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Emotional aspects of childhood career development: importance and future agenda
Íris M. Oliveira1 • Maria do Céu Taveira1
•
Erik J. Porfeli2
Received: 26 June 2014 / Accepted: 27 April 2015 / Published online: 16 May 2015
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2015
Abstract Childhood is a central period for career and social-emotional develop-
ment. However, the literature covering childhood career development and the role
of emotions in careers is scarce. In this article, we advocate for the consideration of
emotions in childhood career development. Emotional aspects of children’s career
exploration, key-figures and interests, as well as of childhood antecedents of life-
long career processes are presented. Relations between childhood emotion, be-
havior, functioning and learning are also presented. Conclusions center on a call for
focused study of the role of emotion in childhood career development and how such
an agenda will advance the literature.
Résumé. Aspects émotionnels du développement de carrière dans l’enfance:
Importance et agenda pour le futur. L’enfance est une période centrale pour le
développement socio-émotionnel et de carrière. Cependant, la littérature couvrant le
développement de carrière dans l’enfance et le rôle des émotions dans les carrières
est rare. Dans cet article, nous défendons la prise en considération des émotions
dans le développement de carrière dans l’enfance. Les aspects émotionnels de
l’exploration de carrière des enfants, les figures-clés et les intérêts, ainsi que les
antécédents des processus de carrière dans l’enfance sont présentés. Les relations
entre les émotions dans l’enfance, le comportement, le fonctionnement et
& Íris M. Oliveira
Maria do Céu Taveira
Erik J. Porfeli
1 School of Psychology, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
2 College of Medicine, Northeast Ohio Medical University, 4209 State Route 44,
P.O. Box 95, Rootstown, OH 44272-0095, USA
123
Int J Educ Vocat Guidance (2015) 15:163–174
DOI 10.1007/s10775-015-9303-9
l’apprentissage sont également présentées. La pertinence de tenir compte des
émotions pour faire progresser la littérature et la pratique du développement de
carrière dans l’enfance est présentée.
Resumen. Aspectos emocionales del desarrollo profesional en la niñez: Im- portancia y futura agenda. La infancia es un periodo fundamental a considerar en
la carrera y el desarrollo socioemocional. Sin embargo, la literatura existente basada
en el desarrollo de la carrera en la niñez y el papel de las emociones en ella es
escasa. En el presente artı́culo, abogamos por considerar el papel de las emociones
en el desarrollo profesional durante la infancia. Para ello, se presentan los aspectos
emocionales de la exploración de la carrera de los niños, figuras clave e intereses,
ası́ como los antecedentes de los procesos de carrera más tardı́os en la vida. Se
presentan también las relaciones existentes entre emoción, comportamiento, fun-
cionamiento y el aprendizaje en esta etapa. Se discute la importancia de considerar
la emoción con el propósito de producir avances en la literatura y en la práctica del
desarrollo de la carrera infantil.
Zusammenfassung. Emotionale Aspekte der beruflichen Entwicklung in der Kindheit: Bedeutung und künftige Agenda. Die Kindheit ist ein zentraler Zei-
traum für die berufliche sowie sozial-emotionale Entwicklung. Allerdings ist die
Literatur, die, die berufliche Entwicklung in der Kindheit und die Rolle der Emo-
tionen in der Karriere abdeckt, knapp. In diesem Artikel setzen wir uns für die
Berücksichtigung von Emotionen in der beruflichen Entwicklung in der Kindheit
ein. Es werden emotionale Aspekte der Erforschung der Karriere von Kindern,
deren Schlüsselzahlen und Interessen vorgestellt, sowie, der Einfluss, von Karri-
ereprozessen in der Kindheit, im späteren Leben. Die Beziehungen zwischen den
Emotionen der Kindheit, dem Verhalten, dem Fungieren und dem Lernen werden
ebenfalls vorgestellt. Es wird desweiteren, die Relevanz der Emotion um die Lit-
eratur und die Praxis der beruflichen Entwicklung in der Kindheit voranzutreiben,
diskutiert.
