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SuccessfulWritingatWork11thedition.pdf

Successful Writing at Work

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iii

Successful Writing at Work ElEvEnth Edition

Philip C. Kolin University of Southern Mississippi

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Successful Writing at Work, Eleventh Edition Philip C. Kolin

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Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2015

For Kristin, Eric, and Theresa Evan Philip and Megan Elise

Erica Marie Julie and Loretta

Ethlyn and

MARY

Contents

Preface xxi

Part I: Backgrounds 2

Chapter 1: Getting Started: Writing and Your Career 4

Writing—An Essential Job Skill 4 How Writing Relates to Other Skills 4 The High Cost of Effective Writing 5 How This Book Will Help You 5

Writing for the Global Marketplace 5 Competing for International Business 6 Communicating with Global Audiences 6 Seeing the World Through the Eyes of Another Culture 6 Cultural Diversity at Home 7 TeCh NoTe: Know Your Computer at Work 8 Using International English 10

Four Keys to Effective Writing 11 Identifying Your Audience 11 Some Questions to Ask About Your Audience 14

Case study: Writing to Different Audiences in a Large Corporation 15 Establishing Your Purpose 16 Formulating Your Message 17 Selecting Your Style and Tone 17

Case study: Adapting a Description of Heparin for Two Different Audiences 18

Characteristics of Job-Related Writing 20 1. Providing Practical Information 20 2. Giving Facts, Not Impressions 20 3. Supplying Visuals to Clarify and Condense Information 21 4. Giving Accurate Measurements 22 5. Stating Responsibilities Precisely 23 6. Persuading and Offering Recommendations 23

vi Contents

Ethical Writing in the Workplace 26 Employers Insist on and Monitor Ethical Behavior 26 Ethical Requirements on the Job 27 Online Ethics 29 Cyberbullying 30 “Thinking Green”: Making Ethical Choices About the

Environment 31 International Readers and Ethics 31 Some Guidelines to Help You Reach Ethical Decisions 32 Ethical Dilemmas: Some Scenarios 34 Writing Ethically on the Job 35

Successful Employees Are Successful Writers 38 Revision Checklist 38 Exercises 39

Chapter 2: The Writing Process at Work 44

What Writing Is and Is Not 44 What Writing Is 44 What Writing Is Not 45

The Writing Process 45

Researching 45

Planning 46

Drafting 50 Key Questions to Ask as You Draft 50 Guidelines for Successful Drafting 50 TeCh NoTe: Drafting 51

Revising 54 Allow Enough Time to Revise 55 Revision Is Rethinking 55 Key Questions to Ask as You Revise 55 TeCh NoTe: Revising 56

Case study: A “Before” and “After” Revision of a Short Report 57

Editing 59 Editing Guidelines for Writing Lean and Clear Sentences 59 TeCh NoTe: Editing 60 Editing Guidelines for Cutting Out Unnecessary Words 62 Editing Guidelines to Eliminate Sexist Language 65 Ways to Avoid Sexist Language 66 Avoiding Other Types of Stereotypical Language 68

The Writing Process: Some Final Thoughts 69

Contents vii

Revision Checklist 70 Exercises 70

Chapter 3: Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace 75

Collaboration Is Crucial to the Writing Process 75

Advantages of Collaborative Writing 76

Collaborative Writing and the Writing Process 77

Case study: Collaborative Writing and Editing 78

Some Guidelines for Successful Group Writing 79

Ten Proven Ways to Be a Valuable Team Player 80

Sources of Conflict in Group Dynamics and How to Solve Them 81 Common Problems, Practical Solutions 81

Models for Collaboration 83 Cooperative Model 84 Sequential Model 84 Functional Model 87 Integrated Model 87

Case study: Evolution of a Collaboratively Written Document 89

Computer-Supported Collaboration 95 Advantages of Computer-Supported Collaboration 96 Groupware and Face-to-Face Meetings 96 Types of Groupware 96 Email 96 Document Tracking Software 97 Web-Based Collaboration Systems 97

Case study: Using Google Docs as a Collaboration Tool 100 Models for Computer-Supported Collaboration 102 Avoiding Problems with Online Collaboration 103

Meetings 103 Planning a Meeting 103 TeCh NoTe: Virtual Meetings 104 Creating an Agenda 105 Observing Courtesy at a Group Meeting 105 Writing the Minutes 105 TeCh NoTe: Videoconferencing with Skype 106

Conclusion 109 Revision Checklist 110 Exercises 111

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Part II: Correspondence 114

Chapter 4: e-Communications at Work: email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media 116

The Flow of Information through E-Communications 116

Differences Among E-Communications 117

E-Communications Are Legal Records 117 Legal/Ethical Guidelines to Follow in Writing E-Communications 117

Email: Its Importance in the Workplace 118 Business Email Versus Personal Email 119 Guidelines for Using Email on the Job 120 When Not to Use Email 124

Blogs 125 Blogs Are Interactive 125 Blog Sponsors 127 Two Types of Blogs 127 Guidelines for Writing Business Blogs 129

Case study: Writing a Blog to Keep Customer Goodwill 133

Messaging 135 Messages 135 When to Use Messages Versus Emails 136 Guidelines for Using Messages in the Workplace 137 Text Messages 138

Writing for Social Media in the Workplace 139 How Social Media Helps Business 140 Staying Connected on Social Media Sites 142 Know Your Customers and What They Like 143 Choose Your Content Carefully 144 Style 144 How to Respond to Criticism 145 Visuals 145

Conclusion 147 Revision Checklist 148 Exercises 149

Chapter 5: Writing Letters: Some Basics for Communicating with Audiences Worldwide 152

Essential Advice on Writing Effective Letters 152

Letters in the Age of the Internet 153

Different Ways to Send Letters 154

Contents ix

Letter Formats 155 Full-Block Format 155 Modified-Block Format 155 Semi-Block Format 155 Continuing Pages 157

Parts of a Letter 158 Heading 159 Date Line 159 Inside Address 159 Salutation 159 Body of the Letter 160 Complimentary Close 160 Signature 160 Enclosure Line 162 Copy Notation 162

The Appearance of Your Letter 162

Envelopes 163

Organizing a Standard Business Letter 164

Making a Good Impression on Your Reader 164 Achieving the “You Attitude”: Four Guidelines 167

International Business Correspondence 169 Ten Guidelines for Communicating with International Readers 169

Case study: Writing to Readers from a Different Culture 173 Respecting Readers’ Nationality and Ethnic/Racial Heritage 176

Case study: Writing to a Client from a Different Culture: Two Versions of a Sales Letter 177

Sending Professional-Quality Letters: Some Final Advice to Seal Your Success 181 Revision Checklist 181 Exercises 183

Chapter 6: Types of Business Letters and Memos 187

Formulating Your Message 187 Letter Writers Play Key Roles 188 Letters and Collaboration at Work 188

The Five Most Common Types of Business Letters 189

Inquiry Letters 189

Cover Letters 191

Special Request Letters 191

Sales Letters 192 Preliminary Guidelines 192

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TeCh NoTe: Mail Merge 194 The Four A’s of Sales Letters 194

Customer Relations Letters 198 Diplomacy and Reader Psychology 199 The Customers Always Write 199 Being Direct or Indirect 199

Case study: Two Versions of a Bad News Message 200 Follow-Up Letters 203 Complaint Letters 203 Adjustment Letters 208 Refusal-of-Credit Letters 215 Collection Letters 217

Memos 220 Memo Protocol and Company Politics 220 Sending Memos: Email or Hard Copy? 221 Memo Format 221 Memo Parts 221 Questions Your Memo Needs to Answer for Readers 222 Memo Style and Tone 224 Strategies for Organizing a Memo 224 Organizational Markers 226

Writing Business Letters and Memos That Matter: A Summary 228 Revision Checklist 228 Exercises 231

Chapter 7: how to Get a Job: Searches, Networking, Dossiers, Portfolios/Webfolios, Résumés, Transitioning to a Civilian Job, Letters, and Interviews 236

Steps an Employer Takes When Hiring 236

Steps to Follow to Get Hired 237

Analyzing Your Strengths and Restricting Your Job Search 237

Enhancing Your Professional Image 238

Looking in the Right Places for a Job 239

Using Online Social and Professional Networking Sites in Your Job Search 242 Finding Jobs Through Networking Sites 242 Using Facebook to Start Your Network 243 LinkedIn 244 Promoting Your Best Image—Some Do’s and Don’ts 245

Dossiers and Letters of Recommendation 251 Obtaining Letters of Recommendation 251

Career Portfolios/Webfolios 252

Contents xi

What Not to Include in a Career Portfolio/Webfolio 254 Career Portfolio/Webfolio Formats 254

Preparing a Résumé 254 What Employers Like to See in a Résumé 254 The Process of Writing Your Résumé 257 Parts of a Résumé 260 Organizing Your Résumé 265

Transitioning into the Civilian Workforce 266 Using a Civilian Résumé Format, Language, and Context 269

The Digital Résumé 271 Things to Keep in Mind when Preparing a Digital Résumé 272 Ways to Submit Your Digital Résumé 272 Making Your Digital Résumé Ready for Applicant Tracking Systems 276

Case study: Creating a Digital Résumé for a Job Search 276 Making Your Résumé Cybersafe 279 Testing, Proofreading, and Sending Your Digital Résumé 279

Letters of Application 280 How Application Letters and Résumés Differ 280 Writing the Letter of Application 281

Going to an Interview 288 Being Ready for a Phone Interview 288 Preparing for an Interview 288 TeCh NoTe: Skype Interviews 289 Questions to Expect at Your Interview 290 What Do I Say About Salary? 292 Questions You May Ask the Interviewer(s) 292 What Interviewer(s) Can’t Ask You 293 Ten Interview Do’s and Don’ts 293 The Follow-Up Letter 294

Keep a Job Search Record 294

Accepting or Declining a Job Offer 296

Searching for the Right Job Pays 296 Revision Checklist 296 Exercises 297

Part III: Gathering and Summarizing Information 302

Chapter 8: Doing Research, evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace 304

Skills Necessary to Do Research 304

Characteristics of Effective Workplace Research 305

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The Research Process 305

Two Types of Research: Primary and Secondary 306 Conducting Primary Research 306 Doing Secondary Research 307 Methods of Primary versus Secondary Research 307

Primary Research 307 Direct Observation, Site Visits, and Tests 307 Interviews and Focus Groups 308 Surveys 313

Case study: The WH eComm Survey 315

Secondary Research 319 Libraries 319 TeCh NoTe: Intranets 321 Databases 323 Reference Materials 324 TeCh NoTe: Gray Literature 328 Internet Searches 329 How to Conduct Keyword Searches: Some Guidelines 330 Evaluating Websites 331

The Importance of Note Taking 333 How to Take Effective Notes 333 What to Record 334 To Quote or Not to Quote 334 TeCh NoTe: Electronic Note-Taking Software 335

Documenting Sources 337 The Ethics of Documentation: Determining What to Cite 337 Parenthetical Documentation 339 Preparing MLA Works Cited and APA References Lists 340 Sample Entries in MLA Works Cited and APA

References Lists 340 A Business Research Report 347

Conclusion 363 Revision Checklist 363 Exercises 365

Chapter 9: Summarizing Information at Work 372

Summaries in the Information Age 372

The Importance of Summaries in Business 373

Contents of a Summary 373 What to Include in a Summary 374 What to Omit from a Summary 374

Contents xiii

Preparing a Summary 374

TeCh NoTe: Using Software to Summarize Documents 375 Make Sure Your Summary Is Ethical 376

Case study: Summarizing an Original Article 376

Executive Summaries 383 What Managers Want to See in an Executive Summary 383 Organization of an Executive Summary 384

Evaluative Summaries 385 Guidelines for Writing a Successful Evaluative

Summary 385 Evaluating the Content 386 Evaluating the Style 386

Abstracts 387 Differences Between a Summary and an Abstract 387 Writing an Informative Abstract 389 Writing a Descriptive Abstract 389

Writing Successful News Releases 390 Subjects Appropriate for News Releases 390 News Releases About Bad News 390 Organization of a News Release 390

Conclusion 392 Revision Checklist 393 Exercises 393

Part IV: Preparing Documents and Visuals 398

Chapter 10: Designing Clear Visuals 400

Visual Thinking in the Global Workplace 400

The Purpose of Visuals 401

Types of Visuals and Their Functions 402

Choosing Effective Visuals 402 Ineffective Visuals: What Not to Do 406

Generating, Scanning, and Uploading Visuals 407

Inserting and Writing About Visuals: Some Guidelines 407 Identify Your Visuals 407 Cite the Source for Your Visuals 408 Insert Your Visuals Appropriately 408 Introduce Your Visuals 409 Interpret Your Visuals 409

Two Categories of Visuals: Tables and Figures 410

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Tables 410 Parts of a Table 410 Guidelines for Using Tables 410

Figures 412 Graphs 412 Charts 414 Pictographs 421 Maps 423 Photographs 424 TeCh NoTe: Using Photoshop® 427 Drawings 428 Clip Art 430 Infographics 431

Using Visuals Ethically 433 Guidelines for Using Visuals Ethically 434

Using Appropriate Visuals for International Audiences 436 Visuals Do Not Always Translate from One Culture to Another 439 Guidelines for Using Visuals for International Audiences 439

Conclusion 441 Revision Checklist 442 Exercises 442

Chapter 11: Designing Successful Documents and Websites 448

Characteristics of Effective Design 448

Organizing Information Visually 449

The ABCs of Print Document Design 449 Page Layout 449 Typography 454 Heads and Subheads 456 Graphics 458 Using Color 459

Desktop Publishing 459 Type 460 Templates 460 Graphics 460

Case study: Designing a Company Newsletter: Advice from a Pro 462

Before Choosing a Design 463

Writing for and Designing Websites 464 Web Versus Print Readers 465

Contents xv

Case study: Differences between Print Document Organization and Website Organization 465

Preparing a Successful Home Page 467 Designing and Writing for the Web: Eight Guidelines 468 TeCh NoTe: Website Accessibility 471

TeCh NoTe: Website Design Templates 473

Creating Storyboards for Websites and Other Documents 473

Four Rules of Effective Page Design: A Wrap-Up 475 Revision Checklist 475 Exercises 476

Chapter 12: Writing Instructions and Procedures 480

Instructions, Procedures, and Your Job 480

Why Instructions Are Important 480 Safety 481 Efficiency 481 Convenience 481

The Variety of Instructions: A Brief Overview 482

Assessing and Meeting Your Audience’s Needs 484 Key Questions to Ask About Your Audience 485 Writing Instructions for International Audiences 486

Using Word-Processing Software to Help You Design Instructions 486

The Process of Writing Instructions 487 Plan Your Steps 487 Perform a Trial Run 487

Case study: Meeting Your Audience’s Needs 488 Write and Test Your Draft 489 Revise and Edit 490

Using the Right Style 490

Using Visuals Effectively 491 Guidelines for Using Visuals in Instructions 492

The Six Parts of Instructions 493 Introduction 493 List of Equipment and Materials 494 Steps for Your Instructions 494 Warnings, Cautions, and Notes 497 Conclusion 499 Troubleshooting Guide 499

Model of Full Set of Instructions 499

xvi Contents

Writing Procedures for Policies and Regulations 510 Some Examples of Procedures 510 Meeting the Needs of Your Marketplace 511

Case study: Writing Procedures at Work 511

Some Final Advice 514 Revision Checklist 514 Exercises 515

Chapter 13: Writing Winning Proposals 518

Proposals Are Persuasive Plans 519

Proposals Frequently Are Collaborative Efforts 520

Types of Proposals 520 Solicited Proposals and Requests for Proposals (RFPs) 520 Unsolicited Proposals 523 Internal and External Proposals 523 TeCh NoTe: Finding U.S. Government RFPs Online 523

Eight Guidelines for Writing a Successful Proposal 524

TeCh NoTe: Document Design and Your Proposal 525

Internal Proposals 526 Some Common Topics for Internal Proposals 526 Following the Proper Chain of Command 527 Ethically Anticipating and Resolving Corporate Readers’ Problems 527

Case study: Drafting an Internal Proposal to Create a Mobile App for a Health Food Store 528

Organization of an Internal Proposal 529 Sales Proposals 536

Knowing Your Audience and Meeting Its Needs 536 Being Ethical and Legal 536 Organization of a Sales Proposal 539

Proposals for Research Reports 542 Organization of a Proposal for a Research Report 542

A Final Reminder 548 Revision Checklist 548 Exercises 550

Chapter 14: Writing effective Short Reports 554

Why Short Reports Are Important 554

Types of Short Reports 555

Eight Guidelines for Writing Short Reports 555

Contents xvii

1. Anticipate How an Audience Will Use Your Report 556 TeCh NoTe: Creating Templates for Short Reports 556 2. Do the Necessary Research 557 3. Be Objective and Ethical 557 TeCh NoTe: Using the Web to Do Research for Short Reports 558 4. Organize Carefully 558 5. Write Clearly and Concisely 560 6. Create a Reader-Centered Design 560 7. Include Visuals/Graphics/Tables Only When They Are Needed 561 8. Choose the Most Appropriate Format 561

Periodic Reports 561

Sales Reports 561

Case study: A Poor and an Effective Short Report 562

Progress Reports 567 Audience for Progress Reports 567 Frequency of Progress Reports 568 Parts of a Progress Report 568

Employee Activity/Performance Reports 571 Guidelines for Writing an Activity Report 571

Trip/Travel Reports 573 Questions Your Trip/Travel Report Needs to Answer 573 Common Types of Trip/Travel Reports 573

Test Reports 579

Case study: Two Sample Test Reports 579 Questions Your Test Report Needs to Answer 583

Incident Reports 584 When to Submit an Incident Report 584 Parts of an Incident Report 584 Protecting Yourself Legally 586

Short Reports: Some Final Thoughts 587 Revision Checklist 588 Exercises 590

Chapter 15: Writing Careful Long Reports 594

Characteristics of a Long Report 595 Scope 595 Research 595 Format 596 Timetable 596 Audience 596 Collaborative Effort 597

xviii Contents

TeCh NoTe: Using Government-Sponsored Research 597

The Process of Writing a Long Report 598

Parts of a Long Report 599 Numbering the Pages of a Long Report 599 Front Matter 599 Text of the Report 602 Back Matter 605

A Model Long Report 605

Final Words of Advice About Long Reports 621 Revision Checklist 622 Exercises 622

Chapter 16: Making Successful Presentations at Work 624

Writing a Document Versus Making a Presentation 624

Types of Presentations 625 For Your Customers or Clients 625 For Your Boss 625 For Your Co-Workers 625 For Community Leaders or Groups 626

Informal Briefings 626

Formal Presentations 627 Analyzing Your Audience 627 The Parts of Formal Presentations 629 Presentation Software 635 Noncomputerized Presentations 638 Rehearsing Your Presentation 639 Delivering Your Presentation 639 Evaluating Presentations 642

Revision Checklist 644 Exercises 644

Appendix: A Writer’s Brief Guide to Paragraphs, Sentences, and Words A-1

Paragraphs A-1 Writing a Well-Developed Paragraph A-1 Supply a Topic Sentence A-1 Three Characteristics of an Effective Paragraph A-2

Sentences A-5 Constructing and Punctuating Sentences A-5 What Makes a Sentence A-5 Avoiding Sentence Fragments A-6

Contents xix

Correcting Comma Splices A-7 Making Subjects and Verbs Agree in Your Sentences A-9 Writing Sentences That Say What You Mean A-10 Using Pronoun References Correctly A-12

Words A-12 Spelling Words Correctly A-12 Using Apostrophes Correctly A-12 Inserting Hyphens Properly A-13 Using Ellipses A-14 Using Numerals Versus Words A-14 Matching the Right Word with the Right Meaning A-14

Proofreading Marks A-19 Index I-1

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Preface

Successful Writing at Work, Eleventh Edition, is a practical, comprehensive intro- ductory text for business, technical, professional, and occupational writing courses. Regardless of a student’s career choice, writing is a vital part of virtually every job, and as readers of earlier editions have learned, Successful Writing at Work can help them become better writers while they also learn to develop and design effective workplace documents for multicultural, global audiences. Successful Writing at Work, Eleventh Edition, is organized to take students step-by-step from the basic concepts of audience analysis, purpose, message, style, and tone to the processes of researching, drafting, revising, formatting/designing, and editing. Students will learn to write a variety of job-related documents, from emails, social media posts, and correspondence to more complex instructions, proposals, reports, websites, and presentations.

BuIldIng on Past edItIons Benefiting from the feedback of instructors, students, and employers over many editions, this revised Eleventh Edition continues to give students detailed, clear guidelines for preparing well-organized and readable business documents. More- over, because effective models are critical for learning new skills, students will find a wide range of realistic, up-to-date, and rhetorically diverse examples (all of them annotated and visually varied) demonstrating the function, scope, format, and orga- nization of numerous documents for audiences with differing needs. Each of these model documents focuses directly on practical issues in the world of work and por- trays employees as successful writers, either individually or as part of a collabora- tive writing group. Furthermore, this new edition fully covers a broad spectrum of current workplace technologies and considerations, such as social media, messag- ing, Google Docs, professional networking sites, Skype, and Prezi.

VersatIlIty of new eleVenth edItIon As in past editions, this Eleventh Edition is as versatile as it is comprehensive. Full enough for a sixteen-week semester, it can also be easily adapted to shorter six-, eight-, or ten-week courses. Successful Writing at Work, Eleventh Edition, is designed to go beyond classroom applications: It is a ready reference that stu- dents can easily carry with them as they begin or advance in the workplace. As students will discover, this edition maintains the reputation of former editions by

xxii Preface

including numerous practical applications in each book chapter and also in the MindTap Reader version of the text. It can be as useful to readers with little or no job experience as to those with years of experience in one or several fields. This edition also addresses the needs of students re-entering the job market or chang- ing careers.

dIstInCtIVe aPProaCh of suCCessful wrItIng at work The distinctive approach that in the past has made Successful Writing at Work a student-friendly text in the contemporary workplace continues to be empha- sized and expanded in this Eleventh Edition. This approach, stressing up-to-date strategies for teaching business, technical, and professional writing, can be found throughout this new edition.

●● Analyzing audiences. The Eleventh Edition focuses on the importance of audience analysis and the writer’s obligation to achieve the “you attitude” in every workplace document. In addition, the concept of audience extends to readers worldwide, as well as to non-native speakers of English, whether as co-workers, employers, clients, or representatives of various agencies and organizations. Memos, emails, social media posts, letters, résumés, reports, presentations, and other documents are written, designed, organized, and introduced with the intended audience(s) in mind.

●● Seeing writing as a problem-solving activity. The Eleventh Edition con- tinues to approach writing not merely as a set of rules and formats but as a problem-solving activity in which employees meet the needs of their em- ployers, co-workers, customers, clients, community groups, and vendors worldwide by getting to the bottom line. This approach to writing, intro- duced in Chapter 1 and carried throughout the text, helps students to think through the writing process by asking the key questions of who (who is the audience?), why (why do they need this document?), what (what is the mes- sage?), and how (how can the writer present the most appropriate style, tone, and format?). As in earlier editions, this Eleventh Edition teaches students how to develop the critical skills necessary for planning, drafting, revising, editing, and formatting a variety of documents. To help them, numerous case studies and figures demonstrate how writers answer these key questions to solve problems in the world of work.

●● Being an ethical employee. Companies expect their employees to behave and write ethically. As in earlier editions, the Eleventh Edition reinforces and expands discussions of ethical writing practices in almost every chap- ter. Beginning with enhanced coverage of ethical writing and solving ethi- cal dilemmas at work, Chapter 1 further stresses “Ethical Writing in the Workplace.” Subsequent chapters offer practical guidelines on and numer- ous examples of documents that illustrate the types of ethical choices work- ers must make in the business world. Special attention is given to editing to avoid sexism and biased language in Chapter 2; working cooperatively with a

Preface xxiii

collaborative writing team in Chapter 3; making ethical choices when writing e-communications, including email, messages, blogs, and social media posts in Chapter 4; drafting diplomatic letters in Chapters 5 and 6; preparing hon- est, realistic résumés and webfolios in Chapter 7; conducting truthful, objec- tive, and carefully documented research in Chapter 8; using and constructing unbiased visuals and ethical websites in Chapters 10 and 11; preparing safe, legal instructions and procedures in Chapter 12; writing honest proposals and reports in Chapters 13 to 15; and making clear and accurate presenta- tions in Chapter 16.

●● Writing for the global marketplace. Effective employees must write for a variety of readers, both in the United States and across the globe. Con- sequently, this new Eleventh Edition throughout emphasizes writing for international readers and non-native speakers of English. The needs and expectations of these international audiences receive special attention in the Eleventh Edition, starting in “Writing for the Global Marketplace” in Chap- ter 1 and continuing with coverage of writing letters for international speak- ers of English in Chapter 5, designing appropriate visuals and documents for this audience in Chapter 10, preparing clear instructions in Chapter 12, and making presentations for global audiences in Chapter 16. Especially im- portant is the long report in Chapter 15 on the role international workers play in a corporation that must meet their needs and those of their clients worldwide.

●● Viewing student readers as business professionals. To encourage students in their job-related writing, this new Eleventh Edition treats them as pro- fessionals seeking success at different phases of their business. Students are asked to place themselves in the workplace setting (or, in the case of Chap- ter 7, in the role of job seekers) as they approach each topic, to understand the differences between workplace and academic writing better. Chapter 1 gives them an orientation to the kinds of corporate culture and protocols that they might find in the early days of their employment. Students are then asked to see themselves as members of a collaborative team drafting and de- veloping an important workplace document in Chapter 3; in Chapters 4 to 6 they write to fellow employees and superiors and represent their company through routine e-communications and respectful and diplomatic correspon- dence; in Chapters 10 and 11 they are co-workers designing documents, visu- als, and websites; in Chapters 12 through 15 they are employees designing and writing more complex documents, such as instructions, proposals, and reports; and in Chapter 16 they are company representatives making presen- tations before co-workers and potential clients worldwide.

●● Using the latest workplace technologies. This new edition offers the most current coverage of communication technologies for writing successfully in the rapidly changing world of work, including social media (such as Face- book, Twitter, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Instagram, Flickr, YouTube, and Yelp), email, messaging, wikis, document tracking systems, Google Docs, busi- ness blogs, tablets, smartphones, videoconferencing tools, and presentation

xxiv Preface

software such as PowerPoint and Prezi. Coverage of these technologies is integrated into each chapter through Tech Notes, Case Studies, sample docu- ments, and text discussion, and Chapter 4 illustrates many of these new tech- nologies in action. Easy-to-understand explanations and annotated models throughout this edition assist students in discovering the hows as well as the whys of writing and using visuals for the digital world of work.

●● Commitment to ecology. The Eleventh Edition continues to stress envi- ronmental issues and greening the workplace though a section in Chapter 1 (“Thinking Green: Making Ethical Choices About the Environment”), in- structions on fixing a leaky faucet and installing solar panels in Chapter 12, a progress report emphasizing the use of solar energy in Chapter 14, and sev- eral other sample documents and Exercises throughout the text.

oVerVIew of Major Changes In the eleVenth edItIon In response to reviewer feedback and that of instructors and their students, the new Eleventh Edition has undergone some major changes to make it more useable and effective:

●● This new edition has been streamlined, shortened, updated, and redesigned to provide essential and current coverage of major communication strategies with real-world examples that students need to succeed in today’s e-world of work. Chapter 8, for example, has been thoroughly revised to make it even more student-friendly, retaining only the most important informa- tion students need to conduct research and properly evaluate and docu- ment sources in the workplace. The discussion of memos has been moved to Chapter 6 to show how letters and memos work together in the business world.

●● The new edition features a strong emphasis on and integration of social me- dia throughout, including a new section on cyberbullying in Chapter 1, a sec- tion on ethical guidelines to follow when writing for social media and other e-communications in Chapter 4, a new section in Chapter 4 that highlights how to write effectively in the medium and includes examples of Facebook and Twitter posts, examples of Facebook and LinkedIn profiles and a list of social media “do’s and don’ts” when looking for a job in Chapter 7, an ex- tended example showing how social media can help rent units in a new apart- ment complex in the updated business report in Chapter 8, examples of how social media can help shape proposals in Chapter 13, and a discussion of how it can influence the findings in a long report in Chapter 15.

●● The use of tablets and smartphones in the workplace has been included and addressed throughout the text, including a discussion of their use in e- and m-communications in Chapter 4. The rise of m-commerce is also addressed in proposals in Chapter 13 and a short report in Chapter 14. Additionally, many exercises have been revised throughout the text to showcase the impor- tance of these communication tools.

Preface xxv

●● Many new Tech Notes and exercises have been added, as well as new Case Studies tied to technology. All existing Tech Notes have been updated with the latest information and technological advances.

●● Now available with MindTap! MindTap is the digital learning solution that helps instructors engage and transform today’s students into critical think- ers, communicators, and writers. Numerous real-world examples and strong visuals come to life in the MindTap Reader, where students can search, high- light, and take notes, right on the text. Students build grammar, mechanics, and writing skills with interactive activities and apply those skills to project and writing assignments. A variety of writing and research apps allow stu- dents to collaborate and improve their research. Instructors can customize the course by blending their own materials with curated content, and in- corporate additional examples and models, as desired. An easy-to-use paper management system allows for submission, grading, peer review, and pla- giarism prevention. With MindTap for Successful Writing at Work, Eleventh Edition, students reveal mastery of the text’s skills and strategies to find their voice as professional writers.

ChaPter-By-ChaPter uPdates Here, then, chapter-by-chapter, are the specific new additions and features of the Eleventh Edition.

Chapter 1 Getting Started: Writing and Your Career

●● Revised case study on adapting technical information to meet the needs of diverse audiences within a corporate setting

●● Revised section, “Employers Insist on and Monitor Ethical Behavior” ●● Expanded discussion in “Ethical Requirements on the Job” ●● New section, “Cyberbullying” ●● Further attention to solving ethical dilemmas in the workplace ●● Revised Tech Note, “Know Your Computer at Work” ●● Revised section, “Using International English” with expanded guidelines

Chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

●● Enhanced coverage of drafting, revising, and editing on the job ●● Revised, updated case study, “A ‘Before’ and ‘After’ Revision of a Short

Report” ●● Revised Tech Notes on “Drafting,” “Revising,” and “Editing” ●● Updated advice on avoiding stereotypical language, including eliminating

sexism

Chapter 3 Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

●● Increased emphasis on being a team player in the world of work ●● Greater attention to collaborative communication technologies

xxvi Preface

●● Heavily revised Case Study on collaboratively written documents ●● Revised sections, case studies, and figures illustrating the use of Track

Changes in Microsoft Word and Google Docs for collaborative writing ●● New Tech Note, “Virtual Meetings” ●● Revised Tech Note, “Videoconferencing with Skype” ●● New coverage on using social media with collaboration (including office col-

laboration software like Yammer, FB@Work, and Slack) ●● New section on preparing for and conducting a meeting at work—setting an

agenda, taking notes, summarizing ethically, and writing the minutes

Brand New Chapter 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

●● Discusses the importance of and differences between business and personal emails, messages, blogs, and social media posts

●● Revised section, “Legal/Ethical Guidelines to Follow in Writing E-Communications”

●● Substantially revised sections on email in the workplace, including a revised “Guidelines for Using Email on the Job” with up-to-date, practical advice

●● Revised “Messaging” section focusing on both using a networked company system and texting on smartphones.

●● Expanded discussion of business blogs ●● New section, “Writing for Social Media in the Workplace” ●● New figures showcasing business social media posts on Facebook and Twitter ●● Includes new exercises related to writing for social media in the workplace

Chapter 5 Writing Letters: Some Basics for Communicating with Audiences Worldwide

●● Further emphasis on the importance of letters in the Internet Age ●● Strengthened discussions of the business contexts for correspondence ●● Revised section, “Essential Advice on Writing Effective Letters” ●● New section on “Different Ways to Send Letters” ●● Revised section on “The Appearance of Your Letter,” reflecting contempo-

rary document designs ●● Expanded sections on writing different correspondence ●● Greater attention to needs of international readers with an enhanced Case

Study on adapting letters to international readers ●● Revised exercises on up-to-date topics reflecting international readers’ needs

Chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

●● Revised “Preliminary Guidelines” section for sales letters ●● New Tech Note, “Mail Merge” ●● Revised section, “Getting the Reader’s Attention” ●● Revised section, “Showing the Customer the Product’s or Service’s

Application” ●● Revised section on “Adjustment Letters”

Preface xxvii

●● Heavily revised section on “Memos” ●● Thirteen redesigned letters and memos ●● Revised exercises with up-to-date topics and subjects

Chapter 7 How to Get a Job: Searches, Networking, Dossiers, Portfolios/Webfolios, Résumés, Transitioning to a Civilian Job, Letters, and Interviews

●● Revised section on identifying and emphasizing marketable job skills ●● Updated coverage on where to look for a job, with further examples of and

advice on using job-posting sites ●● New section, “Transitioning to the Civilian Workforce,” aimed at helping

veterans prepare successful job applications; new sample résumé ●● Updated section on “Looking in the Right Places for a Job” ●● Revised section on “Using Online Social and Professional Networking Sites

in Your Job Search” ●● New sample LinkedIn profile page; updated discussion of using Facebook as

part of your job search ●● Revised and updated “Do’s and Don’ts When Creating Your Online Profile” ●● Updated and redesigned letters and résumés throughout ●● Chapter now includes ten print and digital résumés ●● Revised section on “The Digital Résumé” ●● Revised Case Study on creating a digital résumé for a job search ●● New section with tips on “Being Ready for a Phone Interview” ●● Revised Tech Note, “Skype Interviews” ●● Revised and updated section on “Questions to Expect at Your Interview” ●● New information on “What Interviewer(s) Can’t Ask You” ●● Updated, practical advice inquiring about salary and salary ranges ●● New section, “Keep a Job Search Record”

Streamlined Chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

●● Useful, updated section on “Use of Social Networking Sites as a Recruiting Tool”

●● New section on “Online Survey Builders” ●● Revised and updated Tech Note, “Intranets” ●● Revised and updated sections on searching online catalogs, e-libraries, and

reference materials ●● Revised Tech Note, “Gray Literature” ●● New section, “How to Conduct Keyword Searches: Some Guidelines” ●● Coverage of latest Modern Language Association (MLA) and American Psy-

chological Association (APA) documentation styles, including for podcasts, blogs, emails, tweets, and Facebook posts

●● Updated and reformatted business report, marketing a large real estate project (written in MLA style)

●● New exercises with current business topics

xxviii Preface

Chapter 9 Summarizing Information at Work

●● In response to user and reviewer feedback, the chapter has been streamlined and shortened to make it more reader-friendly and applicable to the needs of today’s students

●● Thoroughly revised section, “Summaries in the Information Age” ●● Updated Case Study with annotated summary of an article on virtual reality

and law enforcement ●● New advice on “What Managers Want to See in an Executive Summary” ●● Revised section, “Writing Successful News Releases” ●● New figure of a news release posted on the Web ●● New article on security considerations for mobile app developers in

exercises

Chapter 10 Creating Clear Visuals

●● Revised section, “Using Appropriate Visuals for International Audiences” ●● New examples of bar graphs, line graphs, flow charts, photographs, and

pictographs ●● Revised and updated advice in “Choosing Effective Visuals” and “Insert

Your Visuals Appropriately” ●● New Tech Note, “Using Photoshop” ●● New section on using infographs ●● Greater attention to creating ethical visuals

Chapter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

●● Revised section on “The ABCs of Print Document Design” ●● Updated discussion on differences between writing for a print source versus

a Web source ●● Revised section on “Desktop Publishing” ●● New Case Study on designing a company newsletter ●● Greatly enhanced, updated Case Study on the differences between print doc-

ument design organization and website organization ●● New Tech Note, “Website Accessibility”

Chapter 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

●● Updated coverage of preparing legally and ethically proper instructions and procedures

●● New, annotated examples of online and print instructions ●● Revised section on “Using Word-Processing Software to Help You Design

Instructions” ●● New case study on meeting your audience’s needs, including new figure ●● Revised section on “Warnings, Cautions, and Notes,” with more attention to

needs of international readers

Preface xxix

●● Enhanced discussion of workplace procedures, including a revised Case Study

●● Seven new exercises

Chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

●● Updated examples of sales and internal proposals ●● Revised Tech Note, “Online RFPs” ●● Heavily revised Case Study on drafting an internal proposal to create a

mobile app for a health food store ●● New, fully annotated internal proposal on purchasing inventory tracking

software ●● Revised figure of a sales proposal responding to a request from a company ●● New figure of a student proposal on writing a report on the ethical issues

involved in using apps in m-commerce ●● Additional coverage of researching and collaborating in preparing proposals ●● Six new exercises

Chapter 14 Writing Effective Short Reports

●● Heavily revised and expanded coverage of guidelines for writing short reports

●● New Case Study on preparing a periodic report ●● Revised section on “How to Write the Body of a Progress Report” ●● Expanded discussion of how and why different audiences read a report ●● Revised progress report for a student research report ●● Revised section on “Common Types of Trip/Travel Reports” ●● Six revised exercises

Chapter 15 Writing Careful Long Reports

●● Revised guidelines on the process of writing a long report ●● Revised discussion of transmittal letters ●● Revised coverage of developing and documenting conclusions and

recommendations ●● Completely revised, updated model long report (written in APA style) on

cultural sensitivity for multinational workers

Chapter 16 Making Successful Presentations at Work

●● Enhanced section on informal briefings with a new figure instructing bank employees how to detect and report counterfeit currency

●● Revised advice and slides for a PowerPoint presentation ●● Revised section on “Presentation Software,” including a discussion of web-

based software such as Prezi and new presentation technologies such as SMART boards

xxx Preface

●● Revised section, “Delivering the Presentation” ●● Revised discussion on evaluating a presentation

addItIonal resourCes MindTap® English for Kolin’s Successful Writing at Work, Eleventh Edition engages your students to become better thinkers, communicators, and writers by blending your course materials with content that supports every aspect of the writ- ing process.

●● Interactive activities on grammar and mechanics promote application in stu- dent writing.

●● Easy-to-use paper management system helps prevent plagiarism and allows for electronic submission, grading, and peer review.

●● A vast database of scholarly sources with video tutorials and examples sup- ports every step of the research process.

●● Professional tutoring guides students from rough drafts to polished writing. ●● Visual analytics track student progress and engagement. ●● Seamless integration into your campus learning management system keeps all

your course materials in one place.

MindTap lets you compose your course, your way. Online Instructor’s Resource Manual. Streamline and maximize the effectiveness of your course preparation using such resources as teaching suggestions, sample course schedules, assignments, chapter test banks, and many other classroom sup- port materials. This password-protected Instructor’s Resource Manual is easily downloadable by accessing www.cengagebrain.com.

aCknowledgMents In a very real sense, Successful Writing at Work, Eleventh Edition, has profited from my collaboration with various reviewers. I am, therefore, honored to thank the following individuals who have helped me improve this edition significantly with their helpful comments: Karen Cristiano, Drexel University; Michelle Davidson, The University of Toledo; Glenn Deutsch, Albion College; Julie Gard, University of Wisconsin–Superior; Teresa Henning, Southwest Minnesota State University; Todd Kennedy, Nicholls State University; Elizabeth Shelley, Aquinas College; Allen Shepard, University of Wisconsin–Superior; Suzanne Smith, The University of Toledo; Jennifer Thompson, Columbia College Chicago; Ellen Tsagaris, St. Ambrose University; Julie Vick, University of Colorado at Denver.

I also want to thank the reviewers of the last edition: Etta Barksdale, North Carolina State University; Jonathan Lee Campbell, Valdosta State University; Don Cunningham, Radford University; Linda Eicken, Cape Fear Community College; Wolfgang Lepschy, Tallahassee Community College; Sabrina Peters-Whitehead,

Preface xxxi

University of Toledo; Mary E. Shannon, California State University–Northridge; and Pinfan Zhu, Texas State University.

Reviewers of previous editions also helped guide this revision: Jenny Billings Beaver, English Division Chair, Rowan-Cabarrus Community College; Ann E. Biswas, University of Dayton; William Carney, Cameron University; Darin Cozzens, Surry Community College; Terry Dale, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Saudi Arabia; Carlos Evia, Director of Professional Writing at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; Traci HalesVass, San Juan College; and Suba Subbarao, Oakland Community College.

My thanks also go to the following individuals at the University of Southern Mississippi for their help—Linda Allen, Jeremy DeFatta, Nikita Core, Anna Beth Williams, chair Eric Tribunella (Department of English); David Tisdale (University Communications), Mary Lux (Department of Medical Laboratory Science), Cliff Burgess (Department of Computer Science), and Daniel Miles (Department of Biochemistry). I am also grateful to Steven R. Moser, Dean of the College of Arts and Letters, for his continued appreciation of my work. My special thanks go to Danielle Sypher-Haley, web designer for the College of Arts and Letters, for her help with my discussions of social media and writing for the Internet.

My gratitude also goes to Terri Smith Ruckel, Jianqing Zheng at Mississippi Valley State University, Erin Smith at the University of Tennessee–Knoxville, Billy Middleton at Stevens Institute in New Jersey, Ed Parecki at Marylhurst University, Terry Dale at King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Saudi Arabia, and Sandra Leal at Harris-Stowe State University.

Several individuals from the business world also gave me wise counsel, for which I am deeply grateful—Sally Eddy at Georgia Pacific; Kirk Woodward at Vis- iting Nurses Services of New York; Jimmy Stockstill at Petro Automotive; Carrie Logan and Nancy Steen from Adelman & Steen, LLP; Teresa Rogers and Rachel Sullivan at Regents Bank, Inc.; Rick Leal; Debbie Yates, RN; and Brig. General Steve Parham, U.S. Army. Cecile Douglas and Kari Sapsis at the Center for Dis- ease Control and Prevention helped me to obtain two new figures in Chapter 1, for which I am thankful.

I am also especially grateful to Father Michael Tracey for his counsel and con- tributions to Chapter 11 on document and website design.

My thanks go to the team at Cengage Learning for their assistance, encour- agement, and friendship—Nicole Morinon, product team manager; Kate Derrick, product manager; Erin Bosco, associate content developer; Mario Davila, product assistant; Jessica Badiner, senior content developer; Michael Lepera, senior content project manager; and Stacey Purviance, marketing director and to content devel- oper Ed Dodd for his always helpful assistance and friendship. I want to thank Ed Dionne at MPS Limited for his cooperation through the painstaking production cycle. I am also grateful to Farah Fard at Cengage, and Manojkiran Chander and Kanchana Vijayarangan at Datamatics Ltd., who handled the image and text per- missions, respectively, for Successful Writing at Work, Eleventh Edition.

I thank my extended family—Margie and Al Parish, Sister Carmelita Stinn, SFCC, and Sister Annette Seymour, RSM, and Mary and Ralph Torrelli—for their prayers and love.

xxxii Preface

Finally, I am deeply grateful to my son, Eric, and my daughter-in-law, Theresa, for their enthusiastic and invaluable assistance as I prepared this edition; to my grandson, Evan Philip, and granddaughters, Megan Elise and Erica Marie, for their love and encouragement. My daughter, Kristin, also merits loving praise for her help throughout this new edition by doing various searches and revisions and by offering her knowledgeable, practical advice on successful writing at work. And, finally, I thank Ethlyn Dorrington for her love and kindness.

P.C.K. January 2016

Successful Writing at Work

Part I

Backgrounds

1 Getting Started Writing and Your Career

2 The Writing Process at Work

3 Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

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Writing—An Essential Job Skill

Writing for the Global Marketplace

Four Keys to Effective Writing

Characteristics of Job-Related Writing

Ethical Writing in the Workplace

Successful Employees Are Successful Writers

Getting Started Writing and Your Career

WrItIng—an essentIal JOb skIll Writing is a part of every job, from your initial letter of application con- veying first impressions to memos, emails, tweets, texts, blogs, letters, websites, proposals, instructions, and reports. Writing keeps businesses moving. It allows employees to communicate with one another, with management, and with the customers, clients, and agencies a company must serve to stay in business. The average office worker receives 80 emails daily, and that means that most [people] are receiving at least one email message every 6 or 7 minutes while at work.1 A survey conducted by the McKinsey Global Insitute found that workers spend more than 2½ hours a day just reading and answering their emails.

