SPECIES AND INDIVIDUALS IN AN ECOSYSTEM

SPECIES AND INDIVIDUALS IN AN ECOSYSTEM

Ecology generally considers increasing the species richness of ecosystems

productivity, stability, and resilience. Results from long-term field experiments show

that although species richness and interspecies competition outcomes can lead to

fluctuations in individual species of populations, diversity tends to increase the

productive stability of the ecosystem as a whole. Changes in biomass production by

some species associated with different changes in the biomass production of other

species. In other words, a large number of species act as a buffer against reduced

productivity in any one species.

Species extinction is the most concrete example of biodiversity loss. A species

becomes extinct when the last member dies. A species becomes extinct in the wild when

the only species belonging to living individuals is kept in an unnatural environment,

such as a zoo

Ecological theories suggest that several factors contribute to the vulnerability of

certain species. The species most vulnerable to extinction include large organisms; high

food species; species with small population ranges or population sizes; species that have

evolved in isolation; species with little experience of the disorder; species with poor

dispersal or colonization capabilities; species migration, and species nesting or

reproducing in colonies.

their role in the community, for example the position at the trophic level of food and its

Three aspects of ecological niches, including:

1. Relung habitat ( spatial nich, habitat niche )

2. Food niche (trophic niche)

3. Relung multidimensional ( multidimensional niche, hypervolume niche )

The ecological niche of an organism depends not only on where the organism lives,

but also on what the organism does (how the organism changes energy, behaves, reacts,

changes the physical and biological environment) and how the organism is inhibited by

other species

Niche organism = profession ( position )

Habitat can also mean the life of the community. In this case the habitat includes

only the abiotic environment. But it can also involve habitats involving biotic and

abiotic environments, for example, the habitat of Trillium plants is in a humid and shady

are investigating affects or is able to change various processes in the ecosystem

A niche is the position or status of an organism in a certain community and

ecosystem, which is the result of structural adaptations, physiological responses and

specific behaviors of that organism. So the niche of an organism is not only determined

by where it lives, but also by the various functions it has. It can be said that biologically,

niches are a profession or way of life of organisms in their environment.

Knowledge about the niches of an organism is essential as a foundation for

density, collective metabolism, the influence of abiotic factors on organisms, the

influence of one organism on the other

Many organisms, especially animals, have real stages of life development,

successively occupying different niches. For example, mosquito larvae live in shallow

water habitats, while adult ones occupy completely different habitats and niches. Bird

niches or niches are fruit or seed eaters, caterpillar or ant eaters, fish or frog eaters.

There are niches that are general and specific. For example, chicken has a common

niche because it can eat worms, rice, meat, fish, grass and others. Chickens are

polyphages, which means they eat many types. Eating several types is called

oligophages, eating only one type is called monophages like leafhoppers, eating only

rice

there will be competition. In the fierce competition, each type increases the efficiency

The concept of niche (nich) is a new concept. Let us review the analogy above:

"if we want to get acquainted with someone, first we have to know his address, then to

get to know him further we must also know about his position, interests, friends, role in

the environment"

Likewise with organisms, knowing their habitat is just the beginning of

introduction. To determine the status of an organism in its natural environment, we must

know its activities, food, energy sources, metabolism, growth, and its influence on

surrounding organisms as well as its ability to influence its environment. The

morphological size of body tools can be used as an index in comparing the niches of

In his research, Van Valen found that the length and width of a bird's beak are

closely related to the type of food and this describes the niche width index. The

coefficient variation of beak width is affected by the width of the niche (variation in

occupied habitat and variation of food).