Keywords Childhood career development � Emotion � Social-emotional
development
Childhood has been recognized as a central period for career development. During
childhood, individuals are socialized to work, engage in processes of learning about
the working world, project themselves in the future, and develop career awareness,
exploration, aspirations, interests, and adaptability (Hartung, Porfeli, & Vondracek,
2005; Watson & McMahon, 2005). The literature has also suggested the importance
of children’s experiences in the development of interests, identity, academic
achievement, educational enrolment, and employability later on in life (Gutman &
Schoon, 2012; Schmitt-Rodermund & Vondracek, 1999; Tracey, Lent, Brown,
Soresi, & Nota, 2006).
Childhood is also a critical period for social-emotional development. Children
are expected to recognize and express emotions, understand others’ emotional
164 Int J Educ Vocat Guidance (2015) 15:163–174
123
states, use emotions in social interactions, progress from external to internal
emotional self-regulation, manage situations and relations according to the direction
and intensity of emotions, and develop social referencing (Santrok, 2010). Children
demonstrate increasing assertiveness, empathy, emotional regulation and the need to
assign meaning to personal experiences with age (Fabes, Eisenberg, Nyman, &
Michealieu, 1991; Santrok, 2010).
Despite childhood being recognized as pivotal for career and social emotional
development, scarce attention has been paid to children’s career development when
compared to adolescents and adults (Hartung et al., 2005; Watson & McMahon,
2005), and even less attention has been paid to its emotional aspects. The scarce
consideration of emotion in childhood career development seems consistent with the
same trend in the general career literature. Although the role of emotion in careers
has been greatly neglected, efforts are emerging to consider them so that more
comprehensive descriptions of career development can be provided and inform
practices that facilitate optimal human and career functioning, resilience, self-
regulation and identity formation (e.g., Hartung, 2011; Kidd, 1998, 2004; Meijers,
2003; Vondracek, Ferreira, & Santos, 2010; Vondracek, Ford, & Porfeli, 2014).
Emotions are involved in individuals’ experiences lived since childhood and
energize motivational functions in the regulation of vocational behavior and
development. For example, Vondracek et al. (2014) model of vocational behavior
and development suggests that behavior episodes are developed since childhood and
rely on emotions. One’s cognitive evaluations of goal attainment or failure may
trigger positive or negative emotions, which are assigned to a specific behavior
episode and serve to fuel or abate future vocational behavior. These cognitive and
emotional evaluations enhance individuals’ vocational learning from behavior
episodes and can be generalized to similar episodes through the elaboration of a
vocational behavior episode schema. The cognitions and emotions involved in such
behavior episode schema interplay in individuals’ approach or avoidance of given
objects/situations and regulation of present and future vocational behavior. The
motivational functions of emotions are also considered in Young, Valach, and
Collin’s (2002) contextualist action theory of career. This theory suggests that
emotions derive from individuals’ situational interactions and can be dialogically
(re)constructed, thus sustaining the assignment of meaning to life experiences, co-
construction of experiential narratives, and guidance of career behaviors, intentions
and projects.
This article advocates for the consideration of emotions in childhood career
development. To do so, the role of emotion in childhood career development
dimensions, antecedents of careers later on in life and relations with behavior,
functioning and learning are considered.
Two aspects must be clarified. First, the chronological definition of childhood is
controversial, especially when it comes to discerning when it ends with ages 12–14
being either presented as late-childhood, early-, or pre- adolescence. Based on the
extant literature of childhood career development (e.g., Hartung et al., 2005; Super,
1994), this article assumes that childhood spans from three to 14 years old. Second,
varying definitions of emotion exist but consensus is emerging by differentiating it
from affect. Emotion (e.g., joy, contentment, shame) represents a set of responses to
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given situations, from which individuals learn how to regulate their life-space
experiences (Fredrickson, 2001). Affect (e.g., hostility, optimism, pessimism)
constitutes stable and longstanding predispositions based on emotional tendencies
of response (Rosenberg, 1998). Emotion is more labile and subject to moment-to-
moment fluctuations based largely on immediate and pressing circumstances, while
affect is more durable to such proximal exigencies. This article focuses on emotion
as it presents a flexible nature consistent with children’s high potential for plasticity
in career development (Vondracek, Lerner, & Schulenberg, 1986).