How Writing Relates to Other Skills Almost everything you do at work is related to your writing ability. Deborah Price, a human resource director with thirty years of experience, stresses that “Without the ability to write clearly an employee cannot perform the other duties of the job, regardless of the company he or she works for.” Here is a list of the common tasks you will be expected to perform in the workplace that will require clear and concise writing to get them done well.

●● Assess a situation, a condition, a job site, etc. ●● Research and record the results accurately. ●● Summarize information concisely and identify main points

quickly. ●● Work as part of a team to collect, to share, and to evaluate

information. ●● Tackle and solve problems and explain how and why you did.

C h a p t e r

1Stephens, M. (2012, January 10). Volume of email reaching a tipping point. SME: Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises. Retrieved from http://www.smeweb.com/technology /features/4639-volume-of-email-reaching-tipping-point

fotog/Tetra/Corbis

Writing for the Global Marketplace 5

●● Display cultural sensitivity in the workplace. ●● Network with individuals in diverse fields outside your company and across

the globe. ●● Answer customer questions and meet their needs. ●● Make a post to your company’s social media site to get information out about

its brand. ●● Prepare and test instructions and procedures. ●● Justify financial, personnel, or other actions and decisions. ●● Make persuasive presentations to co-workers, employers, and clients.

To perform each of these essential workplace tasks, you have to be an effective writer—clear, concise, accurate, ethical, and persuasive.

The High Cost of Effective Writing Clearly, then, writing is an essential skill. According to Don Bagin, a communi- cations consultant, most people need an hour or more to write a typical business letter. If an employer is paying someone $30,000 a year, one letter costs $14 of that employee’s time; for someone who earns $50,000 a year, the cost for the average letter jumps to $24. The National Commission on Writing estimates that American businesses spent $3.1 billion annually in training employees to write.2

Unfortunately, as the Associated Press (AP) reported in a recent survey, “Most American businesses say workers need to improve their writing . . . skills.” Yet that same report cited a survey of more than 400 companies that identified writing as “the most valuable skill employees can have.” In fact, the employers polled in that AP survey indicated that 80 percent of their workforce needed to improve their writing. Beyond a doubt, your success as an employee will depend on your success as a writer. The higher you advance in an organization, the more and better writ- ing you will be expected to do. Promotions, and other types of job recognition, are often based on an employee’s writing skills.

How This Book Will Help You This book will show you, step by step, how to write clearly and efficiently the job-related communications you need for success in the world of work. Chapter 1 gives you some basic information about writing in the global marketplace and raises major questions you need to ask yourself to make the writing process easier and the results more effective. It also describes the basic functions of on-the-job writing and introduces you to one of the most important requirements in the business world—writing ethically.

WrItIng fOr the glObal MarketPlaCe The Internet, teleconferencing, digital communications, social media, and m-commerce have shrunk the world into a global village. Many companies are multinational corpo- rations with offices throughout the world. In fact, many U.S. businesses are branches

2Combest, T. What is the importance of business letters? eHow. Retrieved from http://www.ehow .com/facts_5595243_importance-business-letters_.html

6 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

of international firms. A large, multinational corporation may have its equipment designed in Japan; built in Bangladesh; and sold in Detroit, Atlanta, and Los Angeles. Its stockholders may be in Mexico City as well as Saudi Arabia—in fact, anywhere.

Competing for International Business Companies must compete for international sales to stay in business. Every business, whether large or small, has to appeal to diverse international markets to be competi- tive. Each year a larger share of the U.S. gross national product (GNP) depends on global markets. Some U.S. firms estimate that 50 to 60 percent of their business is conducted outside of the United States. Walmart, for example, has opened hundreds of stores in mainland China, and General Electric has plants in more than fifty countries. In fact, estimates suggest that 75 percent of the global Internet popula- tion lives outside the United States. If your company, however small, has a website, then it is an international business.

Communicating with Global audiences To be a successful employee in our highly competitive global market, you have to communicate clearly and diplomatically with a host of readers from different cul- tural backgrounds. Notice how the ad for Digital World Technologies emphasizes diversity (see Figure 1.1). Adopting a global perspective on business will help you communicate and build goodwill with the customers you write to, no matter where they live—across town, in another state, or on other continents, miles and time zones away.

As a result, don’t presume that you will be writing only to native speakers of American English. You may communicate with readers in Singapore, Jamaica, and South Africa, for example, who speak varieties of English quite different from American English. You will also very likely be writing to readers for whom English is not their first (or native) language. Your international readers will have varying degrees of proficiency in English, from a fairly good command (as with many readers in India and the Philippines, where English is widely spoken), to little comprehension without the use of a foreign language dictionary and a grammar book. Non-native speakers, who may reside either in the United States or in a foreign country, will constitute a large and important audience for your work.

Seeing the World Through the Eyes of another Culture Writing to international readers with proper business etiquette means first learning about their cultural values and assumptions—what they value and also what they regard as communication taboos. They may not conduct business exactly the way it is done in the United States, and to think they should is wrong. Your international audience is likely to have different expectations of:

●● how they want communications addressed to them ●● whether they allow you to use their first name

Writing for the Global Marketplace 7

W E A R E committed to providing our clients worldwide with superior service. Our diverse, talented workforce shares our vision to offer you the latest and most effective solutions for all your digital security needs. We have helped thousands of companies like yours with technical assistance and broad knowledge of what it takes to do business around the globe. digitalworldtx.com

800-555-0120

Accountability

Excellence

Integrity

Teamwork

Digital World W E A R E

T E C H N O L O G I E S

Figure 1.1 How a Company Appeals to a Global Audience

●● how they wish a business meeting to be conducted ●● how they think questions should be asked and agreements reached ●● concepts of time, family, money, the world, and the environment; they may

be nothing like those in the United States ●● visuals, including icons; those easily understood in the United States may be

baffling elsewhere in the world

If you misunderstand your audience’s culture and inadvertently write, create, or say something inappropriate, it can cost your company a contract and you your job.

Cultural Diversity at Home Cultural diversity exists inside as well as outside the company you work for. Don’t conclude that your boss or co-workers are all native speakers of English, either, or

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8 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

TECH NOTE

Know Your Computer at Work

A major part of any job is knowing your workplace technology, which now can include smartphones and tablets. You need to know not just how to use the applications in- stalled on your computer or other device but also what to do if there is a computer emergency.

Given the kinds of security risks businesses face today, employees have to be espe- cially careful. As Kim Becker cautions in Nevada Business, “With malware, spyware, ad- ware, viruses, Trojans, worms, phishing, and server problems, it’s time for every business to review its IT strategy and security before a loss occurs.”*

Here are some guidelines on how to use your computer effectively on the job:

●● Understand how to use the software programs required for your job. Your office will most likely require employees to use many different kinds of software— not just the word-processing application, but also the filing, formatting, spreadsheet, presentation, and tables/graphics programs. They will also expect you to be adept at using many different kinds of social media platforms, such as Facebook and Twitter.

●● Get training on how to use company-specific applications. You will be expected to know how to use company-created databases, templates, and other customized applications on the job. If your company offers classes on how to use these programs, take them. Otherwise, ask for the advice of a co-worker or someone in your com- pany’s information technology (IT) department who knows the programs.

●● Learn how to back up your files. You will save yourself, your boss, your co-workers, and your clients time and stress by backing up your essential files regularly.

*Kim Becker, “Security in the Workplace: Technology Issues Threaten Business Prosperity,” Nevada Business, July 2008.

that they come from the same cultural background that you do. In the next decade, as much as 40 to 50 percent of the U.S. skilled workforce may be composed of in- ternational workers who bring their own traditions and languages with them. These are highly educated, multicultural, and multinational individuals who have acquired English as a second or even a third language.

For the common good of your company, you need to be respectful of your international colleagues. In fact, multinational employees can be tremendously im- portant for your company in making contacts in their native country and in help- ing your firm understand and appreciate ethical and cultural differences among customers. The model long report in Chapter 15 (Figure 15.3, pages 607–621) de- scribes ways a company can both acknowledge and respect the different cultural traditions of its international employees. Businesses want to emphasize their inter- national commitments. A large corporation such as Citibank, for instance, is eager to promote its image of helping customers worldwide, as Figure 1.2 shows.

Writing for the Global Marketplace 9

Figure 1.2 A Company’s Dedication to Globalization

Source: From William M. Pride, Robert J. Hughes, and Jack R. Kapoor, Business, 8th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005), 587.

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10 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

Using International English Whether your international readers are customers or colleagues, you need to adapt your writing to respect their language needs and cultural protocols. To communi- cate with non-native speakers, use “international English,” a way of writing that is easily understood, culturally appropriate, and diplomatic. International English is user friendly in terms of the words, sentences, formats, and visuals you choose. The global use of social networking makes it essential that international English plays a role in effective communication.

To write international English means you re-examine your own writing. The words, idioms, phrases, and sentences you select instinctively for U.S. readers may not be appropriate for an audience for whom English is a second, or even a third, language. If you find the set of instructions accompanying your software package confusing, imagine how much more intimidating such a document would be for non-native speakers of English. You can eliminate such confusion by making your message clear, straightforward, and appropriately polite for readers who are not native speakers.

Here are some basic guidelines to help you write international English:

●● Use clear, easy-to-understand sentences, not rambling, complex ones. That does not mean you write insultingly short and simple sentences but that you take into account that readers will find your message easier to translate if your sentences do not exceed 15 to 20 words.

●● Do not try to pack too much information into a single sentence; consider using two or more sentences instead (see “Editing Guidelines for Writing Lean and Clear Sentences,” pages 59–62)

●● Avoid punctuation difficult to translate, for example, dashes, parentheses, and slashes meaning and/or.

●● Avoid jargon, idioms (such as “to line one’s pockets”), and abbreviations (“FEMA” instead of “Federal Emergency Management Agency”) that inter- national readers may not know.

●● Do not use slang, acronyms, or cliches. And stay away from using compound verb phrases (“fill in”, “file away”) for simple active verbs.

●● Choose clear, commonly used words that unambiguously translate into the non-native speaker’s language. Avoid symbols such as an ampersand (&), Latin abbreviations (for example, “c.f.,” “e.g.,” and “i.e.”) or flowery or pre- tentious language (“amend” instead of “change”).

●● Select visuals and icons that are free from cultural bias and that are not taboo in the non-native speaker’s country. (For more on this, see “Using Appropri- ate Visuals for International Audiences,” pages 438–441).

●● When in doubt, consult someone from the native speaker’s country— a co-worker or an instructor, for example.

Because it is so important, international English is discussed in greater detail in “International Business Correspondence” on pages 169–180. Later chapters of this book will also give you additional practical guidelines on writing correspondence,

Four Keys to Effective Writing 11

instructions, proposals, reports, websites, PowerPoint presentations, and other work-related documents suitable for a global audience.

fOur keys tO effeCtIve WrItIng Effective writing on the job is carefully planned, thoroughly researched, and clearly presented. Its purpose is always to accomplish a specific goal and to be as persua- sive as possible. Whether you send a routine email to a co-worker in Cincinnati or Shanghai or a commissioned report to the president of the company, your writing will be more effective if you ask yourself these four questions:

1. Who will read what I write? (Identify your audience.) 2. Why should they read what I write? (Establish your purpose.) 3. What do I have to say to them? (Formulate your message.) 4. How can I best communicate? (Select an appropriate style and tone.)

The questions who, why, what, and how do not function independently; they are all related. You write (1) for a specific audience (2) with a clearly defined purpose in mind (3) about a topic your readers need to understand (4) in language appropriate for the occasion. Once you answer the first question, you are off to a good start toward ans- wering the other three. Now let’s examine each of the four questions in detail.

Identifying Your audience Knowing who makes up your audience is one of your most important responsibili- ties as a writer. Keep in mind that you are not writing for yourself but for a specific reader or group of readers. Expect to analyze your audience throughout the com- posing process.

Look at the public safety messages in Figures 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5. The main pur- pose of all three messages is the same—to discourage people from smoking. The underlying message in each poster—smoking is dangerous to your health—is also the same. But note how the different details—words, photographs, situations—have been selected to appeal to three different audiences.

The poster in Figure 1.3 is aimed at fathers who smoke. As you can see, it shows an image of a father smoking next to his son, who is reaching for his pack of cigarettes. Note how the headline “Will your child follow in your footsteps?” plays on the fact that the father and son are both literally sitting on steps, but at the same time it implies that the son will imitate his father’s behavior as a smoker. The statistic at the bottom of the advertisement reinforces both the headline and the image, hitting home the point that parental behavior strongly influences chil- dren’s behavior. The child in the photograph already is following his father by showing a clear interest in smoking, picking up his father’s pack of cigarettes.

The advertisement in Figure 1.4, however, is aimed at an audience of pregnant women and shows a new mother with a photo of her premature baby in an incuba- tor. The headline addresses both the act of quitting smoking and smoking’s effects on a newborn child. The headline, the photo of a mother unable hold her child, and

12 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

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Figure 1.3 No-Smoking Advertisement Aimed at Fathers Who Smoke

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Figure 1.4 No-Smoking Advertisement Directed at Pregnant Women

Four Keys to Effective Writing 13

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Figure 1.5 No-Smoking Advertisement Appealing to Young Athletes

the background information provided are designed to appeal to a mother’s sense of responsibility and to encourage pregnant women to stop smoking to avoid harming their unborn children.

Figure 1.5 is directed toward another audience: young athletes. The appeal here is direct and to the point (no background or supplemental information is needed or provided, in contrast to the messages in Figures 1.3 and 1.4). It appeals to a young person’s sense of being able to achieve two goals: (a) winning at soccer and (b) quitting smoking.

The copywriters who created these public service messages have chosen ap- proriate details—words, pictures, captions, and so on—to persuade each audience not to smoke. With their careful choices, they successfully answered the question “How can we best communicate with each audience?” Note that details relevant for one audience (athletes, for example) could not be used as effectively for another audience (such as mothers).

The three posters in Figures 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5 illustrate some fundamental points you need to keep in mind when identifying your audience:

●● Members of each audience differ in their backgrounds, experiences, and needs.

●● How you picture your audience will determine what you say to them. ●● Viewing something from the audience’s perspective will help you to select

the most relevant details for that audience.

14 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

Some Questions to ask about Your audience You can form a fairly accurate picture of your audience by asking yourself key ques- tions before you write. For each audience you need to reach, consider the following questions:

1. Who is my audience? What individual(s) will most likely be reading my work?

If you are writing for colleagues or managers at work:

●● What is my reader’s job title? Is he or she a co-worker? Immediate supervisor? Vice president?

●● What kinds of job experience, education, and interests does my reader have?

If you are writing for clients or consumers (a very large, often diverse audience):

●● How can I find out about their interest in my product or service? ●● How much will this audience know about my company? About me? ●● Does my company have data or statistics that might help inform my writing?

Can my company’s social media sites provide any relevant information about the audience I’m writing for—what they like and what they tell others about my company and its products?

2. How many people will make up my audience?

●● Will just one individual read what I write (the nurse on the next shift, the production manager), or will many people read it (all the consumers of my company’s product or service, those viewing my company’s Facebook page or Twitter feed)?

●● Will my boss want to see my work (say, an email or social media post to a consumer in response to a complaint) to approve it?

●● Will I be sending my message to a large group of people sharing a similar interest in my topic?

3. How well does my audience understand English?

●● Are all my readers native speakers of English? ●● Will I be communicating with people around the globe? ●● Will some of my readers speak English as a second or even a third language

and thereby require extra sensitivity on my part to their needs? ●● Will some of my readers speak no English and instead use an English gram-

mar book, a foreign language dictionary, or perhaps an online translator, such as Google Translate (translate.google.com)?

4. How much does my audience already know about my topic?

●● Will my readers know as much as I do about the particular problem or issue, or will they need to be briefed, be given background information, or be updated?

●● Are my readers familiar with, and do they expect me to use, technical terms and descriptions, or will I have to provide definitions and easy-to- understand, nontechnical wording and visuals?

Four Keys to Effective Writing 15

Writing to Different Audiences in a Large Corporation

Jan Melius works in the Communication Department of GrandCo, a firm that designs and produces large heavy-duty equipment. As a regular part of her job, Melius has to prepare documents for several different audiences, including the management and staff at GrandCo, current and potential customers, and the greater community of Fairfield where the company is located. Each group of her readers has different requirements and expectations, and she has to understand those differences if she wants to meet their needs. Often the documents that she prepares are a result of collaborations with individuals (accountants, engineers, safety and security) at GrandCo as well as at other companies (vendors) and community leaders. Melius also has to decide on the right type of document (e.g., email, memo, report, blog, social media post) to send to her readers.

Below is a list of the audiences that Melius writes for or to, along with the kinds of docu- ments they need with examples of appropriate information found in these documents.

audience types of Information/Documents to Supply

Customer Ads, websites, proposals urging customers to buy a GrandCo model, stressing its state-of-the-art advantages over the competition’s and the specific benefits GrandCo offers (cost, service, quality, efficiency)

Owner or Principal Executive Short and long reports on sales, cash flow, productivity, market trends; research about potential competition

Production Engineer Reports on design and manufacturing models, including spec sheets, diagrams, etc., on transmissions, strength of materials; status reports following Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) guidelines

Production Supervisor Service reports about schedules, staffing needs, and employee activity reports; availability of parts from vendors

Operator Instructions in manuals on operating equipment safely and responsibly; warnings about any type of precautions; information on necessary special training

Maintenance Worker Reports and guidelines about maintenance procedures; schedules; checklists of items to be inspected; troubleshooting procedures

Community Residents News releases about GrandCo’s sponsoring events, offering tours or demonstrations; blogs and social media posts on how the company is greening the workplace; articles on GrandCo’s dedication to community environment and safety; hiring notices

As these examples show, to succeed in the world of work, give each reader the details he or she needs to accomplish a given job.

Case study

16 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

5. What is my audience’s reason for reading my work?

●● Is my communication part of their routine duties, or are they looking for information to solve a problem or make a decision?

●● Am I writing to describe benefits that another writer or company cannot offer? ●● Will my readers expect complete details, or will a short summary be enough? ●● Are they looking at my work to make an important decision affecting a

co-worker, a client, a community, government agency, or the environment? ●● Are they reading something I write because they must (a legal notification or

an incident report, for instance)?

6. What are my audience’s expectations about my written work?

●● Do they want a response via social media, an email, or will they expect a formal letter?

●● Will they expect me to follow a company format and style? ●● Are they looking for a one-page memo or for a comprehensive report? ●● Should I use a formal tone or a more relaxed and conversational style?

7. What is my audience’s attitude toward me and my work?

●● Will I be writing to a group of disgruntled and angry customers or vendors about a sensitive issue (a product recall, the discontinuation of a service, a refusal of credit, or a shipment delay)?

●● Will I have to be sympathetic while at the same time give firm, convincing reasons for my company’s (or my) decision?

●● Will my readers be skeptical, indifferent, or accepting about what I write? ●● Will my readers feel guilty that they have not answered an earlier message of

mine, not paid a bill now overdue, or not kept a commitment?

8. What do I want my audience to do after reading my work?

●● Do I want my readers to purchase something from me, approve my plan, or send me additional documentation?

●● Do I expect my readers to acknowledge my message, save it for future refer- ence, or review and email it to another individual or office?

●● Do my readers have to take immediate action, or do they have several days or weeks to respond?

●● Do I simply want my readers to get my message and not respond at all?

As your answers to these questions will show, you may have to communicate with many different audiences on your job. Each group of readers will have different expectations and requirements; you need to understand those audience differences if you want to supply relevant information.

Establishing Your purpose By knowing why you are writing, you will communicate better and find the writing process itself to be easier. The reader’s needs and your goal in communicating will help you to formulate your purpose. It will guide you in determining exactly what you can and must say.

Four Keys to Effective Writing 17

Make sure you follow the most important rule in occupational writing: Get to the point right away. At the beginning of your message, state your goal clearly. Don’t feel as if you have to entertain or impress your reader.

I want new employees to know how to log on to the company server.

Think over what you have written. Rewrite your purpose statement until it states precisely why you are writing and what you want your readers to do or to know.

I want to teach new employees the security code for logging on to the company server.

Since your purpose controls the amount and order of information you include, state it clearly at the beginning of every email, memo, letter, and report.

This email will acquaint new employees with the security measures they must take when logging on to the company server.

In the opening purpose statement that follows, note how the author clearly in- forms the reader what the report will and will not cover.

As you requested at last month’s organizational meeting, I have conducted a survey of how well our websites advertise our products. This survey describes users’ responses but does not prioritize them.

Formulating Your Message Your message is the sum of the facts, responses, and recommendations you put into writing. A message includes the scope and details of your communication.

●● Scope refers to how much information you give readers about key details. ●● Details are the key points you think readers need to know.

Some messages will consist of one or two phrases or sentences: “Do not touch; wet paint.” “Order #756 was sent this afternoon by express shipment. It should arrive at your office on March 22.” At the other extreme, messages may extend over many pages. Messages may carry good news or bad news. They may deal with routine matters, or they may handle changes in policy, special situations, or problems.

Keep in mind that you will need to adapt your message to fit your audience. For some audiences, such as engineers or technicians, you may have to supply a complete report with every detail noted or contained in an appendix. For other readers—busy executives, for example—include only an abstract or quick summary of financial or managerial significance. See Figure 8.10 (page 350) and Figure 15.3 (page 609) for examples of an abstract.

Selecting Your Style and Tone Style Style refers to how something is written rather than what is written. Style helps to determine how well you communicate with an audience and how well your readers understand and receive your message. It involves the choices you make about

●● the construction of your paragraphs ●● the length and patterns of your sentences ●● your choice of words

18 chapter 1 Getting Started

You will have to adapt your style to take into account different messages, dif- ferent purposes, and different audiences. Your words, for example, will certainly vary with your audience. If all your readers are specialists in your field, you may safely use the technical language and symbols of your profession. Nonspecialists, however, will be confused and annoyed if you write to them in the same way. The average consumer, for example, will not know what a potentiometer is; but if you write “volume control on a radio” instead, you will be using words that the general public can understand. And as we saw, when you write for an international audience you have to take into account their proficiency in English and choose your words and sentences with their needs in mind (see “Writing for the Global Marketplace,” pages 5–11).

Adapting a Description of Heparin for Two Different Audiences

In the workplace you will often be faced with the problem of presenting the same information to two completely different audiences. To better understand the impact that style and tone can have when you have to solve this problem, read the following two descriptions of heparin, a medication used to prevent blood clots. In both descriptions, the message is basically the same. Yet because the audiences differ, so do the style and the tone.

The first description of heparin appears in a reference work for physicians and other health care providers and is written in a highly technical style with an impersonal tone appropriate for the contexts in which this medicine is discussed.

The writer has made the appropriate stylistic choices for the audience, the purpose, and the message. Health care providers understand and expect the jargon and the scientific explana- tions, which enable them to prescribe or administer heparin correctly. The writer’s authoritative, impersonal tone is coldly clinical, which, of course, is also appropriate because the purpose is to convey the accurate, complete scientific facts about this medication, not the writer’s or reader’s personal opinions or beliefs. The writer sounds both knowledgeable and objective.

Case study

Technical Description

Heparin Sodium Injection, USP Sterile Solution

Description: Heparin Sodium Injection, USP is a sterile solution of heparin sodium derived from bovine lung tissue, standardized for anticoagulant activity. Each ml of the 1,000 and 5,000 USP units per ml preparations contains heparin sodium 1,000 or 5,000 USP units; 9 mg sodium chloride; 9.45 mg benzyl alcohol added as preservative. Each ml of the 10,000 USP units per ml preparations contains heparin sodium 10,000 units; 9.45 mg benzyl alcohol added as a preservative.

When necessary, the pH of Heparin Sodium Injection, USP was adjusted with hydrochloric acid and/or sodium hydroxide. The pH range is 5.0–7.5.

The second description of heparin below, however, is written in a nontechnical style and with an informal, caring tone. This description is similar to those found on information sheets given to patients about the medications they are receiving in a hospital.

The writer of this patient-centered description has also made appropriate choices for non- specialists, such as patients or their families, who do not need elaborate descriptions of the origin and composition of the medicine. Using familiar words and adopting a personal, friendly tone help to win the patients’ confidence and enable them to understand why and how they should take the drug.

Clinical pharmacology: Heparin inhibits reactions that lead to the clotting of blood and the formation of fibrin clots both in vitro and in vivo. Heparin acts at multiple sites in the normal coagulation system. Small amounts of heparin in combination with antithrombin III (heparin cofactor) can inhibit thrombosis by inactivating activated Factor X and inhibiting the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin. Dosage and administration: Heparin sodium is not effective by oral admin- istration and should be given by intermittent intravenous injection, intrave- nous infusion, or deep subcutaneous (intrafrat, i.e., above the iliac crest or abdominal fat layer) injection. the intramuscular route of administration should be avoided because of the frequent occurrence of hematoma at the injection site.3

Nontechnical Description

patient Information Sheet

Your doctor has prescribed a medicine called heparin for you. It will prevent any new blood clots from forming in your body. Since heparin cannot be absorbed from your stomach or intestines, you can not receive it in a capsule or tablet. Instead, it will be given into a vein or the fatty tissue of your abdomen. After several days, when the danger of clotting is past, your dosage of heparin will be gradually reduced. Then another medication you can take by mouth will be started.

Tone Tone in writing, like tone of voice, expresses your attitude toward a topic and to- ward your audience. Your tone can range from formal and impersonal (a scientific report) to informal and personal (an email to a friend or a how-to article for con- sumers). Your tone can be unprofessionally sarcastic or diplomatically agreeable.

3Source: Physicians’ Desk Reference® 45th edition, 1991, published by Medical Economics, Montvale, NJ 07645.

Four Keys to Effective Writing 19

20 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

Tone, like style, is indicated in part by the words you choose. For example, saying that someone is “concerned about details” conveys a more positive tone than saying the person is a “nitpicker.” The word economical is more positive than stingy or cheap.

The tone of your writing is especially important in occupational writing because it reflects the image you project to your readers and thus determines how they will respond to you, your work, and your company. Depending on your tone, you can appear sincere and intelligent or angry and uninformed. Of course, in all your writ- ten work, you need to sound professional and knowledgeable. The wrong tone in a letter or a proposal might cost you a customer. Sarcastic or hostile language will alienate you from your readers, as the letter in Figure 5.5 demonstrates (see page 165).

CharaCterIstICs Of JOb-related WrItIng Job-related writing characteristically serves six basic functions: (1) to provide prac- tical information, (2) to give facts rather than impressions, (3) to supply visuals to clarify and condense information, (4) to give accurate measurements, (5) to state responsibilities precisely, and (6) to persuade and offer recommendations. These six functions tell you what kind of writing you will produce after you successfully answer the who, why, what, and how.

1. providing practical Information On-the-job writing requires a practical “here’s what you need to do or to know” approach. One such practical approach is action oriented. You instruct the reader to do something—assemble a ceiling fan, test for bacteria, perform an audit, or cre- ate a website. Another practical approach of job-related writing is knowledge ori- ented. You explain what you want the reader to understand—why a procedure was changed, what caused a problem or solved it, how much progress was made on a job site, or why a new piece of equipment should be purchased.

The following description of the Energy Efficiency Ratio combines both the action-oriented and knowledge-oriented approaches of practical writing.

Whether you are buying window air-conditioning units or a central air-conditioning system, consider the performance factors and efficiency of the various units on the market. Before you buy, determine the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) of the units under consideration. The EER is found by dividing the BTUs (units of heat) that the unit removes from the area to be cooled by the watts (amount of electricity) the unit consumes. The result is usually a number between 5 and 12. The higher the number, the more efficiently the unit will use electricity.4

2. Giving Facts, Not Impressions Occupational writing records what can be seen, heard, felt, tasted, or smelled. The writer uses concrete language and specific details. The emphasis is on facts rather than on the writer’s feelings or guesses.

4Source: New Orleans Public Services, Inc.

Characteristics of Job-Related Writing 21

The discussion below, addressed to a group of scientists about the sources of oil spills and their impact on the environment, is an example of writing with objectiv- ity. It describes events and causes without anger or tears. Imagine how much emo- tion would have been packed into a paragraph by the residents of the coastal states who have watched massive spills come ashore.

The most critical impact results from the escapement of oil into the ecosystem, both crude oil and refined fuel oils, the latter coming from sources such as marine traffic. Major oil spills occur as a result of accidents such as blowout, pipeline breakage, etc. Technological advances coupled with stringent regulations [can] reduce the chances of such major spills; however, there is [still] a chronic low-level discharge of oil associated with normal drilling and production operations. Waste oils discharged through the river systems and practices associated with tanker transports dump more significant quantities of oils into the ocean, compared to what is introduced by the offshore oil industry. All of this contributes to the chronic low-level discharge of oil into world oceans. The long-range cumulative effect of these discharges is possibly the most significant threat to the ecosystem.5

3. Supplying Visuals to Clarify and Condense Information Visuals are indispensable partners of words in conveying information to your readers. On-the-job writing makes frequent use of visuals—such as tables, charts, photographs, infographs, flow charts, diagrams, and drawings—to clarify and con- dense information. Thanks to various software packages, you can easily create and insert visuals into your writing. Visuals are discussed in detail in Chapters 10 and 11, and PowerPoint and Prezi presentations are covered in Chapter 16.

Visuals play an important role in the workplace. Note how the photograph in Figure 1.6 can help employees to better understand and follow the accompany- ing written ergonomics guidelines. A visual like this, reproduced in an employee handbook or displayed on a website, can significantly reduce physical stress and increase a worker’s productivity.

The following graphic devices in your letters, reports, and websites can also make your writing easier to read and follow:

●● headings, such as “Four Keys to Effective Writing” or “Characteristics of Job-Related Writing”

●● subheadings to divide major sections into parts, such as “Providing Practical Information” or “Giving Facts, Not Impressions”

●● numbers within a paragraph, or even a line, such as (1) this, (2) this, and (3) also this

●● different types of s p a c i n g ●● CAPITALIZATION (use sparingly only when necessary) ●● italics (easily made by a word processing command or indicated in typed

copy by underscoring) ●● boldface (darker print for emphasis) ●● symbols (visual markers such as →) ●● hypertext (Internet links, often presented underscored, in boldface, or in a

different color)

5Source: The Offshore Ecology Investigation.

22 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

To reduce the possibility of eye damage, make sure you stay 18 to 24 inches from the computer screen and always make sure your work area is well lit.

To minimize neck strain, position your

computer screen so that the top of the screen is at or just below your eye level.

To avoid back and shoulder strain, sit up straight at a right angle in your chair with

your shoulders relaxed and your lower back firmly supported (with a cushion, if necessary).

To lessen leg and back strain, adjust your chair height so that your upper body and your legs form a 90-degree angle and that your feet are flat on the floor or on a footrest.

Using Your Computer Safely

By following the bulleted guidelines below, illustrated in the photo to the right, you can avoid work- place injuries when you are at your computer.

Footrest

18"–24"

90-degree angle

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Figure 1.6 Use of a Visual to Convey Information

●● asterisks (*) to separate items or to note key information ●● lists with bullets (like those before each entry in this list)

Keep in mind that graphic devices should be used carefully and in moderation, not to decorate a letter or report. When used properly, they can help you to

●● organize, arrange, and emphasize your ideas ●● make your work easier to read and to recall ●● preview and summarize your ideas, for example, through boldface headings ●● list related items to help readers distinguish, follow, compare, and recall

them—as this bulleted list does

4. Giving accurate Measurements Much of your work will depend on measurements—acres, bytes, calories, kilometers, centimeters, degrees, dollars and cents, grams, percentages, pounds, square feet, and so on. Numbers are clear and convincing. However, you must be sensitive to which units of measurement you use when writing to international readers. Not every cul- ture computes in dollars or records temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit.

The following discussion of mixing colored cement for a basement floor would be useless to readers if it did not supply accurate quantities:

Including permanent color in a basement floor is a good selling point. One way of doing this is by incorporating commercially pure mineral pigments in a topping mixture placed

Characteristics of Job-Related Writing 23

to a 1-inch depth over a normal base slab. The topping mix should range in volume between 1 part portland cement, 1¼ parts sand, and 1¼ parts gravel or crushed stone and 1 part portland cement, 2 parts sand, and 2 parts gravel or crushed stone. Maximum size gravel or crushed stone should be 3/8 inch. Mix cement and pigment before aggregate and water are added and be very thor- ough to secure uniform dispersion and the full color value of the pigment. The propor- tion varies from 5 to 10 percent of pigment by weight of cement, depending on the shade desired. If carbon black is used as a pigment to obtain grays or black, a proportion of from ½ to 1 percent will be adequate. Manufacturers’ instructions should be followed closely; care in cleanliness, placing, and finishing are also essential. Colored topping mixes are available from some suppliers of ready mixed concrete.6

5. Stating Responsibilities precisely Your job-related writing should make it absolutely clear what you expect from, or can do for, a specific audience. Misunderstandings waste time, cost money, and can result in injuries. Directions on online order forms, for example, should indicate how and where information is to be listed and how it is to be routed and acted on. The following directions show readers how to perform different tasks:

●● Enter agency code numbers in the message box. ●● Items 1 through 16 of this form should be completed by the injured em-

ployee (or by someone acting on his or her behalf), whenever an injury is sustained on the job. The term injury includes occupational disease caused by the employment. The form should be given to the employee’s official superior within one week following the injury. The official superior is that individual having responsible supervision over the employee.

Other kinds of job-related writing deal with the writer’s responsibilities rather than the reader’s, for example, “Tomorrow I will meet with the district sales manager to discuss (1) July’s sales, (2) the opportunities of expanding our market, and (3) next fall’s production schedule. I will send a PDF of our presentation by August 3.”

6. persuading and Offering Recommendations Persuasion is a crucial part of writing on the job. In fact, it is one of the most valu- able skills you need in the business world. Persuasion means trying to convince your reader(s) to accept your ideas, approve your recommendations, or order your prod- ucts. Convincing your reader to accept your interpretation or ideas is at the heart of the world of work, whether you are writing to someone outside or inside your company.

Writing Persuasively to Clients and Customers Much of your writing in the business world will promote your company’s image by persuading customers and clients (a) to buy a product or service, (b) to adopt a plan of action endorsed by your employer, or (c) to support a particular cause or cam- paign that affects a community. You will have to convince readers that you (and your company)—your products, technologies, and services—can save them time and money,

6Source: Concrete Construction Magazine, World of Concrete Center, 426 S. Westgate, Addison, IL 60101.

24 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

increase efficiency, reduce risks, or improve their image and that you can do this better than your competitors can. Communicating effectively through social media sites, for example, can help a company persuade customers about a new product or policy.

Expect also to be called on to write convincingly about your company’s image, as in the case of product recalls (see Figure 4.11, page 143), customer complaints (see Figure 4.12, page 146), or damage control after a corporate mistake affecting the environment. You may also have to convince international customers that your company respects cultural diversity and upholds specific ethnic values. A large part of being a persuasive writer is supporting your claims with evidence. You will have to conduct research; provide logical arguments; supply appropri- ate facts, examples, and statistics; and identify the most relevant information for your particular audience(s). Notice how the advertisement in Figure 1.7 offers a bulleted list of persuasive reasons—based on cost, time, efficiency, safety, and convenience—to convince corrections officials that they should use General Medical’s services rather than those of a hospital or clinic.

Writing Persuasively to In-House Personnel As much as 70 percent of your writing may be directed to individuals you work with and for. In fact, your very first job-related writing will likely be a persuasive resume and letter to land an interview with a potential employer.

We’ll bring our X-ray services to your facility, 7 days a week, 24 hours a day. We can reduce your X-ray costs by a minimum of 28%. X-ray cost includes radiologist’s interpretation and written report. Same-day service with immediate results telephoned to your facility. Save correctional ofcers’ time, thereby saving your facility money. Avoid chance of prisoner’s escape and possible danger to the public. Avoid long waits in overcrowded hospitals. Reduce your insurance liabilities. Other Services Available: Ultrasound, Two-Dimensional Echocardiogram, C.T. Scan, EKG, Blood Lab and Holter Monitor.

GENERAL MEDICAL WILL STOP THE

UNNECESSARY TRANSPORTING OF YOUR INMATES.

General Medical Is Your On-Site Medical Problem Solver

General Medical Services Corp. A subsidiary of

Federal Medical Industries, Inc. O.T.C. 950 S.W. 12th Avenue, 2nd Floor Suite, Pompano, Florida 33069

(305) 942-1111 FL WATS: 1-800-654-8282

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Visual stresses the need for a more efficient way to transport prisoners for medical attention

Bulleted list conveniently and persuasively uses factual data to convince

Encourages readers to use this service

Figure 1.7 An Advertisement Employing Persuasive Arguments to Convince Potential Customers to Use a Service

Characteristics of Job-Related Writing 25

On the job, you may have to persuade a manager to buy a new technology or lobby for a change in your office or department. To be successful, you will have to evaluate various products or options by studying, analyzing, and deciding on the most relevant one(s) for your boss. Your reader will expect you to offer clear-cut, logical, and convincing reasons for your choice, backed up with persuasive facts.

As part of your job, too, you will be asked to write convincing memos, emails, letters, blogs, and websites to boost employee morale, encourage them to be more productive, and compliment them on a job well done.

Figure 1.8 is a persuasive email from an employee to a manager reporting a payroll mistake and persuading the reader to correct it. The email contains many of the other characteristics of job-related writing we have discussed. Note how the

Arial 10

Dear Ms. Griffin,

My paycheck for the two-week period ending October 16 was $75.00 short. For this period I should have been paid $875.00. Instead, my check was for only $800.00. I believe I know why there may have been a discrepancy. The $75.00 additional pay for these two weeks was the result of my having put in five hours of overtime on October 8 and October 12 (2½ hours each day @ $15.00 per hour). This overtime was not reflected on my current pay statement.

I have double-checked with my supervisor, Gloria Arrelo, who assured me that she recorded my overtime on the timesheets she sent to your office on October 17. She has given me a copy that I have scanned and have attached to verify my hours.

Thank you for correcting your records and for crediting me with the additional $75.00 for my overtime.

Sincerely,

Robbie Burke Data Entry Clerk

<[email protected]> (R. Burke) <[email protected]> (Lee Griffin)

<[email protected]> (Gloria Arrelo)

Incorrect October paycheck

Timesheet for R. Burke.pdf

01 7

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Figure 1.8 A Persuasive Email from an Employee to a Business Manager

Clearly explains and documents the problem

Offers further evidence in attachment

Closes politely with specific request

26 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

writer provides factual, not subjective, information; attaches a PDF of his timesheet (a type of visual); gives accurate details; and identifies her own and her immediate supervisor’s responsibilities. The writer’s tone is suitably polite yet direct.

ethICal WrItIng In the WOrkPlaCe One of your most important job responsibilities is to ensure that your writing and behavior are ethical. Writing ethically means choosing language that is right and fair, honest, and complete in all the documents you prepare for your employer, co- workers, customers, and vendors. Your reputation and character plus your employ- er’s corporate image will depend on your following an ethical course of action. It takes a long time to build trust, and only a second to destroy it.

Many of the most significant phrases in the world of business reflect an ethical commitment to honesty and fairness: accountability, public trust, equal opportu- nity employer, core values, global citizenship, good-faith effort, truth in lending, fair play, honest advertising, full disclosure, high professional standards, fair trade, community involvement, and corporate responsibility.

Unethical business dealings, conversely, are stigmatized in cover-ups, dodges, stonewalling, shady deals, spin-doctoring, foul play, bid rigging, employee raiding, misrepresentations, kickbacks, hostile takeovers, planned obsolescence, insider trad- ing, price rigging, and unfair advantage. Those are the activities that make custom- ers angry and that local, state, and federal agencies may investigate.

Employers Insist on and Monitor Ethical Behavior Ethical behavior is crucial to your success in the workplace. Your employer will insist that you are honest, adhere to professional standards, show integrity, and ex- hibit loyalty in your relationships with clients, co-workers, supervisors, and ven- dors. You will be expected to know, honor, and comply with your company policies and procedures, as outlined in the employee or agency handbook (see “Writing Procedures for Policies and Regulations,” pages 510–513), and you will also have to follow your profession's codes, regulations, and methods.

On the job, employers can legally monitor their employees’ work— electronically, through cameras, or by personal visits. Some of these visits are not announced (such as the “secret shoppers” who report on the customer service they receive). How many times have you made a call to an organization and heard, “This call may be monitored for quality assurance”? According to a survey conducted by the American Management Association, monitoring employees has risen 45 percent in the past few years and extends to their voicemail, email, social media, and other Internet uses.

Employers monitor the behavior of their employees for several reasons:

●● to determine if a worker is doing his or her job properly ●● to identify employee wrongdoing ●● to make sure all calls are returned, emails answered, and information pro-

vided promptly and accurately

Ethical Writing in the Workplace 27

●● to improve service, production, communication, or transportation ●● to ensure compliance with federal, state, and municipal codes ●● to limit company liability ●● to adhere to and even strengthen security measures

Monitoring gives management solid facts about employee training, performance re- views, and evidence about promotions. But working with integrity means doing the right thing—even when no one is watching.

Ethical Requirements on the Job In the workplace, you will be expected to meet the highest ethical standards by ful- filling the following eight requirements:

1. Be professionally competent. Know your job. Your company will expect you to be well prepared through your education, internships, experience, in-house train- ing, continuing education units (CEUs), professional conferences, discussions with co-workers, and reading. You need to use equipment safely and efficiently, pro- duce high-quality products, deliver up-to-date and accurate service, and represent your company as a knowledgeable professional. Adhere to your profession’s code or standard of ethics, internal audits, licenses, and certificate requirements.

2. Be honest. Never misrepresent yourself on a résumé, at an interview, or on a networking site such as LinkedIn (see Figure 7.2, pages 246–249), by lying about your background, inflating a job title, or exaggerating your responsibilities at a previ- ous job. The résumé and your portfolio/webfolio (see “Career Portfolio/Webfolio,” pages 252–254) are two places where you must make ethical decisions about your qualifications for a job. At work, honesty is equally crucial. You need to acknowl- edge and correct all mistakes and make sure you submit complete, accurate, and truthful reports. Never falsify a document by padding an expense account, cover- ing up a problem, taking a company vehicle or computer or smartphone for per- sonal use, or wrongly accusing a co-worker. Inventing or falsifying information is fraud (the government website stopfraud.gov is dedicated to uncovering such false claims). In your dealings with customers, honor all guaranties and warranties and respond to customer requests promptly and fairly. Refuse to use language that makes false claims or tries to deceive readers with ambiguous words, jargon, or misleading statistics and visuals (see “Writing Ethically on the Job,” pages 35–37 and “Using Visuals Ethically,” pages 433–438). It would be neglectful and dishonest to allow an unsafe product to stay on the market just to spare your company the expense and embarrassment of a product recall.

3. Maintain confidentiality. You violate your employer’s trust by telling others about your company’s sensitive or confidential research, financial business, mar- keting strategies, sales records, personnel decisions, customer interactions, or by not properly disposing of company documents (via shredding or other secure and environmentally safe methods). Always keep in mind that nothing is confidential when posted on a social media site, so be careful. In fact, your employer may right- fully insist that you sign a binding confidentiality agreement when you are hired.

28 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

You also must respect an individual’s right to privacy. For example, according to Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) guidelines, health care professionals are not allowed to share a patient’s records with unauthorized individuals.

4. Be loyal. Follow your company’s policies and procedures. Be faithful to its goals, mission, and image. Your employer has every right to expect you to be a team player striving for the good of the company; its products, service, and image; your department; and your co-workers. Cooperate fully, fairly, and on a timely basis with your collaborative team (see “Collaboration is Crucial to the Writing Process,” pages 75–76, and “Ten Proven Ways to Be a Valuable Team Player,” pages 80–81). Working secretly for a competitor or doing outside work that interferes with your normal duties is a clear conflict of interest (for instance, running a consulting business during office hours). Also, criticizing a boss, product, service, or event, or engaging in malicious gossip at work are examples of disloyalty that companies will not tolerate.

