
0.231
0.748
< .001
MHR7
-0.927
0.116
0.59653
0.231
0.766
< .001
MHR8
-0.911
0.116
0.32409
0.231
0.775
< .001
MHR9
-1.036
0.116
1.26910
0.231
0.763
< .001
78
A sample adequacy metric, known as KMO, was found to have a value of 0.957,
which is near one. The Bartlett sphericity test yielded significant (X2 = 7417.82, df = 435,
p < .001). Factor loadings listed below 0.3 were eliminated. The total variation for the
components amounted to 54.1%. Table 5 compares each indicator’s relative saturations
for the five components of COVID-19 management of crises in higher education
institutions.
The first factor (column 1 of Table 4) categorized all of the objects associated
with Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR). The items for this
dimension are the following: (MHR9) “They allocate a portion of their budget for
emergencies”; (MHR8) “In a crisis, the university provides employees with emergency
apparatus and means of communication”; (MHR6) “University facilities have the
necessary equipment to handle crises”; (MHR7) “Several campus departments and
offices provide the needed human resources rapidly”; (MHR5) “The administration has
the skills and experience to make decisions”; (MHR4) “They have a dedicated group to
handle crises”; (MHR3) “They provide technical skills to manage crises”; (MHR2) “The
employees can attend crisis management workshops”; (MHR1) is “They provide reserve
staff for emergencies and crises.”
The second factor (column 2 of Table 4) categorized all objects associated with
Planning for Crisis Management (PCM). Considering each individual item and factor,
such as (PCM 1) “The purpose of the crisis team to the university staff was explained”;
(PCM 3) “Before a crisis occurs, the university considers various methods for handling it
and identifies alternative solutions according to their nature” (.724); (PCM 6) “The
material and human capabilities required to deal with crises before, during, and after
79
being determined”; (PCM 2) “A team of specialists deals with the crises it faces”; (PCM
4) “There is a spread of culture on dealing with crises in different ways”; (PCM 5) “There
is clarity in the steps for implementing alternative possibilities for crisis management”;
(PCM 7) “Systems and regulations for safety and risk prevention are set”; and (PCM 8)
“The environment is evaluated to see its strengths and weaknesses”.
The third factor (column 3 of Table 4) categorized all objects associated with
Communication in Crisis Management (CCM). Considering each individual item and
factor, such as (CCM4) “Communication and information are sent via modern
communication methods”; (CCM3) “The university’s administration uses various
methods to make decisions quickly”; (CCM2) “Employees can share crisis information
using an available communication system”; and (CCM1) “Information and Internet
technology are used to communicate during crises.”
The fourth factor (column 4 of Table 4) categorized all objects associated with
Information in Crisis Management (INFO). Addressing each specific item and factor,
including: (INFO 4) “The university’s administration ensures that information about the
crisis is clear”; (INFO 2) “The university’s administration is keen on facilitating the
access of decision-making centers to the necessary information”; (INFO 5) “There are
support services directly for insurance-related information and crisis remedies”; (INFO 1)
“The university’s administration has a database to manage crises”; and (INFO 3) “Having
a university crisis team facilitates collaboration and the adaptability of responses.”
The fifth factor (column 5 of Table 4) categorized all objects associated with
Involvement in Crisis Management (INV). Considering each individual item and factor,
such as (INV 2) “Faculty members are involved in preparing operational plans”; (INV 1)
80
“Administrator members are involved in preparing operational plans”; (INV 3)
“Appropriate solutions to possible crises are searched for and provided”; (INV 4) “The
university provides the necessary technological means (internet and a computer) for
continuous planning.”
Table 4
Exploratory Factor Analysis/ The Factor Loadings
1
2
3
4
5
MHR9
.935
MHR8
.753
MHR6
.699
MHR7
.691
MHR5
.660
MHR4
.630
MHR3
.567
MHR2
.548
MHR1
.489
PCM1
.833
PCM3
.724
PCM6
.702
PCM2
.688
PCM4
.666
PCM5
.651
PCM7
.563
PCM8
.444
CCM4
.867
CCM3
.754
CCM2
.667
CCM1
.515
INFO4
.654
INFO2
.640
INFO5
.584
INFO1
.505
INFO3
.492
INV2
.731
INV1
.611
INV3
.363
INV4
.
.305
81
Reliability analysis
SPSS 28 was utilized to perform a reliability analysis to evaluate the accuracy of
participant responses. The survey that has been responded to has five categories:
Planning for Crisis Management (PCM) has eight items; Communication in Crisis
Management (CCM) has four items; Information in Crisis Management (INFO) has five
items; Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR) has nine items; and
Involvement in Crisis Management (INV) has four items, for a total of thirty items.
Cronbach's alpha was calculated for data collected within each subscale to
analyze internal consistency. High internal consistency levels were found for Material
and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR) (α =.908) and Planning for Crisis
Management (PCM) (α =.892), indicating that the items within these subscales are highly
reliable. The information in the crisis management subscale also showed good
consistency (α =.858). The Communication in Crisis Management (CCM) subscale had a
moderate alpha value (α =.841). Lastly, the Involvement in Crisis Management (INV)
had the law value (α =.770), which is acceptable but indicates less homogeneity among
items or a broader construct being measured (see Table 5 and Figure 7). These results are
derived from the total population of surveyed subjects, with a sample size of 445
participants.
82
Table 5
Cronbach’s Alpha Subscales
Subscale
Number
of items
Cronbach’s
Alpha
Planning For Crisis Management (PCM)
8
.892
Communication In Crisis Management (CCM)
4
.841
Information In Crisis Management (INFO)
5
.858
Material And Human Resources in Crisis Management
(MHR)
9
.908
Involvement in crisis management (INV)
4
.770
Total
30
.953
Figure 7. Cronbach’s Alpha of the Five Categories.
83
Results
In the next section, the analysis of the research question will be presented:
1. What is the level of crisis management (COVID-19) at Najran University from
the perspective of faculty members and administrators?
Descriptive statistics were computed for five critical dimensions of crisis
management: Planning for Crisis Management (PCM), Communication in Crisis
Management (CCM), Information in Crisis Management (INFO), Material and Human
Resources in Crisis Management (MHR), and Involvement in Crisis Management (INV)
to evaluate the level of crisis management at Najran University during the COVID-19
pandemic as perceived by faculty members and administrators. Each dimension was
assessed using a Likert scale ranging from 1 (Very poor practice) to 5 (Very high
practice).
Table 6 shows that all the dimensions indicated elevated practice. The
Communication in Crisis Management (CCM) dimension yielded an average score of
3.73 (SD = 0.625), indicating a generally elevated practice in crisis management
communication efforts. The Skewness for Communication in Crisis Management (CCM)
was -.836 with a standard error of .116, revealing a left-skewed distribution, pointing to a
concentration of replies on the higher end of the scale. Equally, Involvement in Crisis
Management (INV) has the same mean as Communication in Crisis Management (CCM),
which is 3.73 (SD = 0.619), indicating a moderately positive assessment but with a little
more variation than Planning in Crisis Management. The skewness for Involvement in
Crisis Management (INV) was -.655. The Planning for Crisis Management (PCM)
dimension had a mean score of 3.70 (SD = 0.586), indicating a generally moderate
practice of crisis management planning efforts. The skewness was -0.783, revealing a
84
left-skewed distribution, pointing to a concentration of replies on the higher end of the
scale.
