THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON THE SPREAD AND EVOLUTION OF ADDICTIVE SUBSTANCES AND PRACTICES

THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON THE SPREAD AND EVOLUTION OF ADDICTIVE

SUBSTANCES AND PRACTICES

Abstract

Globalization has impacted on the character of dependency, connection and liberalization of the economic

trade in the world. In the contemporary world owing to the issues of supply chain management, it became

easy to transport even such products as drugs and alcohol to different parts of the globe. Some of the

largest MNCs today are involved in the manufacture and sale of addictive products such as, fast foods,

tobacco among others. For vices, the internet offers new means of indulgence such as online betting.

Through the induction of western culture and media activities, substance use and other addictive activities

are depicted as being normal. It also brings interchanged cultures to their localized vices, which means

greater world population is affected by and has enhanced access to substance and activities that convey

tendency of addition. Despite the fact that countries can work together in negotiating trade agreements and

regulations, issue come in the implementation of laws and policies. Social consequences of this view of

addiction as spread are also devastating, such as the possible future pandemics of addiction. Global

migration also aids localized addiction to migrate to other parts thus giving new trends. It is desirable to

make the responses as combined as possible on the international level. More so, this task calls for

multilateralism when it comes to offering treatment for substance use disorders, regulating use of

billboards, television adverts and sale of substances like alcohol and tobacco, controlling social networking

sites and associated technologies, and reconciling anti-addiction legislation with neo-liberal restructuring.

The world policy has remained irrelevant in the fight against the spread of addition. The shape of things to

come necessitates a closer and integrated global surveillance and response to the changes and

globalization of addiction. Therefore, for sustainability, those global platforms have to remain enforced and

employed to further anti-addiction norms. Still at the international level there is coordination needed

because the stakes are so high for global health.

Introduction

Introduction to globalization and effects on global conduct regarding addictive products

Globalization can be further described as the growing integration of countries or regions for the exchange

of capital, goods, and services, people, knowledge and technology. This has produced a new kind of

dependence of one nation on another and therefore nations are more connected. Globalization touches on

almost every sphere and aspects of human society, including views and practices regarding legal/illegal

intoxicating products like alcohol, nicotine containing-products, opioids and other legal/illegal drugs. It has

contributed to the availability and accessibility of these addictive products in the global market attributed to

trade liberalization policies that have eliminated import duties and restrictions. The other reason is the

enlargement of marketing and promotion of tobacco, alcohol and even prescription opioids by multinational

companies in emerging markets has also contributed to the problem (Lencucha, 2013). This has fostered

the expansion of new consumers in the developing countries where the regulations are comparatively less

stringent than the developed ones especially for the youth and the marginalized sections of society. Thus,

globalization may have led to the upward convergence in substance use disorders across countries.

Addiction defined with reference to legal and illegal substances and activities in a global

perspective

Addiction is defined as the habitual use of a substance or the regular performance of a particular activity in

spite of the resulting detrimental effects (Anderson et al., 2018). It is a multifaceted process that engages

various circuits in the brain with regards to reward, motivation, memory, and decision making inhibitory

control (Anderson et al., 2018). Substances that are legal and those that are banned together with some

activities are known to cause addiction. Tobacco consumption has been ranked as one of the biggest

threats to public health today with about 8 million deaths recorded annually (Assunta, 2022). The ingredient

that makes tobacco an addictive substance is nicotine and some of the global endeavors to check the use

of tobacco include the World Health Organization's Framework Convention on Tobacco Control with the

intention of reducing demand and supply of tobacco (Assunta, 2022). Another important risk factor that

leads to death and disability is the use of alcohol; in 2016, it caused about 3 million deaths (Babor &

Caetano, 2019). Unhealthy alcohol consumption including binge drinking is prevalent and is more so

among the young persons. Other vices have also increased in the world today including addiction to

gambling among individuals. Internet gaming disorder and internet addiction have become two significant

issues as more people gained access through the internet (Anderson et al., 2018).

The distinction between legal and illegal drugs is slightly greyed by the legal use of some of them in some

countries and regions but not in others (Campbell & Hansen, 2019). Whenever a substance is banned,

addiction still remains a health issue which affects the lives of people and the society. The previous model,

which involved the criminal justice system in an effort to try to combat drug use, has not been very

successful. There are some that have supported reductionist approach that focus less on punitive

measures and more on treatment and harm reduction for drug users (Campbell & Hansen, 2019). Drug

abuse in the same way impacts all individuals and societies in physical, social legal, financial, and security

domains (Anderson et al., 2018). Thus, the problem requires consideration of public health and legal

restrictions, as well as a development of a global strategy taking into account local legislation. This then is a

no-win situation which cannot be resolved by a single package, implying that the future work and policy-

making remain critical in averting risks that follow the substances and the behaviors.

Globalization has greatly changed the situation of addiction in the whole world

Globalization has played a big role towards the enhancement of the issue of addiction in the current

society. The interconnectedness of peoples of the world increases and the number of people who get in

contact with the outer world increases and more potential exposure to addictions can occur. This better

access together with improved means of publicity have MNCs selling alcohol, tobacco, prescription

medicines and other drugs to these vulnerable groups. The liberalization of trade policies has made it

easier for the TNCs to export their produces which includes the addictive substances in foreign markets.

For instance, big tobacco and alcohol makers are integrating through acquisitions of stakes in production

and distribution of the products to increase their consumers in the developing nations. New easily available

addictive substances have led to high use and dependency of these substances in many a low income

country in the past few decades. The globalization through the help of modern technologies and the use of

social networks has expanded the opportunities for behavioral addictions. Pathological use of Internet and

gaming has been distinguishable as mental health disorders and it is estimated that 4-6% world‟s

population are affected by it. With the interfaces of the Internet across different apparatuses, a greater

number of people stand a higher chance of engaging in addictive activities or coming across content that is

addictive. The world economic and technological connection as well as the cultural globalization has

changed the addiction model in the world. While arguing for the effectual benefits of societies through the

process of globalization, scholars observed the following negative impact of Globalization namely;

Availability and advertisement of addiction inducing commodities and practices in societies. This call for

partnership has been said to be appropriate since the burden of addiction is now well evident and on the

rise globally.

Global Supply Chains and Distribution of Addictive Substances

Development of global drug distribution networks

Global drug distribution networks have evolved significantly over the past few decades with an increase in

technology, transport, and communication (Cerdá & Kilmer, 2020). Criminal organizations have also

enlarged and deepened their international connections as the globe has become increasingly connected

through globalization to traffic in narcotics (DeGarmo et al., 2021). Many of today‟s drug cartels have

become elusive and complex business entities complete with global supply chains and extensive

distribution networks (Chiu & Park, 2020). The advanced technologies have been a mixed blessing for the

development of the illicit drugs industry. In this respect the internet and cryptocurrencies provide more

secure and anonymous purchases between suppliers, traffickers, and buyers from all over the world (Cerdá

& Kilmer, 2020). Thus, the dark web specifically permits clandestine organization of cross-border deliveries

of every type of drug. That being said, technology has also helped the police in combating crime through

better surveillance and cybersleuthing (Chiu & Park, 2020).