5. Follow the chain of command. You need to know and follow your company’s or department’s chain of command—for example, whom you report to, who gets copies of your written work and who does not, how work is to be submitted and routed, and whom you need to go to with problems. Always direct your corre- spondence to the appropriate person(s) in the company. Be careful not to speak on behalf of or about your company on social media or in interviews without first securing permission. To help you identify the proper chain of command at work, find or construct an organizational chart (see “Organizational Charts,” pages 418–420).

6. Respect your employer, co-workers, customers, and suppliers. Avoid intimidation, bullying (see “Cyberbullying,” pages 30–31), spreading rumors, dis- crimination, defamation, or any other unfair, unprofessional action that would harm someone or tarnish his or her reputation. It is unethical and illegal to use language that excludes others on the basis of gender, race, national origin, religion, age, physical ability, or sexual orientation (see “Editing Guidelines to Eliminate Sexist Language,” pages 65–66). Never use racial slurs or obscene language.

7. Research and document your work carefully. Your boss will expect you to provide the hard evidence he or she needs. Study codes, specifications, agency handbooks, and websites. Keep up to date with professional literature found in trade journals, websites, and manuals in your field, confer with experts in your company, interview clients, make a site visit, conduct a survey, and so on. (See “Two Types of Research: Primary and Secondary,” pages 306–307, for a description of the different types of research you will be expected to do on the job.) You are also ethically obligated to admit when you did not do the work by yourself. Respect all copyright obligations and privileges. Always give credit to your sources—whether print or Web sources or individuals whose discussions contributed to your work. Just because something is on the Internet or on social media does not mean you can paraphrase, copy, or republish it without crediting the source. Not documenting your sources makes you guilty of plagiarism (see “Documenting Sources,” pages 337–347).

Ethical Writing in the Workplace 29

8. Maintain accurate and current records. Remember, “If it isn’t written, it didn’t happen.” You have a responsibility to your employer to prepare and store documents, keep backup files, and submit your work by the deadline. Disregarding a deadline or not doing your due diligence (professional competence and due care) when appraising a business situation or assessing a legal requirement could jeopar- dize your group’s effort or prevent your company from making an important sale, receiving a key permit, or getting a license or a government contract. Comply with all local, state, and federal regulations, especially those ensuring a safe, healthy work environment, products, and/or services, for example, following the Department of Labor guidelines for the number of hours an employee can work in a given day or week.

Online Ethics Online ethics are essential in the world of e-commerce. A good rule to follow is never to do anything online that you wouldn’t do offline. For instance, never use a company computer for any activity not directly related to your job. Moreover, it would be grossly unethical to erase a computer program intentionally, violate a software licensing agreement, or misrepresent (by fabrication or exaggeration) the scope of a database. Also, posting anything that attacks a competitor, a colleague, your boss, or your company is considered unethical. Follow the Ten Command- ments of Computer Ethics prepared by the Computer Ethics Institute listed in Figure 1.9.

You are also ethically bound to protect your computer, tablet, or smartphone at work from security risks and possible system malfunctions. Never be afraid to ask for advice from a co-worker or someone in your firm’s IT department who knows what to do if there is a computer emergency.

1. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people. 2. Thou shalt not interfere with other people’s computer work. 3. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people’s computer files. 4. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal. 5. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness. 6. Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not

paid. 7. Thou shalt not use other people’s computer resources without authorization

or proper compensation. 8. Thou shalt not appropriate other people’s intellectual output. 9. Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are

writing or the system you are designing. 10. Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and

respect for your fellow humans beings.

Source: Computer Ethics Institute, London.

Figure 1.9 The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics

30 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

Cyberbullying Cyberbullying is a term referring to one of the worst violations of online ethics (see pages 29–30). It refers to using the Internet, email, your cell phone, or social media (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc.) to post harassing or threatening messages or embar- rassing pictures or videos. Cyberbullying can also involve spreading gossip and rumors, posting sexually explicit photos, or attacking someone for age, race, gender, sexual ori- entation, religious practices, political affiliation, culture, or disabilities. Whether subtle or overtly offensive, cyberbullying is not tolerated in the workplace and can turn it into a battleground, demoralizing employees, thwarting group projects (see “Collaborative Writing and the Writing Process,” pages 77–79), and can damage an employee’s or a company’s reputation. It is always smart to follow your employer’s policies on social media; specific guidelines are often available through your HR department.

What You Can Do to Prevent Cyberbullying There are several steps you can take to help prevent cyberbullying:

1. Be careful what you post on social media. Never give personal, confidential information thinking it will be harmless and read only by your friends. It can easily be leaked, forwarded, and can compromise your reputation and job.

2. Don’t “add a friend” or communicate with people you don’t know. Anybody can send Facebook friend requests or post comments.

3. Check your security settings on the social media site and make sure informa- tion you want “private” remains visible only to your intended audience.

What You Can Do if You Become a Target

1. Resist the temptation to lash back with an insulting, angry email, tweet, or posting. Remain calm and be professional. You do not want to jeopardize your position or reputation in the workplace.

Here are some other specific guidelines to follow when using your computer at work:

●● Protect passwords that allow access to your company’s documents as well as its proprietary databases, templates, and other customized applications. Do not share your password, and never use a password belonging to someone else.

●● Always save sensitive emails, texts, social media postings, blogs, memos, letters, and so on, that you or your employer may need to document decisions.

●● Protect your computer from viruses, spyware, and malware by making sure the most recent updates to your antivirus programs are installed on your computer. Report any viruses immediately to your IT department.

●● Be especially careful in opening attachments or anything you suspect may be infected, such as spam. Never forward a document you think may have a virus.

●● Do not use your work email account for personal emails (see “Guidelines for Using Email on the Job,” pages 120–124). Instead, use an alternate email ad- dress (for example, Yahoo!, Gmail).

Ethical Writing in the Workplace 31

2. If the bullying continues, gather evidence by downloading posts and screen- shots; keep a record of when they were sent and how often.

3. Block any further messages from the bully. 4. Report the bully to your supervisor, your HR or IT department, and supply

documentation of the offenses. If the bully is your superior at work, or some- one you report to, communicate with your HR department. If possible, speak directly to the bully, explain why you do not welcome such posts, and insist that he/she stop sending them.

5. If the bully is someone outside your company, file a complaint with the social media site or cell phone provider. Every site has an option to do this. Your complaint will thereby be on record in case the bullying continues or escalates. If the bully stalks you or threatens you physically, file a report with your local police department.

“Thinking Green”: Making Ethical Choices about the Environment Be respectful of the environment—whether at the office, at a work site, in the com- munity, or in the global marketplace. This means doing nothing to jeopardize the safety, ecology, economy, or quality of life of your community or the larger global world. Many companies are proud of their ethical commitments to the environ- ment. Starbucks, for example, tells customers that its “10 percent post-consumer recycled . . . paper cups helped conserve enough energy to supply your homes for a year and save approximately 110,000 trees.”

Like Starbucks, companies around the globe have adopted a green philosophy, encouraging their employees to avoid polluting the environment, save energy, and protect endangered species.

Note how in Figure 1.10 the Southern Company and its employees are proud of their ethical commitment to the environment, the community, and the country. The company projects an image of itself as being concerned about reducing pollu- tion, preserving and protecting the environment, and ensuring a sustainable future.

You can “think green” in several ways. At your office, conserve energy by and reduce your company's carbon footprint by turning off all computers, copiers, and other machines when you leave work; replace incandescent lightbulbs with energy-efficient ones; recycle paper; copy and print your documents on both sides of paper; view documents on your computer screen instead of printing them; adjust thermostats when you are gone for the day or weekend, and car pool to and from work. You can also reduce toxic chemicals in the atmosphere by using soy-based ink, by inspecting vehicles regularly, and by maintaining them properly to reduce or eliminate pollution.

International Readers and Ethics Communicating in the world of multinational corporations places additional ethi- cal demands on you as a writer. You have to make sure that you respect the ethics of all of the countries where your firm does business. Some behaviors regarded as normal or routine in the United States might be seen as highly unethical elsewhere, and vice versa. In many countries, accepting a gift to initiate or conclude a business

32 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

Our environmental responsibility

Southern Company is not only a leader in the energy market, but also a leader in protecting the environment. We believe our environmental initiatives and our strong compliance record will give us a competitive advantage. The Southern Company’s environmental policy spells out each company’s commitment to protecting the environment. The first and foremost goal is to meet or exceed all regulatory requirements for domestic and international operations. To do that, we’re using a combi- nation of the best technologies and voluntary pollution-prevention programs. We also set aggressive environmental goals and make sure employees are aware of their individual envi- ronmental responsibilities. We are good citizens wherever we serve. As an affiliate of Southern Company, Mississippi Power’s environmental issues are busi- ness issues. In addition to regulatory obligations, our employees carry out a most active grassroots environmental program. It’s this employee involvement and strong environmen- tal commitment that gives our commitment life and promises future generations a healthy environment. For example, one employee’s concern that motor oil is properly discarded led to the found- ing of a countrywide annual household hazardous waste collection program. Thousands of tons of waste have been collected, including jars of DDT, mercury, paint, batteries, pesticides, and other poisons. Scores of employees participate in island, beach, and river cleanups throughout Mississippi Power’s 23-county service area. More than 30 employees compiled “The Wolf River Envi- ronmental Monitoring Program.” This report is the first-ever historical, biological assessment completed on the Wolf River by scientists and engineers. Employees volunteered countless hours to compile the statisti- cal data. Today, Mississippi Power employees continue to support the Wolf River Project by producing photographs and slides as an educational and community awareness project. Our commitment to the environment goes beyond our business. By sponsoring a variety of programs, we’re helping to teach the public, students, and teachers about environmental responsibility.

Emphasizes corporate commitment to ethical conduct

Links good business practices with good ethical behavior

Praises employees for their contributions to both the community and the company

Assures readers that corporate ethical behavior extends to the entire community

Figure 1.10 A Company’s Commitment to Ethical Responsibility

agreement is considered not only proper but also honorable. This is not the case in the United States where a “bribe” is seen as bad business or, worse, illegal. More- over, you should be on your ethical guard not to take advantage of a host country, such as allowing or encouraging poor environmental control because regulatory and inspection procedures are not as strict as those of the United States, or by using pesticides or conducting experiments outlawed in the United States. It would also be unethical to conceal something risky about a product from international clients that you would disclose to U.S. customers.

Some Guidelines to Help You Reach Ethical Decisions The workplace presents conflicts over who is right and who is wrong, what is best for the company and what is not, and whether a service or product should be changed and why. You will be asked to make a decision and justify it. While this

Source: Reprinted by permission of Mississippi Power Company.

Ethical Writing in the Workplace 33

chapter cannot cover all kinds of ethical problems, here are a few guidelines to help you respond ethically on the job.

1. Follow your conscience and “to thine own self be true.” You cannot autho- rize something that you believe is wrong, dangerous, unfair, contradictory, or in- complete. But don’t be hasty. Leave plenty of room for diplomacy and for careful questioning and researching. Don’t blow a small matter out of proportion.

2. Be suspicious of convenient (and false) appeals that go against your be- liefs. Watch out for red flags that anyone places in the way of your conscience: “No one will ever know.” “We never had this conversation.” “It's OK to cut cor- ners every once in a while.” “We got away with it last time.” “Don’t rock the boat.” “No one’s looking.” “Don't put this down in writing.” “As long as the company makes money, who cares?” These rationalizations are traps you must avoid.

3. Meet your obligations to your employer, your co-workers, your customers, and the global community. Keeping information from a co-worker who needs it, omitting a fact, slanting evidence, justifying unnecessary expenses, concealing something risky about a product or service from an international customer that you otherwise would disclose to a U.S. consumer—all of these are unethical acts.

4. Take responsibility for your actions. Saying “I do not know” when you do know can constitute a serious ethical violation. Keep your records up-to-date and accurate, sign and date your work, and never backdate a document to delete infor- mation or to fix an error that you made. Failing to test a set of instructions thor- oughly, for example, might endanger readers in other countries.

5. Keep others in the loop. Confer regularly with your boss and collaborative writing team (see “Some Guidelines for Successful Group Writing,” pages 79–80) and report to your boss as often as you are instructed to give progress reports and to alert him or her about problems. If you experience a problem at work, don’t wait until it gets worse to tell your supervisor and/or co-workers. Prompt and honest notifications are essential to the safety, security, morale, progress, and success of a company. Also, never keep a co-worker, customer, or vendor waiting; call in ad- vance if you are going to be delayed.

6. Treat company property respectfully. Use company supplies, networks/ computers, equipment, technology, and vehicles responsibly and only for work-related business. Taking supplies home, using a company vehicle for non- business reasons, charging non–work-related expenses (meals, clothes, travel) on a company credit card, using company letterhead to solicit donations for a charity or political party, surfing the Internet when you are at work—these are just a few instances of unethical behavior.

7. Weigh all sides before you commit to a conclusion. Research what you write and communicate orally. Do your homework by conferring with co-work- ers, checking the history of a transaction or other corporate decision, and famil- iarizing yourself with company policies. Don’t rely on office gossip or create

34 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

problems where there are none. Give people the benefit of the doubt until you have hard evidence (for example, dates, costs, names, frequency, etc.) to the contrary.

Ethical Dilemmas: Some Scenarios Sometimes in the workplace you will face situations where there is no clear-cut right or wrong choice. Here are a few scenarios, similar to ones in which you may find yourself, that are gray areas, ethically speaking, along with some possible solutions.

●● You work with an office bully who often intimidates co-workers, includ- ing you, by talking down to them, interrupting them, or insulting them for their suggestions. At times, this bully has even sent sarcastic emails, texts, and tweets. You are upset that this behavior has not been reported to man- agement. But you are concerned that if the bully finds out that you have re- ported the situation the entire office may suffer. How should you handle the problem?

You cannot allow such rude, insulting behavior to go unreported. But first you need to provide documentation about where, when, and how often the bullying has occurred. You may want to speak directly to the bully, but if you feel uncomfortable doing this, go directly to your boss, report how the bully’s actions have negatively affected the workplace, and ask for assistance. You may also get help from your company’s employee assistance program or from someone in human resources. In accordance with state and federal laws, companies must provide a safe work environment, free from intimidation, harassment, or threats of dismissal for reporting bullying.

●● You work very closely with an individual who takes frequent extended lunch breaks, often comes in late and leaves early, and even misses deadlines. Sometimes you cover for him when he is not at the office to answer ques- tions. But your department is under minimal supervision from an off-site manager, so there is no boss looking over your colleague’s shoulder. You like your co-worker and do not want him to be fired, but he is taking advan- tage of your friendship and unfairly expecting you to cover for him. What should you do?

The best route is to take your co-worker aside and speak with him before informing management. Let him know you value working with him, but firmly explain that you no longer will cover for him or take on his work- load. If he does not agree with you, let him know that you will be forced to discuss the problem with your manager. If the problem persists, and you go to your boss, bring documentation—dates, duties not performed, and so on—with you.

●● You see an opening for a job in your area, but the employer wants someone with a minimum of two years of field experience. You have just completed

Ethical Writing in the Workplace 35

an internship and had one summer’s experience, which together total al- most seven months. Should you apply for the job, describing yourself as “experienced”?

Yes, but honestly state the type and the extent of your field experience and the conditions under which you obtained it.

●● You work for a company that usually assigns commissions to the salesperson for whom the customer asks. One afternoon a customer asks for a sales- person who has the day off. You assist the customer all afternoon and even arrange to have an item shipped overnight so that she can have it in the morn- ing. When you ring up the sale, should you list your employee number for the commission or the off-duty employee’s?

You probably should defer crediting the sale to either of you until you speak to the absent employee and suggest a compromise—splitting the commission, for instance.

●● A piece of IT equipment, scheduled for delivery to your customer the next day, arrives with a damaged part. You decide to replace it at your store before the customer receives it. Should you inform the customer?

Yes, but assure the customer that the equipment is still under the same warranty and that the replacement part is new and also under the same warranty. If the customer protests, agree to let him or her use the computer until a new unit arrives.

As these brief scenarios suggest, sometimes you have to make concessions and com- promises to be ethical in the world of work (see “Collaboration is Crucial to the Writing Process,” pages 75–76).

Writing Ethically on the Job Ethical writing is clear, accurate, fair, and honest. These are among the most impor- tant goals of any workplace communication. Because ethics is such an important topic in writing for the business world, it will be emphasized throughout this book.

Your writing as well as your behavior must be ethical. Words, like actions, have implications and consequences. If you slant your words to conceal the truth or to gain an unfair advantage, you are not being ethical. False reporting and advertising are unethical. Bias and omission of facts are wrong. Strive to be fair, reliable, and accurate in reporting products, services, events, environmental issues, statistics, and trends.

Unethical writers are usually guilty of one or more of the following faults, which can conveniently be listed as the three M’s: misquotation, misrepresentation, and manipulation. Here are nine examples:

1. Plagiarism is stealing someone else’s words and ideas (or even the results of a study) and claiming them as your own without documenting the source. Do not think that by changing a few words of someone else’s writing here and there you are not plagiarizing. Give proper credit to your source, whether in print, in person (through an interview), or online. The penalties for plagiarism are

36 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

severe—a reprimand or even the loss of your job. See “Documenting Sources,” pages 337–347 for further advice on how to avoid plagiarism.

2. Selective misquoting deliberately omits damaging or unflattering comments to paint a better (but untruthful) picture of you or your company. By picking and choosing only a few words from a quotation, you unethically misrepresent what the speaker or writer originally intended.

Selective Misquotation: I’ve enjoyed . . . our firm’s association with Advanced Computer Services, Inc. The quality of their service was . . . excellent.

Full Quotation: I’ve enjoyed at times our firm’s association with Advanced Computer Services, Inc., although I was troubled by the uneven quality of their service. At times, it was excellent while at others it was far less so.

The spaced dots, called ellipses, unethically suggest that only extraneous or unim- portant details were omitted.

3. Skewing numbers unethically misrepresents, by increasing or decreasing per- centages or other numbers, statistical or other information. It is unethical to stretch the differences between competing plans or proposals to gain an unfair advantage or to express accurate figures in an inaccurate way.

Embellishment: An overwhelming majority of residents voted for the new plan. Ethical: The new plan was passed by a vote of 53 to 49. Embellishment: Our competitor’s sales volume increased by only 10 percent in

the preceding year, while ours doubled. Ethical: Our competitor controls 90 percent of the market, yet

we increased our share of that market from 5 to 10 percent last year.

4. Omitting key information, service, or location, or omitting articles, studies, or research that contradicts your ideas or challenges what you propose intentionally deprives readers of the facts they need to reach a decision.

Omitting Information: You will save thousands of dollars when buying the Model 2400T, the least expensive four-wheeler on the market.

Key Information Supplied: Although the model 2400T is the least expensive four-wheeler you can purchase, it is the most expensive to operate and to repair, making it the most costly four-wheeler to choose.

5. Manipulating information or context, which is closely related to the embel- lishment of numbers, is the misrepresentation of events, usually to put a good face on a bad situation. The writer here unethically uses slanted language and intention- ally misleading euphemisms to misinterpret events for readers.

Manipulation: Looking ahead to 2018, the United Funds Group is excep- tionally optimistic about its long-term prospects in an expanding global market. We are happy to report steady to moderate activity in an expanding sales environment last year. The United Funds Group seeks to build on sustaining invest- ment opportunities beneficial to all subscribers.

Ethical Writing in the Workplace 37

Ethical: Looking ahead to 2018, the United Funds Group is optimistic about its long-term prospects in an expanding global mar- ket. Though the market suffered from inflation this year, the United Funds Group hopes to recoup its losses in the year ahead.

The writer who manipulates information minimizes the negative effects of inflation by calling it “an expanding sales environment.”

6. Using fictitious benefits to promote a product or service seemingly prom- ises customers advantages but delivers none. Saying a product is environmentally safe when that claim is unproven is unethical, as is neglecting to point out that results may vary greatly when advertising a weight-loss program or home care product.

False Benefit: Our bottled water is naturally hydrogenated from clear under- ground springs.

Truth: All water is hydrogenated because it contains hydrogen. False Benefit: All our homes come with construction-grade fixtures. Truth: Construction-grade fixtures are the least expensive and least

durable a builder can use.

7. Exaggerating or minimizing hiring or firing conditions is unethical.

Unethical: One of the benefits of working for Spelco is the double pay you earn for overtime.

Truth: Overtime is assigned on the basis of seniority. Unethical: Our corporate restructuring will create a more efficient and

streamlined company, benefiting management and workers alike.

Truth: Downsizing has led to 150 layoffs this quarter.

Companies faced with laying off employees want to protect their corporate image and maintain their stockholders’ good faith, so they often put the best face on such an action.

8. Misleading international readers by adopting a condescending view of their culture and economy is unethical.

Unethical: Since our product has appealed to U.S. customers for the last sixteen months, there’s no doubt that it will be popular in your country as well.

Fair: Please let us know if any changes in product design or con- struction may be necessary for customers in your country.

9. Using a distorted or slanted visual is one of the most common types of un- ethical writing. Making a visual appear bigger, smaller, or more or less favorable is all too easy with graphics software. Printing warning or caution statements the same size and type font as ingredients or directions or enlarging advertising hype (“Double Your Money Back”) is also unethical if major points are then reduced to small print. (See "Using Visuals Ethically," pages 433–438 in Chapter 10 for guide- lines on how to prepare ethical visuals.)

38 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

suCCessful eMPlOyees are suCCessful WrIters As this chapter has stressed, being a successful employee means being a successful writer at work. The following ten guidelines, which summarize the key points of this chapter, will help you to be both:

1. Know your job—assignments, roles, responsibilities, goals, what you need to write, and what you shouldn’t.

2. Analyze your audience’s needs and what they will expect to find in your writing.

3. Be a team player and be prepared to give and to receive feedback from co- workers, managers, vendors, government inspectors, and customers.

4. Work toward and meet all deadlines. 5. Be sensitive to the needs of a international audience. 6. Be sure your written work is accurate, relevant, and practical, and include cul-

turally appropriate visuals to help readers understand your message. 7. Document, document, document. Submit everything you write with clear-cut

evidence based on factual details and persuasive, logical interpretations. 8. Use your work-issued computer, tablet, or smartphone only for company busi-

ness. Never share your password, and protect your computer from viruses. 9. Follow your company’s policies, and be loyal to your company's or organiza-

tion's image, culture, and traditions. 10. Be ethical in what you say, write, illustrate, and do.

At the end of each chapter is a checklist you should review before you submit the final copy of your work, either to your instructor or to your boss. The checklists specify the types of research, planning, drafting, editing, and revising you should do to ensure the success of your work. Regard each checklist as a summary of the main ideas in the chapter as well as a handy guide to quality control. You may find it helpful to check each box as you verify that you have performed the necessary revision and review. Effective writers are also careful editors.

●■ Showed respect for and appropriately shaped my message for a global audience. ●■ Identified my audience—background, knowledge of English, reason for reading

my work, and likely response to my work and me. ●■ Tailored my message to my audience’s needs and background, giving them neither

too little nor too much information. ●■ Pushed to the main point right away; did not waste my readers’ time. ●■ Selected the most appropriate language, technical level, tone, and level of formality. ●■ Did not waste my readers’ time with unsupported generalizations or opinions; in-

stead gave them accurate measurements, facts, and carefully researched material.

✓ r e v I S I O N C h e C k L I S t

Exercises 39

1. Write a memo (see “Memos,” pages 220–227 for format) addressed to a prospective supervisor to introduce yourself. Your memo should have four headings: education— including goals and accomplishments; Job Information—where you have worked and your responsibilities; Community Service—volunteer work, church work, youth groups; and Writing experience—your strengths and weaknesses as a writer, the types of writing you have done, your knowledge of and experience in writing e-communications, and the audiences for whom you have written.

2. Bring to class a set of printed instructions, a memo, a sales letter, a brochure, or the print- out of a company’s or organization’s home page. Comment on how well the example answers the following questions:

a. Who is the audience? b. Why was the material written? c. What is the message? d. Are the style and tone appropriate for the audience, the purpose, and the mes-

sage? Explain. e. Discuss the use of any visuals and color in the document. For instance, how does

color (or the lack of it) affect an audience’s response to the message?

3. Find an advertisement in a print source or online that contains a drawing or photograph. Bring the ad to class along with a paragraph of your own (75–100 words) describing how the message of the ad is directed to a particular audience and commenting on how the drawing or photo is appropriate for that audience.

4. Select one of the following topics, and write two descriptions of it. In the first descrip- tion, use technical details and vocabulary. In the second, use language and details suit- able for the general public.

a. iPad b. blood pressure cuff

c. flash drive d. energy drinks

e x e r C I S e S

●■ Selected appropriate visuals to make my work easier for my audience to under- stand and follow.

●■ Used persuasive reasons and data to convince my readers to accept my plan or work. ●■ Ensured that my writing and visuals are ethical—accurate, fair, honest, a true

reflection of the situation or condition I am explaining or describing, for U.S. as well as global audiences.

●■ Followed the Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics. ●■ Adhered to the ethical codes of my profession as well as the policies and regula-

tions set down by my employer. ●■ Gave full and complete credit to any sources I used, including resource people. ●■ Avoided plagiarism and unfair or dishonest use of copyrighted materials, both

written and visual, including all electronic media.

40 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

e. Bluetooth headset f. legal contract g. electric sander h. firewalls i. muscle j. protein k. smartphone l. cloud computing

m. bread n. money

o. all-in-one printer p. soap q. blogging r. computer virus s. Ebola t. thermostat u. trees v. mobile app

w. earthquake x. recycling

5. Select another topic from Exercise 4, and write two more descriptions as a collaborative writing project.

6. Select one article from an online newspaper and one article from a professional, trade, e- or print journal in your major field or from one of the following journals: Advertising Age, American Journal of Nursing, Business Marketing, Bloomberg Businessweek, Com- puter, Computer Design, Construction Equipment, Criminal Justice Review, E-Commerce, Food Service Marketing, Journal of Forestry, Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, National Safety News, Nutrition Action, Park Maintenance, Scientific American. State how the two articles you selected differ in terms of audience, purpose, message, style, and tone.

7. Assume that you work for Appliance Rentals, Inc., a company that rents TVs, microwave ovens, stereo components, and the like. Write a persuasive letter to the members of a campus organization or civic club urging them to rent an appropriate appliance or appli- ances. Include details in your letter that might have special relevance to members of this specific organization.

8. Read the article, “The Mouse That Knows You” (see below), and identify its audience (technical or general), purpose, message, style, and tone.

the Mouse that knows You: a device that recognizes your grip highlights raytheon’s cyber innovation

The idea dawned on Glenn Kaufman one day in the lab. His computer was running a pattern- recognition biometrics program—a piece of software that measured how hard and fast he typed, then used it like a fingerprint to confirm his identity the next time he logged on.

Amid the clicking and clacking of keys, he remembered seeing something on the news about “smart guns” that know their owner’s grip and won’t fire for anybody else. He got to thinking: If that sort of thing works on computer keyboards and guns, it must work on other things too.

“I thought that maybe if there was a pattern to gripping a gun grip, maybe there was a pattern to gripping a mouse,” he said.

Kaufman, a Raytheon cybersecurity engineer, got to work. Four years later, he was awarded U.S. Patent No. 8,762,734 for the “Biometric Pressure Grip” — a sensor that mea- sures how hard and how tightly someone holds a mouse, then uses that information as part of a multi-step login process.

Exercises 41

Kaufman’s invention is among hundreds of innovations company engineers are develop- ing as Raytheon’s cybersecurity business surges in an age of larger and increasingly destruc- tive computer-system breaches.

A culture of creation “Raytheon is a technology leader across all aspects of the cyber domain,” said Jeff Snyder, vice president of Raytheon’s cyber programs. “If we see a gap that we have in cyber tech- nology, we will either invest internally to develop it . . . or we’ll find the right partner. And our leadership believes in this technology area as it is so critical to protect our products, Raytheon’s infrastructure, and our important cyber clients.”

Major Raytheon cybersecurity innovations include:

SureView—Software that guards against “insider threats” or abuses of computer systems by people authorized to access them. The system alerts IT security to warning signs – such as employees downloading files at unusual times—and also provides a detailed, video-quality recording of computer users’ activity.

Advanced Threat Protection (formerly RShield)—An advanced malware detection system that, for example, segregates incoming emails and downloads, putting them through a battery of tests to root out any malicious code. Raytheon announced at the 2014 Black Hat cyberse- curity conference in Las Vegas that it is developing a major upgrade to the system.

High Speed Guard—Software that provides fast, secure and automated transfer of complex data such as video between multiple classified networks. High Speed Guard has been shown to transfer data at rates of more than nine gigabits per second.

Net Maneuver Commander—A “moving target” system that protects a network by con- stantly rearranging it through the use of randomization algorithms. The technique keeps weak spots on the move, forcing hackers to relearn the entire system and rebuild their mal- ware every time the system redraws the network.

Kaufman’s mouse is not yet part of any specific security system. But inventions like his could have potential as part of a “layered” security system that uses a security token and a password or a passphrase.

Kaufman’s research showed a person’s mouse grip is a surprisingly effective biometric identifier. It turns out only about one in 10,000 people place their fingers in exactly the same spot and exert precisely the same amount of pressure.

“It’s not only a reliable identifier, but it’s also harder to defeat,” Kaufman said. “I can defeat fingerprints, because I can take it from something else like a glass . . . once I’ve done that, all I have to do is override the system by using a mockup of your fingerprint. Because this is a pattern-recognition biometric, it’s harder to defeat.”

Inventions like Kaufman’s smart mouse show Raytheon engineers are gearing up to meet the growing demands of cybersecurity, Snyder said. Private companies such as retail- ers and utility providers are realizing they need military-style protection for their data and networks, and Snyder said building that protection — assessing a client’s needs, designing a system and monitoring it around the clock — is something Raytheon already does for government agencies.

“That continuum, that delivery continuum, applies in the federal and commercial mar- ketplace exactly the same,” he said. “No different—it’s all the same.”

Source: Raytheon Company/870 Winter Street, Waltham, MA 02451

42 CHapTER 1 Getting Started

9. How do the visuals and the text of the Digital World Technologies advertisement in Figure 1.1 on page 7 stress to current (and potential) employees, customers, and stock- holders that the company is committed to diversity in the workplace? Also explain how the ad illustrates the functions of on-the-job writing as defined on pages 20–26 (“Characteristics of Job-Related Writing”).

10. Write an email or a social media post to a cell phone provider that has mistakenly billed you for a data plan that you never ordered, received, or needed.

11. The following statements contain embellishments, selected misquotations, false benefits, omitted key information, and other types of unethical tactics. Revise each statement to eliminate the unethical aspects. Make up details as needed.

a. Storm damage done to water filtration plant #3 was minimal. While we had to shut down temporarily, service resumed to meet residents’ needs.

b. All customers qualify for the maximum discount available. c. “The service contract . . . on the whole . . . applied to upgrades.” d. We followed the protocols precisely with test results yielding further opportunities

for experimentation. e. All our costs were within fair-use guidelines. f. Customers’ complaints have been held to a minimum. g. All the lots we are selling offer relatively easy access to the lake. h. Factory-trained technicians respond to all our calls.

12. You work for a large international company, and a co-worker tells you that he has no plans to return to his job after he takes his annual two-week vacation. You know that your department cannot meet its deadlines shorthanded and that your department will need at least two or three weeks to recruit and hire a qualified replacement. You also know that it is your company’s policy not to give paid vacations to employees who do not agree to work for at least three months following their return. What should you do? What points would you make in a confidential email to your boss? What points would you raise to your co-worker?

13. Your company is regulated and inspected by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In 90 days, the EPA will relax a regulation about dumping occupational waste. Your company’s management is considering cutting costs by relaxing the standard now, before the new, less demanding regulation is in place. You know that the EPA inspector probably will not return before the 90-day period elapses. What do you recommend to management?

14. You and your co-workers have been intimidated by an office bully, a twelve-year em- ployee who has seniority. As a collaborative writing project (see “Collaboration is Crucial to the Writing Process,” pages 75–76), draft a letter to the head of your human resources department documenting instances of the bully’s actions and asking for advice on how to proceed.

15. Write a memo to your boss about being passed over for promotion. Diplomatically and ethically compare your work with that of the individual who did receive the promotion.

Exercises 43

16. Write a 50- to 200-word email to your boss about one of the following unethical activi- ties you have witnessed in your workplace. Your email must be carefully documented, fair, and persuasive—in short, ethical.

a. cyberbullying b. surfing pornography websites c. using workplace technology for

personal matters (shopping, dat- ing, buying stocks)

d. falsifying compensatory or travel time

e. telling sexist, off-color jokes f. concealing the use of company

funds for personal gifts for fellow employees

g. misdating or backdating company records

h. sharing privileged information with individuals outside your depart- ment or company

i. fudging the number of hours worked

j. lying about family illnesses k. exaggerating a workplace-related

injury l. not reporting a second job to avoid

scheduled weekend work m. misrepresenting, by minimizing, a

client’s complaint

The Writing Process at Work

In Chapter 1, you learned about the different functions of writing for the world of work and also explored some basic concepts all writers must master. To be a successful writer, you need to

●● identify your audience’s needs ●● determine your purpose in writing to that audience ●● make sure your message meets your audience’s needs ●● use the most appropriate style and tone for your message ●● format your work so that it clearly reflects your message to your

audience

Just as significant to your success is knowing how effective writers actu- ally create their work for their audiences. This chapter gives you practi- cal information about the strategies and techniques careful writers use when they work. These procedures are a vital part of what is known as the writing process. This process involves such matters as how writers gather information, how they transform their ideas into written form, and how they organize and revise what they have written to make it relevant for their audiences.

What Writing is and is not As you begin your study of writing for the world of work, it might be helpful to identify some notions about what writing is and what it is not.

What Writing Is ●● The writing process is dynamic; it is not static. It enables you to

discover and evaluate your thoughts as you draft and revise. ●● A piece of writing changes as your thoughts and information

change and as your view of the material changes.

C h a p t e r

Chapter outline

What Writing Is and Is Not

The Writing Process

Researching

Planning

Drafting

Revising

Editing

The Writing Process: Some Final Thoughts

fotog/Tetra/Corbis

Researching 45

●● Writing takes time. Some people think that revising and polishing are too time consuming. But poor writing actually takes more time and costs more money in the end. It can lead to misunderstandings, lost sales, product recalls, and even damage to your reputation and that of your company.

●● Writing means making a number of judgment calls. ●● Writing grows sometimes in bits and pieces and sometimes in great spurts.

It needs many revisions; an early draft is never a final copy.

What Writing Is Not ●● Writing is not a mysterious process, known only to a few. Even if you have

not done much writing before, you can learn to do it effectively. ●● Writing is not simply following a magical formula. Successful writing

requires hard work and thoughtful effort, not simply following a formula, as if you were painting by numbers. Writing does not proceed in some predictable way, in which introductions are always written first and conclusions last.

●● Writing is not completed in a first attempt. Just because you put something down on paper or on a computer screen does not mean it is unchangeable. Writing means rewriting, revising, and rethinking. The better a piece of writ- ing is, the more the writer has reworked it.

the Writing proCess The writing process we have just discussed is something fluid, not static. Think of it as a back and forth process rather than following a formula—do this, then do that. To move from a blank sheet of paper or computer screen to a successful piece of writing, you need to follow a process. The parts of that process include researching, planning, drafting, revising, and editing.

researChing Before you start to compose any email, memo, letter, report, proposal, or website, you’ll need to do research. Research is crucial because it enables you to obtain the right information for your audience. The world of work is based on conveying cor- rect and relevant information—the logical presentation and sensible interpretation of facts. Chapter 8 will introduce you to the variety of research strategies and tools you can expect to use in the world of work.

Don’t ever think you are wasting time by doing some research before start- ing to write any document. Actually, you will waste more time and risk doing a poor job if you do not find out as much as possible about your topic (and your audience’s interest in it). Find out about your readers’ needs and how to meet them.

46 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

Then you can determine the kind of research you must do to gather and inter- pret the information your audience needs. Depending on the length and scope of your written work and on your audience’s needs, your research may include

●● interviewing people inside and outside your company ●● reviewing similar or related company documents ●● consulting notes from conferences or meetings ●● collaborating in person, by email, or by messaging ●● doing Internet searches ●● locating and evaluating websites and social media posts ●● reading current periodicals, trade journals, reports, and other documents ●● evaluating reports, products, and services ●● conferring with co-workers, customers, or vendors ●● surveying customers’ views ●● visiting a work site

Keep in mind that research is not confined to just the beginning of the writing pro- cess; it is an ongoing process.

planning At this stage in the writing process your goal is to get something—anything—down on paper or on your computer screen. For most writers, getting started is the hard- est part of the job. But you will feel more comfortable and confident once you be- gin to see your ideas written down before your eyes. It is always easier to clarify and criticize something you can see.

Getting started is also easier if you have researched your topic, because you have something concrete to say and to build on. Each part of the process relates to and supports the next. Careful research prepares you to begin writing.

Still, getting started is not easy. Take advantage of a number of widely used strategies that can help you to develop, organize, and tailor the right informa- tion for your audience. Use any one of the following techniques, alone or in combination.

1. Clustering. In the middle of a sheet of paper, write the word or phrase that best describes your topic, and then start writing other words or phrases that come to mind. (It is also possible to do this on your computer screen using a “mind map- ping” software program such as FreeMind, XMind, or iMindMap to create clus- ters.) As you write, circle each word or phrase and connect it to the word from which it sprang. Note the clustered grouping in Figure 2.1 (page 47) for a report encouraging a manager to switch to flextime—a system in which employees can work on a flexible time schedule within certain limits. The resulting graphic gives the writer a rough sense of some of the major divisions of the topic and where they may belong in the report.

2. Brainstorming. At the top of a sheet of paper or your computer screen, de- scribe your topic in a word or phrase and then list any information you know or

Planning 47

found out about that topic—in any order and as quickly as you can. Brainstorming is like thinking aloud except that you are recording your thoughts.

●● Don’t stop to delete, rearrange, or rewrite anything, and don’t dwell on any one item.

●● Don’t worry about spelling, punctuation, grammar, or whether you are using words and phrases instead of complete sentences at this point.

●● Keep the ideas flowing. The result may well be an odd assortment of details, comments, and opinions.

●● After stepping away from the list for a few minutes (or hours) and returning with fresh eyes, expect to add and delete some ideas or combine or rearrange others as you start to develop your topic in more detail.

Figure 2.2 (page 48) shows Marcus Weekley’s initial brainstormed list for a report to his boss on purchasing a new color laser all-in-one printer. After he began to revise it, he realized that some items were not relevant for his audience (6, 8, and 13). He also recognized that some items were repetitious (1, 2, and 11). Further investigation revealed that his company could purchase a printer for far less than his initial high guess (17). As Weekley continued to work on his list and the overall topic became clearer to him, he added and deleted points.

child care arrangements are easier

can arrive at 7 am or leave

at 5 pm

decreased incidence of lateness, absenteeism

adaptable to individual lifestyle

avoid rush-hour traffic

easier to make after-work

appointments

happier employeesEmployer

advantages

schedule changes can be

minimized

better coordination

of human resources

always someone in office 7 am–5 pm

less overtime pay

flat rate of pay

FLEX- TIME

Employee advantages

have some control over

own schedules

can vary schedule from week to week

easier to do business

with global companies

Figure 2.1 Clustering of Ideas to Prepare a Report on Flextime

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48 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

List is not organized but simply records writer’s initial ideas about possible topics

1, 2, and 11 are repetitious

6, 8, and 13 are not relevant for audience or purpose

4, 9, 12, and 14 are of special interest to decision makers concerned about costs

Research will show cost estimate is too high ©

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Figure 2.2 Marcus Weekley’s Initial, Unrevised Brainstormed List

3. Outlining. This process may be the easiest and most comfortable way to begin or to continue planning a report or letter. Outlines can go through stages, so don’t worry if your first attempt is brief and messy. It does not have to be formal (with lots of Roman and Arabic numerals), complete, or pretty. It is intended for no one’s eyes but yours. Use your preliminary outline as a quick

Planning 49

Outline form helps writer group ideas/ topics and go to next step in the process

Headings correspond to major sections of report

Outline reflects scope and details of writer’s research

Last section of outline also functions as a conclusion

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I. Convenience/capabilities of all-in-one laser printer

A. Would reduce number of machines having to be serviced

B. Can be con�gured easily for our network system

C. Easy to install and to operate

D. 33.6 Kbps fax machine would increase our communication

E. 2,400 3 1,200 dpi copier means better copy quality

F. 4,800 3 4,800 dpi scanner means higher quality pictures than current scanner provides

II. Time/ef�ciency

A. 40 ppm color printer is nearly twice as fast as current printer

B. 33.6 Kbps fax allows quick response time

C. Greater graphics capability—130 scalable fonts

D. Scanner compatible with our current PhotoEdit imaging/graphics software

E. 100,000-page monthly duty cycle means less maintenance

III. Money

A. Costs less overall for multitasking printer than combined four machines

B. Reduced monthly power bill by using one machine rather than four

C. Wi-� capability means no need to buy new software to network of�ce computers

D. Save on service costs

E. Reduced advertising costs through printer’s 50−400% enlargement/ reduction options, which allow for more in-house advertising

Figure 2.3 Marcus Weekley’s Early Outline After Revising His Brainstormed List

way to sketch in some ideas, a convenient container into which you can put information. You might simply jot down a few major points and identify a few subpoints. Note how Weekley organized his revised brainstormed list into an outline seen below in Figure 2.3.

50 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

drafting If you have planned carefully, it will be easier to start your first draft. When you draft, you convert the words and phrases from your outline, brainstormed list, or clustered grouping into paragraphs. During drafting, as elsewhere in the writing process, you will see some overlap as you look back over your list or outline to shape your text.

Don’t expect to wind up with a polished, complete version of your letter or report after working on only one draft. In most cases, you will have to work through many drafts, but each draft should be less rough and more focused than the preceding one.

Key Questions to ask as You Draft As you work on your drafts, ask yourself the following questions about your content and organization:

●● Am I giving my readers too much or too little information? ●● Do I need to do more research—where and why? ●● Should I confer further with my boss or co-workers? ●● Does this point belong where I have it, or would it more logically follow or

precede something else? ●● Is this point necessary and relevant? ●● Am I repeating or contradicting myself? ●● Have I ended appropriately for my audience?

To answer the questions successfully, you may have to continue researching your topic and reexamining your audience’s needs. But, in the process, new and even better ideas may come to you, and the ideas you originally thought were essential may in time appear to be unworkable and unnecessary.

Guidelines for Successful Drafting Following are some suggestions to help your drafting go more smoothly and efficiently.

●● In an early draft, write the easiest part first. Some writers feel more comfort- able drafting the body (or middle) of their work first. See the differences be- tween the short report in Figures 2.6 and 2.7 (pages 57–58).

●● As you work on a later draft, write straight through. Do not worry about spelling, punctuation, or the way a word or sentence sounds. Save those con- cerns for later stages.

●● Allow enough time between drafts so that you can evaluate your work with fresh eyes and a clear mind.

●● Get frequent outside opinions. Show or email a draft to a co-worker or a supervisor for comment. A new pair of eyes will see things you missed. As we’ll see, collaboration is essential in the workplace (see “Collaboration Is Crucial to the Writing Process,” pages 75–76).

Drafting 51

●● Consider whether visuals would enhance the quality of your work and, if so, decide on what types and where best to insert them.

Figure 2.4 (page 52) shows one of the several drafts that Marcus Weekley pre- pared. Because he wisely recognized that his outline was not final, he continued to work on it during the drafting stage. Note that he added an introduction and a conclusion, which were not part of his original outline (Figure 2.3), to convince Melissa Hill to purchase a new all-in-one laser printer. Even so, Weekley rec- ognized that this draft was still not ready for his boss to see, so he showed it to co-workers for suggestions.