Moreover, the Information in Crisis Management (INFO) aspect received a mean
rating of 3.65 (SD = 0.637), with a skewness of -0.956 and a standard error of 0.116. The
higher standard deviation and skewness compared to Planning for Crisis Management
(PCM) and Communication in Crisis Management (CCM) suggest a broader range of
responses with a substantial leaning towards the higher end of the scale. The mean rating
for Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR) was 3.61 (SD = 0.596).
The skewness was notably high at -1.212, indicating a significant leftward skew in the
ratings distribution, more than the other categories: Communication in Crisis
Management (CCM), Involvement in Crisis Management (INV), Planning for Crisis
Management (PCM), and Information in Crisis Management (INFO). The total Crisis
Management Subscales results show an average score of 3.69 (SD =0.510), and the
skewness coefficient is -0.993, indicating a moderate level of skewness in the distribution
(see Figure 8).
Table 6
Descriptive statistics for Crisis Management Subscales
Categories In Crisis Management
Mean
SD
Planning In Crisis Management (PCM)
3.70
.586
Communication In Crisis Management (CCM)
3.73
.625
Information In Crisis Management (INFO)
3.65
.637
Material and Human Resources (MHR)
3.61
.596
Involvement In Crisis Management (INV)
3.73
.619
Total
3.69
.510
85
Figure 8. Descriptive Statistics for Crisis Management of the Five Categories.
Planning for Crisis Management (PCM)
Table 6 shows that the Planning for Crisis Management (PCM) dimension had a
mean score of 3.70 (SD = .586), denoting a moderately positive evaluation but slightly
more variability than Planning for Crisis Management. The skewness was -.783 with a
standard error of 0.116, indicating a less pronounced but still left-skewed tendency in the
data.
Table 7 shows the outcomes of survey questions that were asked concerning the
Planning for crisis management (PCM) in educational institutions of higher education are
shown in Table 7. In Table 7, the first item no (6), “The material and human capabilities
required to deal with crises before, during, and after being determined,” has the highest
mean score of 3.75 (SD =0.741) with a percentage of 75.5 of the “Strongly Agree” and
86
“Agree.” Subsequently, after the first item, the eighth item could come as a second one in
the higher item in Planning for Crisis Management: no. (1) “The purpose of the crisis
team to the university staff was explained.” This item has the second highest mean score
of 3.73 (SD =0.827) with a percentage of 71.7 of the “Strongly Agree” and “Agree.”
In contrast, items number two and five were at a low level, which is item two: “A
team of specialists deals with the crises it faces.” This item has the first lowest mean
score, 3.64 (SD =.836), with a percentage of 69.6. As for item five, “There is clarity in
the steps for implementing alternative possibilities for crisis management,” it has the
second lowest mean score of 3.68 (SD =0.752) with a percentage of 70.1 (see Figure 9).
Table 7
Descriptive Statistics for Planning for Crisis Management (PCM) Subscales Items
Item
M
SD
%
1
The purpose of the crisis team was explained to the
university staff.
3.73
.827
71.7
2
A team of specialists deals with the crises it faces
3.64
.836
69.6
3
Before a crisis occurs, the university considers various
methods for handling it and identifies alternative
solutions according to their nature
3.70
.746
71.6
4
There is a spread of culture on dealing with crises
differently.
3.71
.805
72.1
5
There is clarity in the steps for implementing
alternative possibilities for crisis management.
3.68
.752
70.1
6
The material and human capabilities required to deal
with crises before, during, and after being determined.
3.75
.741
75.5
7
Systems and regulations for safety and risk
prevention are set.
3.69
.743
72.1
8
The environment is evaluated to see its strengths and
weaknesses.
3.71
.756
71.3
Total
3.67
0.51
1312.8
Notes: Percentage for “Strongly Agree” and “Agree.”
87
Figure 9. Mean of Planning for Crisis Management (PCM) Items.
Communication in Crisis Management (CCM)
Table 8 shows the outcomes of the survey inquiries about Communication in
Crisis Management (CCM) in higher education institutions. The first item, “Information
and Internet technology are used to communicate during crises,” has the highest mean
score of 3.88 (SD = 0.702) with a percentage of 80.7. The second item could come as a
second one in the higher item in the Communication in Crisis Management (CCM),
which is “Employees can share crisis information using an available communication
system.” This item has the second-highest mean score of 3.74 (SD =0.738), with a
percentage of 71.9.
In contrast, item number three and item four were at a low level; item three, “The
university’s administration uses various methods to make decisions quickly,” has the
lowest mean score, 3.66 (SD =.803), with a percentage of 70.3. Item number four was the
second lowest item, “Communication and information are sent via modern
88
communication methods,” with the second lowest mean score, 3.66 (SD =.788), with a
percentage of 69.6 (see Figure 10).
Table 8
Descriptive Statistics for Communication in Crisis Management (CCM) Subscales Items
Item
M
SD
%
1
Information and Internet technology are used
to communicate during crises.
3.88
.702
80.7
2
Employees can share crisis information using
an available communication system.
3.74
.738
71.9
3
The university’s administration uses various
methods to make decisions quickly.
3.66
.803
70.3
4
Communication and information are sent via
modern communication methods.
3.66
.788
69.6
Total
3.73
.625
292.5
Notes: Percentage for “Strongly Agree” and “Agree.”
Figure 10. Mean of Communication in Crisis Management (CCM) Subscales Items.
89
Information in Crisis Management (INFO)
The Information in Crisis Management (INFO) aspect received a mean rating of
3.65 (SD = 0.637), with a skewness of -0.956 and a standard error of 0.116. The higher
standard deviation and skewness compared to Planning for Crisis Management (PCM)
and Communication in Crisis Management (CCM) suggests a broader range of responses
with a substantial leaning towards the higher end of the scale.
In Table 9, the outcomes of survey questions that were asked concerning
Information on Crisis Management in higher education institutions are shown. The first
item, “The university’s administration has a database to manage crises,” has the highest
mean score of 3.71 (SD =0.795) with a percentage of 70.3 of the “Strongly Agree” and
“Agree.”
After the first item, the third could come as a second in the higher item in
Information in Crisis Management (INFO): “Having a university crisis team facilitates
collaboration and the adaptability of responses.” This item has the second highest mean
score of 3.68 (SD =0.795) with a percentage of 71.2 of the “Strongly Agree” and
“Agree.”
In contrast, both item number four and item number two were at a low level; item
number four, “The university’s administration ensures that information about the crisis is
clear,” this item has the first lowest mean score, 3.60 (SD =0.796), with a percentage of
66.8. Moreover, item two, “The university’s administration is keen on facilitating the
access of decision-making centers to the necessary information,” has the second lowest
mean score, 3.63 (SD =0.792), with a percentage of 67.2 (see Figure 11).