Since licit and illicit business operations have stretched out their operations across the globe, drug

trafficking organizations have turned into faster and more effective means of transporting their

merchandise. They conceal drugs in the many consignments that are transported across the world in

international shipping containers and commercial airlines. Narcotics also use private or chartered aircrafts

and boats since there are no hindrances to moving narcotics from one country to the other. The overland

means also employs in conveying consignments of drugs from the production areas to other regions in the

country or to neighboring countries. Indeed, TCNs looking for new markets have had different kinds of

affiliations with local wholesalers, corrupt police, money ponchos some of which have been highlighted by

Cerdá & Kilmer (2020). Such broad networks make it for cartels to wield power and control several aspects

within the supply framework. These ensure that they do not receive any sanction for their unlawful conduct

from the relevant authorities that can be bought. With the pharmaceutical industry evolving all around the

world in the future different criminal networks will also adapt themselves in one or the other way to take the

advantage of the policy loop holes which will exist and cater to the insatiable demand for drugs in the

international market.

The synthesis of more drugs in the markets of the world

In the last decades, the international market for drugs has been steadily increasing. Alcohol and illicit drugs

were estimated to cause more than 100 million of disability-adjusted life years lost and more than 4 million

deaths by 2016 (Degenhardt et al., 2021). Now there are several varied multifactorial causes for the further

development of the drug market and the emergence of new substances. There is one overriding factor,

however, and it is the potentially powerful link, made possible by globalization – interaction of cultures.

From a global perspective, Espada et al. (2019) define globalization as the “export of ideas, attitudes, and

behaviors across countries” (p. 2) among other areas; substance use among youths is one of them. The

internet, social networks as a source of information about drugs, the increase in mobility because of travel

and immigration promote norms. The liberalization of markets for goods and services and of international

financial systems also facilitates the distribution of the new and the existing drugs to the new markets

(Espada et al., 2019). Thus, the social and health conditions of the representatives of some cultures are of

a lower rank, which leads the people to turn to substances. By Dudgeon et al. (2017) culturally, factors

including prejudice, prejudice and trauma which are linked with alcohol and drug issues among indigenous

people like the Aborginal Australians. Such issues exist primarily due to inadequate culturally safe services

and lack of attention to the causes of those issues in the healthcare, and policies. The dynamics may

explain the need to seek coping through substance use among other marginalized groups in the world.

On the supply side, advancement in chemistry and pharmacology can be efficiently used to produce new

chemicals which are likely to have psychotropic effects. Underground laboratories work where legal blind

spots are, are directly engaged in the production and sales of these substances and can do it vastly quicker

than the agencies can curb it (Degenhardt et al. , 2021). Internet allows the buyers and sellers of these

drugs to transact without hitches across borders. There is an apparent link between globalization and its

sociocultural, economic and technological prerequisites to sociophysical availability and demand for a wide

array of legal and illicit psychoactive substances worldwide. Addressing this problem will also involve multi-

dimensional policy and public health interventions with special reference to the political, social and cultural

characteristics of the context as well as the regional and global features.

The cross-border trade effect for the pricing of addictive goods

Taking and using drugs and alcohol and the related issues are a major global and domestic health concern.

Illicit and licit drugs hence have large effects on the burden of disease because they account for millions of

deaths and disability every year. Some of the most frequently consumed and misused products include

alcohol, opioids and stimulants including cocaine and amphetamines. This has however been accompanied

by emergence of some undesirable trends in the use of some of these substances across the world. For

example, the use of alcohol is still very rife across the world, leading to highly increased rates of morbidity

and mortality. Trends obtained from surveys suggest that alcohol consumption and binge drinking,

especially among the youth, has in the recent past started to decline in some of the developed countries in

the west. This cannot be compared with the rise in the use of alcohol in big LMICs as China or India, for

example. The opioid crisis mostly witnessed in the USA has raised concern on the increasing cases of

opioid dependency and opioid related mortality in other regions also. But such countries as the US, Canada

and others account for merely 15% of global opioid mortality; the countries, such as the United Kingdom,

Australia, and Sweden, have also increased the prescriptions and abuse of opioids. It worsens this issue in

many countries and contributes to this problem: Heroin and synthetic opioid use.

Cannabis, MDMA, cocaine, NPS have been affected, especially online anonymous markets for the

purchase of illicit drugs. The payments of such services can be supported by easier payment methods,

which, as it has been discovered, are offered by cryptocurrencies. Since there are online markets, there is

an improvement of access and exposure of the youth to substances that are prohibited. The types of

substance that people use not only have increased in variety but also the type of substances that people

use have moved from plant based ones such as cannabis and opium to synthetic and designer drugs.

These new synthetic drugs like methamphetamine and cathinone stimulants pose new hazards to the users

and the society because of the potency and the unknown effects. Substance use is still one of the most

challenging issues that require the implementation of interventions and solutions on different levels and

based on contributions of various sectors. Preventing supply and demand, reducing the harm from its use,

and early treatment and recovery of services and programs should be accorded top priority; which means

surveillance and reporting on trends in drug use remains crucial in order to fashion the right response to

what is undoubtedly a continuously evolving issue. The third way of waging war on cross border drug

trafficking is through international diplomacy through conventions and agreement.

Globalization creates Cultural Enlightenment and the Dissemination of Addictive Habits

Globalization has led to increased crossing and mingling of the various civilizations across the globe and

according to advocates of this approach, the given cultural interchange leads to an improved understanding

and therefore enlightenment of the subject (Herling & Järvinen, 2019). But the critics will argue that

globalization also helps in the quick spread of potentially risky addictive substances or activities (Heller et

al., 2020). For example, through the process of globalization, the international borders have been

liberalized to create openings for the global alcohol business (Heller et al., 2020). This assist in extending

drinking habits around the world as the alcohol industry expands and shifts to other markets. The review of

the findings of the scientific research indicates that the alcohol consumption trend together with the

negative health impacts have been on the rise in the last few decades and results in more than 3 million

deaths annually (Heller et al., 2020). In the same way, the diffusion of tobacco around the world may be

viewed as an unbeneficial and undesirable phenomenon in the spheres of public health. The normalcy of

smoking in cultures where tobacco was not traditionally consumed was made possible by the tobacco

industry as was seen with the Internationally Popularised Cigarette use (Herling & Järvinen, 2019). This

growing nicotine dependency happened, in turn, to cause a global tobacco crisis, still resulting in over eight

million deaths annually (Herling & Järvinen, 2019).