From discussions with co-workers and vendors, and after further work on his draft, Weekley realized that he had placed one of the most important considerations for his audience (savings) last. In his final version, shown in Figure 2.5 (page 53), he moved that section to the beginning of his report. Weekley thus paid attention to his audience’s priorities and needs. He also added headings and bulleted lists to help his reader find information. The format of his earlier draft (Figure 2.4) did not assist his readers in finding information quickly, nor did it reflect a convincing organizational plan.

tech Note

Drafting

Here are a few tips to make the process go more smoothly when you draft your docu- ment, no matter what device you use (a computer, a tablet, a smartphone, etc.):

●● Get your thoughts down on the screen as quickly as possible, without stopping to worry about spelling, punctuation, or spacing. If you stop to correct these small errors, you may forget to write down larger points.

●● Save your document regularly (every few minutes) so that you do not lose valuable work and time in the event of a power outage or computer malfunction. Back up your document at the end of each day.

●● If you run into trouble completing a point or writing a transition, or if you know you will need to add documentation later, do not lose momentum by stopping. Instead, add notes to yourself (in parentheses, in italics, or in a different color) reminding you to “add transition,” “back up this point,” “clarify,” “check with boss,” or “add documentation.”

●● Use the Save As option to save each draft of your document. That way, you will be able to salvage versions of sentences or paragraphs from one draft and incorporate them into another. Give each draft a clear title, such as “Office Equipment, 3rd draft,” so you can tell at a glance which version is which.

●● If you intend to share your document with others for collaborative editing, use cloud computing tools like Google Docs (see Figure 3.10, page 101) or Adobe Buzzword to create your draft. These applications will allow you to save a complete revision history of your document, add comments and notes to your work, share your work with oth- ers for their review, and create presentation-ready documents.

52 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

To: Melissa Hill, Office Manager From: Marcus Weekley Date: May 25, 2015 Subject: Improving Efficiency

As you requested, I have been researching what to do about improving our office efficiency. One of the most beneficial and immediate solutions I have found is to replace our current laser printer with a new all-in-one color laser printer. More and more businesses today are incorporating multifunction printers into their information technology systems because of ease and efficiency. With the advances in printer technology in the past three years, it makes good business sense to replace our Van Eisen 4200 laser printer with a Lightech 520 multifunction printer. This printer would reduce business costs and increase business efficiency at a total cost significantly lower than the combined price of a laser printer, fax machine, copier, and scanner.

The printer, fax machine, copier, and scanner in the Lightech 520 is compatible with our operating systems. The addition of a 33.6 Kbps fax machine to our office, as opposed to our current 20.5 Kbps, would increase operating efficiency by allowing quicker response times. With the new multifunction color printer, our office can print up to 40 high-resolution color pages per minute, compared with our current printer’s 20 color ppm. And the new printer’s 5 GB of memory helps to manage multiple jobs easily. The Lightech 520 printer also holds 3,100 sheets of paper, as opposed to our current printer’s 500-page capacity.

The multifunction printer would provide higher quality printing through a 4,800 dpi printer, whereas our current Image 4200 laser printer only has 900 dpi. The new printer also offers over 130 scalable type fonts, whereas our current printer only offers 60. Also, our current scanners scan images in at 1,200 � 1,200 dpi, whereas the new scanner operates at 4,800 � 4,800 dpi, so scanned images will be of an even better quality.

The greatest benefit a multifunction printer would provide our company is monetary. The price of a new multifunction business printer ranges from $3,000 to $9,000 depending on the model. Lightech’s 520 multifunction color laser printer (including 2,400 � 1,200 dpi copier, 4,800 � 4,800 dpi scanner, and 33.6 Kbps fax) costs only $3,175 not including shipping and handling purchased from Computerbuyers.com. This cost nearly equals the price of our own Van Eisen 4200 printer and West 400 scanners, but combines the equipment into one more efficient machine. Purchasing the multifunction printer would not only save our business money on the initial purchase, but use of a multitasking unit that combines four machines into one would also save on subsequent servicing and maintenance, as well as decreasing our monthly electric bill by $50–$150 per month. Use of the multifunction printer’s 50–400% enlargement/reduction options should also save us an additional $300–$500 each month by enabling us to generate advertising brochures in-house. Computerbuyers.com also offers a two-year warranty on all products sold through its website. What better way to begin improving business efficiency than through the purchase of a new multifunction color printer?

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Vague subject line

Wordy opening paragraph takes too long to get to the point

No headings or bullets make information hard to find

Does not supply source of research

Includes most important point for reader—costs— too late

Paragraph is long and hard to follow. Break into 2 or 3 paragraphs

Ends with question rather than plan for how to make change

Figure 2.4 Intermediate Draft of Marcus Weekley’s Report

Drafting 53

To: Melissa Hill, Of�ce Manager From: Marcus Weekley Date: June 12, 2015 Subject: Advantages of Purchasing a New All-in-One Printer

As you requested, I have investigated some ways to improve of�ce ef�ciency. The best solution I have found is to replace our current Van Eisen 4200 laser printer, two West 400 scanners, and XL290 fax machine with a new-generation laser all-in-one color laser printer, the Lightech 520.

With advances in printer technology over the last two years (enclosed is a copy of a review article “New Technology Means Of�ce Ef�ciency” from Computer World [http://www.computerworld.com/article/2912897/new-technology -means-of�ce ef�ciency.html]), it makes good business sense to replace our less-ef�cient laser printer with a Lightech 520 all-in-one color laser printer. Our laser printer does only one task, while the Lightech will give us higher-resolution color printing, a high-speed fax machine, a copier, and a scanner all in one. This new unit is economical and more ef�cient and will signi�cantly improve the transmission and design of our documents.

Cost The greatest bene�t of the all-in-one Lightech 520 is cost. We can purchase this printer for only $3,175, plus shipping and handling, totaling $3,298 when ordered through Computerbuyers.com. Purchasing a Lightech 520 would allow us to recoup that cost easily in just a few months because we would

realize a savings in the purchase price—one Lightech costs less than the four current machines combined

receive ScanText and WordPort software free with the printer decrease our monthly electricity bill by $50–$150 by reducing four pieces of

of�ce equipment to one have less maintenance, saving at least $150 per month in service calls receive a two-year warranty with guaranteed overnight service, which should

decrease downtime be able to trade in our current printer for $375 and our two scanners for $200

each save an additional $300–500 each month by not having to use outside

advertising thanks to Lightech’s 50–400% enlargement/reduction capabilities

Introduction gets to the point quickly

More precise subject line

Documentation shows research on subject

Excellent use of headings and bulleted lists

Justification for new purchase clearly and persuasively laid out

Cites specific model and costs

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Figure 2.5 Final Version of Marcus Weekley’s Report

54 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

Gives reader appropriate amount and type of detail

Contrasts current equipment with new model

Selects only most relevant points for reader

Recommenda tion ends report persuasively, highlighting benefits to employer

Page 2

Ef�ciency This all-in-one printer accomplishes all four tasks—printing, faxing, scanning, copying—simultaneously, and each task is compatible with our current networking system. Other key features include

allows quicker faxing (3 seconds per page) with 33.6 Kbps and greater storage (600 pages)

prints twice as fast—40 high-resolution color pages per minute as opposed to our current printer’s 20

enhanced memory of 5 GB manages multiple jobs easily expanded paper capacity (3,100 sheets) to handle our heavy quarterly mailings

easily 100,000-page monthly duty cycle means less maintenance all four tasks compatible with our PhotoEdit software

Quality The Lightech 520 prints and processes higher quality and quantity of work because it

has a 4,800 dpi printer, whereas our current printer offers only 900 dpi exhibits same color density on the 1,000th copy as on the �rst; solid ink sticks

ensure no toner spills offers a 2,400 3 1,200 dpi high-resolution copier would increase the quality of manipulated scanned images with a 4,800 3

4,800 dpi, whereas our current scanner is only 1,200 3 1,200 offers over 130 scalable fonts, as opposed to the 60 we now have, which will

give our publications a more varied and professional appearance

I recommend that we purchase a Lightech 520 laser printer from Computerbuyers.com. It will unquestionably save us money, improve of�ce ef�ciency, and help us to integrate our of�ce systems to better project our corporate image.

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Figure 2.5 (Continued)

revising Revision is an essential stage in the writing process. It requires more than giv- ing your work another quick glance. Do not be tempted to skip the revision stage just because you have written the required number of words or sections or

Revising 55

because you think you have put in too much time already. Revision is done after you produce a draft that you think conveys the appropriate message for your audience. The quality of your memo, letter, or report depends on the revisions you make now.

allow enough time to revise Like planning or drafting, revision is not done well in one big push. It evolves over a period of time. Make sure you budget enough time to do it carefully.

●● Avoid drafting and revising in one sitting. If possible, wait at least a day before you start to revise. (In the busy work world, waiting a couple of hours may have to suffice.)

●● Ask a co-worker or friend familiar with your topic to comment on your work. ●● Plan to read your revised work more than once.

revision Is rethinking When you revise, you resee, rethink, and reconsider your entire document. You ask questions about the major issues of content, organization, tone, and format (see “The ABCs of Print Document Design,” pages 449–459). Revision involves going back and repeating earlier steps in the writing process.

Revision means asking again the questions you have already asked and an- swered during the planning and drafting stages. During the process, you will dis- cover gaps to fill, points to change, and errors to correct in your draft. Revision gives you a second (or third or fourth) chance to get things right for your audi- ence. Take advantage of the document tracking options (see “Document Track- ing Software,” page 97) such as Track Changes and Edit that allow you to see your additions, cuts, and moves in a different color.

Key Questions to ask as You revise By asking and successfully answering the following questions as you revise, you can discover gaps or omissions, points to change, and errors to correct in your draft.

Content

1. Is it accurate? Are my facts (figures, names, addresses, dates, costs, references, warranty terms, statistics) correct?

2. Is it relevant for my audience and purpose? Have I included information that is unnecessary, too technical, concrete or inappropriate?

3. Have I given enough concrete evidence to explain things adequately and to persuade my readers? (Too little information will make readers skeptical about what you are describing or proposing.) Have I left anything out?

Organization

1. Have I clearly identified my main points and shown readers why those points are important?

56 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

tech Note

Revising

Here are some suggestions on how you can effectively revise a document on your computer, tablet, or smartphone:

●● During this part of the writing process, respond to the notes you left yourself when you were drafting the document. Move sentences and paragraphs to more appropriate places, add clarifications and transitions, insert parenthetical docu- mentation, create headers, or add visuals. At this stage, do not worry about spelling and punctuation, which are fine-tuning matters you can resolve during the editing stage.

●● As you did when you drafted, save your document regularly (every few minutes) so that you do not lose your work if there’s a power outage or your computer malfunc- tions. (Some word processing programs and apps can be set to save your document automatically at set time intervals.) Back up your document at the end of each day.

●● Use the Save As option for each revision of your document, and give each revision a clear title, such as “Office Equipment, Revision #1.”

●● Take advantage of change-tracking options (see “Document Tracking Software,” page 97) that allow you to see your edits (additions, cuts, and moves) in a different color, rather than deleting existing text. Use the Comment option to insert notes to yourself that will appear in the margin or at the bottom of your document.

●● Choose the Print Preview option to see the final version of your document. Check to see if your document is too long or too short or if some sections of your document appear to be too dense with text. If your text is too dense, you may need to make deletions, add headings or headers, or include visuals to make your document attractive and easy to read and follow. (See “The ABCs of Print Document Design,” pages 449–459).

●● If you are using collaborative editing tools like Google Docs and Adobe Buzzword, share the document with the colleagues, managers, vendors, and so on, who can best help you to revise it. Then inform your collaborating team about how you want them to use this technology.

2. Is everything in the right, most effective order? Should anything be switched or moved closer to the beginning or the end of my document?

3. Am I spending too much (or too little) effort on one section? Do I repeat my- self? What can be cut? Where and why?

4. Have I grouped related items in the same part of my report or letter, or have I scattered details that need to appear in one paragraph or section?

Tone

1. How do I sound to my readers—professional and sincere, or arrogant and unreliable? What attitude/tone do my words or expressions convey?

2. How will my readers, native speakers as well as an international audience, think I perceive them—honest and intelligent or unprofessional and uncooperative?

Revising 57

Case study

A “Before” and “After” Revision of a Short Report

Mary Fonseca, a staff member at Seacoast Labs, was asked by her supervisor to prepare a short report for the general public on the Labs’s most recent experiments. Conferring with her supervisor, Fonseca learned that the report was intended to attract favorable publicity for the Labs’s commitment to conserving energy and lowering marine fuel costs.

When she began to revise her first draft (seen in Figure 2.6), Fonseca realized that it lacked focus. It jumped back and forth between drag on ships and drag on airplanes. Because Seacoast Labs did not work on planes, she wisely decided to drop that idea. She also understood that the information on the effects of drag was so important it deserved a separate paragraph. In light of this key idea, she knew that her explanation of molecules, eddies, and drag needed to be made more reader-friendly, and so she added the analogy about spoons/ships and honey/drag. Researching further, she decided to add a new para- graph on the causes and effects of drag, which became paragraph 2 in her second draft (seen in Figure 2.7 on page 58).

Yet by pulling ideas about drag and its effects from the long first paragraph in Figure 2.6, Fonseca had to find an opening for this section of her report. Buried in her original opening paragraph was the idea that we cannot always see the forces of nature, but we can feel them.

Information hard to follow and not relevant for audience

Does not explain process very well

Important point not developed

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Drag is an important concept in the world of science and technology. It has many implications. Drag occurs when a ship moves through the water and eddies build up. Ships on the high seas have to �ght the eddies, which results in drag. In the same way, an airplane has to �ght the winds at various altitudes at which it �ies; these winds are very forceful, moving at many knots per hour. All these forces of nature are around us. Sometimes we can feel them, too. We get tired walking against a strong wind. The eddies around a ship are the same thing. These eddies form various barriers around the ship’s hull. They come from a combination of different molecules around the ship’s hull and exert quite a force. Both types of molecules pull against the ship. This is where the eddies come in. Scientists at Seacoast Labs are concerned about drag. Dr. Karen Runnels, who joined Seacoast about three years ago, is the chief investigator. She and her team of highly quali�ed experts have constructed some fascinating multilevel water tunnels. These tunnels should be useful to ship owners. Drag wastes a ship’s fuel.

Figure 2.6 Unorganized Opening Paragraphs of Mary Fonseca’s “Before” Draft

(Continued)

58 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

Effective use of headings and definition

Describes cause and effect of drag in concise, easy to understand terms

Supplies an easytofollow analogy for her audience

Clearly explains the Labs’ research and its importance for readers concerned about the economy and environment

What Is Drag? We cannot see or hear many of the forces around us, but we can detect their presence. Walking or running into a strong wind, for example, requires a great deal of effort and often quickly leaves us feeling tired. When a ship sails through the water, it also experiences these opposing forces known as drag. Overcoming drag causes a ship to reduce its energy ef�ciency, which leads to higher fuel costs.

How Drag Works It is not easy for a ship to �ght drag. As the ship moves through the water, it drags the water molecules around its hull at the same rate the ship is moving. Because of the cohesive force of those molecules, other water molecules immediately outside the ship’s path get pulled into its way. All the molecules become tangled rather than simply sliding past each other. The result is an eddy, or small circling burst of water around the ship’s hull, which intensi�es the drag. Jorge Fröes, a highly respected structural engineer, explains the process using this analogy: “When you put a spoon in honey and pull it out, half the honey comes out with the spoon. That’s what is happening to ships. The ship is moving and at the same time dragging the ocean with it.”

Ways to Reduce Drag At Seacoast Labs, scientists are working to �nd ways to reduce drag on ships. Dr. Karen Runnels, the principal investigator, and a team of researchers have constructed water tunnels to simulate the movement of ships at sea. The drag a ship encounters is measured from the tiny air bubbles emitted in the water tunnel. To reduce the drag, Runnel’s team developed the use of polymers, or long carbon chain molecules. These polymers act like a slimy coating for the ship’s hull to help it glide through the water more easily. When asbestos �bers were added to the polymer solutions, the investigators achieved a 90 percent reduction in drag. The team has also experimented with an external pump attached to the hull of a ship, which pushes the water away from a ship’s path, saving even more energy and time.

Figure 2.7 The “After” Draft—a Revision of Mary Fonseca’s “Before” Draft in Figure 2.5

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Editing 59

She thought this comparison of walking against the wind and fighting drag would work better for her audience than the original wooden remarks she had started with.

Although her organization and ideas were far better in her second draft than in her “before” draft in Figure 2.6, she concluded she had said very little about her employer, Sea- coast Labs, and the image it wanted to project through its experiments. Doing more research, she found additional information about Seacoast’s experiments and why they were so im- portant in conserving fuel and saving money. This information was far more significant and relevant than saying that Dr. Runnels had been at Seacoast for three years.

Through revision and further research, then, Mary Fonseca transformed two poorly orga- nized and incomplete paragraphs into three separate yet logically connected ones that high- lighted her employer’s work. In her revision (Figure 2.7), she came up with three very helpful headings—“What Is Drag?, ” “How Drag Works,” and “Reducing Drag”—to help organize information for her nonspecialist readers.

editing Editing is the equivalent of quality control for your reader. This last stage in the writing process might be compared to detailing an automobile—the preparation a dealer goes through to ready a new car for prospective buyers. Editing is done only after you are completely satisfied that you have made all of the big decisions about content, organization, and format—that you have said what you wanted to, where and how you intended, for your audience.

When you edit, you will check your work to make sure it is readable and cor- rect. At this stage, pay close attention to

●● sentences ●● word choices ●● punctuation

●● spelling ●● grammar and usage ●● tone

As with revising, don’t skip or rush through the editing process, thinking that once your ideas are down, your work is done. If your work is hard to read or con- tains mistakes in spelling or punctuation, readers will think that your ideas and your research are also faulty.

The following sections will give you basic guidelines about what to look for when you edit your sentences and words. “A Writer’s Brief Guide to Paragraphs, Sentences, and Words,” found in the Appendix on pages A-1–A-19, also contains helpful suggestions on using correct spelling and punctuation.

editing Guidelines for Writing Lean and clear Sentences Here are four of the most frequent complaints readers voice about poorly edited writing in the world of work:

●● The sentences are too long. I could not follow the writer’s ideas easily. ●● The sentences are too complex, making it hard to understand what the

writer meant the first time I read the work; I had to reread it several times.

60 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

●● The sentences are unclear. Even after I reread them, I was not sure I under- stood the writer’s message.

●● The sentences are too short and simplistic. The writing felt “dumbed down.”

Writing clear, readable sentences is not always easy. It takes effort, but the time you spend editing will pay off in rich dividends for you and your readers. The seven guidelines that follow should help with the editing phase of your work.

1. Avoid needlessly complex or lengthy sentences. Do not pile words on top of words. Instead, edit one overly long sentence into two or even three more manage- able ones.

tech Note

Editing

Word-processing programs available on tablets, smartphones, and computers make editing easy and efficient. These programs flag errors in spelling, punctuation, word choice, subject-verb agreement, wordiness, and sentence construction. But keep the following guidelines in mind when you use these programs. Be aware of what your computer can and cannot do for you.

●● Customize your spell-checker. You can set your spell-checker to flag words that you frequently misspell and to ignore words that aren’t in its dictionary (such as proper names, brand names, technical terms or concepts, etc.).

●● Don’t accept everything your spell-checker or grammar-checker tells you. While these tools are helpful, do not rely on them exclusively. For instance, a grammar-checker may fail to recognize homonyms (their/there or its/it’s), and a spell-checker may high- light a proper name or industry jargon that is spelled correctly but is not included in your spell-checker’s dictionary. When in doubt, use a dictionary or consult the Appendix of this book to verify the accuracy of your spelling and grammar. Popular online dictionaries include Dictionary.com (dictionary.reference.com) and Merriam- Webster (www.merriam-webster.com).

●● Use global find and replace for unique character strings only. For example, trying to change the word “on” to “at” will also change “only” to “atly,” “once” to “atce,” and “con- tent” to “cattent.” If your spell-checker spots a word that is in fact misspelled or used incorrectly in one place, don’t assume that all occurrences of the word are misspelled. For instance, if your spell-checker tells you to capitalize the word “South” (as in “South Carolina”) in one instance, the word may not need to be capitalized elsewhere (e.g., “south of the highway”). Check each correction individually.

●● To avoid having to make time-consuming repetitive changes to style for such things as paragraph indents or heading style, set up your document using autoformatting for accuracy and consistency throughout your document.

●● Non-standard punctuation that may be necessary for a Works Cited or References list (see “Documenting Sources,” pages 337–347) or a company name may cause your grammar- checker to mark as erroneous writing that is correct. Check any such writing carefully.

Editing 61

Too long: The planning committee decided that the awards banquet should be held on March 15 at 6:30, since the other two dates (March 7 and March 22) suggested by the hospitality committee conflict with local sports events, even though one of those events could be changed to fit our needs.

Edited The planning committee has decided to hold the awards banquet on March 15 for easier at 6:30. The other dates suggested by the hospitality committee—March 7 and reading: March 22—conflict with two local sports events. Although the date of

one of those sports events could be changed, the planning committee still believes that March 15 is our best choice.

2. Combine short, choppy sentences. Don’t shorten long, complex sentences, only to turn them into choppy, simplistic ones. When you find yourself looking at a series of short, blunt sentences, as in the following example, combine them where possible and use connective words similar to those italicized in the edited version.

Choppy: Medical transcriptionists have many responsibilities. Their responsibili- ties are important. They must be familiar with medical terminology. They must listen to dictation. Sometimes physicians talk very fast. Then the transcriptionist must be quick to transcribe what is heard. Words could be missed. Transcriptionists must forward reports. These reports have to be approved. This will take a great deal of time and concentration. These final reports are copied and stored properly for reference.

Edited: Medical transcriptionists have many important responsibilities. These include transcribing physicians’ orders using correct medical terminology. When physicians dictate rapidly, transcriptionists have to keyboard accu- rately so that no words are omitted. Among their most demanding duties are keyboarding and forwarding transcriptions and then, after approval, storing copies properly for future reference.

3. Edit sentences to tell who does what to whom or what. The clearest sentence pattern in English is the subject-verb-object (s-v-o) pattern.

s v o

Sue booted the computer.

s v o Our website contains a link to key training software programs.

Readers find this pattern easiest to understand because it provides direct and spe- cific information about the action. Hard-to-read sentences obscure or scramble information about the subject, the verb, or the object. In the following unedited sentence, the subject is hidden in the middle rather than being placed in the most crucial subject position.

Unclear: The control of the ceiling limits of glycidyl ethers on the part of the employers for the optimal safety of workers in the workplace is necessary. (Who is respon sible for taking action? What action must they take? For whom is such action taken?)

Edited: Employers must control the ceiling limits of glycidyl ethers for workers’ safety.

4. Use strong, active verbs rather than verb phrases. In trying to sound impor- tant, many bureaucratic writers avoid using simple, graphic verbs. Instead, these writers use a weak verb phrase (for example, provide maintenance of instead of

62 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

maintain, work in cooperation with instead of cooperate). Such verb phrases im- prison the active verb inside a noun format and slow readers down. Note how the edited version here rewrites the weak verb phrases.

Weak: The city provided the employment of two work crews to assist the strengthening of the dam.

Strong: The city employed two work crews to strengthen the dam.

5. Avoid piling modifiers in front of nouns. Putting too many modifiers (words used as adjectives) in the readers’ path to the noun is confusing for readers, who will have trouble deciphering how one modifier relates to another modifier or to the noun.

Crowded: The vibration noise control heat pump condenser quieter can make your customer happier.

Readable: The quieter on the condenser for the heat pump will make your customer happier by controlling noise and vibrations.

6. Replace wordy phrases or clauses with one- or two-word synonyms.

Wordy: The college has parking zones for different areas for people living on cam- pus as well as for those who do not live on campus and who commute to school. (Twentyone words of the original sentence—everything after “areas for”—have been reduced to four words: “resident and commuter students.”)

Edited: The college has different parking zones for resident and commuter students.

7. Combine sentences beginning with the same subject or ending with an object that becomes the subject of the next sentence.

Wordy: Homeowners want to buy low-maintenance bushes. These low- maintenance bushes include the ever-popular holly and boxwood varieties. These bushes are also inexpensive.

Edited: Homeowners want to buy low-maintenance and inexpensive bushes such as holly and boxwood. (This revision combines three sentences into one, con denses twentyfour words into fourteen, and joins three related thoughts.)

editing Guidelines for cutting out Unnecessary Words Too many people in business think the more words, the better. Nothing could be more self-defeating. Your readers are busy; unnecessary words slow them down. Make every word work. Cut out any words you can from your sentences. If the sentence still makes sense and reads correctly, you have eliminated wordiness.

1. Replace wordy phrases with precise ones. See how in Table 2.1 wordy phrases on the left are replaced with their much more concise equivalents on the right. Many of these wordy phrases have slowed business writing down for decades.

2. Use concise, not redundant, phrases. Another kind of wordiness comes from using redundant expressions—saying the same thing a second time, only in different words. “Fellow colleague,” “component parts,” “corrosive acid,” and “free gift” are phrases that contain this kind of double speech; a fellow is a colleague, a component

Editing 63

is a part, acid is corrosive, and a gift is free. In the following examples, the suggested changes on the right are preferable to the redundant phrases on the left.

redundant Concise

absolutely essential essential advance reservations reservations basic necessities necessities, needs close proximity proximity, nearness end result result final conclusions/final outcome conclusions/outcome first and foremost first full and complete full, complete personal opinion opinion tried-and-true tried, proven

3. Watch for repetitious words, phrases, or clauses within a sentence. Some- times one sentence or one part of a sentence needlessly duplicates another.

Redundant: To provide more room for employees’ cars, the security department is studying ways to expand the employees’ parking lot.

Edited: The security department is studying ways to expand the employees’ park- ing lot. (Because the first phrase says nothing that the reader does not know from the independent clause, it can be cut.)

4. Avoid unnecessary prepositional phrases. Adding a prepositional phrase can sometimes contribute to redundancy. The italicized words in the following list are unnecessary. Be on the lookout for these phrases and delete them.

audible to the ear light in weight short in duration bitter in taste loud in volume soft in texture fly through the air orange in color tall in height

Table 2.1 Wordy Phrases and Their Concise Equivalents

Wordy Concise Wordy Concise

at a slow rate slowly in connection with about

at an early date soon in the event that if

at this point in time now in the month of May in May

based on the fact because in the neighborhood of approximately, about

be in agreement with agree it is often the case that often

bring to a conclusion conclude, end look something like resemble

come to terms with agree, accept of the opinion that think

due to the fact that because on the grounds that because

during the course of during until such time as until

express an opinion that affirm with reference to regarding, about

for the period of for with the result that so

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64 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

hard to the touch rectangular in shape twenty in number honest in character second in sequence visible to the eye

Figure 2.8 shows an email that Trudy Wallace wants to send to her boss, Lee Chadwick, about issuing tablets to the sales force. Her unedited work is bloated with unnecessary words, expendable phrases, and repetitious ideas.

Arial 10

Dear Lee,

Due to the inescapable reliance on technology, specifically on email and Internet communications, within our company, I believe it would be beneficial to look into the possibility of issuing tablets to our employees. Issuing these devices would have a variety of positive implications for the efficiency of our company. Unlike smartphones, tablets have many more capabilities that will help our employees in their daily work since these tablets expand the technological features of a smartphone and a laptop’s ability to transfer documents. On the road their portability would assist the sales staff to participate in online meetings both locally and at distant sites. It should be pointed out, too, that the tablet’s screens are two and one-half to three times bigger than a smartphone’s, so our employees could actually make better presentations to clients on these devices. With a tablet, employees would also benefit by having access to more extensive business documents such as manuals, contracts, and invoices, even when they are out on the road traveling or at our local office. By means of tablets, I feel quite certain that our company’s correspondence would be dealt with much more speedily, since not only will these devices allow our employees to access their email and full documents at all times, it will enable them to actually create documents in a more efficient manner because of the size of the virtual keyboard. I think it would be absolutely essential for the satisfaction of our customers and to the ongoing operation of our company’s business today to respond fully and completely to the possibility such a proposal affords us. It would, therefore, appear safe to conclude that with reference to issuing tablets every means at our disposal would be brought to bear on aiding our sales staff.

Thanks,

Trudy

<[email protected]> <[email protected]>

Tablets and Today’s TechnologyWordy and unfocused subject

One long, unbroken paragraph is hard to follow

Repeats same idea in two or three sentences

Uses awkward and wordy sentences

Does not specify what writer will do about problem

Figure 2.8 A Wordy, Unedited Email

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Editing 65

After careful editing, Trudy Wallace streamlined her email (see Figure 2.9). She pruned wordy expressions and combined sentences to cut out duplication. The revised version is only 127 words, as opposed to the 299 words in the draft. Not only has Wallace shortened her message, but she has also made it easier to read.

editing Guidelines to eliminate Sexist Language Editing involves far more than just making sure that your sentences are readable. It also reflects your professional style—how you see and characterize the world of work, your co-workers and customers, not to mention how you want your read- ers to see you. Your words should reflect a high degree of ethics and honesty, free from bias, offense, and stereotype. They need to be sensitive to the needs of your

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Arial 10

Dear Lee,

Because our sales force spends so much time in the field, I recommend that we issue them tablets to increase their productivity, expand sales, and improve customer satisfaction. On the road, a tablet is much more practical than a laptop and more useful and powerful than a smartphone for these reasons:

Enables our sales force to attend online meetings more easily Offers wider screens for better client presentations Contains more powerful apps to store and retrieve documents Allows staff to create and edit documents with the tablet’s large virtual keyboard.

I think buying tablets for the sales team is a necessary and cost-effective investment. With your approval, I will obtain more information from vendors to prepare a proposal so we can request bids.

Thanks,

Trudy

<[email protected]>

Issuing Tablets to Staff Focused subject

Gets to point quickly

Provides convincing reasons

Closes with plan and request

Figure 2.9 A Concise Version of the Wordy Email in Figure 2.8

66 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

international audience as well (see “Ten Guidelines for Communicating with International Readers,” pages 169–173).

Sexist language in particular offers a distorted and unethical view of a job force and discriminates in favor of one sex at the expense of another, usually women. It portrays men as having more powerful, higher-paying jobs than women do. Using sexist language offends and demeans female readers by de- priving them of their equal rights and it may cost your company business as well. You can avoid gender bias by using inclusive language for women and men alike, treating them equally and fairly.

Sexist language is often based on stereotypes that depict men as superior to women. For example, calling politicians city fathers or favorite sons follows the stereotypical picture of seeing politicians as male. Such phrases discriminate against women who do or could hold public office at all levels of government. Never assume or imply a person’s gender is based on his or her profession.

Sexist Language and Professional Titles As the above examples show, such language prejudiciously labels some professions as masculine and others as feminine. Keep in mind that sexist phrases assume engi- neers, physicians, and pilots are male (he, his, and him are often linked with these professions in descriptions), while social workers, nurses, administrative assistants, and secretaries are often portrayed as female (she, her), although members of both sexes work in all these professions. Sexist language also wrongly points out gender identities when such roles do not seem to follow biased expectations—lady lawyer, male secretary, female surgeon, or male nurse. Such offensive distinctions reflect prejudiced attitudes that you should eliminate from your writing.

Always prune the following sexist phrases: every man for himself, gal Friday, little woman, lady of the house, old maid, women’s intuition, the best man for the job, to man a desk (or post), the weaker sex, woman’s work, working wives, a manly thing to do, and young man on the way up.

Finally, don’t assume all employees are male. Instead of writing, “All staff members and their wives are invited to attend,” simply say, “All staff members and their guests are invited to attend.”

Ways to avoid Sexist Language Here are four ways you can eliminate sexist writing from your work.

1. Replace sexist words with neutral ones. Neutral words do not refer to a spe- cific sex; they are genderless. The sexist words on the left in the following list can be replaced by the neutral nonsexist substitutes on the right.

Sexist Neutral Sexist Neutral

alderman assemblyman businessman cameraman

representative representative businessperson photographer

chairman common man congressman craftsman

chair, chairperson average citizen representative skilled worker

Editing 67

2. Watch masculine pronouns. Avoid using the masculine pronouns (he, his, him) when referring to a group that includes both men and women.

Every worker must submit his travel expenses by Monday.

Workers may include women as well as men, and to assume that all workers are men is misleading and unfair to women. You can edit such sexist language in several ways.

a. Make the subject of your sentence plural and thus neutral.

Workers must submit their travel expenses by Monday.

b. Replace the pronoun his with the or a or drop it altogether.

Every employee is to submit a travel expense report by Monday. Every worker must submit travel expenses by Monday.

c. Use his or her instead of his.

Every worker must submit his or her travel expenses by Monday.

d. Reword the sentence using the passive voice.

All travel expenses must be submitted by Monday.

Moreover, in some contexts exclusive use of the masculine pronoun might invite a lawsuit. For example, you would be violating federal employment laws prohibiting discrimination on the basis of gender if you wrote the following in a help-wanted notice for your company.

Each applicant must submit his transcript with his application. He must also supply three letters of recommendation from individuals familiar with his work.

The language of such a notice implies that only men can apply for the position. Keep in mind that international readers may find these guidelines on avoiding

masculine pronouns confusing because many languages (e.g., French, Spanish) fol- low grammatical gender instead of natural gender. In French, the word for doctor is masculine, for example.

3. Avoid using sexist words that end in -ess or -ette. Use gender-neutral alterna- tives for words like stewardess (flight attendant), poetess (poet), waitress (server).

Sexist Neutral Sexist Neutral

fireman foreman housewife janitress landlord, landlady maiden name mailman, postman man-hours mankind

firefighter supervisor homemaker custodian owner family name mail carrier work-hours humanity

manmade manpower man to man policeman salesman spokesman weatherman women’s intuition workman

synthetic, artificial strength, power candidly police officer salesperson spokesperson meteorologist intuition worker

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68 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

4. Eliminate sexist salutations. Never use the following salutations when you are unsure of who your readers are:

●● Dear Sir ●● Gentlemen ●● Dear Madam

Any woman you write to would surely be offended by the first two greetings and may also be unhappy with the pompous and obsolete madam. It is usually best to write to a specific individual, but if you cannot do that, direct your letter to a particu- lar department or group: Dear Warranty Department or Dear Selection Committee.

Be careful, too, about using the titles Miss, Mr., and Mrs. Sexist distinctions are unjust and insulting. It is preferable to write Dear Ms. McCarty rather than Dear Miss or Mrs. McCarty. A woman’s marital status should not be an issue. Try to find out if the person prefers Ms. to another courtesy title (e.g., Editor Hawkins, Supervisor Jones). If you are in doubt, write Dear Indira Kumar. Chapter 5 provides acceptable salutations to use in your letters (see “Salutation,” pages 159–160).

avoiding other types of Stereotypical Language In addition to sexist language, avoid any references that stereotype an individual because of race, color, national origin, age, disability, sexual orientation, or gender identity. Not only are such references almost always irrelevant in the workplace (except for Equal Employment Opportunity Commission reports or health care documentation, where you still need to respect an individual’s identity), they are discriminatory, culturally insensitive, and ethically wrong.

To eliminate biased language in your workplace writing, follow these guidelines.

1. Do not single out an individual because of race or national origin or stereo- type him or her because of it. Be especially sensitive when referring to someone’s ethnic identity.

Wrong: Bill, who is African American, is one of the company’s top sales reps. Right: Bill is one of the company’s top sales reps.

Wrong: The Chinese computer whiz was able to find the problem. Right: The programmer was able to find the problem.

2. Identify members of an international community accurately. Not every native Spanish speaker is Latin American or Hispanic. Be sensitive to significant cultural differences among groups (Cuban Americans and Mexican Americans, for example).

3. Avoid words or phrases that discriminate against an individual because of age. For example, do not use elderly, up in years, geezer, old-timer, over the hill, senior moment, or the adjectives spry or frail when they are applied to someone’s age: “a spry sixty-seven.” Also avoid phrases like baby engineer or middle-aged supervisor.

Wrong: Jerry Fox, who will be fifty-seven next month, comes up with obsolete plans from time to time.

Right: Some of Jerry Fox’s plans have not been adopted.

The Writing Process: Some Final Thoughts 69

4. Respect individuals who may have a disability. Do not discriminate against someone who has a disability. Keep in mind that the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) prohibits employers from asking if a job applicant has a disability. Avoid derogatory words such as amputee, crippled, handicapped, impaired, or lame (phys- ical disabilities) or retarded or slow (mental disabilities). Stay away from terms such as these because they identify the entire individual rather than just the aspects that the disability affects. Emphasize the individual instead of the physical or mental condition as if it solely determined that person’s abilities.

Wrong: Tom suffers from MS. Right: Tom is a person living with MS.

Wrong: Sarah, who is crippled, still does an excellent job of keyboarding. Right: Sarah’s disability does not prevent her from keyboarding.

Also, do not use such phrases as wheelchair-bound or confined to a wheelchair, which wrongly and unfairly imply that a person in a wheelchair cannot move around on his or her job. Avoid using discriminatory expressions in your writing, such as a crippled economy, lame excuse, mentally challenged, or mental midget.

5. Don’t stereotype based on sexual orientation or gender identity. It is wrong and a violation of human rights to discriminate against someone because of sexual ori- entation or gender identity. The workplace has zero tolerance for insensitive and un- ethical language.

Wrong: Paula Smith, a lesbian, hosts a successful daytime talk show. Right: Paula Smith hosts a successful daytime talk show.

In addition, avoid derogatory innuendos, comments, or jokes about gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, or transgender people (e.g., “That’s so gay”), and don’t assume that all of your readers are heterosexual.

the Writing proCess: some final thoughts To make sure that your writing process at work—all your researching, planning, drafting, revising, and editing—is successful, follow these final guidelines:

1. Be sure that your document focuses clearly and consistently on your audience’s needs—that is, meets their expectations and answers their questions.

2. Verify that all the information you have used in your document is current, accurate, ethical, and relevant.

3. Ensure you successfully completed the drafting, revising, and editing stages of your writing and did not skip any of the steps.

4. Confer with any co-workers, members of your collaborative writing team, your supervisor, etc., who prepared the document with you to make sure everyone agrees with the final version.

5. Proofread the final version of your document, paying close attention to spelling, punctuation, formatting, and factual content, including names, dates, models, costs, and places. Misspelled words, comma splices, inconsistent dates,

70 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

or incorrect costs can seriously undermine all your hard work in developing your document.

6. Make sure that you send the final revised, edited, and proofread version—and not an earlier draft or revision.

7. Send the document in the correct format—hard copy, Word file, PDF, and so on.

●■ Investigated the research, planning, drafting, revising, and editing benefits of my computer software.

●■ Researched my topic carefully to obtain enough information to answer all my readers’ questions—online searches, interviews, questionnaires, personal observations.

●■ Before writing, determined the amount and kinds of information needed to com- plete my writing task.

●■ Spent enough time planning—brainstorming, outlining, clustering, or a combina- tion of these techniques. Produced substantial material from which to shape a draft. Documented sources.

●■ Prepared enough drafts to decide on the major points in my message to readers. Made major changes and deletions where necessary in my drafts to strengthen the document.

●■ Revised drafts carefully to successfully answer readers’ questions about content, organization, and tone. Formatted the text to make it easy to follow.

●■ Made time to edit my work so that the style is clear and concise and the sentences are readable and varied. Checked punctuation, sentences, and words to make sure they are spelled correctly and are appropriate for my audience.

●■ Eliminated sexist and other biased language that unfairly stereotypes individuals because of race, color, ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation, or gender identity.

●■ Made sure final edited copy was carefully proofread and transmitted.

✓ r e v i S i o N C h e C k l i S t

1. Following is a writer’s initial brainstormed list for a report on stress in the workplace. Revise the brainstormed list, eliminating repetition and combining related items.

— leads to absenteeism — high costs for compensation for

stress-related illnesses — proper nutrition — numerous stress-reduction techniques — good idea to conduct interviews to

find out levels, causes, and extent of stress in the workplace

— low morale caused by stress — higher insurance claims for employ-

ees’ physical ailments — myth to see stress leading to greater

productivity — various videos used to teach relaxation — environmental factors—too hot?

too cold?

e x e r C i S e S

Exercises 71

— teamwork intensifies stress — counseling — work overload — setting priorities — wellness campaign — savings per employee add up to

$6,150 per year — skills to relax — learning to get along with co-workers

— need for privacy — interpersonal communication — employee’s need for clear policies

on transfers, promotion — stress management workshops very

successful in California — physical activity to relieve stress — affects management — breathing exercises

2. Prepare a suitable outline from your revised list in Exercise 1 for a report to a decision maker on the problems of stress in the workplace and the necessity of creating a stress- management program.

3. From the revised brainstormed list in Exercise 1, write a one-page memo to a decision maker about how the problems of stress negatively affect workplace production.

4. You have been asked to write a short report (two to three pages) to the manager of the small company you work for on a topic of your choice. Prepare a cluster diagram similar to that on flextime in Figure 2.1. Add, delete, or rearrange anything in the diagram to complete your outline. Submit your final outline along with your report to your instructor.

5. Compare the draft of Marcus Weekley’s report in Figure 2.4 with the final copy of his report in Figure 2.5. What kinds of changes did he make? Were they appropriate and ef- fective for his audience and purpose? Why or why not?

6. Assume you have been asked to write a short report (two to three pages) to a decision maker (the manager of a business you work for or have worked for; the director of your campus union, library, or security; a city official) about one of the following topics:

a. recruitment of more specialists in your field

b. Internet resources c. security lighting d. food service e. health care plans

f. public transportation g. sporting events/activities h. team building/morale i. greening the workplace/community j. hiring more part-time student

workers

Then do relevant research and planning about one of those topics and the audience for whom it is intended by answering the following questions:

●● ● ●What is my precise purpose in writing to my audience? ●● ● ●What do I know about the topic? ●● ● ●What information will my audience expect me to know? ●● ● ● Where can I obtain relevant information about my topic to meet my audience’s needs?

7. Using one or more of the planning strategies discussed in this chapter (clustering, brain- storming, outlining), generate a group of ideas for the topic you chose in Exercise 6. Work on your planning activities for about 15–20 minutes or until you have about ten to fifteen items. At this stage, do not worry about how appropriate your ideas are or even if some of them overlap. Just get some thoughts down on paper.

72 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

8. Go through the list you prepared in Exercise 7, and eliminate any entries that are inappro- priate for your topic or audience or that overlap. Try to see how many entries you might expand or rearrange into categories or subcategories. Then create an outline similar to the one in Figure 2.3.

9. Using your outline from Exercise 8, prepare three drafts of your memo report. Submit at least two drafts to your instructor.

10. Revise your drafts in Exercise 9 as much as necessary to create your final report.

11. In a few paragraphs, explain to your instructor the changes you made between your early drafts and your final revision in Exercise 10. Explain why you made them. Concentrate on major changes—adding and moving paragraphs—as well as matters of style, tone, and even format.

12. In an email to your instructor, describe any problems you encountered while working on your report in Exercises 6-10. Also point out any planning, drafting, and revising strate- gies that worked especially well for you.

13. The following paragraph is wordy and full of awkward, hard-to-read sentences. Edit these paragraphs to make them more readable and user friendly by using clear and con- cise words and sentences.

It has been verified conclusively by this writer that our institution must of necessity in- stall more bicycle holding racks for the convenience of students, faculty, and staff. These parking modules should be fastened securely to walls outside strategic locations on the campus. They could be positioned there by work crews or even by the security forces who vigilantly and constantly patrol the campus grounds. There are many students in particular who would value the installation of these racks. Their bicycles could be sta- tioned there by them, and they would know that safety measures have been taken to ensure that none of their bicycles would be apprehended or confiscated illegally. Besides the precaution factor, these racks would afford users maximized convenience in utilizing their means of transportation when they have academic business to conduct, whether at the learning resource center or in the instructional facilities.

14. Following are very early drafts of memos that businesspeople have sent to their bosses or co-workers. Revise and edit each draft, referring to the Revision Checklist on page 70. Turn in your revision and the final, reader-ready copy. As you revise, keep in mind that you may have to delete and add information, rearrange the order of information, and make the tone suitable for your readers. As you edit, make sure your sentences are clear and concise.

a. TO: All workers FROM: B. J. Blackwell DATE: February 3, 2016 RE: Parking

The parking violations around here have gotten very, very bad. And the administra- tion is provoked and wants some action taken. I don’t blame them. I have been late for meetings several times in the last month because inconsiderate folks from

Exercises 73

other divisions have parked their cars in our zone. That just is not fair, and so we in our department must not be the only ones who are upset. No wonder the manage- ment finds things so bad they have asked me to prepare this memo.