Table 9
Descriptive Statistics for Information in Crisis Management (INFO) Subscales Items
90
Item
M
SD
%
1
The university’s administration has a database to
manage crises.
3.71
0.795
70.3
2
The university’s administration is keen on
facilitating decision-making centers' access to the
necessary information.
3.63
.792
67.2
3
Having a university crisis team facilitates
collaboration and the adaptability of responses.
3.68
.795
71.2
4
The university’s administration ensures that
information about the crisis is clear.
3.60
.796
66.8
5
There are support services directly for insurance-
related information and crisis remedies.
3.63
.813
70.6
Total
3.65
0.63
347.2
Notes: Percentage for “Strongly Agree” and “Agree.”
Figure 11. Mean of Information in Crisis Management (INFO) Subscales Items.
Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR)
The mean rating for Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management
(MHR) was 3.61 (SD = 0.596). The skewness was notably high at -1.212 with a standard
91
error of 0.116, indicative of a significant leftward skew in the rating distribution, with
respondents more frequently assigning higher scores.
Table 10 shows the outcomes of the survey questions that were questioned
regarding Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR) in educational
institutions of higher education. As shown in Table 10, the first item, “They provide
reserve staff for emergencies and crises,” has the highest mean score of 3.72 (SD =0.720)
with a percentage of 74.4 of the “Strongly Agree” and “Agree.” After the first item, the
second item could come as a second one in the higher item in the Material and Human
Resources in Crisis Management (MHR), which is “They allocate a portion of their
budget for emergencies.” This item has the second highest mean score of 3.68 (SD
=0.749) with a percentage of 70.8 of the “Strongly Agree” and “Agree.”
In contrast, item number four, “They have a dedicated group to handle crises,” has
the lowest mean in the Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR),
with a mean score of 3.54 (SD=0.817) with a percentage of 64.2. The second lowest item
is item nine: “In a crisis, the university provides employees with emergency apparatus
and means of communication.” Item number nine has a mean score of 3.56 (SD= 0.800)
with a percentage of 65.2 (see Figure 12).
Table 10
Descriptive Statistics for Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR)
Subscales Items
Item
M
SD
%
1
They provide reserve staff for emergencies and crises.
3.72
.720
74.4
2
The employees can attend crisis management
workshops.
3.57
.799
64.8
3
They provide technical skills to manage crises.
3.58
.792
67.7
4
They have a dedicated group to handle crises.
3.54
.817
64.2
5
The administration has the skills and experience to
make decisions
3.63
.833
70.5
92
6
University facilities have the necessary equipment to
handle crises.
3.62
.795
69.9
7
Several campus departments and offices provide the
needed human resources rapidly.
3.63
.758
68.7
8
In a crisis, the university provides employees with
emergency apparatus and means of communication.
3.56
.800
65.2
9
They allocate a portion of their budget for emergencies.
3.68
.749
70.8
Total
3.61
.596
616.
2
Notes: Percentage for “Strongly Agree” and “Agree.”
Figure 12. Mean of Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR)
Subscales Items .
Involvement in Crisis Management (INV)
Table 11 shows the outcomes of the survey inquiries about Involvement in Crisis
Management (INV) in higher education institutions. In Table 11, the first item, “The
university provides the necessary technological means (internet and a computer) for
continuous planning,” has the highest mean score of 3.79 (SD =0.748) with a percentage
of 74.8. The second item could be a second in the higher item in the Involvement in
Crisis Management (INV): "Administrator members are involved in preparing
operational plans.” This item has the second-highest mean score of 3.74 (SD =0.806),
with a percentage of 73.5.
93
In contrast, item number six and item seven were low; item six, “Faculty
members are involved in preparing operational plans,” has the lowest mean score, 3.69
(SD =.854), with a percentage of 68.4. Item number seven was the second lowest item,
“Appropriate solutions to possible crises are searched for and provided,” with the second
lowest mean score, 3.71 (SD =.808), with a percentage of 71.4 (see Figure 13).
Table 11
Descriptive Statistics for Involvement in Crisis Management (INV) Subscales Items
Item
M
SD
%
1
Administrator members are involved in preparing
operational plans.
3.74
.806
73.5
2
Faculty members are involved in preparing operational
plans.
3.69
.854
68.4
3
Appropriate solutions to possible crises are searched for
and provided.
3.71
.808
71.4
4
The university provides the necessary technological
means (internet and a computer) for continuous
planning.
3.79
.748
74.8
Total
3.73
.619
288.
1
Notes: Percentage for “Strongly Agree” and “Agree.”
94
Figure 13. Mean of Involvement in Crisis Management (INV) Subscales Items.
2. What are the lowest levels of COVID-19 crisis management in Higher
education institutions?
Table 6 (Descriptive statistics for Crisis Management Subscales) indicates that the
two lowest categories are Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR)
and Information in Crisis Management (INFO).
According to the examination of mean scores regarding each component, Material
and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR) was rated the lowest (M = 3.61, SD
= .596). The negative skewness in material and human resources in crisis management
(MHR) (-1.212) was also less than that of information in Crisis Management (INFO) and
Communication in Crisis Management (CCM). This indicates that although the average
rating was moderately positive, the spread of scores was more evenly distributed,
including lower-end ratings. Moreover, Information in Crisis Management (INFO) was
95
rated the second lowest component (M = 3.65, SD = .637). The negative skewness in the
Information in Crisis Management (INFO) is (-.956) (see Figure 14).
3. Does demographic variables and crisis management differ during COVID-19?
Table 12 presents the results of the Kolmogorov Test of normality for sample
sizes more than 50 and p-values greater than .05. Additionally, it includes the results of
the Shapiro-Wilks Test for sample sizes which is less than or equal to 50 and p-values
greater than .05. The investigation of construct normalcy used the following demographic
data. Gender (male and female), job title (professor and administrator), and years of
experience (less than 5, 5 to 10, and more than 10).
Figure 14. Mean of Crisis Management Categories
In the Gender category, a Mann-Whitney U-test was performed to ascertain the
extent to which differences existed. With the Gender category, there was no difference
between (MHR, PCM, CCM, and INV); the mean rank is shown in Table 13, and the
96
statistics are in Table 14. Since the value of Mann-Whitney U for Material and Human
Resources in Crisis Management (MHR) is (U = 24698.000) and (p =.976), the mean
rank for females is 223.18, and the mean for males is 222.82. The value of Mann-
Whitney U for Planning for Crisis Management (PCM) is (U = 24057.000) and (p =.611);
the mean rank for females is 225.99, and the mean for males is 219.86. The value of
Mann-Whitney U for Communication in Crisis Management (CCM) is (U = 24187.000)
and (p =.682); the mean rank for females is 220.58, and the mean for males is 225.54.
The value of Mann-Whitney U for Involvement in Crisis Management (INV) is (U =
24667.500) and (p =.958); the mean rank for females is 223.31, and the mean for males is
222.68.