Globalization may help spread addictive substances which are considered to be potentially hazardous, but

at the same time, they help to spread awareness, and positive changes, as well as the development of

activities to combat addiction on a global scale (Herling & Järvinen, 2019). For instance, the treatment

intervention for alcohol and opioid use disorder such as topiramate and methadone maintenance are

available in some extent in different international settings due to the sharing of the evidenced-based

practice (Johnson & Ait-Daoud, 2018), which is useful in helping people in various countries to gain

knowledge of the neurobiology and the psychosocial causes of addiction as the research and clinical

knowledge rotates around the world. Like any other phenomena in this world globalization has its

advantages and disadvantages. Such enhanced interactions, fostered by interaction between people from

different cultures, encourage exchange of ideas and, at the same time, facilitate spread of substance and

behavior addictions in the world. Thus, international cooperation will continue to be relevant in the future as

part of increasing awareness and the proper approach to addiction and the provision of adequate measures

and means of preserving the health of the population (Heller et al., 2020). Consequently it can be stated

that the advantages of cultural globalization outweigh the disadvantages, if there are proper and thoughtful

policies that would correspond to the goal of education rather than causing harm.

The incorporation of western cultures and new addictive practices

Integration of the western culture has ensured that new vices such as substance and substance like

addictions are embraced in societies across the globe. Kaplan and Shkolnikov (2020), for instance, note

that “addiction seems to spread in waves across world regions and over time in response to large-scale

historical processes, such as colonialism, international trade, and cultural exports” (p. 483). The expansion

of globalization has helped to increase the rate of diffusion of such products to more population, thus

exposing more to addictive products. The most vivid example is the promotion of alcohol consumption and

cases with alcohol use disorders. Alcohol consumption and problems have changed with the introduction of

western alcohol products in new markets. Karriker-Jaffe, Klinger, and Witbrodt (2021) have found that

overall alcohol consumption in South East Asian and Western Pacific regions has risen by more than 50%

between 1990 and 2017 with beer and spirits replacing traditional alcoholic beverages. Subsequently,

alcohol-related mortalities increased 185% in South-East Asia and 550% in the Western Pacific (Karriker-

Jaffe et al., 2021). According to the authors, the alcohol industry has “deliberately targeted emerging

markets as new frontiers for volume and profit growth to export alcohol culture globally” (Karriker-Jaffe et

al., 2021, p. 02).

New technologies have also reached behaviours such as gambling and gaming at the international level.

Following Kelly, Humphreys and Ferri (2020), the goal of extending greater connective and more relaxed

rules of engagement, corporations of developed nations have transplanted potentially addictive practices in

the developing nations. For instance, websites and applications that provide services in the sphere of

sports betting and other types of gambling have become widespread in the context of the borderless

environment. The logics of such business actions argue that such actions have adverse impacts on the

vulnerable groups of people with reference to the view that “gambling disorders are prevalent among

people with low income and education levels globally” (Kelly et al. , 2020, p. 1216). Western media has also

brought in reckless behavior that in a roundabout way encourages substance use and addiction. In the

words of Kaplan and Shkolnikov (2020) the depiction of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs in exported

television programmes, movies, and social media changes perception and drives consumption. Several

articles are provided by the authors evidencing that the level of „„perceived exposure to substance use

content in imported western media‟‟ correlates with the rates of adolescent substance use globally (Kaplan

& Shkolnikov, 2020, p. 489). This way media dissemination not only enlightens the people about the

existence of addictive products but also give signals for consumption. However, in its present formulation it

facilitates „corporate capture‟ and allows the big business to be used to defraud the public while at the

same time denying support for peer support services that are reflective of population subgroups, Kelly et

al., 2020. This paper documents that westernization has caused addictive behaviors around the world

hence public health vices that target vulnerable persons. In order to provide effective treatment leaders

have to enhance the idea that proposed solutions must correspond to the public interest and business

integrity.

Globalization and why global media has normalized substance use

Globalization is a process that has connected countries through communication, technology, transport,

economy, and culture (Meyer & Quenzer, 2020). One of the most significant effects brought about by

globalization is the standardization and accessibility of substances globally. Monaghan in his article of

February 2020 explains that with the opening up of markets and liberalization of trade, people have been

able to transport legal and illicit drugs across borders. Global media has helped to socialise substance use

especially through adverts that glamorise the act of taking alcohol, depicting it as something enjoyable with

little or no repercussions (Mccauley & Ruger, 2021). Current estimates indicate that the alcohol industry

spends over billion annually advertising its products, and such advertisements have been associated with

increased initiation of drinking amongst youths. Portrayals of alcohol and drug use as unproblematic and

without consequences in the television shows and movies available for streaming through Netflix and Hulu

contribute to the normalization of substance use. Even when substance use is linked to negative

consequences, these portrayals also show that substance use is normal in most social events, parties,

during fun making, and handling stress and other life situations. The use of the internet and the social

media has also assisted in the formation of the internet based communities that support use of the

substances. As noted by Mccauley and Ruger (2021), these communities enable the fast and easy

dissemination of information concerning where and how to get the substances and affirm the use of

substances as a part of one‟s identity. When substance use is present to such a significant extent in users‟

social media activity and interactions, it reinforces this phenomenon.

Globalization has also enabled the growth of the illicit drug market and the emergence of international

crime syndicates involved in substance distribution globally (Meyer & Quenzer, 2020). Consequently, the

use of illicit substances has increased and the visibility of these drugs has also risen internationally. When

governments are unable to regulate the supply of the prohibited substances, the message that is conveyed

is that the use of the substances is inevitable and that the enforcement of the anti-drug laws is merely a

waste of time (Monaghan, 2020). This idea that the consumption of illegal drugs is part and parcel of

everyday life is further echoed through the portrayal of such substances in media. Globalization and global

media have continued to perpetuate substance use by portraying it as the new cultural norm, as safe, and

as inevitable in today‟s globalized world. Such influences are going to need international cooperation in

order to address advertising and media portrayals of substances as well as the cultural drivers of

problematic usage.

Globalization’s Interchange encourages various cultural types of addiction

In the contemporary society, the occurrence of globalization has enhanced the degree of integration and

contact between global nations and cultures. The following are some of the benefits that have been

realised from this interchange such as in-information and technologies, and health care. However, it has

also played a role in the spread of distinct types of addiction to other cultures too (Nutt & Rehm, 2020).