Emotional aspects of childhood career development dimensions and antecedents of later careers
Regarding the multidimensionality of childhood career development (e.g., Hartung
et al., 2005; Schultheiss, Palma, & Manzi, 2005; Super, 1994), dimensions such as
career exploration, key-figures and interests include emotional aspects.
General perspectives of career exploration suggest the involvement of attitudes,
cognitions, behaviors, and emotions (Taveira & Moreno, 2003). As individuals
engage in career exploration, they experience emotional reactions to it that are
combined with cognition. Emotion and cognition sustain the assignment of meaning
to exploratory experiences and results as well as the regulation of future exploratory
behaviors and career goals. While progressing in cognitive and social-emotional
development, children increasingly articulate emotion with cognition during their
fantasized, imagined or real tryout of activities and roles (Ford, 1992). The
importance of emotion in career exploration is consistent with a suggested
complementarity between emotion and cognition in individuals’ behavioral
regulation (Lazarus, 1991). The emotions triggered by career exploration are also
tied to individuals’ positive or negative performance feedback and might sustain
motivational orientations and approach or avoidant attitudes towards this process
and given objects/situations (Flum & Blustein, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Although most of the literature on career exploration has focused on adolescence
and adulthood, Patton and Porfeli (2007) introduced the importance of childhood
career exploration and suggested emotional aspects of it. Their work suggests that
when children are given opportunities to explore objects/situations, they mobilize
exploratory behaviors, from which emotional responses and feedback are provided.
The experience of positive emotions, such as excitement or contentment, may
sustain the children’s approach of given objects/situations and their in-depth
exploration. Conversely, children’s experiences of negative emotions such as
disgust or shame may stimulate the avoidance of given objects/situations and lead to
an in-breadth exploration of others.
Children’s career exploration and development is also influenced by key-figures,
such as parents. Career exploration seems to be facilitated by a secure sense of
attachment (referring to the child’s construction of emotional bonds with his/her
parents) and an authoritative parenting style (characterized by high emotional
support and demandingness) (Schultheiss, 2007; Tracey et al., 2006).
166 Int J Educ Vocat Guidance (2015) 15:163–174
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Authoritative parents seem to support their offspring’s emotional self-regulation
(i.e., identification, adaptive and autonomous management of emotions) through
vicarious experiences, support for emotional expression and management, and co-
construction of meaning about lived positive and negative emotional experiences
(Grolnick & Farkas, 2002). Children’s efficient emotional self-regulation is vital for
human and career functioning later on in life, as it seems to predict life satisfaction,
academic engagement and achievement in adolescence and psychosocial adjustment
in adulthood (Lewis, Huebner, Malone, & Valois, 2011; Pulkkinen, Nygren, &
Kokko, 2002).
Parents’ work experiences and emotions also impact children’s emotional self-
regulation, work orientation and later careers s. Parents’ dissatisfaction with work
can increase the spouse’s nonsupport for the child’s negative emotional expression,
thus conditioning his/her effective emotional self-regulation (Nelson, O’Brien,
Blankson, Calkins, & Keane, 2009). Parents’ unemployment can also increase the
expression of negative emotions towards work at home (McLoyd, 1989; Nurmi,
Salmela-Aro, & Koivisto, 2002), which might constitute a risk factor for the child’s
development of negative work-related emotions and poor emotional self-regulation
(McLoyd, 1989). In turn, poor emotional self-regulation in childhood has been
related to a propensity for school dropout in adolescence and to unemployment, low
income, and poor quality of marriage in adulthood (Anyadike-Danes & McVicar,
2005; Ferreira, Santos, Fonseca, & Haase, 2007; Kinnunen & Pulkkinen, 2003;
Kokko, Pulkkinen, & Puustinen, 2000). However, the perception of parents’
positive emotions towards unemployment, perhaps born from the freedom it brings,
might also play an adverse effect in children’s career development, sustaining their
lack of personal meaning to work and later unemployment in adulthood (Ek, Sovio,
Remes, & Järvelin, 2005).