A big part of the problem it seems to me is that employees just cannot read signs. They park in the wrong zones. They also park in visitors’ spots. The penalties are going to be stiff. The administration, or so I was led to believe, is thinking of fining any employee who does not obey the parking policies. I know for a fact that I saw someone from the research department pull right into a visitor parking area last week just because it was 8:55 and he did not want to be late for work. That gives our business a bad name. People will not want to do business with us if they can- not even find a parking spot in the area that the company has reserved for them.

Vice President Watson has laid the law down to me about all this and told me to let each and every one of you know that things have to improve. One of the other big problems around here is that some employees have even parked their cars in load- ing zones, and security had to track them down to move.

As part of the administration’s new policy, each employee is going to be issued a company parking policy and will have to come in and sign for it verifying that he received it. I think things really have gotten out of hand and that some drastic ac- tion has to be taken. We will all have to shape up around here.

b. TO: All Employees FROM: George Holmes DATE: October 19, 2015 RE: Travel

Every company has its policies regarding travel and vouchers. Ours strike me as important and fairly straightforward. Yet for the life of me I cannot fathom why they are being ignored. It is in everyone’s best interest. When you travel, you are on company time, company business. Respect that, won’t you. Explain your purpose, keep your receipts, document your visits, keep track of meals. Do the math.

If you see more than one client per day, it should not be too hard or too much to ask you to keep a log of each, separate, individual visit. After all, our business does depend on these people, and we will never know your true contributions on company trips unless you inform us (please!) of whom you see, where, why, and how much it costs you. That way we can keep our books straight and know that everything is going according to company policy.

Please review the appropriate pages (I think they are pages 23–25) about travel procedures. Thanks. If you have questions, give me a call, but check your employee handbook or with your office/section manager, first. That will save everyone more time. Good luck.

15. Find a piece of writing—email, memo, blog, brochure, short report, or website—that you believe was not carefully drafted or revised. In a short memo or email, point out to your instructor what is wrong with the piece of writing—for example, it is not logically

74 chapter 2 The Writing Process at Work

organized, it uses an inappropriate tone, it is incomplete, or the information is too tech- nical. Attach a copy of the poor example to your memo or email.

16. Revise the piece of poor writing you analyzed in Exercise 15. Submit your improved ver- sion to your instructor.

17. The following sentences contain sexist and other biased language. Edit them to correct these errors.

a. Every intern had to record his readings daily for the spokesman. b. Although Marcel was an amputee, he still could hunt and peck at the keyboard. c. She saw a woman doctor, who told her to take an aspirin every day. d. Our agency was founded to help mankind. e. Even though John is a diabetic, he has an excellent attendance record. f. Every social worker found her schedule taxing—not enough days in the week to

help out man-to-man. g. Maria, who is Cuban, always adds spice to company events. h. To be a policeman, each applicant had to pass a rigorous physical and prove himself

in the manly art of self-defense. i. It’s a wise man who can rise to the top in this cutthroat, volatile stock market. j. Sandy Frain, a middle-aged Irish-born woman, came by this morning wanting an

appointment to discuss the new policies on energy efficiency. k. Mrs. Johnson is in charge of safety issues. l. He made his PowerPoint presentation as emphatically as an Italian opera singer on

stage. m. Team B tried to disable our proposal by introducing irrelevant references to the

many foreigners living on the north side. n. The average consumer spends at least two to three hours a week on her computer

looking for coupons and other bargains. o. How many of our customers don’t speak English well? p. Our office installed new power doors to assist employees who are unable to leave

their wheelchairs. q. More mentally retarded individuals are being hired to do menial tasks on the job.

Chapter Outline

Collaboration Is Crucial to the Writing Process

Advantages of Collaborative Writing

Collaborative Writing and the Writing Process

Some Guidelines for Successful Group Writing

Ten Proven Ways to Be a Valuable Team Player

Sources of Conflict in Group Dynamics and How to Solve Them

Models for Collaboration

Computer-Supported Collaboration

Meetings

Conclusion

Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

In the world of work, writing skills, such as researching, planning, draft- ing, revising, and editing are vital for your success. But you will often communicate as part of a team (including managers and co-workers) to write a set of instructions, a report, a proposal, or even a letter success- fully. A major survey estimates that 90 percent of all businesspeople spend some time writing as part of a collaborative team. Being a team player is one of the most prized skills you can possess in the world of work.

In this chapter, we’ll explore the advantages of the collaborative writing process, guidelines for effective group writing, and ways to help resolve conflicts in the group-writing process. Because an overwhelm- ing majority of workplace collaborative writing takes place online, we’ll also investigate how technology furthers the collaborative writing pro- cess and see how a document can be collaboratively created online.

COllabOratiOn is CruCial tO the Writing prOCess

Collaboration is essential for success within the world of work. Being a part of a writing team is a major responsibility in a world where each employee is connected to co-workers, managers, vendors, and custom- ers around the globe. Collaboration is networking, and collaborative writing is a vital part of the global network in which individuals depend on one another’s expertise, experience, and viewpoints.

Successful collaboration hinges on being a team player, one of the most highly valued skills in the workplace. Being a team player means you

●● interact successfully on an interpersonal level

●● network to access and arch ive information

C h a p t e r

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76 chapter 3 Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

●● participate and provide feedback ●● give and take constructive criticism ●● raise important and relevant

questions ●● get assistance from resource experts

in other departments and fields

●● put the good of your company above your ego

●● work toward consensus ●● contribute to customer service

and satisfaction

Collaboration builds teamwork as it helps get writing done more easily and more efficiently. Figure 3.1 shows a collaborating team at work, planning and interacting on a company project.

Keep in mind that collaboration must always reflect your employer’s corporate image, goals, and politics. Your employer determines the subject that your group will discuss and the formats in which your work will appear. Moreover, everything your team does is subject to review and revision by your boss. Viewing collaboration in this broader corporate context will get you off to a good start in the world of work.

advantages Of COllabOrative Writing Collaborative writing teams benefit both employers and employees. Here are some specific advantages of collaboration:

1. It builds on collective talents. 2. It allows for productive feedback and critiques.

Figure 3.1 A Collaborating Team at Work

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Collaborative Writing and the Writing Process 77

3. It increases productivity and saves time and money. 4. It ensures overall writing effectiveness. 5. It accelerates decision-making time. 6. It reduces corporate risk. 7. It boosts employee morale and confidence while decreasing stress. 8. It contributes to customer service and satisfaction. 9. It provides greater opportunities to understand global perspectives.

COllabOrative Writing and the Writing prOCess The writing process described in Chapter 2 also applies to collaborative writing. Groups use the same strategies and confront the same problems that individual writers do. Like the individual writer, a team must move through the writing pro- cess, going back and forth as necessary between the various stages. But although the essential steps in the writing process are the same, there are some differences you need to know about. Below is a rundown of how collaborative groups tackle the process of preparing a document.

1. Groups must plan before they write. As in individual writing, the plan- ning phase includes brainstorming and outlining (see “Planning” and “Drafting,” pages 46–54), as well as identifying the audience, purpose, format, and scope of a document. Unlike individual writers, though, the group must also set ground rules for the collaborative process to work, select a leader or moderator, assign individ- ual responsibilities within the group, and create a schedule that respects individual group members’ schedules.

2. Groups must do research. Using a variety of research methods to gather data, as discussed in Chapter 8, the group documents the findings of the report. Insuf- ficient or incorrect research can jeopardize the success of a collaborative document just as easily as it can derail the efforts of an individual writer. In a group context, the responsibility of researching is usually shared by several individuals who must share and coordinate the results of their research prior to the group drafting process.

3. Groups must prepare drafts. Based on research and company goals, the draft- ing process in group writing can be done in two ways. The first way is similar to individual writing in that only one complete draft of the document is prepared at a time, benefiting from the feedback and critiques of several individuals. The second, more common, way is to have individual members of the group draft separate por- tions of the document, later to be combined and edited by the entire group.

4. Groups must revise and edit. The revising and editing processes in group writing are also similar to what an individual would do. But group writing offers the added benefit of multiple writers being involved, each of whom may spot or- ganizational problems, inconsistencies in format and tone, as well as grammatical and mechanical mistakes. Groupware (see “Types of Groupware,” pages 96–101). is an invaluable tool in helping writing teams access, share, and comment on one another’s files.

78 chapter 3 Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

Case study

Collaborative Writing and Editing

Figure 3.2 contains an email written to a listserv by Tara Barber, the Documentation Manager of CText, Inc., a large firm in Ann Arbor, Michigan, that develops software for the publishing industry. Barber describes the writing process followed by her team of collaborative writers. Her approach sheds light on the practical, day-to-day process of group writing and editing. Group harmony is essential to completing documents successfully and on time.

Study Barber’s approach. She effectively works with and not against her staff. She manages the collaborative effort without being heavy-handed or suppressing individual creativity. Her strategy offers a good model to follow.

Figure 3.2 Collaborative Editing: Advice from a Pro

I would like to describe some constructive ways to edit a document to help new writers improve their skills.

I agree that the more projects you make collaborative, the better results you will get. Here’s how we do it in my department. Although all my writers are experienced, they come from different backgrounds, which means I have to coordinate editing activities similar to the ways I interact with new writers. It’s my job to make sure all the pieces fit.

When I first took this job, several documentation styles were used for the company’s manuals, but the department was small, and so the senior writer and I prepared a consistent style manual. We experienced some tension, but by compromising, we ironed out our differences. We developed a style guide and a set of manual conventions that gave writers precise guidelines to follow. The new manual helped us eliminate glaring editing problems such as inconsistencies in spelling, capitalization, use of formats, headings, and documentation.

But the department has grown since that time, and on at least two occasions all of us have reassessed the content and format of the style guide and manual. By doing this, we are able to get input from everyone and to allow for new ideas. When a problem arises now, we are comfortable addressing it as a group.

<[email protected]> bit.listserv.techwr-1

Benefits of Collaborative Writing/Editing

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Some Guidelines for Successful Group Writing 79

Figure 3.2 (Continued)

sOme guidelines fOr suCCessful grOup Writing To be successful, a collaborative writing team should observe the following seven helpful guidelines.

1. Understand and agree on the purpose, audience, scope, organization, and deadlines for the report. Everyone needs to be on the “same page” from start to finish.

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80 chapter 3 Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

2. Establish group rules early on and stick to them. Decide when and where the group will meet, how and when members are to communicate with each other (face-to-face, telephone, email, other online technologies).

3. Put the good of the group ahead of individual egos. Group harmony and productivity are essential if the report or proposal is to get done on time. Adopt a “we can get this done together” attitude.

4. Agree on the group’s organization. The group can appoint a leader who keeps the team on task by being a coordinator, cheerleader, a scheduler, and a peacemaker who can resolve conflicts quickly, as well as a referee who knows when to call time-out.1

5. Identify each member’s responsibilities precisely. There should be a fair distri- bution of labor so that each member can use his or her particular and proven skills. The entire group, however, needs to share responsibility for the overall preparation, design, writing, and proofing of the report.

6. Provide clear and positive feedback at each meeting and for each part of the report the group prepares. Members need to come to meetings prepared, raise important questions, and make thoughtful recommendations.

7. Follow an agreed-on timetable, but leave room for flexibility. The group should estimate a realistic time frame necessary to complete the various stages of their work—when drafts and revisions are due or when editing must be concluded. But remember: Projects always take longer than initially planned. New information may surface or you may need to do additional research.

ten prOven Ways tO be a valuable team player As we saw, being a team player is one of the most highly prized skills in the world of work. By following the ten guidelines below, many of which Tara Barber’s team follows in Figure 3.2, you can contribute to your writing team and earn the respect of your colleagues and supervisor:

1. Think collectively. Adopt a “we can get this done together” attitude. Do not treat some team members as favorites and ignore others. Both actions nurture resentment.

2. Participate. Avoid being a passive observer. Recognize that you have valuable ideas to contribute to the group.

3. Be clear and precise. Express your ideas clearly and appropriately. Avoid veering off the point, being vague, or making unsupported generalizations. Do not be afraid to ask for clarification of anything you don’t understand.

4. Set aside your ego. Do not view the group as a battleground or contest in which someone wins and someone else loses. Put the team ahead of self.

1Adapted from Hendrie Wesigner, Emotional Intelligence at Work (New York: Jossey-Bass, 1997).

Sources of Conflict in Group Dynamics and How to Solve Them 81

5. Be enthusiastic. Avoid sounding uninterested in or inconvenienced by the group process. Replace cynicism with a “can do” spirit, and your team will value you as a vital player.

6. Listen. Give everyone a chance to be heard. Pay attention to what others say when they are speaking, and avoid monopolizing the conversations. Develop a “third ear” to discern the meanings behind group members’ words.

7. Be open-minded. Be receptive to other points of view. Give serious consider- ation to each member’s suggestions and ideas. Weigh the pros and cons before firing off a question or an objection.

8. Follow company and group protocols. Adhere to company and group protocols regarding the organization, style, and format of the document. Follow the group’s rules about meeting times, places, and order of business.

9. Compromise. After ample discussion and deliberation, you may need to compromise for the overall benefit of the group.

10. Go with group consensus. Don’t be a lone ranger. Accept the group’s decisions as final. Stubbornness only leads to delay and hard feelings.

sOurCes Of COnfliCt in grOup dynamiCs and hOW tO sOlve them

The success of collaborative writing depends on how well the team interacts. They have to meet and plan before they can even begin researching, set ground roles, decide on responsibilities, and work together on solving problems and come up with solutions. Discussion and criticism are essential to the process of creating any successful document—report, proposal, etc. “Conflict” in the sense of conflicting opinions—a healthy give-and-take—can be positive if it alerts the group to prob- lems (inconsistencies, redundancies, incompleteness) and provides ways to resolve them. A conflict can even help the group generate and refine ideas, leading to a better organized and more carefully written document.

But when conflict translates into ego tripping and personal attacks, noth- ing productive emerges. Everyone in the group must agree beforehand on three iron-clad working policies of group dynamics: (1) individuals must seek and adhere to group consensus; (2) compromise may be advisable, even necessary, to meet a deadline; and (3) if the group decides to accept compromise, the group leader’s final decision on resolving conflicts must be accepted.

common problems, practical Solutions Following are some common problems in group dynamics, with suggestions on how to avoid or solve them.

1. Resisting constructive criticism. No one likes to be criticized, yet criticism can be vital to the group effort. Be open to suggestions. Individuals who insist on

82 chapter 3 Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

“their way or no way” can become hostile to any change or revision, no matter how small.

Solution: When emotions become heated, the group leader may wisely move the discussion to another section of the document or to another issue to allow for some cooling-off time. Negotiation is an essential job skill.

2. Giving only negative criticism. Do not saturate a meeting with nothing but negatives. You will block communication if you start criticizing the group’s efforts with words such as “Why don’t you try . . . ,” “What you need is . . . ,” “Don’t you realize that . . . ,” or “If you don’t. . . .”

Solution: When you criticize an idea, diplomatically remind the individual of the team’s goals and point to ways in which revision (criticism) furthers those goals. Explain the problem, and offer a helpful, relevant revision. Never attack a group member. Mutual respect is everyone’s right and obligation. For the sake of group harmony, be objective, constructive, and cooperative.

3. Dominating a meeting. The group process should stress sharing and respond- ing to ideas, not about taking over. When one member dominates the discussion and becomes aggressive and territorial, the group process suffers.

Solution: The leader should let the group know that the participation of all members is valued but then say, “We need to hear from the rest of the group.” Some groups follow a three-minute rule—each member has three minutes to make comments and does not get the floor again until everyone has had a chance to speak. If one group member still continues to dominate, the leader may (in private) have to speak to him/her.

4. Refusing to participate. Withholding your opinions hurts the group efforts; identify what you believe are major problems, and give the group a chance to con- sider them.

Solution: If you don’t feel sure of yourself or your points, talk to another member of the group, a listening partner, before a meeting to “test” your ideas or to write down your suggestions before a meeting to share them with the group.

5. Interrupting with incessant questions. Some people interrupt a meeting so many times with questions that all group work stops. The individual may simply be unprepared or may be trying to exercise his or her control of the group.

Solution: When that happens, a group leader can remark, “We appreciate your interest, but would you try an experiment, please, and attempt to answer your own questions?” or if the person claims not to know, the leader might then say, “Why don’t you think about it for a while and then get back to us?”

6. Inflating small details out of proportion. Nitpickers can derail any group. Some individuals waste valuable discussion and revision time by dwelling on

Models for Collaboration 83

relatively insignificant points (e.g., an optional comma, the choice of a single word, etc.) or steer the group away from larger, more important issues (e.g., costs, sched- ules, etc.).

Solution: If there is consensus about a matter, leave it alone and turn to more pressing issues. The leader should remind the group (without singling anyone out) about the bigger picture and caution them to stay on track.

7. Being overly deferential to avoid conflict. This problem is the opposite of that described in guideline 1 (page 81). You will not help your group by being a “yes person” simply to appease a strong-willed member of the group.

Solution: Feel free to express your opinions politely; if tempers begin to flare, call in the group leader or seek the opinions of others on the team. The leader needs to promote and protect meetings as a safe place to express ideas.

8. Not respecting cultural differences. You may have individuals from different countries or cultures on your team. Disregarding or misjudging the way they inter- act with the group can seriously threaten group success and harmony. Moreover, discrimination of any type—based on race, age, religious beliefs, sexual orientation, or nationality, for example—is unacceptable in a collaborative group or workplace.

Solution: Some companies offer employees seminars on cultural sensitivity in the workplace. But a group leader must also ensure that diversity is hon- ored and, if anyone does not, he/she may write that person up.

9. Violating confidentiality. Leaking confidential information about a personal issue, product, research, procedure, or operation is a serious violation in the world of work. Some meetings are closed except for those who are a part of the group.

Solution: Violating confidentiality is often grounds for dismissal. At a prelimi- nary meeting, and periodically during the writing process, the leader should emphasize the whys, hows, and whens of confidentiality.

10. Not finishing on time or submitting an incomplete document. Meeting es- tablished deadlines is the group’s most important obligation. When some members are not involved in the planning stages or when they skip meetings or ignore group communications, deadlines are invariably missed. If you miss a meeting, get briefed by an individual who was there.

Solution: The group leader can institute networking through email or other web-based systems to announce meetings, keep members updated, or provide for ongoing communication and questions. See “Web-Based Collaboration Systems” (pages 97–101).

mOdels fOr COllabOratiOn There are as many types of collaborative writing methods as there are companies. The process can range from relatively simple phone calls or emails to a much more extensive use of groupware (see “Types of Groupware,” pages 96–98).

84 chapter 3 Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

The scope, size, and complexity of your document as well as your company’s organization will determine what type of (and how much) collaboration is neces- sary. A shorter assignment (say, a field report, for instance) may not require the same type of group participation as would a policy handbook, a proposal, or a long report. At some large companies, for example, a staff of professional editors (such as Tara Barber’s team in Figure 3.2) revises the final draft prepared by a departmental team. The more important and more detailed a document is, the more extensive col- laboration will be.

The following sections describe four models for collaboration used in the world of work: (1) Cooperative model, (2) Sequential model, (3) Functional model, and (4) Integrated model.

cooperative Model The cooperative model is one of the simplest and most expedient ways to write collaboratively in the business world. An individual writer is given an assign- ment and then goes through the writing process to complete it (see Chapter 2). Along the way, he or she may show a draft to a colleague to get feedback or to a supervisor for a critique. That is what Randy Taylor did in Figure 3.3. He shared a draft of a letter to a potential client with his boss, Felicia Krumpholtz, who made changes in content, wording, and format and then sent it back to Taylor. Following his boss’s suggestions, Taylor then created the revised letter in Figure 3.4.

If Taylor had sent his first draft, the customer would hardly have been impressed with his company’s professionalism and might not have placed an order. If Terry Tatum were a woman, she might have been offended by being addressed as “Sir.” But thanks to Krumpholtz’s revisions, Taylor’s letter is much more effec- tive. Even though Krumpholtz helped Taylor improve his work, strictly speaking it was not a case of group writing. Although the two interacted, they did not share the final responsibility for creating the letter. Even so, Servitron profited from their interaction.

Sequential Model In the sequential model, each individual is assigned a specific, nonoverlap- ping responsibility—from brainstorming to revising—for a section of a pro- posal, report, or other document. There is a clear-cut, rigid division of labor. If four people are on the team, each will be responsible for his or her part of the document. For example, one employee might write the introduction; another, the body of the report; another, the conclusion; and the fourth, the group’s recommendation.

Team members may discuss their individual progress and even exchange their work for group review and commentary. They may also choose a coordinator to oversee the progress of their work. When each team member finishes his or her sec- tion, the coordinator then assembles the individual parts to form the report. While this model can work well for groups where certain members cannot fully partici- pate, it can lead to a document with an inconsistent style and tone.

Models for Collaboration 85

Figure 3.3 A Draft of Randy Taylor’s Letter, Edited by His Supervisor, Felicia Krumpholtz

November 16, 2015 Terry Tatum Manager Consolodated Solutions Houston, TX

Dear Sir,

I am taking the opportunity of answering your request for a price list of Servitron products. Servitron has been in business in the Houston area for more than twenty-two years and we offer unparalleled equipment and service to any customer. Using a Servitron product will give you both ef�ciency and economy.

Whatever Servitron model you choose carries with it a full one-year warranty on all parts and labor. After the expiration date of your warranty you should purchase our service contract for $75,000 a year.

Here are the models Servitron offers Model Name Number Price Zephyr 81072 $759.95 Colt 86085 $929.95 Meteor 88096 $1069.95

Depending on your needs, one of these models should be right for you.

If I might be of further assistance to you, please call on me. Our brochure is available at www.servitron.com/brochure and will give you more information, including speci�cations, on these Servitron products.

Truly,

Servitron Randy Taylor Sales Associate

Sincerely yours,

leave 4 spaces

add phone number and email

might

wrong price

boldface boldface

can

Terry Tatum:

add zip code i

Thank you for asking

Consolidated Solutions

reverse the order of these

two sentencessign your name

4083 Randolph Street Houston, TX 77016

(713) 555-6761

servitron

www.servitron.com

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86 chapter 3 Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

Figure 3.4 The Edited, Final Copy of Figure 3.3

November 16, 2015

Terry Tatum Manager Consolidated Solutions Houston, TX 77005-0096

Dear Terry Tatum:

Thank you for asking for a price list of Servitron products. Servitron has been in business in the Houston area for more than 22 years and we can offer unparalleled equipment and service to Consolidated Solutions. Using a Servitron product will give you both efficiency and economy.

Depending on your needs, one of these models should be right for you.

Model Name Number Price Zephyr 81072 $789.95 Colt 86085 $929.95 Meteor 88096 $1069.95

Whatever Servitron model you choose carries with it a full one-year warranty on all parts and labor. After your warranty expires, you can purchase our service contract for only $75.00 a year.

Our brochure is available at www.servitron.com/brochure and will give you more information, including speci�cations, on these Servitron products. If I can help you further, please call me at (713) 555-6761 or email me at [email protected].

Sincerely yours,

SERVITRON

4083 Randolph Street Houston, TX 77016 (713) 555-6761

servitron

www.servitron.com

Randy Taylor Sales Associate

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Models for Collaboration 87

Functional Model The division of labor in the functional model is assigned not according to parts of a document but by skill or job function of the members. For example, a four-person team may be organized as follows:

●● The leader schedules and conducts meetings, issues progress reports to man- agement, and generally coordinates everyone’s efforts to keep the project on schedule.

●● The researcher collects data, conducts interviews, searches the literature, administers tests, classifies the information, and then prepares notes on the work.

●● The designated writer/editor, who receives the researcher’s notes, prepares outlines and drafts and circulates them for corrections and revisions.

●● The graphics expert obtains and prepares all graphics/illustrations, specify- ing why, how, and where visuals should be placed, and might even suggest that visuals replace certain sections of text. The graphics expert may also be responsible for the design (layout) and production of the document (see Chapter 11).

This organizational scheme fosters much more group interaction than the sequential model does. It also allows each member to do what he or she knows best.

Figure 3.5 illustrates how a functional model works. It describes the behind- the-scenes joint effort that went into Joycelyn Woolfolk’s proposal for her boss to authorize a new journal, which would incorporate a newsletter her office currently prepares. A publications coordinator for a large, regional health maintenance organi- zation (HMO), Woolfolk supervises a small staff and reports directly to the public affairs manager, who in turn is responsible to the vice president of the regional office.

As you will see from Woolfolk’s functional approach, collaboration can move up and down the chain of command, with participation at all levels. Often, individual employees will pull together information from their separate functional areas (such as finance, information systems, marketing, and sales), and someone else will put that information into a draft that others read and revise until the document is ready to send to the boss. By the time the boss reviews the document, it has been edited and revised many times (and by many individuals) to ensure accuracy and consistency. (Review Figure 3.2.) This is a common business practice.

Integrated Model In the integrated model, all members of the team are engaged in planning, research- ing, and revising. Each shares the responsibility of producing the document. Mem- bers participate in every stage of the document’s creation and design, and the group goes back to each stage as often as needed. This model offers intense group interac- tion. Even though individual writers on the team may be asked to draft different sections of the document, all share in drafting, revising, and editing that document (see “Case Study,” pages 89–95). Depending on the scope of the document and company policy, the group may also go outside the team to solicit reviews and eval- uations from experts—both inside and outside the company.

88 chapter 3 Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

Figure 3.5 How a Proposal Is Collaboratively Written

The idea to start a regional magazine was �rst expressed in passing by our vice president, who is interested in getting more and higher-level visibility for our regional of�ce. Several other regional of�ces in our company have created fairly attractive magazines, and one of�ce in particular has earned a lot of good publicity.

The public affairs manager (my boss) and I quickly picked up on the vice president’s hint and began to formulate ways to justify the need for such a publication and ways to substantiate our recommendation. For several weeks the public affairs manager and I discussed the kind of documentation our proposal would need, what our resources for researching the question were, what our capabilities would be for producing such a publication, and so on. We were guided by the twofold goal of getting the vice president’s approval and, ideally, meeting a genuine market need.

After discussions with my boss, I met with members of my staff to ask them to do the following tasks:

1. Review existing HMO publications and report on whether there was already a regional magazine for the Northwest

2. Develop, administer, and analyze a readership survey for current subscribers to our newsletter, which would potentially be incorporated into the new magazine

3. Formulate general design concepts for the magazine in print and online that we can implement without increasing staff, while still producing the quality magazine the vice president wants

4. Prepare a detailed budget for projected costs

5. Consult with experts on our staff (actuaries, physicians, nurses) about topics of interest

6. Confer with IT about online designs and problems I requested emails, Web sources, and other documentation from my staff members about most of these tasks, and then I used that information to draft the proposal that eventually would go to the vice president, and perhaps even to the president’s of�ce. And I communicated with my staff often, through emails, messages, blogs, personal meetings, and group sessions, both face-to-face and online.

Status Report: Coordinating Regional Magazine Project

(Continued )

Models for Collaboration 89

Figure 3.5 (Continued)

After I revised my draft several times, I asked my staff to look over each draft for their feedback. Based on their comments, I made further revisions and did careful editing. My boss also reviewed my proposal, revising and editing it several times. Ultimately, the proposal will go out as a memo from me to my boss, who will then send it under her name to the vice president.

Evolution of a Collaboratively Written Document

Figures 3.6, 3.7, and 3.8 show the evolution of a memo that follows an integrated model of collaboration. This memo informed employees that their company was enhancing its recycling program. Alice Schuster, the vice president of Fenton Companies, which manufactures ap- pliances, asked two employees in the human resources department—Abigail Chappel and Manuel Garcia—to prepare a memo (“a few paragraphs” is how Schuster put it) to be sent to all Fenton employees.

Schuster had an initial conference with Chappel and Garcia, at which she stressed that their memo had to convey Fenton’s renewed commitment to the environment and greening the workplace and that, as part of that commitment, the employees had to intensify their recycling efforts. Chappel and Garcia thus shared the responsibility of convincing co-workers of the importance of recycling and educating them about practicing it.

Chappel and Garcia also had the difficult job of writing for several audiences simultaneously— the boss, whose name would not appear on the memo, other managers at Fenton, and the Fenton workforce itself.

First Draft Figure 3.6 is the first draft that Chappel and Garcia collaborated on and then presented to the manager of the human resources department—Wells McCraw—for his comments and revisions. As you can see from McCraw’s remarks, written in ink, he was not especially pleased with their first attempt and asked them to make a number of revisions. As a careful reader (conscious of the document’s audience), McCraw found Chappel and Garcia’s paragraphs to be rambling and repetitious—the writers were unable to stick to the point. Specifically, he pointed out that they included too much information in one paragraph and not enough in others.

As a good editor/manager, McCraw also directed their attention to factual mistakes, irrel- evant and even contradictory comments, and essential information they had omitted. Finally, McCraw offered some advice on using visual devices (see “Supplying Visuals to Clarify and Condense Information,” pages 21–22) to make their information more accessible to readers.

Case study

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(Continued)

Figure 3.6 Early Draft of the Chappel and Garcia Collaborative Memo, with Revisions in Blue Suggested by Wells McCraw, Their Manager

TO: All Employees FROM: Abigail Chappel; Manuel Garcia DATE: February 4, 2016 RE: Our Recycling Program

An in-house study has shown that Fenton sends approximately 48,000 pounds of paper to the land�ll. The land�ll charge for this runs about $2,160, which we could save by recycling. Fenton Companies is conscious of our commitment to sustainability and our responsibility to save and protect the environment. Accordingly, starting March 1 we will begin a more intensive paper recycling program. Our program, like many others nationwide, will use the latest degradable technology to safeguard the air, trees, and water in our community. It has been estimated that of the 250 million tons of solid waste, three-quarters of goes to land�lls. These land�lls across the country are becoming dangerously overcrowded. Such a practice wastes our natural resources and endangers our air and drinking water. For example, it takes 10 trees to make 1 ton of paper, or roughly the amount of paper Fenton uses in two weeks. If we could recycle that amount of paper, we could save those trees. Recycling old paper into new paper involves less energy than making paper from new trees. Moreover, waste sent to land�lls can, once broken down, leach, seep into our water supply, and contaminate it. The dangers are great.

By enhancing our recycling, we will not be sending so much to the Spring�eld Land�ll and so help alleviate a dangerous condition there. We will keep it from over�owing. Fenton will also be contributing to transforming waste products into valuable reusable materials. Recycling paper in our own of�ce shows that we are concerned about the environmental clutter. By having an improved paper recycling program, we will establish our company’s reputation as an environmentally conscious industry and enhance our company’s image.

Fenton is primarily concerned with recycling paper. The 600 old phone books that otherwise would be tossed away can get our recycling program off to a good start.

We encourage you to start thinking about the additional kinds of paper around your of�ce/workspace that needs to be earmarked for recycling. When you start to think about it, you will see how much paper we as a company use.

This is too long Too many topics—costs, protecting the environment. Keep it short—say what we are doing and why

Add the fact about our saving trees in this

Delete — not relevant to our purpose

Give some examples

When? How? Implications for saving/ costs?

Start with this point

Delete — makes us look bad

Check your facts; I think it is closer to 16–17

Word “it” left out

Vague— “Improving”

Start off with this key idea

No cap

90 chapter 3 Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

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Models for Collaboration 91

Figure 3.6 (Continued)

Starting the last week of February, paper bins will be placed by each of�ce door inside the outer wall. These bins will be green—not unsightly and blending with our decor. Separate your waste paper (white, colored, and computer) and put it into these bins. You do not need to remove paper clips and staples, but you must remove rubber bands, tape, and sticky labels. They will be emptied each day by the clean-up crew. There will also be large bins at the north end of the hallway for you to deposit larger paper products. The crucial point is that you use these specially marked bins rather than your wastebasket to deposit paper.

Fenton Companies will deeply appreciate your cooperation and efforts. Thanks for your cooperation.

This memo needs more work - add at least one on how recycling will save us money - insert headings to separate sections

- make directions clearer and easier to follow; try using numbered steps

- end on a more upbeat note; tell employees about the benefits coming to them for recycling — i.e., a bonus/our contribution to their favorite charity

-why don’t we say something about America Recycles Day, Nov. 15

lacks effective “call to action” and incentives

, not into your wastebaskets

Delete — repetitious

Subsequent Drafts Figure 3.7 shows the next stage in the collaboration. In this version of the memo, prepared through several revisions over a two-day period, the authors incorporated McCraw’s sugges- tions as well as several changes of their own. It was this revision that they submitted to Vice President Schuster, who also made some comments on the memo. Schuster’s suggestions—all valid—show how different readers can help writing teams meet their objectives.

Note that in the process of revising their memo Chappel and Garcia had to make major changes from the first draft in Figure 3.6. Their work went through several versions to arrive at the docu- ment in Figure 3.7. Those changes—shortening and expanding paragraphs, adding and deleting information, and refocusing their approach to meet the needs of their audience—are the essential revisions a collaborative writing team, like an individual writer, would expect to make.

Final Copy With McCraw’s further input and their own revision, Chappel and Garcia submitted the final, revised memo found in Figure 3.8 (page 94) to the vice president a few days later. This final copy received Schuster’s approval and was then routed to the Fenton staff.

Thanks to an integrated model of collaboration and careful critiques by McCraw and Schus- ter, Chappel and Garcia successfully revised their work. Effective team effort and shared re- sponsibility were at the heart of Chappel and Garcia’s assignment.

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(Continued)

92 chapter 3 Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

Figure 3.7 Revision of the Chappel and Garcia Memo, with Changes Suggested by Vice President Schuster

TO: All Employees FROM: Abigail Chappel; Manuel Garcia DATE: February 9, 2016 RE: Improving Our Recycling Program

To save money and protect our environment, Fenton Companies will begin a more intensive waste paper recycling program on March 1. Three-quarters of the 250 million tons of solid waste dumped annually in America could be recycled. Our program will still use the latest recycling technology to safeguard trees, air, and water.

New Program This new program will establish Fenton’s reputation as an environmentally conscious company committed to sustainability. Fenton now uses two tons of paper every four weeks. This represents 34 trees that can be saved just by recycling our paper waste. Recycling also means we will send less waste to the land�ll, alleviating problems of over�ll and reducing the potential for contamination of the water supply. Waste sent to large land�lls can leach and seep into water systems. By recycling paper, Fenton will also reduce the risk of long-term environmental pollution.

Saving Money

Increased recycling would save us money. Right now Fenton pays $180 per month to dump 4,000 pounds (two tons) of paper waste at the land�ll. However, increased recycling will eliminate the $180 dumping expense.

Ultimately, the success of our project depends on renewed awareness of the variety of of�ce paper suitable for recycling. Paper products that can be recycled include newspapers, scrap paper, computer printouts, letters, envelopes (without windows), shipping cartons, old phone books, and uncoated paper cups.

Recycling 600 or so old phone books each year alone will save 2,400 pounds of land�ll space (or close to $108). The old 2015 phone books, which will be replaced by new 2016 ones on March 1, will give us an excellent opportunity to intensify our recycling.

Put in itemized bulleted list to stand out.

needs more information

Make all headings more precise in next draft

Indicate how much we save

Add that we no longer use Styrofoam and that our suppliers use only biodegradable products

Say strengthen or continue

Do not start new here; keep as part of previous

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Models for Collaboration 93

Figure 3.7 (Continued)

Here are some easy-to-follow directions to make our recycling efforts even more effective:

1. Starting the last week in February, paper bins will be placed inside each of�ce door. Put all waste paper into these bins, which will be emptied by maintenance. 2. Place larger paper products—such as cartons or phone books—in the green bigger paper bins at the end of each main corridor. 3. Put white, colored, computer printout, and newspapers into separate marked bins. Remove all rubber bands, tape, and sticky notes.

Thanks for your cooperation. To show our appreciation for your help, 50 percent of the savings from recycling paper will go toward employee bonuses and the other 50 percent will be given to the of�ce’s favorite charity. The bene�ts of our new recycling program will more than outweigh the inconvenience it may cause. We will conduct another study in time for America Recycles Day on November 15 to determine how our company has improved in this area.

End with the incentive for emphasis

Boldface these words

Add another sentence to this on how a safer environment will benefit our company and the employees, too

Directions

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94 chapter 3 Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

Figure 3.8 Final Copy of the Memo Prepared by Chappel and Garcia Using an Integrated Model of Collaboration

TO: All Employees FROM: Abigail Chappel; Manuel Garcia DATE: February 12, 2016 RE: Improving Our Recycling Program

Why We Need to Increase Recycling Efforts

To save additional money and to protect the environment, Fenton will begin a more intensive waste paper recycling program on March 1. For the new program to succeed, we need to increase our paper recycling efforts. Three-quarters of the 250 million tons of solid waste dumped annually in America could be recycled. Our program will continue to rely on the latest recycling technology for better greening of the workplace and to safeguard trees, air, and water.

Recycling has already saved us money. Right now Fenton pays $180 per month to dump 4,000 pounds (two tons) of paper waste at the land�ll, compared to 6,000 pounds (three tons) and $270 per month last year. However, increased recycling will eliminate the $180 monthly dumping expense.

Fenton’s Image as a Green Company

Even more important, this new, intensive program will further strengthen Fenton’s reputation as an environmentally conscious company committed to sustainability. Three years ago, we stopped using Styrofoam products and asked suppliers to use biodegradable materials for all our shipping containers. Our efforts have proved successful, but Fenton still uses two tons of paper every four weeks. This paper represents 34 trees that can be saved just by recycling our paper waste. We need to send even less waste to the land�ll, alleviating problems of over�ll and reducing the potential for contamination of the water supply. Waste sent to large land�lls can leach and seep into water systems.

Paper Products to Recycle

Ultimately, the success of this project depends on our being aware of the variety of of�ce paper suitable for recycling. A list of paper products that can be recycled includes

• newspapers • scrap paper • letters • computer printouts • envelopes (without cellophane windows) • junk mail (only black • phone books print on white paper) • uncoated paper cups • shipping cartons

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Computer-Supported Collaboration 95

The old 2015 phone books, which will be replaced by new 2016 ones on March 1, will give us an excellent opportunity to launch our intensi�ed recycling program.

Steps to Follow

Here are some easy-to-follow directions to make our recycling efforts even more effective:

1. Starting the last week in February, put all waste paper into the paper bins that will be placed inside each of�ce door. These bins will be emptied by maintenance.

2. Place larger paper products—such as bulky cartons—in the green bigger paper bins at the end of the main corridor.

3. Remove all rubber bands, tape, and sticky notes and put white, colored, computer printout, and newspapers into separate marked bins.

We will conduct another study in time for America Recycles Day on November 15 to determine how our company has improved in this area. The bene�ts of our new recycling program will more than outweigh the inconvenience it may cause. A safer environment—and a more cost-effective way to run our company—bene�ts us all.

Thanks for your cooperation. To show our appreciation for your increased efforts, 50 percent of the savings from recycling paper will go into an annual employee bonus fund and the other 50 percent will be given to the of�ce’s favorite charity.

Figure 3.8 (Continued)

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COmputer-suppOrted COllabOratiOn While you will sometimes collaborate on drafts using handwritten notes and com- ments, as we just saw in Figures 3.6 and 3.7, to be successful writers, employees must also be proficient in using multiple types of collaborative software systems, otherwise known as groupware. You will be expected to know—or at least be adaptable to learning—not only how to use email for collaborative coomunications but also how to navigate document tracking systems (such as Microsoft Word’s Track Changes feature or Adobe Acrobat) as well as web-based collaboration sys- tems (wikis, Google Docs).

96 chapter 3 Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

advantages of computer-Supported collaboration Computer-supported collaboration offers significant advantages to both employers and workers. Here are some of those benefits:

1. Increased opportunities to “meet.” Today’s meeting-heavy and travel-filled work environments often make collaborating in person difficult and costly. Various types of groupware provide a virtual shared workplace where team members can ask questions, share information, make suggestions and revisions, and troubleshoot.

2. Improved feedback and accountability. Because it is accessible and easy to use, groupware helps team members participate actively in the collaboration pro- cess. Groupware encourages team members to get to the point and make sure other members understand their message clearly and quickly. Because each member’s contributions are documented, everyone’s participation becomes a matter of record.

3. Enhanced possibility of complete and clear information. Groupware allows everyone involved in the team to truly be “on the same page.” It provides a running record, thus saving all information and preventing misinterpretation.

4. Reduced stress in updating new group members. Groupware can efficiently and quickly bring new team members into the ongoing conversation, saving time and effort and reducing the stress of face-to-face meetings.

5. Expanded options for communicating worldwide. Groupware ensures the flexibility to contact group members anywhere—at a home office (telecommuters, freelancers), on the road, at another office, or in another country.

Groupware and Face-to-Face Meetings Groupware does not, of course, completely eliminate the need for a group to meet in person to discuss priorities, clarify issues, or build team spirit. But face-to-face communications, although sometimes essential, are frequently accompanied by com- puter-supported collaboration via groupware. In fact, groupware can enhance meet- ings by allowing people to draft and discuss documents online before they arrive at a meeting, thus saving time and increasing efficiency. It also allows teams to extend their collaboration beyond the confines of the workplace, whether at an off-site loca- tion or at a telecommuting employee’s home. For instance, you and your colleagues might use Microsoft Word’s Track Changes to revise a progress report after an im- portant meeting, or you might use Google Docs to help your supervisor make last- minute edits to a presentation before an important trade show.

types of Groupware There are essentially three types of groupware commonly used to produce col- laboratively written documents in today’s workplace: email, document tracking software, and web-based collaboration systems.

email Email is used for many jobs in the world of work, as you will see in Chapter 4. It has an important role to play in collaborative writing online as well. While email is not the

Computer-Supported Collaboration 97

place to create or revise a collaboratively written document (because edits and other changes are hard to incorporate and track), email nevertheless makes online collabora- tion possible for the following reasons:

1. It is used to send collaboratively written documents as text files or PDF files. Team members in the same office or from around the globe can then access the same document and share their feedback.

2. It can ensure that every member of the team is working on the same docu- ment by identifying each document by name and number in the “subject field” (Report on Parking, Rev. 4 or Proposal on Recycling, Draft 2).

3. It saves the group time by decreasing the number of face-to-face meetings it must have. Email cannot take the place of a face-to-face exchange, however.

Document tracking Software Document tracking software, such as Microsoft Word’s Track Changes feature or Adobe Acrobat, provides another way for collaborative writing teams to share, comment on, and revise their work online. Figure 3.9 (page 98) shows an example of a collaboratively written document using Microsoft Word—the first draft of a section of a report on increasing parking spaces at a hospital—and how it has been revised and edited by several team members using the Track Changes feature.

Sent as an email attachment to every team member, Figure 3.9 uses the Track Changes feature in Word to preserve all the original text of Draft 1 while automati- cally showing and identifying comments from each individual. Team members can ask for and even supply new text, insert headings, clarify and verify factual data, and call for visuals. They can also edit sentences in the document, and Word will automatically track these changes.

When a group member revises the next version of this section of the report, he or she can then accept or reject the tracked changes. But keep in mind that all changes must be agreed on by the group. This is where the dynamics of collaborative writing works for the good of the entire group in order to produce a careful document on time.

Web-Based collaboration Systems You can also use a wide variety of web-based applications to write collaboratively at work. These include wikis and online word-processing applications like Google Docs. With these systems, the text/report is automatically shared between you and your various collaborators—no emails or attachments are required. You and your collaborators can post revised drafts, meet to review one another’s work, offer sug- gestions, and store files and revisions.

Web-based collaboration systems also make communication among more than two people much more efficient. Most systems consolidate all team communications into a single site on the Web for each team member to view. These systems help employees manage complicated editing projects and receive feedback from co-workers at differ- ent branches of a company. Office collaboration software like Yammer, FB@Work, or Slack also make it easier to collaborate with colleagues who are not in the same office.