Table 12
Test of Normality of Demographic Variables
Variables
Kolmogorov Test
Statistics
Gender - MHR
No normal
U de Mann-Whitney
Gender - PCM
No normal
U de Mann-Whitney
Gender - CCM
No normal
U de Mann-Whitney
Gender - INV
No normal
U de Mann-Whitney
Gender - INFO
No normal
U de Mann-Whitney
Job Title - MHR
No normal
U de Mann-Whitney
Job Title - PCM
No normal
U de Mann-Whitney
Job Title - CCM
No normal
U de Mann-Whitney
Job Title - INV
No normal
U de Mann-Whitney
Job Title - INFO
No normal
U de Mann-Whitney
97
Years of Experience – MHR
No normal
Kruskal Wallis
Years of Experience – PCM
No normal
Kruskal Wallis
Years of Experience – CCM
No normal
Kruskal Wallis
Years of Experience - INV
No normal
Kruskal Wallis
Years of Experience – INFO
No normal
Kruskal Wallis
Contrary to Information in Crisis Management (INFO) and Gender, which show a
difference in the value of Mann-Whitney (U = 21888.500) (p <.05), the mean rank for
females is 210.50, and the mean for males is 236.13. Indicating that the ranks of females
and males differ statistically significantly (see Figure 15).
Table 13
The Mean Rank (Gender)
Ranks
Gender
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
MHR
1.00
228
223.18
50884.00
2.00
217
222.82
48351.00
Total
445
PCM
1.00
228
225.99
51525.00
2.00
217
219.86
47710.00
Total
445
CCM
1.00
228
220.58
50293.00
2.00
217
225.54
48942.00
Total
445
INV
1.00
228
223.31
50914.50
2.00
217
222.68
48320.50
Total
445
INFO
1.00
228
210.50
47994.50
98
2.00
217
236.13
51240.50
Total
445
Table 14
Test Statistics (Gender)
Test Statisticsa
MHR
PCM
CCM
INV
INFO
Mann-Whitney U
24698.000
24057.000
24187.000
24667.500
21888.500
Wilcoxon W
48351.000
47710.000
50293.000
48320.500
47994.500
Z
-.030
-.508
-.409
-.053
-2.140
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)
.976
.611
.682
.958
.032
a. Grouping Variable: Gender
Figure 15. Mean rank (Gender) category.
99
In the Job title category, the Mann-Whitney U-test was performed to ascertain the
presence or absence of differences. With the Job title category, there was no difference
between (MHR, PCM, CCM, INV, and INFO). Table 15 presents the mean rank, while
Table 16 contains the statistical data. Given the Mann-Whitney U value for Material and
Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR) is (U = 21012.500) and (p =.891), the
mean rank for Professors is 224.24, and the mean rank for Administrators is 222.44. The
value of Mann-Whitney U for Planning for Crisis Management (PCM) is (U =
20815.500) and (p =.767); the mean rank for Professors is 220.34, and the mean for
Administrators is 224.20. The value of Mann-Whitney U for Communication in Crisis
Management (CCM) is (U = 20550.500) and (p =.611); the mean rank for Professors is
218.42, and the mean for Administrators is 225.06. The value of Mann-Whitney U for
Involvement in Crisis Management (INV) is (U=19025.500) and (p=.079); the mean rank
for Professors is 238.63, and the mean for Administrators is 215.97. The value of Mann-
Whitney U for Information in Crisis Management (INFO) is (U = 21044.500) and (p
=.910); the mean rank for Professors is 224.00, and the mean rank for Administrators is
222.55. Representing that there is no statistically significant difference in the ranks of
administrators and professors (see Figure 16).
Table 15
The Mean Rank (Job Title)
Ranks
Job Title
N
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
MHR
1.00
138
224.24
30944.50
2.00
307
222.44
68290.50
Total
445
100
PCM
1.00
138
220.34
30406.50
2.00
307
224.20
68828.50
Total
445
CCM
1.00
138
218.42
30141.50
2.00
307
225.06
69093.50
Total
445
INV
1.00
138
238.63
32931.50
2.00
307
215.97
66303.50
Total
445
INFO
1.00
138
224.00
30912.50
2.00
307
222.55
68322.50
Total
445
Table 16
Test Statistics (Job Title)
Test Statisticsa
MHR
PCM
CCM
INV
INFO
Mann-
Whitney U
21012.5
20815.5
20550.5
19025.5
21044.5
Wilcoxon W
68290.5
30406.5
30141.5
66303.5
68322.5
Z
-.137
-.296
-.508
-1.755
-.112
Asymp. Sig.
(2-tailed)
.891
.767
.611
.079
.910
a. Grouping Variable: Job Title
101
Figure 16. Mean Rank (Job Title) Category.
In the Years of Experience category, the Kruskal-Wallis H test was performed to
ascertain the extent to which differences existed. With the Years of experience category,
there was no difference between MHR, PCM, CCM, INV, and INFO. Table 17 displays
the mean rank, while Table 18 displays the statistics. Given the Kruskal-Wallis H test
value for Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR) is (H =.587) and
(p =.746), the mean rank for Less than 5 is 222.66, the mean for 5–10 years is 227.89,
and the mean for More than 10 is 216.68. The value of the Kruskal-Wallis H test for
Planning for Crisis Management (PCM) is (H =.563) and (p =.755), the mean rank for
Less than 5 is 226.74, the mean for 5–10 years is 217.51, and the mean for More than 10
is 226.72. The value of the Kruskal-Wallis H test for Communication in Crisis
Management (CCM) is (H =.042) and (p =.979); the mean rank for Less than 5 is 224.65,
the mean for 5–10 years is 221.68, and the mean for More than 10 is 223.14. The value of
the Kruskal-Wallis H test for Involvement in Crisis Management (INV) is (H =.234) and
102
(p =.889); the mean rank for Less than 5 is 225.09, the mean for 5–10 years is 219.50,
and the mean for More than 10 is 225.66. The value of the Kruskal-Wallis H test for
Information in Crisis Management (INFO) is (H = 3.685) and (p =.158), the mean rank
for Less than 5 is 239.80, the mean for 5–10 years is 212.34, and the mean for More than
10 is 220.61. There is no statistically significant difference in the rankings between years
of experience (Figure 17).
Table 17
The Mean Rank (Years of Experience)
Ranks
Years of Experience
N
Mean Rank
MHR
1.00
133
222.66
2.00
180
227.89
3.00
132
216.68
Total
445
PCM
1.00
133
226.74
2.00
180
217.51
3.00
132
226.72
Total
445
CCM
1.00
133
224.65
2.00
180
221.68
3.00
132
223.14
Total
445
INV
1.00
133
225.09
2.00
180
219.50
3.00
132
225.66
Total
445
103
Table 17—Continued
INFO
1.00
133
239.80
2.00
180
212.34
3.00
132
220.61
Total
445
Table 18
Test Statistics (Years of Experience)
Test Statisticsa,b
MHR
PCM
CCM
INV
INFO
Kruskal-Wallis H
.587
.563
.042
.234
3.685
df
2
2
2
2
2
Asymp. Sig.