Emotional aspects of parent–child interactions are also important. Parents’
emotionally enabling conversations appear to promote children’s academic
aspirations and autonomy in making social- and school-related choices (Tenen-
baum, Porche, Snow, Tabors, & Ross, 2007) and to impact the co-construction of
meaning about such discourses, lived experiences and future career projects (Young
et al., 2001; Young, Paseluikho, & Valach, 1997). Parent–child interactions also
sustain the elaboration of children’s perceptions about their parents’ work
experiences and emotions. Such perceptions have been shown to directly relate to
children’s school motivation and indirectly to work motivation through the
mediation of anticipated positive work experiences and emotions (Porfeli, Wang, &
Hartung, 2008). Children’s perceptions of their parents’ work valences—‘‘degree of
attraction and aversion to work’’ (Porfeli, Lee, & Weigold, 2012, p. 340) based on
one’s general experiences and emotional states about work—also seem to correlate
with the work valences children maintain for themselves.
Children also progress in the development of preferences and adherence to the
RIASEC structure of interests (Tracey et al., 2006). Krapp (2007) suggested that
emotion constitutes an experiential dimension of interests, which interplays with a
rational one based on cognitions. From childhood forward, both the experiential and
the rational dimensions of interests sustain the assignment of meaning to previous
experiences, regulation of behaviors and activity engagement. Individuals’ positive
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emotions experienced before, during and/or after interacting with certain objects/
situations seem to sustain dispositions to continue to be engaged in them and to
develop related interests (Krapp, 2002). Still, negative emotions are also important
for the development of interests. For example, although European and American
literature assert the importance of parents’ emotional support for the development of
children’s entrepreneurial interests (Schröder & Schmitt-Rodermund, 2007), Asian
evidence presents family instability and lack of parental emotional support during
childhood as precedents of such typology interests (Leong, Kao, & Lee, 2004).
Childhood emotion, behavior, functioning, and learning
The presented literature suggests that emotion plays a vital role in career
development from childhood through adulthood. This work signals two distinct
but related channels of influence reflecting positive and negative emotional
dimensions of career. As early as childhood, seemingly view their life roles through
both positive and negative lenses. These emotional channels appear to fuel
motivational and behavioral patterns to approach and avoid career development
tasks. These positive and negative lenses seemingly combine to yield a spectrum of
emotions about work, and the emerging literature suggests that each person’s unique
emotional spectrum may influence their engagement and progress in career tasks.
Children may exhibit unique configurations of these positive and negative
emotional, motivational, and behavioral patterns serving to simultaneously draw
people toward and push them away from academic and career domains.
This prismatic way of thinking about emotions suggests its complex role in
career motivation and behavior. Although positive emotions seem to sustain
individuals’ approach of activities, in-depth exploration and development of related
interests (e.g., Krapp, 2002, 2007; Patton & Porfeli, 2007), negative emotions are
equally important in career tasks (e.g., Ek et al., 2005; Leong et al., 2004). Although
individuals’ general tendency might be to approach activities yielding positive
emotions and avoiding those producing negative emotions, alternative paths are
possible (Fivush, Hazzard, Sales, Sarfati, & Brown, 2003). These possible paths
include positive emotions yielding avoidance motivations and behaviors or negative
emotions fueling approach motivations and behaviors. To illustrate, experiencing
positive emotions after a significant accomplishment may be so gratifying as to
prevent further engagement in the activity having achieved all one desired. This
may be reflected in cases of children who actively participate in sports and
experience great joy in doing so. Despite opportunities to continue the activity,
children may stop playing because they satisfied their personal goal (e.g., won the
championship, made the varsity team). The opposite pathway is also possible.
Experiencing negative emotions when faced with a defeat can serve to embolden
people to engage even more so in an activity. This is commonly observed when
children feel badly after earning a poor grade in school, but work closely with their
parents and teachers to understand the situation and develop an action plan to more
actively approach their school work in an effort to improve their future grades.
These are but a few illustrations to suggest that the role emotions play in career
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motivation and behavior is complex, and yet, underneath the complexity is also
likely to be general patterns of approaching and avoiding activities yielding joy and
sorrow respectively. This is also tied with the individuals’ likelihood to engage in
activities that are meaningful for them and aligned with changing goals and
concerns (Ford, 1992; Lazarus, 1991). Experiencing negative emotions in an
activity may not lead to an avoidant behavior if it is meaningful for the person and
tied with his/her personal goals and concerns. By the same token, experiencing a
positive emotion may not lead to an approach behavior, if it is not personally
meaningful and related to goals that are subject to change.