Multiple spheres of life such as international tourism, business and commercialization, advertising and in

general, human contact and interdependence have introduced new objects and actions which are capable

of yielding addiction. Globalization promotes trade of goods, services, capital, information, and people

hence the availability of addictive goods including alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs are also boosted. It also

encourages appreciation of behaviors that may lead to addiction for instance gambling, gaming, use of

internet, and consumerism. The above globalized products and activities fit well with certain cultural values,

beliefs and risk indicators to give specific addiction patterns and vulnerabilities of given populations. For

instance, Morgan and Dufour (2018) observe that enhanced globalization, travels, commerce, and terrorism

create a view that drug cartels have expanded the horizons of drug distribution channels and markets

around the world. This in turn increases drug availability and at times hazardous use in different cultures.

But there are other local context factors which include poverty, trauma, exposure, and social isolation that

cause individuals to be at risk of getting involved in drug addiction. According to Nabben et al. (2019), apart

from the global factors, addiction is a multifactorial phenomenon, which includes the influence of the

substance‟s psychoactive effects, the patient‟s individual characteristics and social environment.

Critics argue that aggressive marketing and entry into new markets such as the developing world

legitimizes the use of substances such as alcohol and tobacco, thus establishing high rates of use and

dependency among the vulnerable poor (Nutt & Rehm 2020). The gaming industry also remains a rapidly

expanding industry with proliferation of the technology raising compulsive overuse issues in yet other

populations. Studies reveal that addiction presents diverse characteristics depending on the cultural

significance accorded to a certain activity. As for such issues as video game addiction, their occurrence is

on the increase worldwide, and the manifestations differ in Western and Eastern societies (Nutt & Rehm,

2020). Globalization disseminates products, information and behaviors with addictive potential globally.

However, the probability of addiction and its consequences are still determined by the socioeconomic

situation and cultural attitudes peculiar to a certain population. Since globalization keeps on facilitating the

spread of potential additions, addiction science needs to understand both global forces and localized

factors. Integrative public health approach targeting multiple levels of influence may be the only chance to

prevent the escalation of such problems in the context of the globalization process.

Globalization of the Economy and the Production of Gateway Drugs

Advertising liberalization and the international promotion of alcohol and tobacco

The matter of advertising liberalization and the promotion of alcohol and tobacco across the globe is

multilayered. According to Orford, gambling and addiction industries of today have a lot of clout and are not

easy to confront (Orford, 2019). Their strategies of advertising and promotion can have negative effects on

clients and customers. Pfeifer and Rose also note that addiction is a global problem that the United Nations

is currently attempting to solve through cooperation and regulation (Pfeifer & Rose, 2021). Especially in

terms of alcohol and tobacco, a higher degree of advertising and promotion is associated with increasing

levels of consumption worldwide, which has significant implications for public health according to Roberts,

Murphy and Stickley (Roberts et al., 2021).

While free trade and economic liberalisation have their benefits, free-for-all promotion which is part of the

process that removes restraints in advertising and marketing of products that are destructive like alcohol

and tobacco; can liberate industries whose primary motivation is greed. Through the use of elaborate

marketing strategies and more capital, these industries can effectively seek for new niches and segments,

thereby increasing on demand as well as consumption levels. But as the rates of alcohol and tobacco

consumption stand, a number of diseases and mortality in the global populace are preventable. Despite the

difficulties of policy solutions, Pfeifer and Rose describe how global governance institutions are necessary

when dealing with issues which are transnational (Pfeifer & Rose, 2021). Multilateral polices and

communicated health promoting activities can assist in the attainment of economic and communal goals.

The removal of the restrictive measures in advertising has come a long way in enhancing the sales of

alcohol and tobacco products throughout the world, which system makes it difficult for one to cut down the

consumption as well as the other undesirable consequences that come with it, even when people‟s health

deteriorates on the negative impacts of consumption. To evolve realist solutions, it is imperative to get over

a firm economic and political barrier – for Orford, it is rather deep. However, according to the authors

Roberts, Murphy and Stickley, the fate of the world‟s populations may depend on the adoption of policies,

which may counterbalance the impact of the adverts and promotion of addiction (Roberts et al., 2021). This

will most likely demand a global effort with the support of public health activists and governance structures.

The role of multinational companies in the spread of fast-food addiction

The Room and Hall (2021) point out that the multinational companies dealing in fast foods are mainly

culpable for the propagation of improper eating habits and thereby adding to the increased food addiction

the world over. In their opinion, Room and Hall (2021) have observed that the growth of these firms makes

hazardous foods easily available to populations as they are full of high fats and sugars, which has boosted

the levels of obesity and diseases that are related to the condition in both the developed and the

developing world. As multinational fast-food chains have kept on placing their products in the

advertisements and opening outlets throughout the global they have effectively laid out new standards for

how often one can frequently eat junk foods that are high in sugar, fats and salt content that are likewise

addictive in the way that they activate the same reward system in the brain as other addictive substances

(Rømer Thomsen et al., 2018). By targeting children and adolescents, these firms capture the consumers

from childhood and hence, become hooked on to fast foods and obesity for their entire adulthood (Saloner

et al., 2017). Therefore the societies of the world today face increased incidences of lifestyle diseases like

heart diseases, stroke, diabetes and many others due to the takeover by fast foods.

It cannot be denied that personal responsibility is involved, however, multinational companies are largely to

blame for designing and marketing food products worldwide without concern for their adverse health

effects. It has been observed that these companies have not been able to self-regulate or suppress

aggressive growth strategies that have fueled such destructive eating patterns and food dependency

across the world. Tighter government measures and legislations are required to challenge multinational

food companies and reverse global health epidemics resulting from the penetration of addictive fast foods

onto the global market. Recommendations made by the WHO include taxation of SSBs, ban on the

advertisement of junk foods to children, and policies that promote access and affordability of healthy foods

for consumers across the world (Room & Hall, 2021). And such interventions are very essential in the fight

against multinational food companies that have sought to encourage the consumption of fast foods across

the globe.

The consequence of economic policy for availability of addictive products

The impact of the chosen economic policy on the availability of addictive products is quite significant.

Alcohol consumption has been established as a leading global health issue, contributing to about 3 million

deaths per year and contributing to 5.3% of the global burden of disease and injury as revealed by Room

and Hall in their research conducted in 2021. Alcohol accessibility is directly affected by economic

measures such as taxes, prices and regulation of sales and advertising. These policies have been found to

have a direct effect on consumption levels, the control of the alcohol market by government systems has

been found to play „a major role in the epidemiology of alcohol problems‟ (Room & Hall, 2021, p. e106).

Likewise, the extent of availability of gambling depends on government supervision. As Rømer Thomsen et

al. (2018) pointed out, gambling in itself is not addictive or pathological but there are structural factors in the

global gambling environment that have made excessive gambling prevalent. These include the freedom to

use the rewards, the immediate opportunity to consume the rewards and the perceived mastery of skills.