. 746
.755
.979
.889
.158
a. Kruskal Wallis Test
b. Grouping Variable: Years of Experience
104
Figure 17. The Mean Rank (Years of Experience) category.
105
CHAPTER 5
FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
The outcomes of the analyzed data presented for this research are detailed in the
fourth section. The findings of the research are recapped in Chapter 5, which contains a
summary of the search background and problem, purpose, conceptual frame, research
methodology, a summary of the literature, as well as the primary findings drawn from the
research as well as a presentation and discussion of the results concerning the research
questions. Chapter 5 concludes with suggestions for future studies to expand upon the
study’s results and closing feedback.
Background and Problem
During the COVID-19 disaster, especially in Saudi Arabia, it was hard to go to
school or university because of problems with the virus spreading and other barriers.
Overcoming these problems required crisis management. Some universities in Saudi
Arabia can use a systematic method before and during a crisis, while others cannot. This
is a severe issue. Specific colleges in Saudi Arabia handled the COVID-19 epidemic
better than others. According to past research on crisis management, managers also have
a variety of reactions. The researcher could fully pinpoint the problem’s root cause by
attending conferences in that area. Without a doubt, this showed that some academies still
can’t handle a problem on their own and need help from the government. The proposed
study shows a strong link between the COVID-19 situation and how higher education
institutions are run.
106
Purpose and Questions
This quantitative study aims to determine the reality of managing the COVID-19
situation at Najran University in Saudi Arabian from the perspective of administrators
and faculty. It also seeks to understand the lowest levels of COVID-19 crisis management
at academic institutions by presenting administrators' and faculty viewpoints. Moreover,
it determines whether gender, job title, and experience-based variations in the research
sample's mean estimates of educational crisis management are statistically significant.
This dissertation aimed to respond to the following research questions:
1. What is the level of crisis management (COVID-19) at Najran University
from the perspective of faculty members and administrators?
2. What are the lowest levels of COVID-19 crisis management in Higher
education institutions?
3. Does demographic variables and crisis management differ during COVID-19?
The Conceptual Frame
This research addresses the most significant theoretical aspects of crisis
management and crises. Testing the impact of management involving administrators and
workers and the many conflict contraptions while highlighting the importance of
knowledgeable, logical planning. Additionally, it recommends crisis management in
Saudi Arabia and an emergency management and risk reduction plan for Saudi higher
education institutions.
The SCCT situational crisis communication theory is a leading crisis management
theory (Coombs, 2007a: p. 5; 2007b: p. 21). Benoit (1995) and Coombs (2007a; 2010;
2015) examined situational crisis communication theory. Communication during
107
situational crises aims to determine the best response based on how much the
organization’s reputation has been affected (Coombs, 2007a, 2013, 2015; Benoit, 1995).
Crisis workplaces are framed by this theory. As an unfavorable and unexpected event,
stakeholders attribute accountability to the establishment based on their feelings. The
theory of communication during situational crises determines the appropriate response
strategy based on the degree of threat to the organization’s reputation. It organizes
response strategies by defining their purpose, such as changing public opinion (Coombs,
2007a, 2013a, 2015).
Research Design
The study was undertaken at Najran University in Saudi Arabia. The research
methodology utilized is quantitative in nature and employs a descriptive-analytical
approach. The study instrument to be utilized is a descriptive questionnaire. The inquiry
was carried out through the dissemination of online questionnaires. Concerning its
populace, the Najran Higher Education Institution comprises administrators and faculty
members. The sample was chosen randomly from the academic faculty and
administrative personnel populations, encompassing all departments.
The questionnaire used in this study was divided into five sections: Planning for
Crisis Management (PCM), Communication in Crisis Management (CCM), Information
in Crisis Management (INFO), Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management
(MHR), and Involvement in Crisis Management (INV). When addressing research
inquiries 1 through 3 of the investigation, descriptive statistics were applied to the data
using SPSS.
108
Summary of the Literature
In order to shed light on the actual crisis management situation (COVID-19) in
educational institutions, the literature review examined additional studies. This literature
review addresses seven broad categories with a comprehensive overview. Initially, a brief
historical synopsis of crisis management theories as a collection of concepts and a
relatively recent discovery in management science is provided. Following this, a brief
discussion of the evolution of the discipline will ensue. The extent to which leaders
manage crises will subsequently be discussed.
Furthermore, the comprehension of the crisis and prompt resolution of the urgent
issue are mutually agreed upon by the faculty and personnel of the academic
establishment. Also, by drawing upon prior research, the investigator could identify
existing concerns and acquire the knowledge necessary to integrate the findings of those
studies into the conceptual framework. The researcher was able to fully comprehend the
subject matter and the methodologies employed in prior inquiries by utilizing data and
information from prior studies. For numerous reasons, this compilation of studies is vital.
Regarding leadership and crisis management as perceived by academic staff, this appears
to be one of the comparatively limited topics covered in Saudi Arabia. This sets it apart
from previous investigations that have followed a comparable trajectory.
Findings of Research Questions
First Research Question
The study findings were derived from the research questions, leading to five
distinct conclusions. The first research question is: 1. What is the level of crisis
management (COVID-19) at Najran University from the perspective of faculty members
and administrators? The second research question is: What are the lowest levels of the
109
components of COVID-19 crisis management in Higher education institutions? The
survey questions cover the five categories (Planning for Crisis Management (PCM),
Communication in Crisis Management (CCM), Information in Crisis Management
(INFO), Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR), and Involvement
in Crisis Management (INV)) focused on the level of crisis management (COVID-19) at
Najran University from the perspective of faculty members and administrators. (See
APPENDIX E) all five Tables addressed the five categories of exploring the level of
crisis management (COVID-19) in higher education institutions.
The first domain is Planning in Crisis Management (PCM).
Table 6 shows the opinions of the research sample members about planning for
crisis management (PCM) in higher education institutions. The first domain in the survey,
Planning for Crisis Management, The Planning for Crisis Management (PCM) dimension
has a mean score of 3.70 (SD = 0.586), denoting a moderately positive evaluation but
slightly more variability than Involvement for Crisis Management. The skewness of -
.783, with a standard error of 0.116, indicates a less pronounced but still left-skewed
tendency in the data.
This finding is supported by the mean score being higher than the standard
deviation. Mukhtar (2015) highlighted that planning, addressing, and controlling these
crises may be achieved by identifying targeted tactics, implementing systematic crisis
management plans, and thoroughly preparing to prevent their emergence. As Al-Asmai
(2020) assures, it is crucial to employ planning, coordination, guidance, follow-up, and
feedback as the primary management operations. Additionally, it is crucial to distribute
authority among all partners, including officials from local and national authorities.