Our emerging understanding of children’s career emotion, behavior and
functioning is still in its infancy, but established models of counseling practice
for adolescents and adults have been utilizing them for some time. Emotions can
stimulate clients’ change in career counseling based on acceptance, reflection, sense
making and integration of emotions triggered by pervious significant experiences as
early as childhood (Meijers, 2003). The Career Construction Counseling Model
(Savickas, 2011) illustrates the adaptive potential of childhood emotions for clients’
positive changes. This model presents the counselor-client working alliance as a
facilitative and secure process that enables the co-construction of meaning to the
clients’ life stories and further career steps. The model asserts the role of
individuals’ experiences during childhood as foundations for the emergence of
preoccupations that one must then resolve in an occupation. Negative childhood
emotions seem to be more often presented in the clients’ early recollections and in
need for dialogical transformation. This seems consistent with evidence suggesting
that children as young as three years old more often remember negative emotional
experiences, as they require dialogical transformation and sense of meaning (Fivush
et al., 2003). The Career Construction Counseling Model highlights the linkages
among childhood emotion and sense of meaning to previous life experiences when
the counselor narrates a life portrait to the client and must look for emotional body
expressions ‘‘such as smile, tear, blush, or laugh’’ (Savickas, 2011, p. 128) to signal
the clients’ recognition of his/her life story and sense of being understood and
accepted. By supporting the co-construction of a sense of meaning to the previous
emotional experiences and translating them into career terms, this model sets an
acceptable, safe and transformative environment that enables the co-construction of
career intentions and action plans from life tensions of the past. Within this model,
life narrative extending back to childhood and emotional states arising from it serve
as powerful forces within the counseling relationship to promote adaptive career
development.
Children are expected to explore activities and life roles, learn about the working
world and themselves, develop an emerging sense of self, increasingly engage in
instrumental behaviors and articulate emotion and cognition (Ford, 1992; Hartung
et al., 2005; Patton & Porfeli, 2007; Watson & McMahon, 2005). Just as models of
counseling practice have demonstrated the benefits of moving from emotions to
adaptive career behavior and functioning throughout adolescence and adulthood,
supporting children to assign meaning to positive and negative emotional
experiences seems relevant to foster their career development, adaptive career
and academic functioning, and sense to life roles (Baskin & Slaten, 2014).
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The relevance of emotion during childhood is reflected in the broader literature to
include the learning process (e.g., Kort, Reilly, & Picard, 2001), learning and
development from the zone of proximal development (Levykh, 2008), the learning
environment (e.g., Lengelle & Meijers, 2014; Meijers, 2003; Meijers & Lengelle,
2012), and parent–child relations (Grolnick & Farkas, 2002; Young et al., 2001,
1997). Learning constitutes a unifying theme to address childhood career
development (Watson & McMahon, 2005) that seems also to enable the
consideration of its emotional aspects. It may enable a focus on the role of
emotionally supportive and dialogical learning environments in children’s effective
emotional self-regulation, sense of meaning, career development learning and
construction of career projects (Grolnick & Farkas, 2002; Law, 1996; Lengelle &
Meijers, 2014; Meijers, 2003; Meijers & Lengelle, 2012; Young et al., 2001, 1997).
Appreciating and understanding the role of emotions in lifespan career development
opens the possibility of early career interventions that could have a meaningful and
lasting positive impact on individuals’ future work life (Baskin & Slaten, 2014).
Conclusions
This article advocates for the consideration of emotions in childhood career
development. The importance of emotions in childhood career development is
illustrated in career exploration, key-figures and interests dimensions. The interplay
among emotion and cognition (Lazarus, 1991) was highlighted across these
dimensions, being involved in children’s in-breadth and in-depth exploration of
themselves and the working world (e.g., Ford, 1992; Patton & Porfeli, 2007),
parents’ influential role in children’s emotional self-regulation and careers (e.g.,
Grolnick & Farkas, 2002; Young et al., 1997, 2001), as well as an approach/
avoidance of activities and development of related career interests (e.g., Krapp,
2002, 2007; Leong et al., 2004; Schröder & Schmitt-Rodermund, 2007).