The level of these risk factors depends on government policy. The opioid crisis in the United States shows

how economic choices in the areas of health care and criminal justice define access to addictive

substances. Saloner et al. (2017) note that very high rates of opioids use disorder among people involved

in the criminal justice system are associated with opioid prescription, limited access to effective treatment

and therapy while incarcerated, and insufficient community-based treatment after release from a prison or

jail. To break this cycle there are policy changes needed such as better screening and diversion programs,

more medication-assisted treatment, and re-entry care coordination.

In all such cases of addiction, there are the visible aspects in relation to affirmative economic use within the

enactment of the health care policies and protocols set down at the political level. That is, as Room and

Hall (2021) observed, there are few evidenced-based prevention interventions for decreasing alcohol use

that depend upon policies other than public ones (p. e107). This applies to other addictive products also.

Though the nature of policy processes may differ, option in economic issues is indeed one of the major

determinants of the access to and use of risky substances. Changes of policies in areas like taxation,

criminal justice, and healthcare have effects on availability of public health. But such reforms involve an

accommodation of interest in the public health domain, individual rights and economic revenue seize. At the

international level, there are complex policy implications since policy can be exported and bought as any

other merchandise such as alcoholic products and tobacco. According to the findings of this research it is

possible to conclude that the application of economic policy measures is possible, especially if used

appropriately, in the moderation of availability of addictive goods and the related health impacts. Since

governments are always in a state of debate as to which way they should turn their policies in the future,

one must bear in mind how economic decisions affect the health of populations.

New Technologies and World’s Dependency Tendencies

Globalization promotes the internet and its use in the promotion of gambling online

Globalization can be defined by the ways that the world has become more integrated and more easily

„shrunk‟ as a result of increased flow of information, people, goods and services across the globe. Below

are some of the reasons as to why internet gambling has continued to expand rapidly within a short

duration: it has availed easy consumer access all over the world (Heller, Heller, & Pattison, 2020). Ever

since the world‟s countries transited to legislating and regulating of online gambling provisions, the

providers have seized those chances and have shifted their focus towards the growth markets in Europe,

Asia, and America (Herling & Järvinen, 2019). A trend towards an increase in the engagement of more

people to online gambling as supported by a change in new and better digital technology as well as global

trends. It has been estimated that through the global market of online gambling, the worth was over $ 58

Billion USD in 2019 and is set to reach $ 92 Billion USD by 2023 (Online Gambling Market,” 2020). Almost

all this growth is attributed to the growing Internet usage and connectivity in the world that helps the

consumers gain access to the offshore betting sites and applications. For example, Heller et al. (2020) say

that via DG, one can advertise and consume vices such as gambling and gaming services. Participation is

facilitated by promotion of the mobility of people, information, and finance as it erases constraints and

generates more markets (Heller et al., 2020).

Pathological gambling and gambling disorder are still recognized as important aspects of public health

issues connected with the development of international Internet gambling industries. Herling and Järvinen

(2019) claimed that despite the benefit of cross-cultural diffusion, globalization further facilitates the transfer

of potentially detrimental addictive behaviors through technology, media, and accessibility. While operators

of online gambling platforms leverage big data and precision marketing, different susceptible populations

globally might be more at risk of developing gambling disorders and dependencies (Herling & Järvinen,

2019). More precautionary measures, preventive awareness campaigns, corporate social responsibility

programs for gambling, and specific multiple treatment facilities may be required to safeguard the

consumers as online gambling likely to grow further in the global market (Johnson & Ait-Daoud, 2018).

When nations look at the regulatory point of view, the aspects of the relative measures of responsible

gambling, consumer protection, and public health should be given attention as this industry is relatively

growing fast. The advancement of globalization and internet usage keeps on opening prospects for online

gambling services that enhance engagement, adverse behavior patterns, and requirements for assistance.

Social media as a tool for advertisement of substances that cause addiction

In the present time, social networks are viewed as depicting essential commodities in asset in several

countries. These are social platforms used to pass on information, concepts and multimedia information in

the shortest time possible. However, it has also promoted the advertisement of all sorts of products

including those that lead to the production of addicts. About up to billion are spent on paid promotions

through social media platforms to alter the behavior of the customers (Sussman & Sussman, 2020). Hence

social media has become influential in appealing to consumers to sell products like alcohol, tobacco, vaping

products and the like. Following the above authors‟ works, (Schneider et al. , 2020) reveal that alcohol and

tobacco industries agreed that they spend a huge amount of capital expenditure in social media marketing

targeting the youths and young adults who are the key consumers. They often use alcohol and tobacco to

produce shift in perception concerning risks and the perceived norms. Research also shows that substance

marketing can increase curiosity, trial and sustained consumption amongst the young people (Klonner et

al., 2021). The companies that encourage vaping, use influencers and the attractive aroma of the product

to allure youths into vaping (Sussman & Sussman, 2020). The use of social media offers an intimacy

between the youths and the various firms dealing in products that the youths are addictive to. People are

not safeguarded from undercover advertising techniques by the policies in place at these platforms.

Cultural norms also explains the relationship between social media and Youth substance use (Schneider et

al. , 2020). For example, in alcohol marketing, user stereotyping is in relation to masculinity or femininity.

Tobacco sponsors the R/EM communities with their products Advertisement. The application of social

media on the papers included in the marketing brings substances that involve culture and social aspects of

consumption. However, regulations are not always adjusted to these nuances in the measures employed in

digital marketing. In general, social media has greatly shifted the way that businesses market and promote

addictive goods for increased consumption and profits. Open promotion and prevention of negative

consequences are uncontrolled, so it is necessary to turn to the formation and establishment of policies and

cooperation with other fields to ensure the population‟s health (Silva et al., 2021). More studies will

contribute to the discovery of such practices as counter marketing in the social networks where the

emphasis is placed more on the truth than on stereotypes. It is also on the side of the social media

companies to improve on the protection and the disclosure of the targeted advertisements. Possible areas

include the following; the continued emphasis of safeguarding young people from exploitation through

commercial sexual exploitation should be observed.

Mobile apps that will make addictive experiences available all over the world

The problematic use of applications that provide addictive content can be considered a problem, as well as

in terms of the quality of life of the population (Vosburg et al. , 2020). This app enables the user to request

such behaviors as gambling and related gaming that elicits the brain reward system. Affects people‟s

physical and psychosocial well-being in the general public, and all across known SES statuses globally

(Westermeyer et al. , 2020). But there are available studies that have outlined practices that can help to

minimize the harms where stakeholders apply them (Williams et al. , 2017). As per the surveys of owning

the smartphones across the global their are the direct proportional kind of scenario of the dangers of the

technology dependences (Vosburg et al. , 2020). When the users are involved in the applications with

variable ratio reinforcement schedules, the users are captured easily and fast and their dopaminergic

responses evoked. These powerful neurological effects also come to play in the issue of impaired control

and tolerance. The evidence reflects the increased vulnerability of youths, and those with mental or

financial problems (Westermeyer et al. , 2020). But again, reliance can develop in anyone who is exposed

for a long time.