110
In addition, the outcomes of the survey questions that were asked concerning the
preparation for crisis management in higher education institutions are displayed in Table
7. The first item with the highest mean is “The material and human capabilities required
to deal with crises before, during, and after being determined.” This points to the
presence of planning for crisis management, which is particularly important, taking into
account the fact that the administration of the institution places a strong emphasis on the
determination of the accessibility of resources and human capacities necessary to address
crises, both before, during, and after their occurrence, is being conducted.
Subsequently, after the first item, the item that could come as a second one in the
higher item in Planning for Crisis Management (PCM) is “The purpose of the crisis team
to the university staff was explained.” This indicates that there is preparation for crisis
management, which is especially essential when considering the fact that the institution's
administration lays a significant focus on an explanation given to the institution's workers
about the function of the crisis team. These outcomes agree with Aljarab’ah’s conclusion
(2021) that institutions need to capitalize on the knowledge gained by industrialized
nations about managing educational crises and the need for proactive planning and
staying abreast of technology advancements that facilitate their successful resolution.
The second domain is Communication in Crisis Management (CCM).
Table 6 shows ranking number one of the views of the research sample members,
which is about Communication in Crisis Management (CCM) in higher education
institutions. The average Communication in Crisis Management (CCM) rating was 3.73,
with a standard deviation of 0.625. Showing a generally heightened practice of crisis
management communication, links, and connections efforts. This finding is supported by
111
the mean score being higher than the standard deviation. The skewness of -.836, with a
standard error of 0.116, indicates a less pronounced but still left-skewed tendency in the
data.
Furthermore, the outcomes of the survey inquiries about Communication in Crisis
Management (CCM) in higher education institutions are shown in Table 10. In Table 10,
the first item is “Information and Internet technology are used to communicate during
crises.” The second item could come as a second one in the higher item in the
Communication in Crisis Management (CCM), which is “Employees can share crisis
information using an available communication system.” That implies that the university
can use Information and Internet technologies to facilitate communication during
emergencies. In addition, the staff can exchange crisis information via a readily
accessible communication system.
According to the findings of the research conducted by Al-Mawadiah and Al-
Zu’bi (2021), it is required to teach school directors to handle educational crises in light
of the most essential parts of crisis management, which include planning,
communicating, gathering information, and making choices. Showing the importance of
communication in crisis, in keeping with Al-Qahtani (2019), includes providing the crisis
management team with regular training and improving communication between schools
and other community organizations in the event of a crisis.
As agreed with Hussain (2014), Chen et al. (2019), and Van Der Bles et al.,
2020), The majority of educational institutions’ strategic plans contained conflict
resolution and crisis communication, with just a minority of schools excluding these
components. All higher education institutions must adhere to these criteria and possess a
112
risk policy. Incorporating public relations and communication is essential. Strategic
problem management involves identifying and becoming ready for potential dangers. It is
crucial to emphasize problem administration in higher education institutions and include
this obligation in their risk strategy.
Furthermore, provide education to these members. Factors such as substantial
staff or student population issues might exacerbate communication challenges during a
crisis. These issues need the formulation of a strategic course of action. Increased
contacts and improved social communication will decrease ambiguity and foster
transparency.
The third domain is Information in Crisis Management (INFO).
The mean rating for the Information in Crisis Management (INFO) facet was
3.65, with a standard deviation of 0.637. The skewness of the data was -0.956, and the
standard error was 0.116. The Information in Crisis Management (INFO) has a more
significant standard deviation and skewness than Material and Human Resources in
Crisis Management (MHR), indicating a more comprehensive range of answers with a
significant inclination toward the upper end of the scale. As Schleicher (2020) and
Schleicher et al. (2020) confirm, it is crucial to emphasize that these educational
institutions are built using an information system that has to be available to educational
institutions, senior management sections, and the Education Ministry to enhance
awareness within the academic community as a whole.
In addition, the outcomes of the survey questions that were asked concerning
Information on Crisis Management in higher education institutions are shown in Table 9.
The first item with the highest item is “The university’s administration has a database to
113
manage crises.” After that, after the first item, the third item could come as a second one
in the higher item in Information in Crisis Management (INFO), which is “Having a
university crisis team facilitates collaboration and the adaptability of responses.” It states
that the Information in Crisis Management (INFO) is an essential component of a system
created to address crises, whereby the university’s administration has a database to
effectively manage such situations. In addition, the presence of a university crisis team
facilitates collaboration and enables individuals to adapt their responses to evolving
situations.
These consequences align with the suggestions proposed by Al-Eisi and Al-Alfi
(2019), which include the following: Directors of educational institutions should actively
seek the guidance of crisis management expert teams when formulating strategies to
effectively handle and address school emergencies. Furthermore, providing computer
applications to process data and information about school problems is important.
Moreover, in Abdelrahman’s (2018) research, it was found that crisis management is
essential for the survival, continuity, and expansion of higher education institutions.
Faculty participation is crucial in the development and execution of crisis management
measures. Inspire individual teams to effectively manage emergencies and promptly
make judgments using a versatile network, gather data for forecasting disasters, and
enhance university performance and crisis management.
The fourth domain is Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management
(MHR).
Table 6 shows the ranking of number three of the views of the research sample
members, which is about Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR)
114
in higher education institutions. The average Material and Human Resources in Crisis
Management (MHR) rating was 3.61, with a standard deviation of 0.596. The skewness
of -1.212, with a standard error of 0.116, indicates a substantial leftward skew in the
rating distribution. This suggests that respondents are more often assigned lower values.
In addition, the outcomes of the survey inquiries that were questioned regarding
the Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR) in higher education
institutions are illustrated in Table 10Change. The first item, with the highest item, is
“They provide reserve staff for emergencies and crises.” After the first item, the second
item could come as a second one in the higher item in the Material and Human Resources
in Crisis Management (MHR), which is “They allocate a portion of their budget for
emergencies.” That implies that the university offers human resources to assist staff in
managing and overcoming crises. They also provide supplementary personnel for
unforeseen emergencies and critical situations. The university contributes a part of its
money, which is set aside for use in the event of an emergency.
Awda (2008) and Talib and Kazem (2021) highlight that crises and challenges
give rise to numerous issues. As education has emerged as the most effective means of
addressing crises, a specific phase involves training specialized human resources to
contribute to societal development, crisis management, and the pursuit of progress and
knowledge.
In contrast, Al-Otaibi’s (2024) research discovered that the primary hindrance is
the lack of adequately trained personnel with administrative and technical skills to handle
crisis management inside the organization. The report suggests incorporating crisis
management planning into the strategic planning process of higher education
115
organizations, explicitly emphasizing the objectives outlined in Vision 2030. Higher
education institutions should prioritize implementing distance education as a critical
approach to address catastrophes and crises by emphasizing the electronic digital
transformation strategy and anticipating the post-pandemic landscape. Similar to higher
education institutions, there is a need for improvement and modernization in employing
technology and communication tools. It is crucial to transition towards electronic
administration and adapt to the evolving landscape to support the learning process
effectively.
The fifth domain is Involvement in Crisis Management (INV).
Table 6 shows ranking number two of the views of the research sample members,
which is about Involvement in Crisis Management (INV) in higher education institutions.