This article serves as a stimulus for future literature reviews, research and
practice innovations to more deeply explore the complex role of emotions in these
and other dimensions of childhood career development (e.g., Hartung et al., 2005;
Schultheiss et al., 2005; Super, 1994). Future work could focus on (a) the role of
emotions in children’s in-breadth and in-depth career exploration and motivational
orientations toward school and work, (b) the influence of emotional support offered
by key-figures such as parents and teachers in childhood career development, and
(c) the interplay among emotion and cognition in children’s motivational
orientations, approach/avoidant attitudes and behaviors, dialogical interactions with
key-figures, and development of career and academic interests.
Emotional aspects of childhood career development are important for academic
engagement and achievement, psychosocial functioning and the work role
throughout the lifespan (e.g., Ek et al., 2005; Lewis et al., 2011; Porfeli et al.,
2008; Pulkkinen et al., 2002). Moving from recommendations to employ
longitudinal designs to studying career development from childhood through
adolescence and adulthood (Hartung et al., 2005; Vondracek et al., 1986, 2014), it
would be important to consider the role of emotions in life-span career trajectories.
170 Int J Educ Vocat Guidance (2015) 15:163–174
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This would not only sustain a focus on emotions in childhood career development,
but also enable a deeper understanding of how career behavior and functioning from
childhood through adulthood can be influenced by childhood emotional self-
regulation, emotionally enabling conversations and sense of meaning assigned to
lived experiences. Longitudinal studies would also be important to clarify possible
paths articulating positive/negative emotions, approach/avoidance behaviors, and
adaptive/mal-adaptive career functioning. Of particular interest here would be to
examine the interplay among emotions, sense of meaning, goals and concerns (Ford,
1992) in paths that deviate from individuals’ intuitive tendencies to approach
activities tied to positive emotions and to avoid those related to negative emotions
(Fivush et al., 2003).
This article also suggests that both positive and negative emotions are important
for children’s career development. Future studies could deepen the relations
between children’s emotion and career development learning. For example, future
studies could focus on the flow between positive and negative emotions (e.g., Kort
et al., 2001) in the dynamics of children’s career development learning. Further
research could also identify protective/risk factors and specific moments in the
lifespan in which children move from external to internal emotional regulation and
from external to internal dialogical experiences (Santrok, 2010). Such research
would sustain the identification of facilitative factors and important moments for the
development of emotional self-regulation and needs for assigning meaning to
emotional experiences. This research would also enable the evidence-based design
of early emotionally sensitive and supportive career practices aimed at promoting
children’s career learning and development from positive and negative emotional
experiences (Baskin & Slaten, 2014; Law, 1996; Levykh, 2008). In addition, such
career practices should oversee the collaboration of career practitioners, parents,
school professionals and community policy makers to create emotionally acceptable
and dialogical learning environments. On the one hand, parents could be
empowered to use authoritive attitudes and behaviors to more wholly accept and
discuss the work-oriented emotions of their children (Grolnick & Farkas, 2002). On
the other hand, career practitioners could discuss with school professionals and
community policy makers how to implement and evaluate the efficiency of
dialogical curriculum applications embracing the emotional lives of students
(Lengelle & Meijers, 2014; Meijers, 2003; Meijers & Lengelle, 2012), gradually
extending these practices if they are empirically demonstrated to be efficacious.
These collaborative strategies would enable career practitioners to promote
childhood career development by acknowledging the role of emotions in educa-
tional environments and by adapting practices to parallel advances in the childhood
career development literature. These collaborative strategies could also constitute a
promising avenue for research-practice initiatives needed to sustain the required
systematic and multidisciplinary construction of knowledge of childhood career
development (Schultheiss et al., 2005).
This article pinpoints the importance of addressing emotions in childhood career
development. As childhood is a central period for career and social-emotional
development (Hartung et al., 2005; Santrok, 2010; Watson & McMahon, 2005) and
twenty-first century work environments require increasingly socially and
Int J Educ Vocat Guidance (2015) 15:163–174 171
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emotionally attuned workers, the time is ripe to recognize the potential of emotions
in our growing field of childhood career development.
Acknowledgments The Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology supported POPH/FSE and
European Union funded this work through a Doctoral Grant (SFRH/BD/84162/2012).
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