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Figure 3.9 Collaborative Editing Using a Document Tracking System

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Wikis Wikis are similar to document-tracking systems, but they have a few crucially dif- ferent characteristics:

●● Wikis are websites to which team members are given passwords, enabling them to check documents in and out of the site.

●● They typically do not show tracked changes directly on the document as Microsoft Word does. Rather, each edited version is assigned a new version number. The team members can then easily compare different versions of the document, but these differences will not show up within a single version.

The advantage of wikis over tracked documents is that each wiki version is a clean document free of complicated tracked edits. When team members revise, they need to proofread only the latest draft rather than going through the time-consuming process of accepting or rejecting changes, deleting comments, or troubleshooting inconsistencies.

The disadvantage of wikis the lack of quality control. Because each group member’s changes are not clearly tracked, it can be difficult for members to keep up with the number of changes. When using wikis, then, the team needs to establish a clear protocol outlining who may make changes to the document and when. To see an example of a wiki, go to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page (the main English-language Wikipedia page).

Online Word-Processing Systems Another popular web-based collaboration tool are online word-processing systems. Applications like Google Docs, Microsoft Office 365, Adobe Buzzword, and Zoho Writer help collaborative teams share and edit a variety of documents easily on the Web. These systems are essentially online word processors that bundle file-sharing, online collaboration, word-processing, and document design features. Like wikis, writing and editing are done on websites. Unlike wikis, though, these systems also allow for tracking changes and document design.

One of the most widely used online systems is Google Docs, seen in Figure 3.10 (page 101). This free application can be accessed and used through the Google site by anyone with a Gmail password. Google Docs offers the following benefits:

●● It functions like a word processor, so the user can build publishable docu- ments with it (a feature most wikis do not include).

●● It safely stores documents in a secure space online, accessible from any computer.

●● Is available free-of-charge. ●● It allows team members to create, comment on, share, and revise documents

on the Web. ●● It records a complete revision history of any changes made to the document. ●● It provides a chat window in the interface for real-time collaboration online.

Google Docs is used frequently in the workplace as a collaborative tool because it streamlines the editing process and bundles all revisions into a shared and secured space. Google Docs and other online word processors are especially helpful when you need a fast turnaround on collaboratively written and edited documents.

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Using Google Docs as a Collaboration Tool

Allen Knutz is the inventory manager for Lightofmylife.com, a company that specializes in designer lights and in a popular line of “green” lighting fixtures, lamps, and lightbulbs. The company has grown recently because of greater customer demands for environmentally friendly products and for compact fluorescent bulbs and LEDs. As the company expanded, it needed more floor space for their inventory and additional forklifts to accommodate an accelerated delivery schedule. To make sure the company had enough inventory on hand, the CEO of Lightofmylife.com has asked Knutz to write a proposal about expanding their warehouse space.

Writing proposals has always been a collaborative project at Lightofmylife.com, with teams of four or five employees under the direction of a primary supervisor who manages the pro- cess. This proposal was particularly challenging because the CEO wanted it in less than a week to take advantage of available storage options. In the past, Knutz collaborated with his colleagues using the Track Changes feature in Word, but he knew that this process generates numerous email exchanges as well as multiple versions of the same document that everyone must open and read.

Why Use Google Docs Google Docs allowed Knutz’s team to create, share, revise, and comment on an evolving docu- ment quickly and efficiently and produce the final version—all using the same web-based groupware application. Since some team members would be off-site for sales visits or at trade shows and another member was telecommuting, Knutz decided that his team would have to meet online at least three or four times during the week to participate in real-time editing through the chat room feature, rather than through a back-and-forth email exchange that would take much longer.

how to Set Up and Use Google Docs Knutz set up the proposal on Google Docs and then was ready to share the document to be created with his colleagues. He keyed in their Gmail addresses in the “share” window. Figure 3.10 shows what the “problem” portion of the proposal looked like in Google Docs. Before collaboration began, however, Knutz established some guidelines. Each team member could comment on the document, but Knutz was the only editor who could actually make the revisions. Using a sequential model for collaboration, he stressed that each team member would write a different section of the proposal but that everyone was responsible for suggest- ing changes through the comments feature for the entire document at various stages. Though his team was working at different locations, they were able to complete a successful proposal in time for the CEO’s deadline.

Case study

Figure 3.10 Using Google Docs to Collaborate on a Document

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Models for computer-Supported collaboration Employees using groupware will find that the integrated model (see below) and the sequential model (see below) are the most effective models for computer-supported collaboration.

The Integrated Model

1. All members of the team work on the entire document—developing, expanding, revising, and editing it. The original draft is saved so that it is acces- sible to all team members who will work on it. When using email, the team should be careful not to lose sight of the original draft. But when employing a document tracking system, writers/revisers need to look at the original draft and continue to edit it. When using a wiki, the original draft will remain available separately as sub- sequent versions are uploaded.

2. Each member of the team keeps the rest of the team in the loop when he or she makes changes to the document. When using email, the team member making the change should copy all other members of the team on the email. But when using a document tracking system, each team member should inform the others while he or she is making changes so that two writers aren’t working on the tracked docu- ment at once. With a wiki, however, only the person currently making changes will be able to access the document, since wikis automatically lock out other users when one team member has the document checked out.

3. Each team member looks at each draft of the document as it is edited. When using email, team members should comment on each draft when it is emailed to the en- tire team. Editing through a document tracking system, each subsequent reader/writer should insert comments, noting where he or she agrees or disagrees with the previous editor’s comments. With a wiki, though, each member of the team should look at each draft as it is uploaded and provide comments or express concerns to the rest of the group, which can be either fixed by the most recent editor or passed on to the next editor.

4. The team agrees on the final draft. If the steps above for email, document tracking systems, or wikis are followed, the final draft can be produced relatively smoothly. When editing via email or a document tracking system, the team must select one or more members to consolidate their various drafts. When using a wiki, the team has to agree to the second-to-last draft so that any changes to it will be- come the final draft version. In any instance, the final draft should be proofread one more time by all members of the team, to resolve any loose ends.

The Sequential Model

1. Each member of the team is responsible only for drafting his or her assigned section of the document. At this point, the writer is simply word processing, not using groupware. The team should choose a team leader, however, who can act as an overall editor (see step 4).

2. Each team member sends his or her completed section to everyone else in the group. Since the sections will remain separate for the time being, email should be used (it would be premature to use a document tracking system or wiki).

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3. All members of the group edit the individual sections and return the revised sections to their respective authors. Email continues to be the most appropriate medium to convey these edits.

4. Each team member revises his or her section based on team comments and sends the revised version to the team leader. The team leader then combines the reviewed and edited sections into a single document, reads through the entire docu- ment for consistency of style and format within each section, and, if additional group feedback is necessary, sends the complete document to the entire group via email (in which case everyone can respond at once), as a tracked document (then each member would need to make edits and add comments in turn), or posted on a wiki (where only one member at a time will be able to check out the document and make changes).

5. The team leader finalizes the document. Now that all team members have not only written and revised their sections but also had a chance to edit and comment on the complete document, the team leader has all of the information he or she needs to finalize and submit the document.

avoiding problems with Online collaboration Regardless of the online collaborative method your team uses, it must establish ground rules by which documents are created, posted, revised, protected, and submitted. By following these guidelines, your team can avoid common problems in any online collaboration:

1. Be sure that all team members have access and authorization. 2. Everyone in the group must be “in the loop.” 3. Save the original draft and subsequent ones in separate files to refer to earlier drafts. 4. Link each revision with the individual who made it. 5. Require all team members to agree to the final document. 6. Maintain confidentiality to protect the document from unauthorized users.

meetings One of the most frequent ways to collaborate is through meetings, which can be small group discussions or large, formal conferences. Whether regularly scheduled (a weekly staff meeting) or a special, unscheduled one, a meeting requires teamwork. Collective energy and goodwill will bear much fruit. To succeed in the workplace, you need to know how to plan a meeting, create an agenda, and write minutes for your group.

planning a Meeting As with a collaboratively written document, meetings have to be carefully planned. They need to be organized, specifying when and how the meeting will take place (in-person, face-to-face via Skype, a virtual meeting, etc.), a focus provided for the meeting, and guidelines set for how it will be conducted. If you have the responsi- bility of planning a meeting, be sure you can answer the following questions:

1. What is the purpose of the meeting? Determine why the meeting is necessary, what essential topics need to be discussed, and what results or outcomes the meeting hopes to accomplish.

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2. Who should attend the meeting? Identify key people who need to be in- volved, e.g., managers, co-workers, colleagues from other departments, clients, vendors, etc.

3. What specific responsibilities do individuals in your group have? Determine who will take minutes (see “Writing the Minutes,” pages 105–109), introduce the meeting, or deliver a PowerPoint or Prezi presentation, for example.

4. When should the meeting take place? There are good times and bad times to hold a business meeting, as the following schedule shows:

Good times Bad times

1. Mid-morning or mid-afternoon 2. Any time during the week except

Monday morning or Friday afternoon, or immediately before or after a major holiday

3. After a major company celebration when morale is high

1. Early in the morning or late in the afternoon

2. Monday morning or Friday afternoon 3. Immediately before or after a major

holiday 4. Same day as a long training session or

long meeting

5. Where should the meeting take place? Select an appropriate space, one equipped with all the technology your group plans to use (e.g., speakerphones, SMART Boards, web-based conferencing systems).

Virtual Meetings

While face-to-face meetings are still very frequent in the workplace, technology has made virtual meetings a useful alternative. They allow a group to meet online no matter where team members are located. Virtual meetings in the world of work facilitate com- munication and save money on travel costs.

Here are three ways technology can help you conduct a virtual meeting:

1. teleconferencing allows for conference calls in which multiple participants at one’s office, across the country, or around the globe can communicate with one another. But note that participants have to be notified of the call and given a password to participate in the conversation.

2. Web conferencing (such as Cisco’s WebEx) combines the audio component of tele- conferencing with the face-to-face interaction of a traditional meeting. The greatest ad- vantage of web conferencing over teleconferencing is that individuals attending a web conference can view presentations and share documents electronically during a meeting.

3. Dedicated videoconferencing systems are primarily used for group-to-group con- ferences or one-way seminars in large rooms and auditoriums, bringing large groups of people together to share information without the expense and time of traveling.

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creating an agenda Out of your planning will come your agenda, a list of the topics to be covered at the meeting. An agenda is a one- or sometimes two-page outline of the main points to be covered at the meeting. The agenda should list only those items that your group, based on its work and interaction, regards as most crucial. Prioritize your action items so that the most important ones come first.

Observing courtesy at a Group Meeting To show your team members the courtesy they deserve during a meeting (whether face-to-face or virtually), observe the following guidelines:

1. Be on time. Coming in late can disrupt a meeting and cause further delays if you have to be brought up-to-date.

2. Silence your cell phone. Set your phone on vibrate if you are expecting an important business call.

3. Do not send text messages. Sending text messages during a meeting is as rude as playing a video game on a smartphone.

4. Avoid side conversations. Talking to others around you while the meeting is in progress shows poor manners and can distract from the business and progress of the meeting.

5. Avoid interrupting. If you need to interject a comment, raise your hand or wait for the meeting planner to ask for comments from the group.

6. Be an active listener. Pay attention to what is being said at the meeting and also try to discern the message behind those words.

7. Participate; don’t dominate. Give everyone a chance to speak. Contribute to the discussion, but don’t monopolize it.

8. Be a focused speaker. If you are called on or choose to speak to the group, get to the point quickly, be clear, and avoid straying from your topic.

9. Do not record the meeting or take photographs. Unless you have permis- sion, do not bring an audio recorder or video camera to a meeting, and do not take photographs.

Writing the Minutes The minutes are a summary of what happened at the meeting (see Figure 3.12, pages 107–108). Copies of minutes are kept on file—they are the official, permanent record of the group’s deliberations and are regarded as legal documents. Minutes need to be clear, accurate, and impartial. If you are asked to take minutes, don’t inject your own opinions of how well or poorly the meeting went; for example, “Once more Hicks got off the topic” is not appropriate. Plan on transmitting min- utes 24 to 48 hours after the meeting has adjourned.

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Videoconferencing with Skype

Skype allows individuals in the world of work to conduct videoconferences over the Internet without purchasing expensive videoconferencing systems. Skype can be used for one-on-one meetings (see Tech Note: Skype Interviews, page 289) or for video- conferences with a small group (up to ten participants). Skype functions like a telephone call but it uses a webcam to send video to your partner(s) (see Figure 3.11). You can download the free software from www.skype.com.

Like other business meetings, you have to prepare for a Skype conference. You need to do your homework—planning, sharing information, and taking notes. Here are five guidelines to help make your Skype videoconference productive:

●● Collaboration works best in Skype videoconferences when everyone has a compatible fast Internet connection.

●● Always test your webcam to make sure it is working (and is in focus) before making a Skype call, and ask the other participants to check theirs, too. In your Skype contact list, click on “Echo/Sound Test Service” to test your audio settings.

●● Look directly into your computer’s webcam (and not at the keyboard) so that the participants can see you clearly.

●● Be sure that any files you share during the meeting through Skype are relevant. ●● Do not try to carry on another conversation on your cell phone or tweet or text during your Skype conversation.

Figure 3.11 Multiple people Engaged in a Skype Conversation

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Figure 3.12 Minutes from a Business Meeting

Supplies essential information on attendance, date, and place of meeting

Refers to previous meeting to provide continuity

Concisely summarizes progress on ongoing business

Identifies key speakers

Records only main points of discussion and votes

Minutes for Environmental Safety Committee (ESC) meeting on August 12, 2015, in Room 203 of Lab Annex at 10:00 a.m.

Members Present:

Thomas Baldanza, Grace Corlee (President), Virginia Downey, Victor Johnson, Roberta Koos, Kent Leviche (Secretary), Ralph Nowicki, Barbara Poe-Smith, Williard Ralston, Asah Rashid, Morgan Tachiashi, and Carlos Zandrillia

Members Absent:

Paul Gordon (family leave); Marty Wagner

Old Business:

The minutes from the previous meeting on July 8, 2015, were approved as read.

Reports:

(1) Morgan Tachiashi reported on the progress the Site Inspection Committee is making in getting the plant ready for the August 28 visit of the State Board of Examiners. All preparations are on schedule.

(2) The proposal to study the use of biometric identification in place of employee ID badges is nearly complete, according to Asah Rashid.

New Business:

(1) Virginia Downey and Ralph Nowicki voiced concern about a computer virus that may strike the plant—Monkey. Disguised as a familiar email, the virus is contained in an attachment that destroys files. Barbara Poe-Smith moved, and Virginia Downey seconded, that management upgrade its antivirus protection software.The vote carried by 9 to 3.

4300 Ames Boulevard, Gunderson, CO 81230-0999 303.555.9721

www.newtech.comNewTech, Inc.

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What to Include in Your Minutes Minutes of a meeting should include the following information:

●● date, time, and place of the meeting ●● name of the group holding the meeting and why ●● name of the person chairing the meeting ●● names of those present and those absent ●● the approval or amendment of the minutes of the previous meeting ●● for each major point—the action items—indicate what was done:

●— what was discussed, suggested, or proposed ●— what was decided and the vote, including abstentions ●— what was continued (tabled) for a subsequent study, report, or meeting ●— the time the meeting officially concluded

Figure 3.12 (Continued)

(2) Concerned about computer downtime in the plant during the month of July—5 outages totaling 7.5 lost working hours—Kent Leviche asked the ESC to address this problem. After discussion, the ESC unanimously agreed to appoint a subcommittee to investigate the outages and determine solutions. Roberta Koos and Thomas Baldanza will chair the subcommittee and then present a survey report at next month’s meeting.

(3) Personnel in the Environmental Testing Lab were commended for their extra effort in ensuring that their department maintained the highest professional standards during the month of July.

(4) Grace Corlee adjourned the meeting at 11:41 a.m.

Next Meeting:

The next meeting of the ESC will be on September 9 at 1:00 p.m. in Room 203 of the Lab Annex Building.

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Includes other business to be continued

Excellent morale builder

Signals end of meeting and date of next one

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Guidelines on Writing Minutes To be effective, minutes must be concise and to the point. Here are a few guidelines to help you:

●● Make sure of your facts; spell all names, products, and tests correctly. ●● Concentrate on the major facts surrounding action items. Condense lengthy

discussions, debates, and reports given at the meeting. ●● Do not report verbatim what everyone said; readers will be more interested

in outcomes—what the group did. ●● List each motion (or item voted on) exactly as it is worded and in its final

form. ●● Avoid words that interpret (negatively or positively) what the group or any-

one in the group did or did not do.

Figure 3.12 (pages 107–108) containing minutes of a meeting shows how these parts fit together.

COnClusiOn This chapter has emphasized the importance of collaboration in the world of work and explained the various collaborative models you may need to follow. It has also given you detailed guidelines on creating, editing, and revising a collaborative docu- ment, using the most current types of web-based applications. Working success- fully as part of a team, whether at face-to-face meetings or online, is one of the most valuable skills you can develop, and one that your employer will expect you to use successfully as a vital part of your job.

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Being a responsible team Member ●■ Succeeded in being a team player by putting the success of my group over the

needs of my own ego. ●■ Followed the necessary steps of the writing process to take advantage of team

effort and feedback. ●■ Attended all group meetings and understood and agreed to the responsibilities

of the group and my own obligations. ●■ Finished the research, planning, and/or drafting expected of me as a group

member. ●■ Conducted necessary interviews and conferences to gather, clarify, and verify

information. ●■ Shared my research, ideas, and suggestions for revision through constructive

criticism. ●■ Participated honestly and politely in discussions with colleagues. ●■ Treated members of my team with respect and courtesy. ●■ Was open to criticism and suggestions for change. ●■ Read colleagues’ work and gave specific and helpful criticism and suggestions. ●■ Kept matters in proper perspective by not being a nitpicker and by not

interrupting with extraneous points or unnecessary questions. ●■ Sought help when necessary from relevant subject matter experts and from

co-workers. ●■ Secured responses and approval from management.

Using Computer-Supported Collaboration ●■ Took advantage of email, instant messaging, and groupware applications (e.g.,

document tracking systems, wikis, Google Docs) to communicate with my collaborative team.

●■ Investigated the research, drafting, revising, and editing benefits available with computer software.

●■ Answered questions and responded to requests promptly from the team leader and collaborative team members.

●■ Attached pertinent documents in emails to the collaborative team. ●■ Avoided technical problems with online collaboration by adhering to established

policies. ●■ Respected confidentiality and used computer-assisted editing technologies

responsibly and ethically.

preparing for and participating at a Meeting ●■ Prepared a clear agenda for the meeting and distributed it to members ahead

of time. ●■ Wrote minutes that objectively reported what happened.

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Exercises 111

e x e r C i S e S

1. Assume you belong to a three- or four-person editing team that functions the way Tara Barber’s does, as described in Figure 3.2. Each member of your team should bring in four copies of a paper written for this course or for another one. Exchange copies with the other members of your team so that each team member has everyone else’s papers to review and revise. For each paper you receive, comment on the style, organization, tone, and discussion of ideas as Wells McCraw did in Figure 3.6.

2. With the members of your collaborative team, select four different brands of the same product (such as a software package, a Web browser, a smartphone, a wire- less router, a Blu-Ray player, or a power tool). Each member of your team should select one of the brands and prepare a two-page memo report for your instructor (see “Memos,” pages 220–227), evaluating the product according to the following criteria:

●● convenience ●● performance ●● technical capabilities or capacities ●● reviews ●● adaptability ●● price ●● warranties ●● comparisons with competitors’ models

Each team member should then submit a draft to the other members of the team to re- view. At a subsequent group meeting, the group should evaluate the four brands based on the team’s drafts and then together prepare one final recommendation report for your instructor.

3. Your company is planning to construct a new office, and you, together with other employees, have been asked to serve on a committee to make sure that plans for the new building adhere to the Americans with Disabilities Act, passed in 1990. According to that act, it is against the law to discriminate against anyone with dis- abilities that limit “major life activities,” such as walking, seeing, speaking, hearing, or working.

●■ Took notes that highlighted main points of the meeting for my collaborative team and boss.

●■ Participated in virtual meetings through teleconferencing, web conferencing, or videoconferencing.

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The law is expressly designed to remove architectural and physical barriers and to make sure that plans are modified to accommodate those protected by the law (for example, wider hallways to accommodate wheelchairs). Other considerations include choosing appropriate floor surfaces (reducing the danger of slipping), placing water fountains low enough for use by individuals in wheelchairs, and installing doors that re- quire minimal pressure to open and close.

After studying the plans for the new building, you and your team members find several problem areas. Prepare a group-written report advising management of the prob- lems and what must be done to correct them to comply with the law. Divide your written work according to areas that need alteration—doors, floors, water fountains, restroom facilities. Each team member should bring in his or her section for the group to edit and revise. The group should then prepare the final report for management.

4. A new manager will be coming to your office park in the next month, and you and five other employees have been asked to serve on a committee that will submit a report about safety problems at your office park and what should be done to solve them. You and your team must establish priorities and propose guidelines that you want the new manager to put into practice. After two very heated meetings, you realize that what you and two other employees have considered solutions, the other half of your com- mittee regards as the problems. Here is a rundown of the leading conflicts dividing your committee:

●● Speed bumps. Half the committee likes the way they slow traffic down in the office park, but the other half says there are too many of them and are a menace because they damage a car’s shock absorber system.

●● Sound pollution. Half your team wants Security to enforce a noise policy prevent- ing employees from playing loud music while driving in and out of the office park, but the other half insists that policy violates employee rights.

●● van and sport utility vehicle parking. Half the committee demands that vans and sport utility vehicles park in specially designated places because they block the view of traffic for any vehicle parked next to them; the other members protest saying that people who drive these vehicles will be singled out and be given less desirable parking places.

Clearly your committee has reached a deadlock and will be unproductive as long as those conflicts go unresolved. Based on this scenario, do the following:

a. Have each person on the committee email the other five committee members sug- gesting a specific plan on how to proceed—how the group can resolve their con- flicts. Prepare your email message and send it to the other five committee members and to your instructor. What’s your plan to get the committee moving toward writ- ing the report to the incoming manager?

b. Assume that you have been asked to convince the other half of the committee to accept your half’s views on the three areas of speed bumps, noise control, and parking. Send the three opposition committee members an attachment via email

Exercises 113

persuading them to your way of thinking. Your message must assure them that you respect their point of view.

c. Assume that the committee members reach a compromise after seeing your plan put forth in part (a). Collaboratively draft a three-page report to the new manager.

5. You work for a hospital laboratory, and your lab manager, under pressure from manage- ment to save money, insists that you and the three other medtechs switch to a different brand of vacuum blood-drawing tubes. You and your colleagues prefer the brand of tubes you have been using for years. Moreover, the price difference between the two brands is small. As a group project, prepare a memo to the business manager of the hos- pital explaining why the switch is unnecessary, unwise, and unpopular. Focus especially on the cost difference and its effect on the laboratory’s budget. Then prepare another collaboratively written memo to your lab manager. Be sensitive to each reader’s needs as you diplomatically explain the group’s position.

Part II

Correspondence

4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

5 Writing Letters: Some Basics for Communicating with Audiences Worldwide

6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

7 How to Get a Job: Searches, Networking, Dossiers, Portfolios/Webfolios, Résumés, Transitioning to a Civilian Job, Letters, and Interviews

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The Flow of Information through E-Communications

Differences Among E-Communications

E-Communications Are Legal Records

Email: Its Importance in the Workplace

Blogs

Messaging

Writing for Social Media in the Workplace

Conclusion

E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

A large and routine share of your writing at work will be through e-communications—emails, blogs, messaging, and mushrooming social media such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Flickr, and LinkedIn. These forms of e-communications are used for various purposes and messages in the world of work, including

●● communicating within the company ●● promoting your company’s brand ●● receiving and responding to consumer views ●● tracking trends ●● searching for and finding a job ●● enhancing networking and collaboration around the globe ●● assuring and expanding interactive communication ●● enabling you to do research

Businesses depend on e-communications to manage the large flow of in- formation they need to be competitive, to stay connected to customers and employees, and to remain on the cutting edge. Later chapters will discuss specific uses of e-communication. But this chapter will give you practi- cal information on (a) the benefits and differences among these various e-technologies, (b) when and how to write them, and (c) the ethical and legal obligations you have when you communicate in the digital workplace.

the FlOw OF InFOrmatIOn thrOugh e-COmmunICatIOns

Because each of these e-communications is vital to the operation of any business, expect to use them—often in combination—in the course of the business day. It is common for information to flow from one type of e-communication to another because these mediums are often used col- lectively to develop, edit, or send information to people both internally and externally. One method of e-communication drives another. Links to a company’s Facebook page and Twitter feed are included on their

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E-Communications Are Legal Records 117

corporate website, while a tweet could include a link back to a specific company website page. Your reader’s needs and the type of message will dictate which e-com- munication you use. How carefully you manage your emails and messaging, for in- stance, gives your employer a very good idea of how well you do your job. See how an employee’s monthly activity report (see Figure 14.7, pages 574–575) reflects, in part, the quality and quantity of work he/she has done through these various e-tools.

DIFFerenCes amOng e-COmmunICatIOns While e-communications are the workhorse of business communication, there are key differences among them you need to know. Essentially, your workplace cir- cumstances will determine which one is the most practical. For example:

●● When you need to write a longer message, or send documents to co-workers across the country or the globe, send an email with an attachment.

●● When you want to communicate in more detail with customers about a new product, service, or your company’s views on a topic, write a blogpost.

●● If your team members (or your boss) need to see brief information right away because of a looming deadline, and they work in the same office, use your company’s messaging system.

●● When a team member is out in the field and away from the office/his or her desk, a text is an expedient way to ask or answer a question.

●● When you want to quickly share news, information, or promote your prod- ucts visually to your customers or the general public, a tweet or social media posting may be appropriate.

e-COmmunICatIOns are legal reCOrDs Employers own their e-communications systems as well as the computers, smart- phones, and tablets that employees use. As we saw in Chapter 1 (“Employers Insist on and Monitor Ethical Behavior,” pages 26–27), employers have the right to monitor what you write and to whom. Any e-communication sent over a company server can be copied, archived, forwarded, and, most significantly, intercepted. For instance, emails can never really be deleted. Moreover, you can be fired for writing an angry or abusive email, blogpost, message, text, tweet, or social media posting. Your communications can easily be converted into an electronic paper trail. You never know who will receive and then forward them—to your boss, a customer, an attorney, a licensing board. Many companies issue disclaimers to protect themselves from legal action because of an em- ployee’s offensive workplace communication. In court, an email, message, text, message, tweet, social media post, or blog can carry the same weight as a printed letter or memo.

Legal/Ethical Guidelines to Follow in Writing E-Communications Here are some guidelines to help you write and send ethical/legal business e-communications.

1. Do not use them for personal messages. Write emails, messages, texts, tweets, and social media and blog postings only to conduct appropriate company business.

118 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

2. Take your time. Don’t dash off a hasty, unedited, or unrevised draft of your email, text, or social media post. When sending an email, for example, double- check all the addresses you’re sending it to, as you may have accidentally included someone or entered a wrong address.

3. Always project your company’s best image. Do not make your employer look bad by undermining management or criticizing a vendor, customer, or even a competitor. And, of course, never attack a boss or co-worker.

4. Be accurate. Double-check your facts—contracts, prices, warranties, guaran- tees, model numbers, delivery dates, safety features, etc. If you give customers wrong or misleading information, your company can be legally liable.

5. Respect your employer’s confidentiality. Guard company trade secrets. Do not send an e-communication about ongoing research, developing new or updated products and services, sales figures, marketing plans, or personnel issues.

6. Never write any e-communication about a raise, a grievance, or a complaint about a co-worker. Meet with your supervisor in person to discuss these issues.

7. Be professional and conscientious. Avoid posting stories or pictures unrelated to your company’s business. Moreover, don’t spread office gossip or rumors, comment on company policies, or make political statements—all of which may be grounds for your dismissal.

8. Deliver what you promise. Answer e-communications promptly and courteously. Clear your in box at the end of every business day. If you tell someone that you will respond later, don’t fail to do so. And always do the necessary research to give your reader(s) the information they need.

9. Be familiar with and follow your company’s policies on e-communication and on any company-specific apps or social media sites. Know your company handbook.

10. Protect your business records from viruses, spam, worms, Trojan horses, and hackers by following your company’s security procedures. Review your firm’s IT strategies about identifying and reporting cyberspace problems. Install and use virus protection software as your company instructs.

11. Always follow company policy. Find out what your company rules are about texting, formats, screen names, contact information, whether you can down- load documents or software, etc.

“Promoting Your Best Image—Some Do’s and Don’ts” (pages 245–250) will give you advice on how to avoid ethical and legal problems when using social net- work sites.

emaIl: Its ImPOrtanCe In the wOrkPlaCe Email continues to be one of the most common forms of e-communication in the workplace. It is the lifeblood of every business or organization because it expedites communication within a firm as well as outside it. On their tablets, computers, notebooks, or mobile devices, professionals in the world of work may receive be- tween forty and one hundred emails each day from supervisors, co-workers, clients, and vendors worldwide. Email allows you to send short messages about routine matters that make business function smoothly. It also enables the quick dissemina- tion of longer documents (such as memos or reports) by way of file attachments.

Email: Its Importance in the Workplace 119

Some of the information you convey (or is conveyed to you) via email may need to be sent via your company’s messaging system, texts, or blog or social media posts; an important skill employers look for is the ability to move information across these media platforms without losing its meaning or coherence.

Using an email program such as Microsoft Office 365, Outlook, or Gmail, you can expedite workplace communication in many ways:

●● Send and receive information quickly; delete it, forward it, or archive it ●● Set up your business calendar and keep track of your appointments ●● Synchronize your address book, email, and calendar functions, including

across multiple devices ●● Share Calendars, so you can see your colleagues’ schedules and plan meetings

accordingly ●● Group or “bundle” emails according to subject line, sender, or customized

topic, for easy searching, reference, and archiving ●● Organize and archive emails in folders according to date, sender, subject line,

or other topic area ●● Use the Search function to help you to find specific emails or email threads,

documents, or attachments quickly and easily ●● Identify and delete spam ●● Send attachments, including documents, visuals, video and audio clips, ta-

bles, lists, and statistical files ●● Enhance all phases of your collaborative work (see “Computer-Supported

Collaboration,” pages 95–103). ●● Communicate anytime, all the time, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week

Email is an informal, relaxed type of business correspondence, far more informal than a printed memo, letter, short report, or proposal, though it is more complex than instant messaging or an Instagram or Facebook post (see “Messaging,” pages 135–139). Think of your workplace email as a polite, informative, and professional conversation. It should always be to the point and accessible, as in Figure 4.1. Yet even though business email is a way of communicating, this does not mean you can forget about your responsibilities as a courteous and ethical employee, co-worker, and writer. Figure 4.2 (page 121) exemplifies an email used to communi- cate diplomatically with a collaborative team.

Business Email Versus personal Email The email you write on the job will require more effort than your personal email will. Don’t assume you can write to your employer or a customer the way you would a text message or a Facebook response to an old friend. In the world of work, you don’t just dash off an email. You have to revise and review it before you click and send it. That means proofreading carefully and following all the rules of proper spelling (avoid text-message spellings), punctuation, capitalization, and word choice, as well as the “Guidelines for Using Email on the Job” (pages 120–124). The tone of your business email should also be much more professional than the instant messaging you may do with friends or the e-conversations you have in chat rooms.

120 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

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<[email protected]>

Status of Hinson-Davis Order

Hi, Marge,

At last the Hinson-Davis Company received its order, and they are very pleased with our service. Victor Arana, their district manager, just called me to say the order came in at 9:00 a.m. and by 9:15 it was up on their system.

I am going to send Arana a thank-you letter today to keep up the goodwill.

Things could not have gone smoother. Congrats to all.

Thanks,

Ali Fatoul Vice President, Sales Craftworks <[email protected]> Mobile: 856-555-1782 Fax: 856-555-2341 www.craftworks.com

Figure 4.1 An Email Sent to a Co-worker

Gives all necessary details concisely

Header contains all necessary information

Indicates follow-up

Uses informal yet professional tone

Gives contact information

Unlike with your personal email, you need to consider the impact your business email will have on your company and on your career. When you send a business email, you are representing more than yourself and your preferences, as in a personal email. You are speaking on behalf of your employer. Because your email must reflect your company’s best image, make sure it is businesslike, free from grammatical mistakes, carefully researched, and polite. Sarcasm, slang, an aggressive tone, name-calling, and inappropriate clip art do not belong in a company email. As we saw, Figures 4.1 and 4.2 illustrate effectively written business email. Notice that these emails are cordial without being unprofessional.

Guidelines for Using Email on the Job When you prepare and organize your email message, always consider your reader’s specific needs as well as those of your company. The guidelines set out here will help you to write effective business emails.

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Email: Its Importance in the Workplace 121

Hello, Team:

To follow up on our conversation yesterday regarding working on this year’s annual report, I’m glad our schedules are flexible. I’ve checked our calendars, and we are all available next Tuesday the 21st at 10:30 a.m. Let’s meet in Conference Room 410.

Don’t forget we have to draft a two- to three-page overview first that explains NewTech’s strategic technology objectives for fiscal year 2016. Not an easy assignment, but we can do it, gang.

It would be a big help if Annulla would forward copies of the reports for the last three years. Would Peter please call Ms. Jhandez in Engineering for a copy of the talk she gave last month to the Powell Chamber of Commerce? If memory serves me correctly, she did a first-rate job summarizing NewTech’s accomplishments for 2015.

Thanks for all your splendid work, team. See you Tuesday.

Melinda Bell Marketing Director New Tech <[email protected]> Fax: (603) 555-2162 Mobile: (603) 555-1505 www.newtech.com

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<[email protected]>, <[email protected]>, <margaret.habermas>@newtech.com>, <[email protected]>

Follow-up on collaboration on writing the annual report

<[email protected]>

Figure 4.2 Email Sent to a Distribution List of Co-workers

Starts with context for and confirmation of meeting

Precise subject line

Provides clear explanations and instructions

Requests information politely

Ends by building morale

Provides contact information

1. Make sure your email is confidential and ethical.

●● Avoid flaming, that is, using strong, angry language that mocks, attacks, or insults your employer, a colleague, a customer, a government agency, or a company, as in Figure 4.3 (see page 125). Abusive, obscene, or racially or culturally offensive language in an email constitutes grounds for dismissal.

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122 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

●● Send nothing through email that you would not want to see on your com- pany’s website or that of your local newspaper.

●● Do not forward a co-worker’s or an employer’s email without that person’s approval.

●● Do not change the wording of a message that you are expected to read and forward.

●● Never send an objectionable file, photo, or video.

2. Make your email easy to read.

●● Always provide a clear, precise subject line. Avoid one-word subjects like “Report” or “Meeting.” Instead, write “Meeting to boost declining April sales.” A subject line like “Bill” leaves readers wondering if your email is about a person or an unpaid account.

●● Try to limit your emails to one screen. Messages longer than four or five short paragraphs are better sent in an attachment rather than in the body of an email.

●● Do not send emails written in all capital or all lowercase letters. All capital letters look as if you are shouting. Conversely, emails in all lowercase imply you do not know how to capitalize, or may be seen as spam.

●● Break your message into short paragraphs. A screen filled with one dense block of text is intimidating. Make each paragraph no more than three to four lines long and always double-space between paragraphs. Do not indent your paragraphs.

●● Provide hyperlink URLs for all websites you reference. Do not make your reader look them up.

●● Use plain text. Because different email programs can garble your message, avoid overusing typefaces like italic, script, or decorative fonts, colored wallpaper, or complex formatting (such as long numbered and bulleted lists), and symbols (monetary, accents, etc.) within the body of an email. Use a simple typeface such as Arial or Times New Roman.

●● Avoid long strings of emails. Delete strings of previously answered emails when you reply.

3. Observe the rules of “netiquette” (Internet 1 etiquette).

●● Respond promptly to an email. Don’t let emails pile up in your in-box. Check for new messages three to four times each day. If you will be offline for an extended period, use the out-of-office assistant to let readers know politely you are not available and when you will return. You can also have your emails forwarded to your mobile device.

●● Give your readers reasonable time to respond. Consider time zone differ- ences between you and your reader. It may be 2:00 a.m. when your email arrives for an international recipient.

●● Do not keep sending the same email over and over. This is discourteous and will only antagonize your recipient.

●● Proofread and revise before you send an email. Hold off filling in the “To” line until you have double-checked all facts, spelling, and grammar.

●● Avoid unfamiliar abbreviations, jargon, and emoticons. Don’t use ab- breviations common in personal emails (btw, lol) or that are used in text

Email: Its Importance in the Workplace 123

messaging. Include only those abbreviations and jargon that your recipients will understand (e.g., fyi). Also, stay away from emoticons (smiley faces, sad faces, etc.) in your professional communications.

●● Don’t use red flag words unnecessarily. Stay away from words like “Urgent,” “Crucial,” or “Top Priority,” along with accompanying exclama- tion marks, in your subject line just to get your reader’s attention. Your tac- tic will backfire, potentially upsetting readers or, worse yet, causing them to ignore any genuinely urgent messages you may send in the future. Instead, utilize your email system’s method of indicating prioritization of an email, which is a more professional approach.

●● Include a signature block. A signature block, found at the end of your mes- sage, includes your name, title, and contact information (see Figures 4.1 and 4.2). Make it easy for others to contact you. Such information is crucial when you are part of a large organization.

4. Adopt a professional business style.

●● Use a salutation (greeting), but always follow your company’s policy. Use a comma before the party’s name in a direct address. — to a colleague—Hi, Hello — to a customer—Dear Ms. Pietz, Dear Bio Tech

●● Get to the point right away. Because readers receive a lot of email, they may look only at the first few lines you write. Start by briefly reminding readers why you are writing. Refer to a previous email. Fill in the background that explains the purpose of your message.

●● Keep your message concise. Cut wordy phrases, and send only the informa- tion your reader needs. Exclude unnecessary details and chatter.

●● Don’t turn your email into a telegram. “Send report immediately; need for meeting” is rude, as is a reply only with “Yes,” “No,” or “Sure.” Save words like “Nope,” “Yeah,” and “Huh” for your personal emails and texts.

●● Never send an attachment without a cover email that politely and concisely tells readers what you are attaching and why it is important. Because of the fears of viruses and malware, many business people don’t open email attach- ments, especially ones sent with no explanation.

●● End politely. Let readers know in your last sentence that you appreciate their help or cooperation and look forward to their reply (see Figure 4.2).

●● Use a complimentary close, but always follow your company’s policy. — to a colleague—Thanks, Later, Take care, — to a customer—Sincerely yours, Sincerely, Best regards,

●● Do not include your favorite quotation at the bottom of your email. Your boss or customer may not agree with you. Remember, your email represents your company.

●● Proofread and spell-check your email before you send it.

5. Respect your international readers.

●● Use international English, which calls for short sentences, common words, and so on (see “Using International English,” pages 10–11).

124 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

●● Avoid using abbreviations, symbols, or measurements your reader may not know.

●● Respect your reader’s cultural traditions. Don’t be too informal or chatty. For example, do not use first names unless the reader approves. Use the read- er’s title and last name. Some cultures (East Asian, for instance) regard the use of abbreviations as discourteous.

●● Always spell your reader’s name, address, and country correctly, including the use of hyphens, accents, and capital letters.

●● Be careful about sending photographs or other graphics which may not be appropriate in your reader’s culture.

●● Avoid humor; it might be misinterpreted.

6. Ensure that your email is safe and secure.

●● Use email antivirus software. Always consult with your company’s infor- mation technology (IT) department.

●● Don’t be a victim of identity theft, or “phishing.” Companies you do busi- ness with will never ask for personal information, such as your bank account or Social Security number.

●● Create an email password that is not easy to guess. Do not use a password such as “ABCDE” or “123456.” Change your password regularly, and do not use the same password for all your accounts.

●● Back up important files, including emails. Save your most important and current files in case your computer contracts a virus or crashes.

Figure 4.3 shows an example of a poorly written email that violates many of the preceding guidelines. Figure 4.4 contains an effective revision that reflects the pro- fessional and courteous way the writer and his company conduct business.

When Not to Use Email Although email is convenient, easy to use, and appropriate for routine business correspondence, be careful not to use it in the following situations:

●● Send a formal letter rather than an email when you apply for a job and for any follow-up communication.

●● When you make a new business contact or welcome a new client, write a formal letter, not an email. International readers, in particular, will expect this.

●● Always acknowledge a business gift or courtesy by sending a handwritten thank-you note or formal letter rather than dashing off an email.

●● Never send an email in place of a letter for any type of legal notification or financial statement.

●● When a situation involving a client or vendor is too complex to handle in a short email, a phone call may be more productive and provide the chance for “real time” discussion and feedback that is difficult to capture in a series of emails.

Blogs 125

BlOgs Like emails, blogs (web 1 logs) are important e-communications for employees, managers, and customers alike. Think of a blog as an evolving website, or a newspa- per for which managers and employees write regular short articles, or posts. Blog- posts are short, conversational articles giving readers current and relevant news and commentary on a variety of issues important for your company, your brand, your organization and your profession. Posts are generally a few paragraphs long and are often written two to three times a week, although some bloggers post their work more frequently, sometimes daily. Written in chronological order, blogs are dated, titled, and frequently archived. Figures 4.5 (page 128), 4.6 (pages 130–131), and 4.7 (pages 134–135) show examples of blogs.

Blogs are Interactive A blog includes more than the blogger’s views. Blogs are highly interactive, allow- ing for a two-way or often group conversation between the author and his or her online audience. In the blogosphere, readers write comments in response to blog posts, and the blogger and other readers can reply. This interaction is the key to

Arial 10

HEY GUYS------------

ARE YOU AWAKE OUT THERE? THIS IS THE THIRD TIME I HAVE SENT THIS MESSAGE. AND I NEED YOU TO GET BACK TO ME STAT. MY BOSS IS ON MY BACK. : P

I NEED THE UPGRADES YOUR SALES FOLKS--ROBERT T., JAN W., AND GRAF H.--PROMISED BUT NEVER MADE GOOD ON.

FWIW YOU HAVE MISSED THE BOAT.

SAMMY

<[email protected]>

Upgrades

<[email protected]>

All caps perceived as shouting

Insufficient information

Unclear abbreviation, unprofessional emoticon

No signature block

Unprofessional greeting

Discourteous tone, flaming

Vague subject line

Figure 4.3 A Poorly Written Email Guilty of Flaming ©

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126 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

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Service agreement.pdf

Uses email address of specific person

Precise subject

Polite salutation

Gets to the point concisely but diplomatically

Provides explanation and documentation

Ends with clear-cut directions

Professional close

Includes signature block

Figure 4.4 A Revised, Effective Version of the Poorly Written Email in Figure 4.3

a blog’s success. In fact, bloggers often post the number of visitors who have left comments at the site. To write a successful business blog, you have to

1. attract readers 2. build relationships with them 3. promote and market products, services, or ideas 4. respond to comments and suggestions

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Blogs 127

Blog Sponsors Blogs carry different types of messages, depending on who sponsors them and why. It is impossible to estimate the number of blogs in the blogosphere. Individuals can host their own blogs to express their opinions on any subject, from world affairs to tech- nologies, community affairs, or even their families. Organizations host blogs, too. For instance, the Sierra Club, which is devoted to preserving the environment, has blogged on protecting endangered species, funding nature trails, and making and selling eco- friendly furniture. Almost every government agency has its own blog, or multiple blogs. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA), for instance, uses its blogs to keep consumers up to date about potential health risks, such as an outbreak of influenza or the spread of botulism from contaminated meat or dairy products. And every type of business, from major international corporations to small, local firms, blogs about its products, services, workforce, and commitment to customers and community. The following sections will show you how to blog successfully about work-related activity.

two types of Blogs Blogs can be either internal or external, depending on their audience and use in the workplace.

Internal Blogs Internal blogs are among the most versatile forms of workplace correspondence. They are designed exclusively to be used on the company network (or intranet) by in-house management and by employees to post their comments and questions, their views on new policies, announce events, introduce new staff, and generally to communicate up and down the corporate ladder. But some internal blogging is directed only to individuals in a given department or area, such as engineers tackling an energy problem or nurses in a large health care organization discussing new treat- ments for burn patients. Every internal blog, though, is aimed at making the work- place safer, more productive, and professionally and personally more satisfying.