Prevention of addictive disorders necessitates a population health approach targeting risk and protective

factors at the individual, family, community, and population levels (Williams et al., 2017). Practices such as

psychoeducation, evidence-based design, Internet safety education, and prevention campaigns have the

potential to decrease the risks. The policy and regulation of technology based on research findings could

restrict the use of the technology by the young people while at the same time permitting its use by adults. It

is therefore important that all the above players work in harmony and balance in order to achieve the

desired goals. Therefore, it is a reasonable idea if innovations that make potentially addictive content easily

available raise such concerns, proactive prevention based on the results of research can reduce certain

harms and outcomes. Therefore, it shall be paramount in the future to continue strengthening science and

science-based consensus regarding prevention in order to advance well-being with the rising interaction

with digital environments. In other words, when approached systematically, public health and technology

can work together towards the betterment of society.

Legal and Regulatory Measures of Addiction in the Framework of Globalization

Cooperation of countries in the sphere of combating the use of narcotics and psychotropic

substances and their regulation

Many of the countries appreciate that they need to perform such acts in regard to situations that occasion

concerns of narcotic and psychotropic substances and substances that are capable of resulting in

psychological effect. Although the worldwide web provides a way of accessing a number of substances, it

entails cooperation (Nutt & Rehm, 2020). Although there are conventions that exist to curtail and minimize

the use of psychotropic medicines for non-therapeutic purposes while still permitting their use for

therapeutic goals (Morgan & Dufour, 2018). However, the manner that people comprehend and apply drug

policies has not yet been enhanced to the same levels in various countries. The first of the cooperative

strategies is the coordination of the measures in drug control on international level designed to lead to the

reduction of the demand for drugs (Morgan & Dufour, 2018). And they promote optimum structures of

prevention and cure, reformation, and community reclaiming measures that are evidence-based. There

should also be consistency as to which programs and projects are involved; the resources to backup these

programs; and evaluation. Among the limitations include, conflict of interest that may exist between public

health and criminal justice and lack of data on the existence of regional programs (Morgan & Dufour, 2018).

Besides the policy level cooperation, the present research also supports the partnership to fight drug

related problems. As it has been observed in international studies there are some trends concerning

antisocial and prosocial effects associated with the use of illicit drugs (Nabben et al., 2019). These data

aids in the area of prevention as well as treatment of substance use and also the problems prevalent

associated with specific substance types or substance users. But, when it comes to program practice,

variance in these areas claims for state-specific intervention. It allows responding to potential problems and

preventing them and/or making sure that similar information about the danger and consequences of its use

are received. Some progress has been made even in these aspects but still there are difficulties in creating

certain commonality of practice in the regulation and control of drugs all over the world. This is so because

conflict of culture and national interests arises. Clarly this is a challenge that has to be addressed (Nutt &

Rehm, 2020). Issues like substance trafficking and other similar issues require collaborations beyond the

borders. Constant and focused effort and synchronized common and mutually harmonic goals to public

health, the countries can at least attempt to strive to control drugs for the betterment of the lives of its

affected citizen.

The issues of enforcing domestic laws in a globalized world

Due to globalization and integration of the world economy it has become very hard for countries to enforce

their domestic laws in foreign soils. Referring to Orford (2019), the modern gambling industry has used

globalization as a tool to enter and expand into communities and societies and thus, legislate. Essentially,

the large scale gambling companies take advantage of the „„poor‟‟ legal setting in some countries to offer

online gambling services, this makes it difficult for nations with better laws to block access from within,

which shows how globalization operates to permit firms to escape domestic polices and norms. Addiction

and substance abuse are other social issues that have been occasioned by globalization. According to

Pfeifer & Rose (2021), they see it that alcohol and tobacco which are addictive substances are promoted

because of the international trade as well as marketing. Whenever the addictive substances get easily

available this enhances substance use disorders at the home front hence exerting pressure on the

domestic health and service centers and police departments. Roberts et al. (2021) has tried to show that

global alcohol consumption is increasing and beer consumption has been observed to have increased by

34% in a period of 1990 to 2017. This growth is, in part, as a result of the fact that most alcohol producing

firms have adopted global market expansion strategies. While global availability of such substances

increases, domestic politics has to deal with consequences for the population‟s health and self-

preservation.

Global integration raises issues as to how the rules with regard to such matters that includes gambling,

addiction and public health can be implemented at the national level. With the increase in the

internationalization of corporations, products and individuals, businesses and their products as well as

governments require the formulation of more effective management responsibilities. To address these

issues requires international cooperation and policies that are in tangent with today‟s globalized world. The

sovereign nations are supposed to work for the benefit of the people and not to go for profits that are

hazardous for the society. Globalization can be described as the interconnection of the world economies

but it has some drawbacks in the sense that one relinquishes some degree of independence. Hence, it

becomes the task of policy makers to seek a rational way to look for the balance of the national and

international governance systems.

The trade agreements and the regulation of substances

Trade policies in the past have affected the governance of commodities like alcohol, opioids, and tobacco

and their ingredients (Room & Hall, 2021). With the rise of globalization, the interconnectivity of countries

has grown, and thus, coordination on matters such as substance regulation is more intricate yet vital. One

of the major challenges identified is conflict of interest where public health is pitted against trade and

industry in trade negotiations (Saloner et al., 2017). Room and Hall (2021) noted that global alcohol

consumption has been rising for several decades, with the majority of this trend in LMICs. Whereas these

nations have inked more treaties liberalizing alcohol import and distribution, increased per capita

consumption of alcohol has been associated with increased mortality and morbidity from alcohol associated

diseases. Certain public health advocates have insisted that trade deals should permit governments more

leeway to implement alcohol control measures that are geared towards curbing risky drinking (Room & Hall,

2021). However, alcohol corporations often lobby negotiators to exclude policies that may reduce sales and

decrease tax benefits.

Such tensions relate to trade related measures of opioids and other substances in tobacco products. Its

advocates acknowledge that opioids have medical use, yet these drugs possess characteristics that lead to

dependency and are employed in a progressively increasing overdosage peril; some oblige for stricter limits

on importation and manufacturing. The tobacco companies have also used the trade agreement tribunals,

as well as, the courts to overcome advertisement restrictions as well as the ingredient bans that have been

put in place to curb the effects of smoking (Rømer Thomsen et al., 2018). Similarly to alcohol, markets do

not support the actions that, in any way, may lead to the raise of their prices at the cost of people‟s health.