The average Involvement in Crisis Management (INV) rating was 3.73, with a standard
deviation of 0.619. Demonstrating an overall increased implementation of crisis
management participation, involvement, and inclusion endeavors. The result is
substantiated by the mean score being more significant than the standard deviation. The
skewness of -.655, with a standard error of 0.116, indicates a left-skewed tendency in the
data that is less pronounced but still present.
Moreover, Table 11 provides the results of the survey inquiries that were directed
toward Involvement in Crisis Management (INV) within higher education institutions. In
Table 11, the first item is “The university provides the necessary technological means
(internet and a computer) for continuous planning.” The second item could come as a
second one in the higher item in Crisis Management: "Administrator members are
involved in preparing operational plans.” Based on this, it can be deduced that the
116
institution has the competence to provide the essential technology resources, such as the
internet and a computer, for ongoing planning. When it comes to crisis management, the
members of the administrator team are also engaged in the process of developing
operational strategies.
The fourth item could be the first in the higher item in Involvement for Crisis
Management: "The university provides the necessary technological means (internet and a
computer) for continuous planning.” This indicates that there is preparation for crisis
management, which is especially essential when considering that the institution's
administration lays a significant focus on providing the required technology means (an
internet connection and a computer) for ongoing planning. These outcomes agree with
Aljarab’ah’s conclusion (2021) that institutions need to capitalize on the knowledge
gained by industrialized nations about managing educational crises and the need for
proactive planning and staying abreast of technology advancements that facilitate their
successful resolution.
Subsequently, after the first item, the first item could come as the second one in
the higher item in Involvement for Crisis Management, which is “Administrator members
are involved in preparing operational plans,” according to Islam et al. (2022), the recent
COVID-19 outbreak has resulted in significant disruptions and modifications to many
critical systems inside higher education particularly in matters involvement in the
administrations and administrator members. Administrators also developed strategies to
guarantee the uninterrupted progression of the educational process, even when there was
no oversight or directives from the ministry. Every educator and administrator recognizes
crisis management's crucial significance in higher education institutions.
117
In addition, the findings of Al-Shamrani and Al-Sharida’s (2004) research
demonstrate a significant degree of involvement and effectiveness among workers and
administrators in managing crises via the implementation of a five-phase approach,
prioritized as follows: learning, readiness, preventive, resuming activity, and controlling
the damage. The researcher proposed a set of guidelines about the training and
certification of administrative personnel who possess the capacity to anticipate and
identify warning signs, particularly in the realm of information and communication
systems. Additionally, the researcher advised further empirical investigations in this
domain (Al-Shamrani & Al-Sharida, 2004).
Second Research Question
The second research question is: What are the lowest levels of the components of
COVID-19 crisis management in Higher education institutions? As for the second
research question, the lowest levels of the components of COVID-19 crisis management
in higher education institutions are in the Material and Human Resources in Crisis
Management (MHR) category.
As seen in Table 10, item number four and item number two were low; item
number four, “They have a dedicated group to handle crises,” has the lowest item. Item
number two, “The employees can attend crisis management workshops,” was the second
lowest item. That implies that the higher education institution was not applying the
strategic method by being equipped with a specialized team responsible for handling
emergencies. It may also be deduced from this that the educational establishment of
higher learning was not allowing the staff members to participate in crisis management
seminars. According to the individuals who were surveyed, this section may be the one
118
that poses the most risk to the overall crisis management efforts, indicating that this is the
area with the weakest link.
Specifically, Al-Yahawi (2006) illustrates the difficulties associated with such a
technique, especially in the beginning stages of crises when issues do not immediately
become apparent. The study was conducted by Al-Yahawi (2006) to determine the extent
to which managers (crisis team leaders) engage in crisis management operations, which
included principals, vice principals, administrators, and teachers who are members of the
school crisis team, just as Al-Yahawi’s primary results of the study indicate that the
participants in the study sample hold the belief that crisis teams have a limited level of
proficiency in conducting crisis management operations.
In addition, Al-Hajry’s (2020) research revealed that school personnel and rapid
response teams showed inefficiency in crisis management during and after catastrophic
events. Crisis management suffers from a deficiency in the allocation of responsibilities.
The study emphasizes the need to provide education to school personnel about
catastrophes, as well as establish teacher crisis and management teams. Team members
are instructed about their respective tasks via training sessions and seminars organized by
the school administration (Al-Hajry, 2020, pp. 212-215).
Furthermore, in their study, Mohammed et al. (2021) discovered that using
pedagogical strategies specifically designed to address catastrophes, like the COVID-19
pandemic, among those employed in essential service sectors might effectively prevent
catastrophic events by anticipating and preparing for them. It was determined that staff
should get crisis training via field workshops to learn how to respond effectively during
such events. Furthermore, they argue that crisis management techniques are seldom used
119
in the service institutions included in the Alreaadhiy Markeb of the state of Souk Ahras
due to the workers’ lack of understanding or familiarity with crisis management
principles.
Conducting workshops is crucial. Karasavidou’s (2019) research did an empirical
investigation to ascertain the views of instructors at academic institutions on pandemic
management. 63% of individuals desire hands-on instruction by implementing workshops
and seminars inside the educational institution, as well as training opportunities,
nurturing support, a sense of continuity, and a safe and protected setting.
Third Research Question
The third research question is: Do demographic variables and crisis management
differ during COVID-19? As for the third research question, this study set out mainly to
ascertain the actual state of crisis management among the workers of Najran University
and its correlation with the categories of Planning for Crisis Management (PCM),
Communication in Crisis Management (CCM), Information in Crisis Management
(INFO), Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR), and Involvement
in Crisis Management (INV). In addition, considering the findings from earlier research,
the study sought to investigate how gender, job title, and years of experience affect the
typical evaluations of crisis management by university employees as reported by the
respondents, administrators, and faculty members.
In the gender category, the researcher used the Mann-Whitney test instead of the
t-test for (two independent samples) to account for the differences in the sample
distribution. This analysis aimed to identify differences in the statistically significant
(0.05) significance level among the demographic variables and crisis management during
the COVID-19 crisis based on gender (male and female). According to the gender
120
variable, this is for each of the five categories. The results are shown in Tables 13–14. By
reading it, it becomes clear that the differences between male university employees' and
female university employees' average answers are non-significant differences when
managing crises. All categorizations' p-values were more significant than 0.05, except for
Information in Crisis Management (INFO), for which the test of Mann-Whitney yielded a
significant difference in values, with a U statistic of 21888.500 and a p-value less than
0.05.
The data shown in the fourth chapter, namely in the gender category, indicates no
difference between (MHR, PCM, CCM, and INV); the mean rank in the average
responses across most areas of the sample. Furthermore, the gender variable did not
affect the sample's attitudes.