Internal blogging serves many functions, including these:

●● Informing employees about vital company news ●● Helping employees to better understand and perform their jobs ●● Conducting virtual meetings without having to make arrangements for

face-to-face gatherings ●● Enhancing collaboration through the interaction of blog posts and comments ●● Providing a forum for workplace discussions ●● Improving employee participation and morale by inviting suggestions and

questions

Note how the internal blog in Figure 4.5 (page 128) fulfills many of these functions. Always follow your company’s blogging policies, but be especially careful that

you do not divulge information that may be confidential or sensitive. Your em- ployer will expect you to observe the same guidelines whether posting your own blogs or commenting on others’ (see “Guidelines for Writing Business Blogs,” pages 129–133). What you say on your own blog can reflect positively or negatively

128 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

Topic: New antivirus software (comments: 6)

Hong, McCarson, and Steinway, LLC

Topic: Importing HMS logo into memos, letters, etc. (comments: 7)

Topic: Using the new binding machines 2/8/16, 10:43 a.m. (mschwartz): Hi, this is Maxine in IT. Congratulations to those of you who have completed our training workshops on the new binding equipment, and I look forward to working with individuals in the marketing and legal departments, who are scheduled for a session next week.

Overall, I think the sessions have gone well. However, a number of questions have come up about the new binding machines, and so I thought the best thing to do would be to post the most frequently asked ones here, with answers:

1. Why are the binding machines located only on the 6th floor? We're just waiting for three additional machines to arrive from the supplier within the next two weeks. We will put two of the new machines in the 5th floor copy room (5-204) for legal services and one in the 3rd floor copy room (3-122) for marketing and facilities.

2. Where are the supplies for the binding machines located? You can find the supplies in each of three copy rooms. IT apologizes about the shelf locations not being more clearly labeled. We fixed that problem. Thanks for letting us know about it. Also, to help our employees, IT has emailed all employees a detailed sheet for supplies and procedures for the new machines.

3. Why can't I get the laminated insert pages to line up properly? Here's a tip to help you: Make sure that the rounded edges of the inserts are facing out and that the squared edges are lined up with the inside edges of the paper.

4. How do I avoid damaging legal documents when using the machines? To be on the safe side, insert a few pages of scrap paper into the machine and do a test bind before inserting original documents. You’ll then be sure that the machine is aligned properly.

I hope these answers help everyone out. If you have further comments or questions, please email or call me at Extension 304. (comments: 14)

Topic: What is the company policy on maternity/paternity leaves? (comments: 7)

Topic: Prezi presentations — is there a specialist in-house to help? (comments: 3)

Blog topics clearly differentiated

Uses clear and concise title

Chooses an informal yet professional tone

Keeps the blog post brief and chunks text

Lets readers know IT is responsive to their needs

Tone is conversational but professional

Offers practical help for employees

Invites further responses

“Comments“ link allows for further discussion

Acknowledge responses to blog

Figure 4.5 An Internal Blog

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Blogs 129

on your employer. Finally, don’t let internal blogging take up so much of your time that you neglect your other duties.

External Blogs External, or business, blogs are essential marketing and public relations tools in the world of e-commerce. They allow a company to share information about its brand, mission, achievements, and activities, as in Figures 4.6 (pages 130–131) and 4.7 (pages 134–135). They also allow companies to express their side of the story—their interpretation of events and their clarification of the issues—quickly and publicly. A carefully designed and persuasively written business blog can announce and sell new products, services, or technology; share information about employee accomplishments; and describe the company’s contributions to the community or the environment, as in Figure 4.6. It can provide updates about corporate changes in personnel, locations, benefits, and so on. Moreover, a business blog can be used to announce and respond to consumer/community concerns, such as environmental problems, product recalls, or the discontinuation of a service, brand, or model, as shown in Figure 4.7.

Guidelines for Writing Business Blogs To post a successful blog, follow all the guidelines for writing a business email. Always be ethical and honest, and document what you say. Also, your writing cannot be sloppy or careless; you have to use proper spelling and punctuation. Be diplomatic, whether you are writing to co-workers, as Maxine Schwartz does in Figure 4.5, or customers, as the blogs in Figures 4.6 and 4.7 do. Avoid sounding curt, condescending, or arrogant. Keep in mind, too, that an external blog is your employer’s official, and many times daily, publication, as we see in Figure 4.6. Your employer may require you to get your post approved by a blog administrator to make sure it meets your company’s expectations. The guidelines that follow will also help you to write appropriate business blog posts.

Use the Right Tone to Attract Readers Essential to any business blog’s success is getting information from readers—their views, concerns, and feedback. Whether you are a manager or an employee, your business blog needs to reveal the personal side of your company and its brand. Your blog needs to sound sincere and friendly, welcoming readers to your site. As we saw, every blogger’s goal is to attract visitors to his or her site and to keep them coming back to read more. Using the interactive features of a blog, you can make it easy for readers to contact you. A friendly and inviting tone will let readers know you want to hear their views and will take them into account. In subsequent posts, you can address their views and concerns, as Clay Denton-Tyler does in Figure 4.7.

Follow Company Protocol

●● Project your company’s best image. Keep your company’s history, mission, brand, and reputation in mind when you prepare your blog. Be enthusiastic about its products, services, workforce, company mission, and commitment to the envi- ronment. Do not make your company look bad by undermining management or criticizing a vendor or a competitor. And never attack a boss or co-worker.

130 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

by Carrie Brownstein, January 4th, 2011 I Permalink I Email this

Unlike conventional grocers who may source tilapia from any old place as long as

the price is right, Whole Foods Market sources all seafood, including tilapia,

according to our Quality Standards. In the case of tilapia, we source from just three

supplier partners, all of whom have passed a third-party audit to ensure that they

meet our rigorous quality standards.

Our primary supplier partner, Tropical Aquaculture Inc., brings us tilapia from Santa

Priscila, located in beautiful Ecuador. Santa Priscila practices polyculture by raising

shrimp and tilapia together in the same ponds. This helps reduce waste and water

pollution, as tilapia consume feed that the shrimp leave behind and help get rid of

organic matter that otherwise could end up in the environment. The farm also recirculates its water, which

further helps to protect water quality surrounding the farm.

And you’ll be glad to know that our Quality Standards for Aquaculture prohibit the common industry

practice of using the hormone methyl testosterone to reverse the sex of tilapia. Conventional tilapia

producers prefer to raise only male �sh so that the �sh put their energy into growth rather than reproduction

and grow to a larger, more marketable size. Our farmer partners, however, grow �sh the old fashioned way:

they let the �sh reproduce naturally. Then they separate the males and females by hand and raise them in

separate ponds.

And as always, Whole Foods Market prohibits slaughterhouse by-products from avian or mammalian

species in feed. Fortunately, tilapia are naturally omnivorous �sh that don't require a lot of �shmeal in their

feed, which helps our tilapia suppliers meet our goal of reducing pressure on wild populations of �sh that

are used to produce animal feed, but are also important species in marine food webs. In fact, Santa

Priscila’s feed (as well as other supplier partners’ feed), uses trimmings from other �sh species processed

for seafood, which also reduces wastes.

We launched our Quality Standards for Aquaculture in 2008 and they still remain the toughest quality

standards for farmed seafood in the industry. Fish farmers who want to partner with us must complete a

lengthy application detailing all of their farming practices. And it’s more than just words; third-party auditors

verify that the farm is meeting our standards before any of their �sh makes its way to our stores. Not only

that, but suppliers must continue to pass annual inspections for as long as they partner with us.

So, how do you know you’re purchasing farmed seafood that meets Whole Foods Market’s

strict standards? Look for our aquaculture logo — Responsibly Farmed — at Whole Foods

Market stores. That symbol means that the �sh has been third-party veri�ed to meet our

standards.

Courtesy of Whole Foods Market. “Whole Foods Market” is a registered trademark of Whole Foods Market IP, L.P.

Figure 4.6 An External Blog on Choosing an Eco-Friendly Product

Attention- grabbing headline

Convinces readers right away about the safety of the product

Provides essential jargon-free background information for readers

Addresses the reader directly but sincerely; uses a friendly conversational tone

Documents the rigorous standards consumers expect from Whole Foods

Provides hyperlink for easy reference

Includes logo within blog to show consumers exactly what to look for when purchasing ecofriendly tilapia

Blogs 131

Whole Foods Market photos on Flickr

Whole Foods Market on Facebook

Whole Foods Market updates on Twitter

CATEGORIES

Back to School (23)

Best Meal of the Week (15)

Cheese (27)

Community – Local and Global (20)

Farm to Market (67)

South (2)

Field Reports (20)

Floral (20)

Food & Recipes (357)

Food Issues (45)

Food Podcasts (68)

Food Safety (11)

Grass-fed Beef (12)

Green Action (115)

Grocery (30)

ON THE WEB VIDEOS & PODCASTS

Audio podcast all about natural body care and

supplements.

View our growing library of video content.

8 Responses to “Get to Know Your Tilapia”

Tricia: I just purchased some tilapia at WFM last night

speci�cally for this reason. I don’t shop at WFM for

everything, but I think it’s important to purchase items

in industries that can be unsafe. The �sh was

reasonably priced and tasted great!

January 4th, 2011 at 3:55 pm

dining room table: I have heard of this �sh before and

they told me that this is really something so delicious.

January 5th, 2011 at 7:02 am

Lynda Reynolds: Tilapia are a freshwater �sh, not

seafood. And how did the prison system in Colorado

go about getting a contract with Whole Foods to sell?

. . . is this something I can start in California or do we

already have the same program?

January 5th, 2011 at 1:36 pm

Sharon Miracle: I commend you for taking these steps

to protect the aquaculture, and for helping protect us

humans from ingesting more unnecessary hormones

which may have negative consequences on our bodies

over time.

January 5th, 2011 at 3:06 pm

Kat: Thank you for this info about tilapia. I just starting

eating it but I did not know that hormones are added to

it by certain suppliers.

January 5th, 2011 at 5:34 pm

Ellie: Most tilapia is grown in such conditions that it is

gross, if not unhealthy, to eat. It is wonderful to hear

yours is worth eating. Thanks!

January 5th, 2011 at 9:30 pm

Ryan: But what are they fed? Most tilapia are fed corn,

resulting in an extremely high omega 6 to omega 3

ratio.

January 8th, 2011 at 10:30 pm

Bev Baker: Just checking to ensure that the tilapia are

not fed GMO corn???

January 10th, 2011 at 8:44 pm

Courtesy of Whole Foods Market. “Whole Foods Market” is a registered trademark of Whole Foods Market IP, L.P.

Figure 4.6 (Continued)

Blog posts always provide links to the company’s other social media sites

Comments from customers on the blog post will help the author refine future postings and alert the company to possible new trends/ issues that are important to its clientele

Questions posed in the comments section provide a further way the company can interact with its customer base (through future posts or with responses to direct questions)

132 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

●● Respect your employer’s confidentiality. Guard your company’s trade secrets. Do not blog about anything that might reveal confidential, restricted, or otherwise off-limits information. Topics to stay away from include any ongoing research and development of products and services, sales and mar- keting plans, financial matters including stocks, and personnel matters.

●● Avoid making your company liable for false or misleading information. Don’t make promises, offer guarantees, or provide additional warranties un- less they have been approved by upper management. Be careful about using the pronoun we, which implies you are speaking for your employer.

●● Be professional. Avoid posting stories and pictures unrelated to your work on the company’s blog. Don’t comment on company policies or make politi- cal comments, all of which may be grounds for dismissal.

Target Your Audience

●● Know what your audience cares about. Track the number of page views for each blog post (as well as the number of overall visitors your blog gets on a weekly or monthly basis). Make sure your comments are relevant to their questions and needs. Be aware of their attitudes, likes, and dislikes. Read re- plies to previous blog posts, be open to suggestions, and acknowledge read- ers’ insights. Tell readers how and why your blog will help them.

●● Write an attention-grabbing headline. Attract readers with a title that tells them how and why they can profit from reading your blog, and encourage them to respond to your post; for example, “Getting to Know Your Tilapia” in Figure 4.6 and “A Power Tool Even Better Than the PH-450?” in Figure 4.7. Avoid vague, boring headlines, such as “Important News,” “Something You Need to Know,” and “Any Further Ideas?”

●● Determine if your blog will attract an international audience as well as native English speakers (see “Communicating with Global Audiences,” page 6). To accommodate global readers, avoid jargon and unclear abbreviations.

●● Date every blog post so readers can follow a conversation. Update your blog to make sure the information you give readers is current and accurate.

●● Make it easy for readers to respond to your post. Welcome feedback. Con- sider your blog a place where you want to listen to readers’ comments. Tell them where and how to reply. Like the blog in Figure 4.7, refer to customer posts to show how concerned you and your company are about readers’ opinions.

Make Your Blog Persuasive

●● Structure your blog so that your first paragraph comes to the point at once and tells readers what you are blogging about and why. For exam- ple, in Figure 4.6, Carrie Brownstein reassures readers that Whole Foods still faithfully follows its tough quality standards for aquaculture. In Figure 4.7, Clay Denton-Tyler clearly states he has information on “why the PH-450 will not be available,” a question his audience is eager to see him answer.

●● Provide firsthand information that shows readers you are knowledgeable and sincere. Observe how, in Figure 4.7, Denton-Tyler expresses his views

Blogs 133

as an owner of the popular, but discontinued, PH-450 without in any way compromising his company’s position or decision.

●● Highlight any new, improved, or special features. Note how Denton-Tyler points to the benefits the new power tool offers customers. See how his blog post gives his readers an incentive to buy the new model.

●● Use facts and statistics to develop your message or point of view. Honest numbers sell products and services. Include units sold, costs, and so on. Note how Denton-Tyler wisely cites a lower price to promote the new model SHP-1000 in Figure 4.7.

Write Concisely and Sincerely

●● Keep your posts short and easy to read. Your blog needs to be simple and practical. Most blogs are no more than a few paragraphs. Don’t turn yours into a report or a compilation of technical data.

●● Adopt a casual, conversational style. Be personable and friendly. Sound au- thentic and upbeat. Emphasize your interest in your readers. Don’t weigh them down with long, windy paragraphs that can bore or confuse your audience.

Document Your Sources, Including Visuals

●● If you use someone else’s statistics, surveys, illustrations, or ideas, get per- mission first from the individual or the company that owns the copyright.

●● Quote accurately, but do not include an extended quote without obtaining permission.

●● Include relevant documentation (and permission) if you use a visual you or your company did not create.

Writing a Blog to Keep Customer Goodwill

Clay Denton-Tyler is an assistant sales manager for PowerHouse Inc., a company that sells a large line of power tools. The company recently decided to discontinue one of its most popular mod- els, the PH-450, which had enjoyed wide brand recognition and high consumer ratings. Custom- ers had been blogging PowerHouse to complain about the company’s decision, and Denton-Tyler faced the difficult challenge of responding to customer posts. His blog in Figure 4.7 does that.

To respond successfully, he had to consider his audience’s needs, as voiced in their posts to the PowerHouse blog. Because his readers were loyal customers, he did not want to lose their business and goodwill. But he had to acknowledge that they were understandably disap- pointed that a well-received product was being taken off the market. He also had to be cred- ible, honest, and diplomatic in addressing their needs and expressing his company’s continuing gratitude to its customers. He also had to convince them that the replacement model Power- House was offering was better and cheaper than the discontinued PH-450.

But in the interactive world of blogging, he recognized that he was also writing to potential cus- tomers, and he realized that his post would be a part of an ongoing public discussion about the new model and his company. He wanted to answer as many questions as he could while keeping the con- versation going—all in a positive direction—and, ideally, attracting new customers around the globe.

Case study

(Continued)

Search engine and navigation links help readers find information

Additional links aid site navigation

Provides a clear and concise title and date

Writes to a general audience and avoids jargon

Thanks customers for feedback

Uses a conversational but professional tone

Acknowledges customers’ disappointment

Attempts to persuade customer to switch to a new model

St o

ck P

h o

to .c

o m

/ P

ri ll

M ed

ie nd

es ig

n &

ot og

ra fi

Figure 4.7 An External Blog

134 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

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Figure 4.7 (Continued)

Describes benefits of new model and why it is being marketed

Sympathizes with readers but offers personal endorsement characteristic of bloggers at same time

Link allows for further discussion

Tone is sincere and friendly

messagIng Messaging is a real-time conversation that can take place either online over a com- puter network or through a wireless network on a tablet or mobile device. Mes- saging in the workplace can involve either a networked messaging system or text messaging (and, often, both); what follows are important considerations when you are called upon to write in either medium.

Messages Think of messages (or, as they are sometimes still called, instant messages) as some- where between a phone call and an email, or a chat with a colleague in the hallway of your office. Message conversations are almost as instantaneous as phone conver- sations, but at the same time they provide written records of communications just as emails do. Keep in mind, though, that messages are not just used for communication with your friends; they are also a important part of workplace e-correspondence. In fact, researchers estimate that 90 percent of all businesses have used or will use messaging systems for routine workplace correspondence. Figure 4.8 (page 136) is an example of a professional workplace messaging conversation.

Messaging 135

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136 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

Exchanges through messaging reflect the way people in the world of work connect and communicate with one another. Messages allow you to communicate with one or several co-workers and managers in the same office, at remote sites, or around the globe, all using the same system. Crossing time zones, messages give you access to anyone around the world who is online and connected to the same service.

When to Use Messages Versus Emails Like emails, messages promote collaboration, provide a written record, and fur- ther global communication. But they are used for very different kinds of messages. Emails are more detailed than messages. By answering the following questions, you will be better able to determine when to send a message or an email:

JuanB 9:15 AM So am I; let’s talk.

DanielleS 10:01 AM I just emailed my revision--OK or not?

JuanB 10:19 AM Looks good, but not enough detail on the cost of implementation.

DanielleS 10:24 AM I’ll take another stab at it later today.

JuanB 10:31 AM FYI, I’ll fax you a copy of a similar short report so you have an idea of what they’re looking for.

DanielleS 10:34 AM Got it!

JuanB 10:49 AM Let’s confer after you’ve had a chance to read it over.

DanielleS 1:10 PM I’ve just read the report. Do you have the latest figures on the expected implementation costs? Mine are from last quarter.

JuanB 1:18 PM I don’t have them either, but let me call Florence Ng; she should have them.

DanielleS 1:36 PM Got the cost figures, thanks. Great! They’re just what we need.

JuanB 1:25 PM Florence said she’d send you the latest cost figures in an email.

DanielleS 9:14 AM I’m working on the second draft of the environmental impact report today.

IM user names are informal but appropriate

Messages are kept to 1–2 lines each

Message exchange sticks to a single topic

Clear language avoids “text speak”

Time stamp accompanies each message

Style is informal but polite

Writer lets co-worker know there will be a delay in responding so he can obtain the information

Writer confirms the necessary information has been received, signaling the end of the exchange

Figure 4.8 A Message Exchange Between Co-workers

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Messaging 137

1. How quickly does my message need to be answered? If you need informa- tion right away, use a message rather than an email because recipients will most likely reply at once if they are online.

2. How long or complex is my message? If you need to transmit a message that is, say, more than a line or two or that contains multiple points, send an email. But you can also use a message to send attachments for immediate discussion.

3. If your message requires more time than a few brief back-and-forth communi- cations, start an email exchange that can extend over several hours or days.

Guidelines for Using Messages in the Workplace Messages may be instantaneous and informal, but that does not mean that you can send them with little thought about their content, tone, and punctuation. Again, keep in mind that your company can monitor, trace, record, and archive your mes- sage conversations just as it can with emails. In addition to the guidelines for writ- ing workplace emails (pages 120–124), observe these rules for your messages:

1. Stay connected. Always indicate your status—“Away,” “Busy,” “Offline.” “Please email me at [email protected].” If you are away, tell individuals on your contact list when you will be back or give them alternate contact informa- tion, as in the preceding example.

2. Always ask if the other person is available for messaging. He or she may be in a meeting, on the road, etc. Don’t keep sending messages if you haven’t re- ceived a response. It is discourteous to have your query keep popping up on the reader’s screen. If the person is busy, inquire about a better time to chat.

3. Keep your message short. Get to the point right away. A sentence, or two at most, is enough for your message. Ask your question and then wait for a reply. Don’t inject unnecessary pleasantries; for example, “How was your weekend?”

4. Write about one topic at a time. Don’t include information about two or three different subjects in one message exchange. Keep the conversation flowing in one direction, not three.

5. Avoid textspeak. That may be acceptable in your personal texting, but avoid acronyms and abbreviations such as “CUL8R” for “See you later” or “B4” for “before,” especially when writing to an international reader who may not un- derstand them. Moreover, your boss might not appreciate a textspeak IM such as “np gtg ttyl” for “No problem. Got to go. Talk to you later.”

6. Be professional. Make sure the style and tone of your message are polite and business-like. Your boss will expect you to be courteous to co-workers as well as management and customers.

7. Choose an appropriate screen name, not “Go-Getter Pete” or “PartyAnimal.” Select one that is professional and reflects your job title and responsibilities.

8. Use correct spelling and punctuation. Just because IMs are streamlined, don’t assume you can use slang, misspell words, or forget about punctuation.

9. Don’t bombard co-workers or your boss with messages. Send them only for brief, necessary work-related communications.

138 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

10. Organize your contact lists into separate groups, such as clients, co-workers, friends/family, and so on, so you do not embarrassingly send someone the wrong message.

text Messages Texting is the most casual, and among the shortest, form of business communica- tion. Even so, text messaging plays an important role in the world of work:

●● It is a quick and quiet way to send and receive information. ●● It keeps employees who travel or telecommute in the loop. ●● Used ethically, texting can be a valuable marketing tool, informing estab-

lished clients about new services, product upgrades, etc. ●● A text can be crucial for safety alerts and/or maintenance reminders.

Because individuals carry their mobile devices with them, texting makes it easier to reach a co-worker or client than emailing or even calling them. Because emails can be forwarded to your smartphone, you do not need a laptop or tablet to wait to use a PC to read and respond to them. Texting programs also make it possible to share multiple files, photos, videos, and graphics. A number of mobile apps will also help you to search, retrieve, send, and post information, and several (such as GroupMe) allow you to easily send a text to all the individuals in your office (for example, notifying staff that an employee will be out sick for two to three days or that the date of a meeting has been changed).

But the text messages you send from a company smartphone are very different from those that you write to a friend or family member. As with business emails and IMs, your texts must be ethical and legal (see “E-Communications Are Legal Records,” pages 117–118). Again, pay close attention to tone, context, and spelling and always remember that what you write needs to reflect positively on you and your employer (see Figure 4.9).

Guidelines for Texting While the guidelines for sending a text message and networked messaging (see “Guidelines for Using Messages in the Workplace,” pages 137–138) are similar, here are a few especially relevant to texting:

1. Never text while driving a car or operating machinery. In many states texting while driving is illegal.

2. Put your mobile phone on vibrate to avoid disturbing co-workers or clients. 3. Never text when you are at a business meeting or a class or when talking to a

client, co-worker, or manager. It is unprofessional and discourteous. 4. Send texts only when they convey company business; never use them for per-

sonal conversations. 5. Avoid textspeak, which often disregards proper spelling and punctuation. 6. Make sure any photos/videos you send are ethical and relevant to your job. 7. Textual harassment (for example, sending or forwarding sexual images or jokes;

bullying a fellow employee) is grounds for being fired and maybe even pros- ecution. Again, don’t put something in a text you would not put in an email or say in a business call.

Writing for Social Media in the Workplace 139

Figure 4.9 An Example of a Text Message Exchange Between Ali and Thomas, Two Public Works Employees

wrItIng FOr sOCIal meDIa In the wOrkPlaCe Your employer will expect you to represent your company professionally on a variety of social media sites reaching audiences worldwide. These social media can be accessed through websites or mobile apps. In 2015, over 2 billion individuals used social media. As of this writing, Facebook (the world’s largest marketing social

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140 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

media site) claimed 864 million daily fans. Twitter, Pinterest, Instagram, and Tumblr together had over 347 million active accounts. With a global audience this massive, large and small companies alike can create their own pages, posts, and pins to reach current and potential customers. Monitoring and responding quickly to your com- pany’s target audience on social media generates better customer interaction and drives sales.

As with your business email (see “Business Email Versus Personal Email,” pages 119–120), you will be expected to project a positive and professional image of your company. You cannot post messages about your company on social media the same way you use social media for your personal use to communicate with friends and family. You need to recognize how the corporate world regards social media as a networking and marketing tool, and not as a way to exchange personal views. There is a big difference between expressing your own opinions on social media and representing your company’s brand. You have to choose your words carefully before posting company information and responses to the public. Again, keep in mind your posts represent your employer.

how Social Media helps Business Having a presence on Facebook, Pinterest, Instagram, Twitter, Flickr, YouTube, or other social media is mandatory in today’s global economy. As we saw, almost ev- ery business has a presence on a variety of social media that can be used in conjunc- tion with each other. In fact, Facebook and Pinterest currently generate the most traffic as marketing tools drawing people to a website. Here are some ways social media can help a business:

●● Provides current information about a company’s brand, its products, and ser- vices to both present and potential customers. Pep Boys, on its Facebook “About” page (see Figure 4.10) explains the company’s position on integ- rity and ethics and also its corporate mission to both customers and the environment.

●● Builds customer loyalty and encourages feedback and interaction. Note how Pep Boys provides its “Community Guidelines” in Figure 4.10, explaining what kinds of comments and language will not be tolerated on their Face- book page.

●● Boosts sales and knowledge of your brand. ●● Answers customer questions and resolves complaints to counter negative

images. ●● Furnishes corporate news—what’s going on in your company that affects

visitors, marketing plans, and new products. ●● Shares information with and/or about other companies (e.g., repinning, pro-

viding links, etc.) and thus increases your exposure to a target audience and enhances networking.

Technology changes rapidly. It is impossible to predict what new forms of social media may develop in the future, but no matter what online media are created, the following guidelines in this section will always apply.

Writing for Social Media in the Workplace 141

Figure 4.10 A Company’s Description of Its Values and Mission on Social Media

Source: Pep Boys

142 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

Staying Connected on Social Media Sites Above all, social media is interactive; it’s about building and sustaining relation- ships. Think of your posts, tweets, and pins as part of an ongoing conversation with customers who want information about your products but who also want to share information with you about their experiences—both good and bad. Your goal is to keep the conversation about, and interest in, your company strong through a global dialogue with potentially millions of readers.

To let fans and potential customers know you are available and eager to share information with them, follow these guidelines:

●● Make it easy for fans to connect with and follow your company’s platforms. Embed links to all the social media sites your company has. Link your Face- book page to your Twitter feed and your Pinterest, Flickr, and Instagram pages as well. And link everything to your company website. (Note how Pep Boys in Figure 4.10 provides links to its corporate website as well as its Twitter and YouTube sites on its Facebook page.) But do not simply repeat the same posts across various media; fans have different loyalties and expectations for each of the social media they use.

●● Include social media logos on brochures, letterheads, company websites, and blogs alerting customers where they can find out about you, your products, and services, etc. Let fans know about the different ways they can learn about your brands. For example, you can insert a hover pin on your Pinterest board linked to websites, blogs, videos, and so on.

●● Insert your URL in your posts and tweets to make getting in touch with you easier and accessing your company quicker. Notice how Amazon includes a link in the Facebook post in Figure 4.11 so its followers can easily find the page where they can share their favorite road trip read.

●● Drive traffic to your site with attention grabbing titles—“The Top Ten Work Sites for Women in Technology”; “Understanding How New Pain Sensitive Protein Can Lead to Better Pain Meds.”

●● Motivate customers to visit your sites by sharing valuable tips and other practical, money-saving information with them.

●● Strive to keep a conversation going by asking fans for input, and always thank readers for their feedback through posts, pins, FAQs, and surveys (see “Guidelines for Writing Business Blogs,” pages 129–133). In Figure 4.11, Amazon encourages Kindle users to share feedback either via their corporate website, a hashtag that could be used on Twitter, or a comment left on their Facebook post.

●● Track followers and use analytics across all your social media platforms to find out where your message is being most widely read and successfully received.

●● Do not overload your page/post with keywords. Although they can help customers find your product or service, stuffing your posts or tweets with keywords will actually thwart the reception of your message. Search engines like Google will not list sites that overuse keywords.

●● Keep track of your competitors’ posts and pages to see what their custom- ers like, share, tweet, and review to see what your competitors are doing to

Writing for Social Media in the Workplace 143

Figure 4.11 A Model Post on Facebook

win customers or to turn them off. That way, you gather valuable marketing intelligence for your employer (see “Characteristics of Effective Workplace Research,” page 305).

Know Your Customers and What they Like ●● Keep track of visitors to your site(s). Facebook, for instance, provides help to

tell you the age, gender, location, educational level, etc., of those who come to your site. With Facebook and other sites, you can monitor visitors’ “likes,” retweets, repins. Visiting these sites allows you to determine your company’s strengths, shortcomings, and trends.

●● Promise readers a reward for visiting your site. The most successful social media sites offer readers something they can get only online—giveaways, contests, prizes, discount sales, previews, exclusive promotions, infographics, etc.

●● Ask for readers’ favorite image, story, product, and so forth to give them a strong sense of having participated in your marketing plan to better serve them. Encouraging Kindle users to share their favorite road trip read (Figure 4.11) helps foster a shared sense of community among Amazon’s cus- tomer base.

Source: Amazon Kindle

144 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

Choose Your Content Carefully ●● Make sure your company’s posts are current. Post new content on a regular

basis, which may be twice a day or four or five times a week. But be careful that you do not overwhelm readers. Post news only when it is new or impor- tant for your target audience.

●● Exclude your views about religion, politics, sports, or the latest movie or popular song. Save those posts for your personal social media sites.

●● Write ethically (see “Legal/Ethical Guidelines to Follow in Writing E-Communications,” pages 117–118). If you post unethical, erroneous, or indiscreet information or images, you could be jeopardizing your employer by causing a public relations catastrophe, and that could cost you your job.

●● Be careful about using humor; it could be seen as offensive or misunderstood. ●● Keep your sites personable; do not turn them into hard sell messages. Steven

D. Strauss, the author of The Small Business Bible, advises wisely, “Eighty percent of your tweets or posts should be about your customers. The other twenty percent can be about your business—but make sure it is worthwhile content your customers will want to share.” Even if your employer asks you to have an identity on, say, Twitter or Facebook, so customers get to know you, you have to walk a fine line between being too personal and chatty and representing your company. Note how the blog entry on power tools (see Figure 4.7, pages 134–135) translates the writer’s experience with the product into a professional setting without injecting a lot of personal information.

●● Watch out for clutter. You cannot say everything you want to about your company on a social media site. Keep in mind that Twitter has a 140 character limit; Facebook, too, has limits for both companies and individuals. You have only 200 words on Pinterest. Make them count. Include essential informa- tion about your business—location, contact details, the way you help cus- tomers, testimonials.

●● Adapt your message to a particular site. Different sites emphasize differ- ent communication strategies (e.g., Facebook is a blend of weblogs and messaging).

Style ●● Keep posts short. Remember that first impressions online are made in

3–5 seconds; many social media posts are now usually not much longer than a tweet (140 characters). An audience will read your post on a social media site quickly and move on if you do not grab their attention quickly. Notice how the Facebook post in Figure 4.11 is only 126 characters, well under the limit for a tweet.

●● Write concise, simple, and informative sentences. Strive for between 100–125 characters in your tweets; some experts recommend keeping a tweet under 90. Keep in mind that Twitter is a “microblog.” Note how Facebook empha- sizes text but keeps it consumer-friendly and easy to read. Recognize that by being brief and to the point, you win points with your readers.

Writing for Social Media in the Workplace 145

●● Be sure your posts are grammatically flawless and that they do not contain spelling or punctuation errors. Such embarrassing mistakes can be shared around the globe in a matter of seconds.

●● Avoid textspeak (see “Guidelines for Using Messages in the Workplace,” pages 137–138). Instead, write clear, easy-to-understand sentences in interna- tional English (see “Using International English,” pages 10–11).

●● Do not insert excessive hashtags, which makes your post look unprofessional. ●● Make sure your tone is friendly, engaging, and shows your readiness for a

profitable and pleasurable conversation with customers, or prospective ones, worldwide. Note the even tone and professional responses of Nation Air- lines to an irate customer in Figure 4.12 (page 146).

how to respond to Criticism ●● Don’t ignore complaints; respond to them promptly. But make sure you

are professional and calm. Don’t post anything in anger, and keep your re- ply simple and to the point. Be courteous, and thank followers for their posts, comment, or question. Nothing infuriates a customer more than feel- ing his/her complaints are not being taken seriously. The opening tweet in Figure 4.12 by Adam Kinney starts out as overwhelmingly negative (even including a derogatory hashtag aimed at Nation Airlines), but the airline is quick to respond to the criticism and to help the process of satisfying the customer.

●● When many customers express a similar complaint about your company, you must respond to each individually (as Nation Airlines does in Figure 4.12). In addition to personalized responses, a strategic Facebook post about a wide- spread complaint can ensure that your larger customer base is aware of your company’s commitment to addressing the issue.

●● Track user review sites such as Yelp, TripAdvisor, and Angie’s List and re- spond to any negative reviews with sensitivity and diplomacy. Suggest that the customer contact you directly (through private email or a phone call) to discuss the issues. You do not want to encourage a negative back-and-forth on a social media site where potentially millions of customers can see and/ or hear it. Be careful not to violate company policy by giving out personal names, email addresses, or phone numbers. Keep in mind that it may take several follow-up emails or phone calls to resolve the problem.

●● Don’t be afraid to admit a mistake. Again, your goal is to build customer trust and faith in you and your company.

Visuals Visuals are essential to success by enhancing a company’s appeal on social media. They are eye-catching and reinforce the message that you want customers to take away about your brand. Note how the photo in Figure 4.11 reinforces the language of the post by incorporating both relaxation (the reclined pose of the person hold- ing the Kindle) and a sense of being “on the road” (because the subject is located in

146 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

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Figure 4.12 Responding to Criticism on Social Media

Photo by Jason Stitt/Shutterstock.com

Conclusion 147

a car). Facebook posts containing images are the most often shared, with an 87 per- cent interaction rate. Tweets that feature an image are retweeted 35 percent more often than those that use text alone. Instagram and Pinterest are photoimage sites with a minimum amount of text. But by clicking on an image, a Pinterest fan can gain access to videos, statistics, your resume, a report.

Regardless of the site, follow these guidelines about including visuals.

●● Make sure your images or videos are relevant. Connect them to your mes- sage and brand. They need to tell a story about your product or service and how they relate to one another. Visuals should emphasize a major or con- tinuing theme and/or corporate image; note how the Kindle is located in the middle of the frame of the photo shown in Figure 4.11.

●● Be sure they are properly sized, clear, and have enough resolution to look professional on a screen. A fuzzy picture says your company does poor work.

●● Give each image, or pin, a title. ●● Do not keep using the same image with each post. Vary your image to arouse

online interest. ●● Never steal images from other websites or post them on your own social

media sites. This is a violation of the owner’s copyright and could get your company into legal trouble. Instead, use images that are in the public domain (i.e., those not subject to copyright protection), from websites (such as creativecommons.org) where images are free provided you give proper credit, or from an online stock agency such as shutterstock.com.

●● Be careful when you take an image for your employer with your phone or tablet. Make sure you get your boss’s approval and that the photos are clear, relevant, and not offensive.

COnClusIOn E-communications—emails, blogs, instant and text messages, and social media posts—are a routine yet important part of every employee’s job. These basic types of business communication keep crucial information flowing among co-workers, management, vendors, and others, so that a company can meet its day-to-day obli- gations. In addition, the information contained in these short messages often helps you to write longer documents.

By following the guidelines in this chapter, you will be better able to write clear, concise, and ethical e-communications for your audience. Your annual evaluations may in part depend on how well you research, draft, revise, and how promptly you send and respond to e-communications.

148 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

●■ Understood the reader’s need and the information that had to be transferred, and determined which e-communication to use.

●■ Distinguished the various types of e-communications and how they relate to one another.

Email ●■ Did not send unsolicited or confidential email. ●■ Sent to reader’s correct address. ●■ Formatted email with acceptable margins and spacing. ●■ Observed netiquette; avoided flaming. ●■ Wrote a separate message rather than returning sender’s message with a short reply. ●■ Kept paragraphs short but used full—not telegraphic—sentences. ●■ Avoided unfamiliar abbreviations or terms that would confuse a reader. ●■ Received permission to repeat or incorporate another person’s email. ●■ Observed all legal obligations in using email. ●■ Safeguarded employer’s confidentiality and security by excluding sensitive or

privileged information. ●■ Included enough information and documentation for reader’s purpose. ●■ Honored reader by observing proper courtesy. ●■ Began with friendly greeting; ended politely. ●■ Considered needs of international audience. ●■ Used antivirus program, did not forward or reply to spam.

Blogs ●■ Posted nothing critical of employer or co-workers and nothing embarrassing,

offensive, or confidential. ●■ Made posts conversational and informal, yet professional. ●■ Dated every blog post. ●■ Targeted my audience. ●■ Included attention-grabbing headline. ●■ Posted only current and relevant information. ●■ Provided a place for readers to give feedback.

Messaging ●■ Used messaging only for professional, job-related communications. ●■ Kept messages short—not over a line or two. ●■ Avoided “textspeak” in business messages. ●■ Notified readers when your messaging system was offline and back online. ●■ Did not send anything confidential through a message exchange. ●■ Used text messages only for necessary business communications. ●■ Made sure text was courteous and professional. ●■ Kept text messages short, but used correct spelling and punctuation. ●■ Took advantage of apps to communicate more efficiently on the job.

✓ R E v i S i o n C H E C k l i S T

Exercises 149

Social Media ●■ Posted new content on a regular basis but did not overwhelm followers with an

excessive number of posts. ●■ Projected a positive and professional image of your company or organization and

excluded any personal views on topics such as religion or politics. ●■ Provided current information about your company’s brand, products, and services. ●■ Encouraged feedback and interaction to build customer loyalty and always

thanked readers for their input. ●■ Addressed customer complaints and questions promptly in a professional and

courteous manner. ●■ Cross-linked to your company’s other social media platforms and included

relevant URLs in posts to allow customers direct access to information. ●■ Did not use textspeak or overload posts with keywords and hashtags. ●■ Avoided posting unethical, erroneous, or indiscrete messages or images. ●■ Kept posts as brief as possible while still communicating your company’s message

effectively. ●■ Made sure any images or videos used connected directly to your company’s

message or brand.

E x E R C i S E S

1. Write an email requesting information from one of the following types of businesses. Submit a copy of your email request, along with the response, to your instructor.

a. From an airline: an up-to-date schedule along a certain route and information about any bonus-mile or discount programs

b. From a stock brokerage firm: free quotes or research about a particular stock c. From a resort: special rates for a given week d. From a professional organization to which you belong about any conferences to be

held in your city or state 2. Write an email with one of the following messages, observing the guidelines discussed in

”Guidelines for Using Email on the Job” (pages 120–124).

a. You have just made a big sale, and you want to inform your boss. b. You have just lost a big sale, and you have to inform your boss. c. Inform a co-worker about a union or national sales meeting. d. Notify a company to cancel your subscription to one of its publications because you

find it to be dated and no longer useful in your profession. e. Request help from a listserv about research for a major report you are preparing for

your employer. f. Advise your district manager to discontinue marketing one of the company’s brands

because of low customer acceptance. g. Write to a friend studying finance at a German, Korean, or South American university

about the biggest financial news in your town or neighborhood in the last month.

150 ChaptEr 4 E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

3. Rewrite the following email to your boss to make it more professional.

Hi—

This new territory is a pain. Lots of stops; no sales. Ughhhh. People out here resistant to

change. Could get hit by a boulder and still no change. Giant companies ought to be up

on charges. Will sub. reports asap as long as you care rec.

The long and short of it is that market is down. No news 5 bad news.

4. As a collaborative venture, join with three or four classmates to prepare one or more of the email messages for Exercise 2. Send each other drafts of your messages for revision. Email the final draft to your instructor.

5. Email your instructor about a project you are now working on for class, outlining your progress and describing any difficulties you are having.

6. You have just missed work or a class meeting. Email your employer or your instructor ex- plaining the reason and telling how you intend to make up the work.

7. As a collaborative project, write three or four external blog posts about some aspect of your current job or a previous job. Share with readers news about your com- pany’s products or services, technology you are using, professional travel, community ser- vice, work with international colleagues, and so forth. Be sure that your posts show your company, department, or agency in a good light.

8. Send a short post (200–300 words) to your company’s blog administrator about a recent accomplishment you or your office, department, or section achieved. Include a link to a relevant site for readers to visit for further information.

9. As a group activity, message two or three other members of your collaborative writing team on a project you are working on. Print out your message exchanges during this time, and submit them to your instructor.

10. Revise the following unethical or poorly worded text messages.

a. Y r u not here yet? Mtg starts in 5. b. If u don’t have reprt on my desk by 5 heads will roll!!!! c. U rocked tht mtg thx 4 cing this thru ttyl d. GMAB u need 2 GOWI and meet the client F2F by COB 2moro

11. Contact a larger local business that has a social media coordinator and interview that person about the challenges they face in that role and where they see the role of creating content for social media going in the next few years.

12. Collaborate with classmates to create a fictitious company. Chose the line of business the company engages in and what its business philosophy and ideals are. Then create a fictitious social media presence for the company on three of the social media platforms discussed in this chapter. Follow the guidelines in “Staying Connected on Social Media Sites” (pages 142–143) as well as the tips provided in “Choose Your Content Carefully” (page 144) and “Style” (pages 144–145). Prepare screen shots of the home pages of the final versions to share with other groups and to discuss what improvements you might make.

Exercises 151

13. Imagine that you are introducing a new product line for the company created in Exercise 12. Explain in detail how you would roll out the announcement of and then the unveiling of the product line across three social media platforms so as to maximize customer inter- est and excitement. Then execute your plan and prepare screen shots of the final result in each platform so that other groups can discuss where you might be able to improve on what you’ve done.

14. Select a Fortune 500 company and evaluate their presence on social media platforms. Which of the guidelines in “Staying Connected on Social Media Sites” (pages 142–143) have they followed? Which have they ignored? (And can you assess if there is a philoso- phy behind why they’ve ignored them?)

15. Explore the social media presence of a business that primarily operates in another coun- try and in a language other than English. Compare that company’s mix of words, images, and video to that of a company from the United States that works primarily in English. What different strategies does the non-American company use on their sites, and why might they have chosen to use them? Are there strategies they use that you can imagine incorporating into the U.S.–based company’s social media sites?

16. Find a local business on Yelp that has a few negative reviews. Select one of them and map out what your strategy would be to interact with the dissatisfied customer, includ- ing both your initial contact with the reviewer and a longer follow-up message.

152

Chapter Outline

Letters in the Age of the Internet

Essential Advice on Writing Effective Letters

Different Ways to Send Letters

Letter Formats

Parts of a Letter

The Appearance of Your Letter

Envelopes

Organizing a Standard Business Letter

Making a Good Impression on Your Reader

International Business Correspondence

Sending Professional-Quality Letters: Some Final Advice to Seal Your Success

Writing Letters Some Basics for Communicating with Audiences Worldwide

Letters are among the most important writing you will do on your job. While emails remain the most frequent type of communication in the world of work because they are a quick and easy way to send a message to one person or to many, formal business letters are still prized as a way of communicating. Businesses worldwide take letter writing very seri- ously, and employers will expect you to prepare and respond to your correspondence promptly and diplomatically. Your signature on a letter tells readers that you are accountable for everything in it.