Trade policies and agreements are the determinants of the manner the governments handle substance use

and its effects (Rømer Thomsen et al., 2018; Saloner et al. , 2017; Room & Hall, 2021). There is a need to

enhance the international cooperation in order to achieve that business goals are aligned with the effective

legislation to decrease the risky use and dependence on such substances. It is reasonable to suppose that

trade policies might be employed as tools for establishing a better balance between goals and stakes on

the one hand and the population‟s health on the other.

Potential Consequences of Addiction Spread for the World’s Health

The emergence of international epidemics associated with addiction

The flows of trade, people, and information have contributed to the export of addictive substances and

behaviors around the world (Heller, Heller, & Pattison, 2020). Addiction has transformed into a new

generation of a global disease with increasing substance use disorders and behavioral addictions. For

instance, the prevalence of alcohol intake and problematic drinking has risen sharply in developing nations

as they go through economic development, modernization, and being exposed to alcoholic advertising

(Heller et al., 2020). Today, roughly 2 billion people globally take alcohol, and alcohol-related deaths stand

at 3 million per year due to diseases such as liver disease and drink driving incidents (Heller et al., 2020).

The global tobacco epidemic is also progressing as transnational tobacco companies continue to promote

tobacco consumption in low- and middle-income countries. Today, there are more than 1 billion smokers

globally, and 8 million deaths occur annually due to smoking-related diseases such as cancer and heart

disease (Heller et al., 2020). The use of illicit drugs has spread globally given the improved communication

technology and relatively opens borders. International illicit drugs such as heroin, cocaine, synthetic opioids

like fentanyl, and many more are distributed through well-entrenched networks, and substance use

disorders are prevalent worldwide (Herling & Järvinen, 2019).

The other non-substance related disorders such as gambling, gaming, and internet addiction have also

become global ailments with globalization and new technologies. The availability of online gambling sites

and video games has increased significantly globally, and young people are at risk for developing addictive

disorders that affect health, school, family, and employment (Herling & Järvinen, 2019). Internet gaming

addiction is present in 1% to 5% of young persons in the worldwide population (Herling & Järvinen, 2019).

Cross-border mobility for travel, food, and marketing of unhealthy products supported addictive practices

like tobacco smoking and alcohol consumption and unhealthy food consumption as evidenced by the rising

global instances of noncommunicable diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and heart diseases (Heller et al.,

2020). Global policy interventions such as advertising bans, age restrictions on access, and mass health

promotion initiatives are needed to address the emerging epidemics of addiction driven by globalization.

Other pharmacotherapies have also demonstrated potential in treating alcohol dependence and other

substance use disorder across the world (Johnson & Ait-Daoud, 2018). The regulation of substance use,

access to treatment, education, and early intervention will form a platform to address the growth of

international addiction.

Cross-border health care programs for the treatment of the substance use disorder

International health care means patients going to another country for treatment for their ailment. This can

happen due to some of the factors such as lengthy queues, expensive charges, and unavailability of such

treatments in their homeland (Schneider, Bottorff, & Johnson, 2020). International medical tourism is more

common in the management of SUD. An increase in SUD rates is counterbalanced by the fact that many

countries have insufficient treatment available to effectively address the problem. The option of allowing the

patient to go seek treatment in another country can also be useful in enhancing access and easing the

burden on the local healthcare system (Sussman & Sussman, 2020). Some of factors that could be made

with respect to cross border treatment programs include the following. It is also noteworthy that the efficacy

of treatment may significantly depend on the country‟s culture. While western models of change stress „self-

change‟, non-western cultures are inclined towards „change at the level of the group‟ along with involving

the family members (Schneider et al., 2020). The above means that it is important for the programs to

integrate scientifically validated treatments with culturally appropriate modifications. Interpretation services

may also be required due to language differences. Moreover, integration of care across the border can also

be rather difficult. The management of the transfer of records and the follow-up care between providers is

also necessary (Sussman & Sussman, 2020).

Another determinant is trade policy; liberalization for instances promotes entry of alcohol and tobacco

products thereby upping SUD risk (Silva et al., 2021). Consequently, the level of undertaking of the

activities of prevention should also increase at the same ratio with the increase in capacity for heart disease

treatment. There is also a demand in the legislation related to the patient data exchange and concerning

legal responsibility in the framework of the creation of international and multinational healthcare services,

which enables countries to provide specialist treatments for SUD without the concomitant costs associated

with infrastructure. It offers one extra option to the patients; it also tries to contribute to the elimination of

wastage. In addition, there are Aftercare and cultural competence and hence quality standards as other

concerns. Indeed, an improved outcome can be derived from the coherent implementation of the health

policies and these can plan various forms of prevention, raise public consciousness and manage the

relationship of the service providers of the two countries and the patients. Since substance abuse is rapidly

increasing globally, ensuring better treatment availability is significant and challenging at the same time:

what was stressed was a medical, social, cultural and political approach. The other related studies can

assist in determining the kinds of such service models that can be helpful in providing good, cheap and

more patient centred services within various settings in the world.

Global migration and resulting changes in the trends toward addiction

It is evident that migration patterns in today‟s world are vastly different from what they used to be in the

previous centuries. Given that people are moving from one country to another, the rate of substance use

disorders and other addictions rises (Vosburg, Robbins, & Epstein, 2020). Migrants and refugees are

exposed to stressors such as trauma, forced separation from families, discrimination, and social isolation

and hence they are at a higher risk of developing addictions. In their study, Westermeyer, Weiss, and

Thase (2020) argue that the patterns of substance use are most likely to depict the original cultures of the

migrants and the new cultures that they join. For example, Eastern Africa people use khat frequently, and

alcohol and tobacco consumption enhances significantly among the people who are immigrating to the

Western countries. The types of substances used around the globe have also transformed. As Vosburg et

al. (2020) also mention, although high-income countries continue to control illicit drug markets, low- and

middle-income countries are experiencing increased rates of nonmedical prescription opioid use,

methamphetamine, and new psychoactive substances, which shows that the vice has gone global and is

an issue that affects all countries across the globe. Nevertheless, the low- and middle-income countries

continue to suffer from inadequate prevention and treatment services required to tackle these novel drug

threats as well as other addictions.

This suggests that culturally appropriate prevention and early intervention strategies should be developed

to address high-risk M&R groups (Williams et al., 2017). The interaction and integration of different cultures

or groups of people that occur as a result of migration means that evidence-based addiction services may

also need to be culturally tailored. Culturally bound practices can be incorporated into the interventions for

better results in the patients with culturally embedded perceptions. Another important factor is also the

necessity to promote cultural competence for addiction professionals with the migrant clients. Another way

in which one can help is to reduce defensiveness and be willing to find out how others perceive situations.