In the same species, competition will be greatly reduced if the levels of

development have different loops, for example, hunting for plants (herbivores) while

different geographical area are called ecological equivalents. Species with equivalent

niches tend to be taxonomically related when they are found in close proximity but often

do not have taxonomic kinship when they are found in places far apart from each other

The composition of community species varies greatly in different geographical areas

The type of ecosystem in the grassland will develop where there is a grassland

climate, regardless of the geographical area, but the species of grasses and grass-eaters

can be different, especially if the places are far apart

C. CHARACTER DISPLACEMENT: SYMPATRY AND ALLOPARTY

Species found in geographical areas that are not equal or separated by barriers are

called allopatric, while species found in the same area (but not the same niche) are called

sympatric. Differences in closely related species are often more pronounced (i.e.

divergent) in sympatric populations and differences are reduced (i.e. convergence) in

D. NATURAL SELECTION: FORMATION OF ALLOPATRIC AND

SYMPATRIC SPECIES

A species is a natural biological unit that has the same gene pool or a species is

a closed genetic system. Species or species formation and species development can

occur when the flow of genes in the geen pool is obstructed by an isolation mechanism.

If isolation occurs due to geographical separation, the descendant population of the

same ancestor will produce a new allopatric speciation.

If species occur due to ecological barriers or through genetic factors in the same

area, it will be able to produce new sympatric speciation. The mechanism of the

emergence of new species is mainly due to the existence of allopatric species, that is,

their interests is called artificial selection. Plant and animal domestica does not only

involve the genetic domestica of the species, due to the mutual adaptation between

domesticated and domesticator species that are usually humans

In domestic events, there are actually two pathways of mutual influence, which

can bring changes (ecological and social, even genetics) to humans and the organisms

they are kept. As with corn and humans, where corn depends on humans, but vice versa

humans also depend on corn. A society that depends on corn will have a different

culture from a society that depends on livestock. So the question arises "who is the

slave of whom?" the same thing between humans and machines.

Domestika is a distinctive type of mutualism and is very important because it can

mutualism and not exploitation. Also, some big and bad problems arise due to

F. JAM BIOLOGI ( BIOLOGICAL CLOCK )

What is meant by a biological clock is the ability of an organism to measure its

physiological time. The most common is circadian manifatation rhytm (daily rhythm,

circa: about; dies: day) or the ability to repeat events every 24 hours even without an

indication of sunlight. Other events are related to the periodicity of the moon (which

regulates the tides) and seasonal cycles.

Organisms have a physiological mechanism for measuring time, known as a

biological clock. In general, the daily biological clock is the ability to determine the

time and repeat functions at every 24-hour interval even under circumstances

independent of the presence of physical signs such as sunlight. The biological clock is

the genetic domestication of a species, but also the existence of "mutual adaptation"

between domesticated species and domesticators who are usually humans. So that in

this event there are two mutually influencing pathways that can bring or lead to

changes (ecological and social, even genetic) in humans and the organisms they

maintain. However, if domestication efforts are carried out with lack of calculation

and carelessness, it will actually cause a big problem, with loose and uncontrolled

organisms that are domesticated into the wild and turn into pests

There are two theories regarding the mechanism of the biological clock:

1. The endogenous time hypothesis is that clocks are present in the organism's body

and can measure time without any environmental clues

However, the mechanism of profit of the biological clock is undoubted because it can

G. BASIC BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS

Behavior can be considered as a complex of 8 components where the value of

importance varies depending on the organism:

Tropism occurs in organisms without a nervous system while tacsis, reflexes,

instincts, learning and reason occur in organisms with a nervous system. The behavior

of organisms will influence population habitat selection, aggregations, predator-prey

interactions, and so on.

Tropism motion is the movement of plant parts whose direction of motion is

influenced by the direction of the stimulus. Tromism comes from the Greek

word, trope, which means to turn. If the movement is close to the direction of the

motion occurs in the green algae Chlamydomonas which goes directly to

light of moderate intensity. But when the intensity of light increases, a

certain limit will be reached where Chlamydomonas will suddenly turn

phototaxic motion. This can happen due to a change in light intensity,

namely plants will approach the light before it exceeds its tolerance limit

and will stay away when it has exceeded its tolerance limit.

function as tactic motion stimuli. Oxygen bacteria generally move to

places that produce or contain a lot of oxygen. An example of tactic

motion also occurs in the gamete cells of moss plants. Spermatozoids in

the archegonium also move because they are attracted by sucrose or malic

acid. This movement occurs due to the presence of chemicals in female