The reason for this is attributed to the fact that the working conditions within the
university, especially for Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR),
Planning for Crisis Management (PCM), Communication in Crisis Management (CCM),
and Involvement in Crisis Management (INV), are equivalent. The directives at the
directorate that are currently in force bind both genders. According to the viewpoints of
the individuals in the sample, there are, therefore, no discernible gender disparities in the
extent to which crisis management elements are accessible. This research corroborated
the findings of Al-Ataiwi (2023), Al-Widyan (2021), Igrirah and Alafaid (2020), Bin
Ubaid and Balalam (2020), Abdul Rahman (2019), Hussein and Rateel (2016), and
Abdel-Al (2009), which demonstrated that there is no statistically significant difference
in the level of planning and communication competencies in crisis management based on
gender.
121
While Information in Crisis Management (INFO) shows a difference in the value
of genders, this confirms that there are statistically significant differences in the crisis
tool associated with the gender variable. The data shows a bias towards men since the
average value for males is more significant than that for females. This discrepancy may
arise because men attach more importance to particular information category
characteristics than females. Alternatively, this might be attributed to the prevalence of
male characters in our culture who possess more capability and ease of access and have
greater access to information than females. The results of this study differed from the
study by Baghraib and Al-Nakhai (2021), Alanati et al. (2018), and Samataha & Al-
Khaddam (2016), which confirmed that there were statistically significant differences in
the level of crisis management practice due to the gender variable.
In the Job title category, the Mann-Whitney U-test was utilized to ascertain
whether differences were present or not found. In Tables 15 and 16, there was no
noticeable difference among the job titles (MHR, PCM, CCM, INV, and INFO).
Denoting the absence of a statistically significant difference between the positions of
professors and administrators.
The data tables show no statistically significant differences associated with the
job title variable across the five research areas. This may be attributed to the equal
treatment of sample participants at the institution, irrespective of their roles as
administrators or in the educational setting, which aids in elucidating this phenomenon.
They know and understand the actuality of educational crisis management inside their
own university or institution.
122
The researcher may ascribe this finding to the university's commitment to
fostering employee development, irrespective of their job title. This is achieved through
the organization providing workshops and numerous courses and encouraging employees
to participate in conferences. Additionally, the university employs many specialists to
provide training on risk management and mitigation. This study confirmed the results of
AlGahtani et al.'s (2022) study. The study revealed no statistically significant difference
in crisis management within the Job titles category.
The outcomes of this research also differed from the study by Baghraib and Al-
Nakhai (2021) and Alanati et al. (2018), whose studies showed statistically significant
differences in crisis management practice based on Job title.
In the years of experience category, the viability of identifying differences in the
Years of Experience category was evaluated using the Kruskal-Wallis H test. No
statistically significant difference in the rankings among MHR, PCM, CCM, INV, and
INFO in the Years of Experience category, as seen in Tables 17 and 18.
The study sample members' perception of the university's efficacy in crisis
management is unaffected by their years of experience. This could be ascribed to
individuals in the study sample who have engaged in extensive administration or teaching
roles and had expertise and understanding in managing many circumstances and
challenges encountered in their university employment. Some individuals may possess
limited proficiency in doing administrative tasks. However, we have seen that both
seasoned and newly appointed administrators can effectively handle emergencies. As
pressing emergencies, they need prompt and unorthodox resolutions. This conclusion
aligns with the research conducted by Al-Ataiwi (2023), Baghraib and Al-Nakhai (2021),
123
Igrirah and Alafaid (2020), Bin Ubaid and Balalam (2020), Al-Qahtani (2019), Samataha
and Al-Khaddam (2016), and Hussein and Rateel (2016), which verified that there are no
notable differences in the efficacy of the crisis management based on the variable of
years of experience.
The outcomes of the studies indicate no statistically significant differences in
crisis management among the Years of Experience category. This indicates that years of
experience do not influence the level of crisis management, as agreed upon by the study
sample. The cause of this occurrence can be ascribed to the fact that crisis management
may be informed by recent qualitative experiences that arise from the onboarding process
of new personnel with limited professional backgrounds.
Furthermore, the findings of this research also differ from the study by Alanati et
al. (2018) and Abdelrahman (2018). According to the findings of those researchers, the
Years of Experience statistically significant differences influenced crisis management.
Conclusion
Al Omar (2002) emphasizes the importance of planning in crisis management. He
assures that Crisis and catastrophe planning involves the establishment of practical
measures and controls in advance to effectively address and respond to anticipated crises.
The planning process is the fundamental basis for achieving good crisis management.
The ideas of the planning process are universally applicable to any prospective disaster.
The core of the planning process is primarily associated with forecasting possible crises,
their stakeholders, and the surrounding circumstances, as well as identifying the key
stakeholders responsible for managing the crisis when it occurs. In addition to
establishing the planning framework for addressing the crisis, it is important to identify
124
all the risks and hazards that may arise during the crisis. Assess these risks and establish
priorities based on their significance. The technique of implementing the prepared plan
during a crisis is determined by the entities and institutions involved, as well as their
respective duties.
In comparable circumstances, the existence of a crisis management team holds
significant importance. The crisis management team is an inclusive team that consists of
individuals from all areas of the organization and other necessary specializations based
on the nature of the crisis, with the security sector leading the team. This team is
responsible for making a logical choice that can achieve the highest possible equilibrium
between all conflicting interests resulting from the nature of this crisis and the level of
threat it poses. The composition of this team is primarily determined by the factors of
competency and individual proficiency, with each member being selected based on their
specialized expertise. The crisis management team must possess various essential
elements, including the organizational aspect, which encompasses planning, organization,
communications, information, resources, direction, and method of implementation
tailored to the specific crisis situation (Al Omar, 2002; Al-Harbi and Al-Shami, 2023).
The objective of this quantitative study is to ascertain the reality of administering the
COVID-19 crisis at Najran University in Saudi Arabia as perceived by its employees. It
has been ascertained that the institution's crisis management degree was moderate.
Additionally, statistically significant differences in the degree of crisis management
according to the gender variable regarding information in the crisis management category
were identified. There were no apparent differences of statistical significance based on
other variables, such as gender in the categories of Material and Human Resources in
125
Crisis Management (MHR), Planning for Crisis Management (PCM), Communication in
Crisis Management (CCM), and Involvement in Crisis Management (INV), as well as job
title and years of experience in all its categories; Planning for Crisis Management (PCM),
Communication in Crisis Management (CCM), Information in Crisis Management
(INFO), Material and Human Resources in Crisis Management (MHR), and Involvement
in Crisis Management (INV).
Recommendations
• Creating a specialized unit for crisis management with the responsibilities of
monitoring crisis indicators and devising contingency plans to effectively handle
any crises that may arise inside universities at any given moment.
• Developing concise administrative directives that outline the protocols and
methodologies for addressing possible emergencies.
• The need to provide training to administrators and members is to instruct them on
how to manage and navigate through crises effectively.
• University employees' knowledge of the significance of autonomous crisis
management and planning has to be enhanced.
• Facilitating the provision of contemporary equipment and advanced technology to
aid administrators and instructional personnel in effectively addressing
emergencies.
• Conducting seminars and workshops for university staff to train them on
effectively resolving emergency challenges.