International migration has remapped the geography of addiction at the international level and that has

shifted the subject matter of migration. Immigrants and refugees thus bring culture and vulnerability to

addiction into other countries; it is therefore mandatory that every country should be ethically and culturally

competent in its provision of treatment for people with addiction. To overcome the issue, the governments

of the countries can assist migrants‟ communities and address issues of addiction in the early stage thus

reducing stigmatization. There is much that remains to be done in terms of research for improved practice

in prevention and for issues of equity in using the best forms of interventions.

Conclusion

General effects of globalization on addiction processes

In this context we have seen that globalization has played an important part in the processes of addiction

all over the world. Morgan and Dufour suggest that easy traffic and distribution of legal and non-legal

substances across the countries of the world are possible there due to globalization, hence there may be a

high tendency of increased levels of addiction in all the countries of the world. Besides this, liberalization of

markets in course of globalization has triggered the increase in promotion and distribution of legal

substances such as alcohol and tobacco by the transnational corporations which leads to addiction

problems (Nutt & Rehm, 2020). Arguably, one of the largest evils of globalization is the fact that global

crime groups and cartels have been able to massively expand the provision of prohibited substances.

Similarly, in their global study on active drug users, Nabben et al. (2019) observed that drugs such as

cocaine, heroin or amphetamines have become more easily available and above all cheaper in many

areas. Such an increase aids to describe the trends of more drug use and addiction evident in the last

decades. However, the survey also revealed that the use of the illicit drugs is not uniform and some of the

users proposed that it has positive impact in as much as coping, self-medication and creativity is

concerned. However, current experts‟ consensus is that more dangerous drugs promoted by trafficking and

consumption due to globalization present a massive threat to human health (Nutt & Rehm, 2020).

Behavioral addictions that are related to the specifics of the new technologies and media have become

globalized due to technological development. With the increased connectivity across the globe new issues

such as internet, video game, and smartphone addiction sets in and young people are the major affected

(Morgan & Dufour, 2018). While accessibility of the digital devices and platforms can be noted to enhance

overuse and addiction potentials for some groups of population – this is not doubted. Again here the

globalization means that potentially addictive products become easier to access while protective measures

are far from adequate. In regard to substance use disorders and behavioral disorders, liberalism has in

most cases encouraged their spread in the entire world. By way of increasing the availability and

accessibility of drugs for use, promoting the over-commercialization of alcohol and tobacco products, and

spreading possible new addictive technologies, global integration has a number of layers of addictions.

Although, more research needs to be done, at the moment there is the belief that these effects have

worsened addiction issues globally according to Nutt & Rehm (2020). The right regulations as well as public

health policies will be useful as the country move to the next level.

Exploration of precarious issues in tackling addiction in the future

The management of addiction brings several risky problems which are as follows: In the future, the above

mentioned risks have to be overcome. With globalization, the interconnection of various countries

increases, and so does the intricacy of addiction (Nutt & Rehm, 2020). Tobacco control strategies to curb

drug demand globally focus more on blanket policies on the side of the suppliers than recognizing and

addressing the need to treat addicts (Morgan & Dufour, 2018). However, restricting access does not

capture antisocial and prosocial impacts of drug use that should guide the policy (Nabben et al., 2019). In a

bid to meet these goals, there is a need for addiction science to grow in size and coverage in line with the

globalization trends (Nutt & Rehm, 2020). One such concern is that the public policies aimed at addressing

the problem of substance dependence are frequently evidence-deficient. International drug policies are

largely oriented toward supply-side rather than demand-side measures in relation to treatment and harm

reduction (Morgan & Dufour, 2018). Nevertheless, the efficiency of such measures is doubtful. It is critical

to understand that measures aimed to strengthen control over drug supplies do not help to counteract

actual causes of demand. On the other hand, such interventions include; psychosocial interventions,

medication assisted treatment, needle and syringe programs and others are critical elements which are

lacking in most national drug policies (Morgan & Dufour, 2018). The phenomenon of addiction is not only

intricate but also international thus the interventions should also be diverse and complex.

The above approach of defining addiction disregards other important factors regarding the motives and

consequences of using drugs. Thus, addiction implies negative consequences, although not all instances of

the use of drugs are always dangerous or hazardous (Nabben et al., 2019). A cross-sectional survey of the

global active users of illicit drugs revealed that drug use also has the following prosocial functions:

pleasure, recreation, social integration, performance, etc. (Nabben et al., 2019). It is for this reason that

policies should consider this complexity and should encourage positive outcomes wherever possible

instead of painting the use of drugs in black and white as is often the case. As the world becomes a global

village, the domains of addiction science must expand (Nutt & Rehm, 2020). This means that no country is

safe from the drug menace and as such, measures should not be done individually. The interdisciplinary

and international cooperation is needed to support research to translate effective treatments for anxiety

disorders into practice, adapted to specific environments. It is crucial to develop and maintain

comprehensive and empathetic coverage of addiction-related issues to envision the policies that will affect

the process in the future. When these delicate matters have been handled with caution, then the future is

bright.

Demand for cooperation in combating the spread and transformation of addiction in the world

For it is necessary to know that at the present people all over the world tend to appeal for united actions

against spread and change of addiction. In its view, Nutt and Rehm (2020) asserted that globalization has

propelled the swift advancement of addictive products and processes in the world. This is now hanging on

the countries involved and this can only be solved through cooperation to ensure that equal result is

achieved. In a cross-sectional study, Morgan & Dufour (2018) discussed the role of global health policies

for the decrease in drug usage. They found out that many such endeavors are more interested with

delivering precaution commodities than with containing desire. A key point that needs to be understood

about demand is that enhancing knowledge of the risk and protective factors that make up the

phenomenon is in fact a requirement in order to decrease it. The other factors that determine the type and

quantity of the drugs depends on the social network of the user. That is why, in a word, Nabben et al.

(2019) identified in a cross-sectional study with 4338 active drug users from all over the world that it is

possible that illicit drug use is both antisocial and prosocial depending on the situation. When responding to

the question of having taken drugs single or with friends, the majority of respondent gave positive effects.

These antisocial behaviors were more related to alcohol and cocaine thereby showing the manner in which

different substances get into the social setting to perpetuate the process of addiction. The urgency of the

need to resist the process of addiction transformation is global, and therefore the strategy should also be

complex. Ideally, it should have general strategies that concerned the supply side and the demand side

(Morgan & Dufour, 2018). It also entails complex understanding of how substances operate in the social

networks to harm the involved persons or groups (Nabben et al. , 2019). Most of all, addiction science,

indeed, has to be expanded as a discipline to include globalization processes that underlie the addiction

epidemic (Nutt & Rehm, 2020). If all these frames are approached with concentrated and well-coordinated

efforts, then the world can make some progress in solving this problem of addiction in the world.

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THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON THE SPREAD AND EVOLUTION OF ADDICTIVE SUBSTANCES AND PRACTICES

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