Learning to write effective letters is not some lost art but a skill you need to be successful in the workplace. The higher up the corporate lad- der you climb, the more letters you will be expected to write. Because letter writing is so significant to your career, this chapter introduces you to the entire process and provides guidelines and problem-solving strate- gies. It also shows you how to write for international readers. Chapter 6 will then help you to prepare the most common types of letters you will be expected to write on your job.

essential adviCe On Writing effeCtive letters

To write effective letters, keep in mind the guidelines from Chapter 1 (see “Four Keys to Effective Writing,” pages 11–18). You need to identify and analyze your audience and their needs (whether that audience is one person or many); clearly and quickly establish your purpose in send- ing your letter (see “Organizing a Standard Business Letter,” page 164); formulate your message by including the key facts, recommendations, and details readers need; and select the appropriate style and tone so that your letters are reader-friendly and persuasive (see “Making a Good Impression on Your Reader,” pages 164–168). Of course, your letters

Murat Taner/Flirt/Corbis

C H A P T E R

Letters in the Age of the Internet 153

must follow your company’s protocols, policies, and chain of command and be eth- ical (see “Ethical Writing in the Workplace,” pages 26–37).

letters in the age Of the internet Even in this age of the Internet, letters are vital in the world of work. A professional- looking letter is one of the most significant symbols in the business world for the following reasons:

1. Letters represent your company’s public image and your competence. A firm’s corporate image is on the line when it sends a letter. Its name and logo will appear on the company’s letterhead (see “Letter Formats,” pages 155–157). Care- fully written letters create goodwill and make a positive impression on readers. Poorly written letters can anger customers, cost your company business, and proj- ect an unfavorable image of you.

2. Letters are far more formal—in tone and structure—than other types of business communication. Letters adhere to far more conventions than do e-communications. Emails, messages, texts, tweets, and other social media posts (whether on Facebook or Instagram) are a much less formal way to communicate. A full discussion of the different types of letter formats (pages 155–157) and the parts of a letter (pages 158–162) can be found in this chapter.

3. Letters constitute an official legal record of an agreement. They state, mod- ify, or respond to a business commitment. A signed letter constitutes a legally bind- ing contract (and will often be scanned to create an electronic record). They provide legal evidence where there is a dispute over a business matter. Letters also provide a reference, a stable record for any problems that come up. Be absolutely sure that what you put in a letter about prices, guarantees, warranties, equipment, delivery dates, and/or other issues is accurate. Your readers can hold you and your company accountable for such written commitments.

4. Unlike emails, many businesses require that letters are routed through channels before they are sent out. Because they convey how a company looks and what it offers to customers, letters often need to be approved by your boss and oth- ers in the company. Depending on the content, a company’s legal, finance, human resources, purchasing, planning, or IT departments may need to review and autho- rize a business letter.

5. Letters are more substantial and secure than emails. They are a vital record of a company’s business, and provide a documented hard copy and paper trail that is not as easily deleted as emails. Letters are often logged in, filed, and bear a hand- written, authorized signature.

6. A letter is the official and expected medium through which important hard copy documents and enclosures (contracts, specifications, proposals) are sent to readers. Letters often convey official changes in policy or organization; accompany key materials submitted to outside vendors, partners, or companies; or notify cus- tomers about adjustments to their account.

154 chapter 5 Writing Letters

7. Because readers receive far fewer letters than emails, letters often get higher priority; readers tend to pay more attention to them. A letter commands atten- tion because of its formal elements (see “Parts of a Letter,” pages 158–162). It is a physical, tangible document whereas an email can be missed or confused with spam. All the physical components of a letter—envelope, letterhead/stationery, mailing la- bel, etc.—convey a far different impression than an email.

8. Letters are far more personable than emails or other e-communications. They are addressed to a specific person whose name and address are typed on the envelope. Letters, moreover, show readers that the writer has taken time to send them a personalized message. Unlike an email which might be sent to hundreds of individuals, a letter shows specific customer appreciation.

9. A letter is still the most formal and approved way to conduct important business with many international audiences. These readers see a letter as more polite and honorable than an email for initial contacts and even for subsequent busi- ness communications.

10. A hard copy letter is confidential. Emails are sent over the Internet, which is far less secure than letters, which come sealed in a stamped envelope. Unlike an email, which can be easily opened, copied, deleted, and resent, a letter is more per- manent and more likely to be delivered to only the proper recipient and less likely to be forwarded to unintended readers (as an email might be).

different Ways tO send letters Sending a hard copy letter continues to be the most formal way to communicate with your audience (and is the required way in certain legal situations; see “Letters in the Age of the Internet,” pages 153–154). But it is not the only way; your com- pany may ask you to use one of the following options to send a letter in addition to the hardcopy version you send out:

●● As an attachment to an email. You can create a digital copy of your letter (such as a PDF file), either directly from your word processing program or by scanning your signed copy. Because a PDF file preserves exactly the for- mat and style of your letter, sending it as an attachment is a quick, direct way to announce a change in policy or other corporate news.

●● Through posting on the company’s website or social media platforms. This method is often used for letters that are considered open letters, that is, addressed to a company’s own employees or to their customers. Posting an open letter will usually accompany sending the hardcopy version to intended readers.

●● In the body of an email. This is just as direct as sending a letter as an attach- ment to an email and has the same benefit of timeliness. Sending a letter in the body of an email assures recipients that a computer virus will not be un- loosed when opening an attachment, and most software programs can retain the necessary formatting of a hardcopy letter. It can be used as an additional way of ensuring a message is delivered to a specific individual.

Letter Formats 155

●● By fax. Though far less common now than, say, ten or fifteen years ago, some organizations and businesses still communicate by fax. Sending a letter by fax is both fast and an additional way of ensuring the message is delivered, because it is sent to a recipient’s specific fax number. It also is a useful method to use when sending a cover letter for original documents that cannot to be mailed (and which are being sent via fax).

No matter how you send your letter, you still must follow the guidelines on the format, parts of, and appearance discussed below.

letter fOrmats Letter format refers to the way your letter looks on the page (whether in print on on a screen)—where you indent and where you place certain kinds of information. Several letter formats exist. The most formal, preferred, and frequently used busi- ness letter format in the world of work is the full-block, but you should also be fa- miliar with the modified-block and the semi-block. Format conveys message; know your company’s preference. Above all, no matter what format you use, your letter should not look lopsided, crowded, or spread out.

Full-Block Format In full-block format all information is flush against the left margin, double-spaced between paragraphs. Figure 5.1 (page 156) shows a full-block letter. Many employ- ers prefer this format when your letter is on letterhead stationery (specially printed paper giving a company’s name and logo; business, web, and social media addresses; phone and fax numbers; and sometimes the names of its executives).

Modified-Block Format In modified-block format (see Figure 5.2 on page 157), the writer’s address (if it is not imprinted on a letterhead), the date, the complimentary close, and the signature are positioned at the center point and then keyed toward the right side of the letter. The date aligns with the complimentary close. The inside address, the salutation, and the body of the letter are flush against the left margin. Though used less fre- quently than the full-block format, the modified-block is a format an employer may ask you to utilize.

Semi-Block Format The semi-block format (see Figure 6.1, page 190) looks just like the modified-block format in terms of aligning the date line with the complimentary close, signature, and any enclosures at the center point of the letter. But the paragraphs in the semi- block format are always indented five to seven spaces. Though, again, not as fre- quently used as the full-block format, the semi-block format is a template you may be called upon to use in the world of work.

156 chapter 5 Writing Letters

April 7, 2016

www.facebook.com/nira/

Ms. Molly Georgopolous, C.P.A. Business Manager Meyers, Inc. 3400 South Madison Road Reno, NV 89554-3212

Dear Ms. Georgopolous:

As I promised in our telephone conversation earlier this afternoon, I am enclosing a study of the Nevada �nancial responsibility law. I hope that it will help you prepare your report.

Let me emphasize again that probably 95 percent of all individuals who are involved in an accident obtain reimbursement for medical bills and for damages to their automobiles. If individuals have insurance, they can receive reimbursement from their own carrier. If they do not have insurance and the other driver is uninsured and judged to be at fault, the Nevada Bureau of Motor Vehicles revokes that party’s driver’s license until all costs and damages are paid.

Please call me again if I can help you.

Sincerely yours,

Carmen Tredeau, President

Enclosure

2 lines

4 lines

1"–1.25"1"–1.25"

@nira

Figure 5.1 Full-Block Letter Format with Appropriate Margins

Letterhead with company name and logo

All text aligned on the left-hand margin

Uses professional, businesslike font

Text of letter balanced on the page

Generous margins on all sides of the letter

Signature written in black ink and not squeezed in between the complementary close and typed signature

Names of agency’s executives ©

2 01

7 Ce

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Letter Formats 157

Mr. Travis Boykin, Manager Scandia Gifts 703 Hardy St. Hattiesburg, MS 39401-4633

Dear Mr. Boykin:

I am writing to see if you currently stock the Crescent pattern of model 5678 and how much you charge per model number. I would also like to know if you offer special prices for multiple-box orders.

Your store has been highly recommended to me by several colleagues, who have praised your service and the excellent quality of your products.

I look forward to working with you.

Sincerely yours,

Arthur T. McCormack

7239 East Daphne Street Mobile, AL 36608-1012

September 30, 2015

Figure 5.2 Modified-Block Letter Format

Date is indented at center point of letter

Inside address is single-spaced

Complimentary close and writer’s name are indented and aligned under date line

Paragraphs can be indented or not indented

Jorge Vargas 2 April 7, 2016

2 Bo Yates

September 30, 2015

11/4" above the continuing text of the letter

continuing pages Do not number a one-page letter. To indicate subsequent pages if your letter runs be- yond one page, use one of these two conventions. Note the use of the recipient’s name.

01 7

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01 7

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158 chapter 5 Writing Letters

July 14, 2016

Ms. Paula Jordan Systems Consultant Broadacres Development Corp. 12 East River Street Detroit, MI 48001-0422

Dear Ms. Jordan:

Thank you for your letter of July 7, 2016. I have discussed your request with the staff in our planning department and have learned that the design modules we used for our Vestavia project are no longer available.

In searching the Internet, however, I came across some designs from a California �rm that might be helpful to you. California Concepts offers plans very similar to the ones you are interested in, as you can tell from the design featured here: www.californiaconcepts.com/of�cemodule.

I hope this will help you, and I wish you every success in your project.

Sincerely yours,

MADISON AND MOORE, INC.

William Newhouse Design Coordinator

cc: Planning Department

www.facebook.com/mmi/ @mmi

Figure 5.3 A Sample Letter, Full-Block Format, with All Parts Labeled

Heading (letterhead)

Date line

Inside address with correct state abbreviation and zip code

Salutation

Body of letter

Complimentary close

Company name

Writer’s name and title

Copy notation

Left margin justified and single spaced except between paragraphs which are double spaced

Signature

parts Of a letter A letter contains many parts, each of which contributes to your overall message. The parts and their placement in your letter form the basic conventions of effective letter writing. Readers look for certain information in key places.

The parts of a letter discussed in the following sections will appear in every let- ter you write. Figure 5.3 is a sample letter containing all of the parts discussed here. Note where each part is placed in the letter.

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Parts of a Letter 159

heading The heading of a letter may be either your company’s letterhead or your full return address. (See Figure 5.2 for an example of a full return address when letterhead is not used.)

Date Line Try to leave four lines below the letterhead before the date line. Spell out the name of the month in full—“September” or “March” rather than “Sept.” or “Mar.” The date line is usually keyboarded this way: November 11, 2016. Different cultures express dates in different ways. Most countries, including those in Europe, list the day first, then the month, and then the year. See Figure 5.9 (page 175) for an ex- ample of how to correctly provide a date for international readers.

Inside address The inside address, the address of the recipient, is always placed against the left mar- gin, two lines below the date line. It contains the name, title (if any), company, street address, city, state, and zip code of the person to whom you are writing. Single- space the inside address, and do not use any punctuation at the end of the lines.

Dr. Mary Petro Director of Research Midwest Laboratories 1700 Oak Drive Rapid City, SD 56213–3406

Always try to write to a specific person rather than just “Sales Manager” or “President.” To find out the person’s name, check previous correspondence, email lists, or the company’s or individual’s website, or call the company. Make sure you use an abbreviated courtesy title (Ms., Mr., Dr., Prof.) before the recipient’s name for the inside address (e.g., Capt. María Torres; Mr. A. T. Ricks; Rev. Siam Tau). Use Ms. when writing to a woman unless she has expressly asked to be called Miss or Mrs.

The last line of the inside address contains the city, state, and zip code.

Salutation Two spaces below the inside address includes your salutation, or greeting. Begin with Dear, and then follow with a courtesy title, the reader’s last name (unless you are on a first-name basis), and a colon (Dear Mr. Brown:). Never use a comma for a formal letter. Avoid the sexist “Dear Sir,” “Gentlemen,” or “Dear Madam” and the stilted “Ladies and Gentlemen” or “Dear Sir or Madam.” (For a discussion of sexist language and how to eliminate it, see “Editing Guidelines to Eliminate Sexist Language,” pages 65–66.)

Sometimes a first name does not reveal whether the reader is male or female. There are women named Stacy, Robin, and Lee, and men named Leslie, Kim, and Kelly. If you aren’t certain, you can use the reader’s full name: “Dear Terry Jones.” Similarly, if your recipient uses just initials, write “Dear S.K. Holmes.” Or if you know the person’s title, you might write “Dear Credit Manager Jones.”

160 chapter 5 Writing Letters

Avoid casual salutations such as “Hello,” “Hi,” “Good Morning,” “Greetings,” or “Happy Tuesday”; these are best reserved for emails or messages. And never begin a letter with “To Whom It May Concern,” which is old-fashioned, impersonal, and trite.

Body of the Letter The body of the letter, two spaces after the salutation, contains your message. Some of your letters will be only a few lines long, while others may extend to three or more paragraphs. Keep your sentences concise, and try to hold your paragraphs to less than seven lines. (Refer to “Editing,” pages 59–69.)

complimentary close A close, two lines below the last line of your message, is the equivalent of a formal goodbye. For most business correspondence, use one of these standard closes:

Sincerely, Respectfully, Sincerely yours,

Capitalize only the first letter of the first word. The entire close is followed by a comma. If you and your reader know each other well, as in Figure 5.4, you can use

Cordially, Best wishes, Regards,

But avoid flowery closes, such as

Forever yours, Devotedly yours, Faithfully yours,

These belong in a romance novel, not in a business letter.

Signature Allow four spaces between the complimentary close and your typed name and title so that your signature will not look squeezed in. Always sign your name in black ink. An unsigned letter indicates carelessness or, worse, indifference toward your reader. A stamped signature tells readers you could not give them personal attention.

Some firms prefer using their company name along with the employee’s name in the signature section. If so, type the company name in capital letters two line spaces below the complimentary close and then sign your name. Add your title underneath your typed name. Here is an example:

Sincerely yours, THE FINELLI COMPANY

Helen Stravopoulos Web Coordinator

Parts of a Letter 161

April 11, 2016

Mr. W. T. Albritton Albritton & Sharp, CPA Suite 400 Suburban Of�ce Complex Livingston, NJ 07038-2389

Dear Mr. Albritton:

Thank you for your recent suggestions on improving security at the Suburban Of�ce Complex. You will be pleased to learn that OPMA will be making the following improvements in services, to go into effect within 45 days.

Starting May 2, an on-site manager, Thomas Vasquez, will be available to answer any questions you may have about the Complex and help you with any problems you may encounter. His ten years of experience in managing commercial of�ce parks will bene�t you and other businesses at the Suburban Of�ce Complex.

The new outdoor security system you asked for will be installed by May 16. It will give you and your employees greater protection through seven additional security cameras around the perimeters of the parking lot while movement sensors will monitor every outside door.

I want to reassure you that none of these changes will inconvenience the operation of your �rm or interfere with your employees entering the of�ce complex. We are honored to have Albritton & Sharp as residents. I welcome your comments as these changes are implemented as well as additional suggestions you may have.

Best wishes,

Cheryl Hu Vice President

Figure 5.4 Careful Organization of a Business Letter

Clear, professional letterhead with contact information

Accurate inside address

Introduction comes to point quickly and cordially by referencing reader’s earlier request

Body describes changes with specific details

Conclusion builds goodwill by promising reader what will be done and how

Four spaces left between complimentary close and typed name

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162 chapter 5 Writing Letters

enclosure Line The enclosure line informs the reader that additional materials (such as a brochure, diagram, form, contract, or proposal) accompany your letter.

Enclosure (only one item is enclosed) Enclosures (2) Encl.: Spring Quarter Sales Report

copy Notation The abbreviation cc: —two c’s followed by a colon—informs your reader that a copy of your letter has been sent to one or more individuals.

cc: Service Dept. cc: Hannah Pittman-Jarzelski

Ivor Vas

Letters are copied and sent to third parties for two reasons: (1) to document a paper trail and (2) to indicate that other readers need the information contained in the letter. Unless your employer instructs you otherwise, tell your reader if others will receive a copy of your letter.

the appearanCe Of yOur letter The way your letter looks can determine how readers will respond to your message. Here are some tips on how to format and produce professional-looking letters:

●● If you are printing your letter, use a high-quality printer, and check ink or toner cartridge levels to avoid sending a fuzzy, faint, or messy letter.

●● Stay away from fancy fonts and scripts. Use the business-like Times New Roman or Arial. (See “Typography,” pages 454–456 for a further discussion of this topic.)

●● Consider using templates to help format and design your letters. Most word- processing programs, such as Microsoft Word or Google Docs, have them. Some organizations, however, may prefer you not to use a template. Always check with your company before you start your letter.

●● Leave generous margins of at least 1 to 1¼ inches all around your message. For a shorter letter, as in Figure 5.6 (page 166), don’t expand your margins to 2 inches or increase the font size, which will only make your letter look unprofessional.

●● Leave double line spaces between key parts of a letter—the date line, the saluta- tion, copy notation, and enclosure—but leave four lines between the letterhead and date as well as the complimentary close and your typed signature. Do not try to squeeze in a handwritten signature; it projects a bad professional image.

●● Single-space within each paragraph, but double-space between paragraphs. The white space enhances the professional look of your letter and makes it easier to read.

Envelopes 163

●● Avoid crowding too much text onto one page. Squeezing too many charac- ters on a line by using overly small fonts will make your letter look cramped and be hard to read. Also, don’t cram a long letter onto one page; instead, allow your letter to flow to a second page.

●● Be careful about lopsided letters. Don’t start a brief letter at the top of the page and then leave the lower three-fourths blank. Begin a shorter message near the center of the page.

●● Use Print Preview to see an image of your letter before you print a hard copy or create a digital version of it, so that you can make any necessary changes or corrections. Never print over your company’s letterhead or any addresses or company logos printed across the bottom of the letter.

●● If making a hard copy of your letter, always print your letter on high-quality white bond paper (20-pound, 8½ 3 11) and matching standard-size (#10) business envelopes (see “Envelopes” below). Avoid colored paper.

envelOpes The way your envelope looks says a great deal about your message. Most com- panies have envelopes with their name, contact information, and logos that they will expect you to use. There are many different kinds of envelopes, including ones that have a window where the recipient’s name an address would normally go. If you have to supply your own, use #10 envelopes, which are 9½ inches long and hold an 8½ 3 11 sheet of paper. There are word-processing programs that have envelope addressing templates you can use. Center and single-space your recipi- ent’s name and address (which must match the inside address in your letter), and put your name and address in the upper left-hand corner of the envelope. A mailing label is less personable than directly typing the recipient’s name and address on the envelope. The U.S. Postal Service recommends that all information be in all capital letters with no punctuation, to ensure that it scans effectively.

MS. THERESA ROOKER ASSISTANT MANAGER PREWITT & FIDDLER 4800 TRUMAN AVENUE NORTH SPRINGDALE MN 55439-0480

FELIX MARTIN-ROCHA 2314 SOUTH 14TH STREET CHICAGO IL 60608-5037

All capital letters used

Used full addresses

No punctuation

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164 chapter 5 Writing Letters

Organizing a standard Business letter A standard business letter can be divided into an introduction, a body, and a con- clusion, each section responding to or clarifying a specific issue for your recipient. These three sections can each be one paragraph long, as in Figures 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3, or the body of your letter can be two or more paragraphs, as in Figure 5.4.

To help readers grasp your message clearly and concisely, follow this simple plan for organizing your business letters:

●● In your first paragraph start with a friendly opening and explain why you are writing and why your letter is important to the recipient. Acknowledge any relevant previous meetings, correspondence, or telephone calls early in the paragraph (as in Figures 5.1 and 5.3).

●● Put the most significant point of each paragraph first to make it easier for the reader to find. Never bury important ideas in the middle or at the end of a paragraph.

●● In the second (or subsequent) paragraph, develop the body of your message with factual support, key details, and descriptions your reader needs. For in- stance, note how Figure 5.4 refers to the specific changes to improve security that the reader had requested.

●● In your last paragraph, thank readers and be very clear and precise about what you want them to do or what you will do for them. Let them know what will hap- pen next, what you or they need to do (Figure 5.4), or any combination of these messages. Don’t leave your readers hanging. End cordially and professionally.

making a gOOd impressiOn On yOur reader You have just learned about formatting and organizing your letters. Now we turn to the content of your letters—what you say (your message) and how you say it (your style and tone). Writing letters means communicating to influence your read- ers, not to alienate or antagonize them. Keep in mind that writers of effective letters are like successful diplomats; they represent both their company and themselves. You want readers to see you as courteous, well informed, and professional.

First, put yourself in the reader’s position. What kinds of letters do you like to receive: vague, impersonal, sarcastic, pushy, and condescending; or polite, business- like, and considerate? If you have questions, you want them answered honestly, courteously, and fully.

To send such effective letters, adopt the “You Attitude,” in other words, signal to readers that they and their needs are of utmost importance. Incorporating the “you attitude” means you should be able to answer “Yes” to these two questions:

1. Will my readers receive a positive image of me? 2. Have I chosen words that convey both my respect for the readers and my con-

cern for their questions and comments?

The first question deals with your overall view of the reader. Do your letters paint readers as dedicated or unprofessional, practical managers or spendthrifts?

Making a Good Impression on Your Reader 165

February 5, 2016

Mr. Ted Ladner 451 West Hawthorne Lane Morris, MO 64507-3005

Dear Mr. Ladner:

You have written to the wrong of�ce here at the County Building. There is no way we can attempt to verify the kinds of details you are demanding from Brown County.

Simply put, by carefully examining the 2015 tax bill you said you received, you should have realized that it is the Tax Collector’s Of�ce, not the Tax Assessor’s, that will have to handle the problem you claim exists.

In short, call or write the Tax Collector of Brown County.

Thank you!

Tracey Kowalski

www.facebook.com/browncountymo/

Figure 5.5 A Letter Lacking the “You Attitude”

Tone is sarcastic and uncooperative

Use of “you” alone does not signal a positive image of reader

Insulting and curt ending and complimentary close

Does not list writer’s job title or specific contact information

The second question concerns the language and tone conveying your message to the reader. Words can burn or soothe. Choose them carefully. As you revise your letters, you will become more aware of and concerned about the ways readers will respond to you and your message.

Figures 5.5 and 5.6 (page 166) contain two versions of the same letter. Which one would you rather receive?

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166 chapter 5 Writing Letters

February 5, 2016

Mr. Ted Ladner 451 West Hawthorne Lane Morris, MO 64507-3005

Dear Mr. Ladner:

Thank you for writing about the dif�culties you encountered with your 2015 tax bill. I wish I could help you, but it is the Tax Collector’s Of�ce that issues your annual property tax bill. Our of�ce does not prepare individual homeowners’ bills.

If you will kindly direct your questions to Paulette Sutton at the Brown County Tax Collector’s Of�ce, County Building, Room 100, Ventura, Missouri 56780-0100, I am sure that she will be able to assist you. Should you wish to call her, the number is 712-555-3455, extension 212. Her email address is [email protected]. I hope this helps you.

Respectfully,

Tracey Kowalski Assistant Tax Assessor 712-555-3455 Ext. 232 [email protected]

www.facebook.com/browncountymo/

Figure 5.6 A You-Centered Revision of Figure 5.5

Thanks reader and gives polite explanation

Helps reader solve problem with specific information

Uses appropriate complimentary close

Lists specific job title and contact information to personalize the letter

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Making a Good Impression on Your Reader 167

achieving the “You attitude”: Four Guidelines As you draft and revise your work, pay special attention to the following four guidelines for making a good impression on your reader.

1. Never forget that your reader is a real person. Avoid writing cold, imper- sonal letters that sound as if they were clinical reports or voicemail instructions. Let the readers know that you are writing to them as individuals. The following letter violates every rule of personal and personable communications.

It has come to our attention that policy number 342q–765r has been delinquent in payment and is in arrears for the sum of $302.35. To keep the policy in force for the duration of its life, a minimum payment of $50.00 must reach this office by the last day of the month. Failure to submit payment will result in the cancellation of the aforemen- tioned policy.

The example above displays no sense of one human being writing to another, of a customer with a name, personal history, or specific needs. Revised, this letter con- tains the necessary personal (and human) touch.

We have not yet received your payment for your insurance policy (342q–765r). By sending us your check for $50.00 within the next two weeks, you will keep your pol- icy in force and can continue to enjoy the financial benefits and emotional security it offers you.

Here the benefits to a specific policy holder are stressed, and the reader is addressed directly as a valued customer.

Don’t be afraid of using “you” in letters. Readers will feel more friendly toward you and your message. Of course, no amount of “yous” will help if they appear in a condescending context, such as the letter in Figure 5.5.

2. Keep the reader in the forefront of your letter. Make sure the reader’s needs control the tone, message, and organization of your letter—the essence of the “you attitude.” Stress the “you,” not the “I” or the “we.” Below you can see a paragraph from a letter that forgets about the reader:

I-Centered Draft

I think that our rug shampooer is the best on the market. Our firm has invested a lot of time and money to ensure that it is the most economical and efficient shampooer available today. We have found that our customers are very satisfied with the results of our machine. We have sold thousands of these shampooers, and we are proud of our accomplishment. We hope that we can sell you one of our fantastic machines.

3. Be courteous and tactful. Refrain from turning your letter into a punch through the mail. Don’t inflame your letter or email audience; review Figures 4.3 and 4.4 (pages 125 and 126). When you capture the reader’s goodwill, your rewards

168 chapter 5 Writing Letters

will be great. The following negative words can leave a bad taste in the reader’s mouth.

it’s defective unprofessional (job, attitude, etc.) I demand your failure I insist you contend we reject you allege that’s no excuse for you should have known totally unacceptable your outlandish claim

Compare the following discourteous sentences with the courteous revisions.

The last discourteous example begins with a phrase that frequently sets readers on edge. Avoid using “It goes without saying”—it can quickly set up a hostile barrier between you and your reader.

4. Don’t sound pompous or bureaucratic. Write to your reader as if you were carrying on a professional conversation. Your tone should be polite but natural and to the point. Make your letters reader-friendly and believable, not stuffy and over- bearing. To do that, don’t resort to using phrases that remind readers of legalese— language that some writers use to make themselves sound important, but that only alienates readers. It smells of contracts, deeds, and stuffy rooms.

In the following list, the words and phrases on the left are pompous expressions that have crept into letters for years; the ones on the right are contemporary equivalents.

Discourteous Courteous We must discontinue your service unless payment is received by the date shown.

Please send us your payment by November 4 so that your service will not be interrupted.

You are sorely mistaken about the contract. We are sorry to learn about the difficulty you experienced over the service terms in your contract.

The new iPad you sold me is third-rate and you charged first-rate prices.

Because the iPad is still under warranty, I hope you can make the repairs easily and quickly.

It goes without saying that your suggestion is not worth considering.

It was thoughtful of you to send me your suggestion, but, unfortunately, we are unable to implement it right now.

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Pompous Contemporary Pompous Contemporary

aforementioned

as per your request I am in receipt of attached herewith be advised that due to the fact that endeavor henceforth

previously mentioned as you requested I have received enclosed for your information because try after this

herewith; heretofore; hereby immediate future in lieu of pursuant remittance under separate cover this writer we regret to inform you that

(drop these three h’s entirely) soon instead of concerning payment I’m also sending you I we are sorry that

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International Business Correspondence 169

internatiOnal Business COrrespOndenCe After emails, letters are the most frequent type of communication you are likely to have with international readers. Being able to write a formal letter to these readers will be an important part of your job. But as we saw in Chapter 1 (see “Writing for the Global Marketplace,” pages 5–11), you cannot assume that people in every culture write letters the way we do in the United States. The conventions of letter writing—formats, inside addresses, salutations, dates, complimentary closes, signa- ture lines—are as diverse as international audiences are.

Sometimes your international client may reside in the United States. Then you have to exercise the same diplomacy as you would when communicating with au- diences living in other countries. For example, in Figure 5.7 (page 170) restau- rant owner Patrice St. Jacques writes an effective sales letter by zeroing in on his reader’s (Etienne Abernathy’s) ethnic pride and heritage. Although Abernathy’s company is located in the United States, St. Jacques persuasively sees him from a much broader cultural perspective.

It would be impossible to provide information about how to write letters to each international audience. There are at least five thousand major languages rep- resenting diverse ethnic and cultural communities around the globe. But here are some of the most important culturally sensitive questions you need to ask about writing to readers whose cultures are different from yours:

●● What is your relationship to your reader(s) (client, vendor, salesperson, or international colleague)?

●● How should you format and address your letter? ●● What is an appropriate salutation? ●● How should you begin and conclude your letter? ●● What types and amount of information will you have to give? ●● What is the most appropriate tone to use?

To answer these and similar questions about proper letter protocol for your international readers, you need to learn about their culture by consulting a source such as www.international-business-etiquette.com or www.vayama.com/etiquette.

ten Guidelines for communicating with International readers The following ten guidelines will help you communicate more successfully with an international audience and significantly reduce the chances of readers’ misunder- standing you.

1. Use common, easily understood vocabulary. Write in basic, simplified En glish. Choose words that are widely understood. Whenever you have a choice, use the simpler word. For example, use stop, not refrain; prevent, not forestall; happy, not exultant.

2. Keep your sentences simple and easy to understand. Short, direct sentences will cause a reader whose native language is not English the least amount of trouble.

170 chapter 5 Writing Letters

4700 Cyprus Avenue Philadelphia, PA 19172

10 May 2016

Mr. Etienne Abernathy, President Seagrove Enterprises 1800 S. Port Haven Road Philadelphia, PA 19103-1800

Dear Mr. Abernathy:

Congratulations on winning the Hanover Award for Community Service. We in the Port Haven area of Philadelphia are proud that a business with Caribbean roots has received such a distinguished honor.

To celebrate your and Seagrove’s success, as well as all your business entertaining needs (annual banquet, monthly meetings, etc.), I invite you to Island Jacques. We are a family-owned business that for 30 years has offered Philadelphia residents the �nest Caribbean atmosphere and food west of the Islands. Our black pepper shrimp, reggae or mango chicken, and Steak St. Lucie—plus our irresistible beef and pork jerk—are the talk from here to Kingston. You and your guests will be surrounded by our original Caribbean art and enjoy our steel drum music.

Island Jacques can offer Seagrove a variety of dining options. With �ve separate dining rooms, we are small enough for an intimate party of 4 yet large enough to accommodate a group of up to 250 guests. We can do early lunches or late dinners, depending on your schedule. And we even cater, if that’s your style. Our chefs—Diana Maurier and Emile Danticat—will prepare a special calypso menu just for you. Also a bene�t, our prices are competitive for the Philadelphia area.

Please call me soon so you can savor Island Jacques’s unique hospitality. For your convenience, I am enclosing a copy of this week’s menu delights. Check out our website, too, for a taste of Caribbean sound. We would love to feature Seagrove as Island Jacques’s “Guest of the Week!”

Stay Cool, Mon.

Patrice St. Jacques Event Coordinator

www.islandjacques.com www.facebook.com/islandjacques/ @islandjacq 215-555-3295

Figure 5.7 A Sales Letter That Appeals to a Specific International Audience

Compliments reader on award

Extends invitation

Distinctive, functional letterhead and use of color

Appeals to reader’s senses through art, music, and food

Describes special features, such as flexible hours and dining options

Ties costs to benefits

Ends by giving reader incentive to act soon

Uses an appropriate close for reader

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International Business Correspondence 171

A good rule of thumb is that the shorter and less complicated your sentences, the easier and clearer they will be for a reader to process. Long (more than fifteen to twenty words) and complex (using many clauses) sentences can be so difficult for readers to unravel that they may skip over them or simply guess at your mes- sage. Do not, however, be insultingly childish, as if you were writing to someone in kindergarten. Also, always try to avoid the passive voice. It is one of the most difficult sentence patterns for a non-native speaker to comprehend. Stick to the common subject-verb-object pattern as often as possible. See “Editing Guidelines for Cutting Out Unnecessary Words” (pages 62–65) and the “Writer’s Brief Guide to Paragraphs, Sentences, and Words” (pages A-1–A-19).

3. Avoid ambiguity. Words that have double meanings force non-native readers to wonder which one you mean. For example, “We fired the engine” would baffle your readers if they were not aware of the multiple meanings of fire. Unfamiliar with the context in which fire means “start up,” a non-native speaker of English might think you’re referring to “setting on fire or inflaming,” which is not what you intend. Or because fire can also mean “dismiss” or “let go,” a non-native speaker of English might even suspect the engine was replaced by another model. Such misin- terpretations are likely because most bilingual dictionaries list only a few meanings. Be especially careful of using synonyms just to vary your word choice. For example, do not write quick in one sentence and then, referring to the same action, describe it as rapid. Your reader may assume you have two different things in mind instead of just one.

4. Be careful about technical vocabulary. While a reader who is a non-native speaker may be more familiar with technical terms than with other English words, make sure the technical word or phrase you include is widely known and not a word or phrase used only at your plant or office. Double-check by consulting the most up-to-date manuals and websites in your field, but steer clear of technical terms in fields other than the one with which your reader is familiar. Be especially careful about using business words and phrases that an international reader may not know, such as reverse mortgages, best practices, toxic assets, granular, pain point, and so forth.

5. Watch idiomatic expressions. Idioms are the most difficult part of a language for an audience of non-native speakers to master. As with the example of fire, the following colorful idiomatic expressions will confuse and may even startle a non- native reader:

I’m all ears think outside the box throw cold water on it sleep on it hit the nail on the head give a heads-up new blood land in hot water easy come, easy go touch and go get a handle on it pushed the envelope right under your nose it was a rough go

The meanings of those and similar phrases are not literal but figurative, a reflection of our culture, not necessarily your reader’s. A non-native speaker of English will

172 chapter 5 Writing Letters

approach such phrases as combinations of the separate meanings of the individual words, not as a collective unit of meaning.

A non-native speaker of English—a potential customer in Asia or Africa, for example—might be shocked if you wrote about a sale concluded at a branch office this way: “Last week we made a killing in our office.” Substitute the idiomatic expression with a clear, unambiguous translation easily understood in international English. “We made a big sale last week.” For “Sleep on it,” you might say, “Please take a week to make your decision.”

6. Delete sports and gambling metaphors. These metaphors, which are of- ten rooted in U.S. popular culture, do not translate word for word for non-native speakers and so can interfere with your communication with your readers. Here are a few examples to avoid: out in left field a ballpark figure strike out out of bounds drop the ball make a pass long shot beat the odds be in left field win by a nose

Use a basic English dictionary and your common sense to find nonfigurative alter- natives for these and similar expressions.

7. Don’t use unfamiliar abbreviations, acronyms, or contractions. While these shortened forms of words and phrases are a part of U.S. business culture, they might easily be misunderstood by a non-native speaker who is trying to make sense of them in context or by looking them up in a foreign language dictionary. Avoid abbreviations such as pharm., gov., org., pkwy., rec., hdg., hr., mfg., or w/o. The following acronyms can also cause your international reader trouble: ASAP, PDQ, p’s and q’s, IRA, SUV, RV, DOB, DOT, SSN. If you have to use acronyms, define them. Finally, contractions such as the following might lead readers to mis- take them for the English words they look like: I’ve (ivy), he’ll (hell), I’ll (ill), we’ll (well), can’t (cant), won’t (wont, want).

8. Watch units of measure. Do not fall into the cultural trap of assuming that your reader measures distances in miles and feet (instead of kilometers and meters as most of the world does), measures temperatures on the Fahrenheit scale (instead of Celsius), buys gallons of gasoline (instead of liters), spends dollars (rather than euros, pesos, rupees, or yen), tells time by a twelve-hour clock (many countries fol- low a twenty-four-hour clock), and records dates by month/day/year (most coun- tries record dates by day/month/year).

9. Avoid culture-bound descriptions of place. For example, when you tell a reader in Hong Kong about the Sunbelt or a potential client in Africa about the Big Easy, will he or she know what you mean? When you write from California about the eastern seaboard, meaning the East Coast of the United States, the directional reference may not mean the same thing to a reader in India as it does to you. More- over, referring to February as a winter month does not make sense to someone in New Zealand for whom it is a summer month.

Writing to Readers from a Different Culture

In 2015, two IT firms—one American, the other Argentinian—merged. The manager of the American company asked her assistant, Frank Sims, to write a letter of introduction to Antonio Mosca-Guzman, the manager of the Argentinian company, Technologia Canderas, explaining how much Pro-Tech was looking forward to the merger and was seeking help with the transi- tion. The early draft of Sims’s letter in Figure 5.8 (page 174) violates the Ten Guidelines for Communicating with International Readers (pages 169–173) because it:

●● used the incorrect format for the dateline ●● misspelled the name of the reader’s city ●● left out important postal information ●● contained U.S. idioms (e.g., drop you a line) ●● included unclear, troubling abbreviations ●● disregarded how the reader’s culture records time and temperature

Even more disrespectfully, Sims’s overall tone is condescending (south of the border; olé) and inappropriately casual (before I take off ). At the end of the second paragraph, for instance, he tells Señor Mosca-Guzman that the U.S. firm is superior to the Argentine company.

But after consulting relevant cultural guides and asking a fellow worker, originally from Argentina, to critique his draft, Sims revised his letter. Note how the revised letter in Figure 5.9 (page 175),respects Señor Mosca-Guzman’s cultural conventions because it

●● spells and punctuates the reader’s name and address correctly ●● incorporates a clear date line ●● uses an appropriate salutation and complimentary close ●● is written in plain, international English ●● recognizes that the reader uses a 24-hour clock ●● identifies the writer and makes the reader feel welcome and honored ●● courteously informs the reader how the merger will affect his relationship with the writer ●● strives to develop a spirit of global cooperation and mutuality ●● acknowledges the reader’s position of authority in his company

Above all, though, Sims now honors his audience’s culture and role in the business world and seeks to win the reader’s confidence and respect, two invaluable assets in the global mar- ketplace. Writing letters with the specific needs of your international audience in mind, as in Figure 5.9, is a crucial skill to have in today’s international world of work.

International Business Correspondence 173

Case study

10. Use appropriate salutations, complimentary closes, and signature lines. Find out how individuals in the recipient’s culture are formally addressed in a saluta- tion (e.g., Señor, Madame, Frau, Monsieur). Unless you are expressly asked to use a first name, always use your reader’s surname and include proper titles and other honorifics (e.g., Doctor, Sir, Father). For a complimentary close, use an appropriately formal one, such as Respectfully, which is acceptable in almost any culture.

(Continued)

174 chapter 5 Writing Letters

5-8-15

Mr. Antonio Guzman Canderas Mercedes Ave. Bunos Aires, ARG.

Dear Tony,

I wanted to drop you a line before the merger hits and in doing so touch base and give you the lowdown on how our department works here in the good old U.S. of A.

None of us had a clue that Pro-Tech was going to go south of the border, but your recent meeting about the Smartboard T-C spoke volumes to the tech people who praised your operations to the hilt. So it looks like you and I both will be getting a new corp. name. Olé. I love moving from Pro-Tech, Ltd. to Pro-Tech International. We are so glad we can help you guys out.

At any rate, I’m sending you an email with all the ins and outs of our department struc., layout, employees, and prod. eff. quotas. From this info, I’m hoping you’ll be able to see ways for us to streamline, cooperate, and soar in the market. I understand that all of this is in the works and that you and I need to have a face-to-face and so I’d appreciate your reciprocating with all the relevant data stat.

Consequently, I guess I’ll be Œying down your way next month. Before I take off, I would like to give you a ring. How does after lunch next Thursday (say, 1:00–1:30) sound to you? I hope this is doable.

We’ve had a spell of great weather here (can you believe it’s in the low 70s today!). So, I guess I’ll just sign off and wait ’til I hear from you further.

I send you felicitations and am keeping my œngers crossed that things go smoothly before the merger is a done deal.

Adios,

Frank Sims

www.protech.com @protechltdwww.facebook.com/protechltd/

Figure 5.8 Frank Sims’s Inappropriately Written Letter to His International Reader

Misleading date line

Incorrect, misspelled address

Salutation is too informal

Culturally condescending

Impolite opening disrespecting reader’s status

Filled with American idioms and abbreviations

Disregards time differences and reader’s 24-hour clock

Ignores differences between Fahrenheit and Celsius scales

Close sounds insincere

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International Business Correspondence 175

8 May 2015

Señor Antonio Mosca-Guzman Director, Quality Assurance Tecnología Canderas, S.A. Av. Martin 1285, 48 P.C. C1174AAB BUENOS AIRES ARGENTINA

Dear Señor Mosca-Guzman:

As our two companies prepare to merge, I welcome this opportunity to write to you. I am the manager for the Quality Assurance division at Pro-Tech, a title I believe you have at Tecnología Canderas. I am looking forward to working with you both now and after our companies merge in two months.

Allow me to say that we are very honored that your company is joining ours. Tecnología Canderas has been widely praised for the research and production of your Smartboard T-C systems. I know we have much to learn from you, and we hope you will allow us to share our systems analyses with you. That way everyone in our new company, Pro-Tech International, will bene“t from the merger.

Later this week, I will send you a report about our division. It describes how our division is structured and the quality inspections we make. It will also give you a brief biography of our staff so that you can learn about their quali“cations and responsibilities.

The director of our new company, Dr. Suzanne Nknuma, asked me to meet with you before the merger to see how we might help each other. I would very much like to travel to Buenos Aires in the next month to visit you and take a tour of your company.

Would you please let me know when it may be convenient for us to talk so we might discuss the agenda for our meeting? I am in my of“ce at Extension 347 from 11:00 to 17:00 Buenos Aires time.

I look forward to working with and meeting you.

Respectfully,

Frank Sims Quality Assurance Of“cer

www.protech.com www.facebook.com/protechltd/ @protechltd

Figure 5.9 Sims’s Appropriately Revised Letter

Clear date line

Includes appropriate title for reader

Complete and correct address

Uses courteous salutation

Clear and diplomatic opening

Respectful view of reader’s company

Explains business procedures in plain English

Recognizes reader’s time zone

Polite close

Gives business title

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respecting readers’ Nationality and ethnic/racial heritage In addition to following the Ten Guidelines for Communicating with International Readers (see pages 169–173), you need to always show respect for your reader. Do not risk offending any of your readers, whether they are native speakers of English or not, with language that demeans or stereotypes their nationality or ethnic and racial background. Here are some precautions to take.

1. Respect your reader’s nationality. Always spell your reader’s name and country properly, which may mean adding diacritical marks (e.g., accent marks) not used in English—e.g. Muñoz. If your reader has a hyphenated last name (e.g., Arana-Sanchez), it would be rude to address him or her by only part of the name (e.g., only Arana or only Sanchez). In addition, be careful not to use the former name of your reader’s country or city, for instance, the Soviet Union (now Russia), Calcutta (now Kolkata), Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic), or Bombay (now Mumbai). Not only is it rude, but it also demonstrates a lack of interest about your reader’s nationality.

2. Observe your reader’s cultural traditions. Cultures differ widely in the way they send and receive information and how they prefer to be addressed, greeted, and informed in a letter. Culture plays a major role in how you word your message. What is acceptable in one culture may be offensive in another. A sales letter to an East Asian business person, for example, needs to employ a very different strategy from one intended for an American reader. The best strategy for an American au- dience would be hard-hitting and to the point, stressing your product’s strengths versus the competitor’s weaknesses. But the East Asian way of drafting such a letter would be more subtle, indirect, and complimentary.

American: Our Imaging 500 delivers much more extensive internal imaging than any of our competitors’ models.

East Asian: One of the ways we may be able to serve you is by informing you about our new Imaging 500 MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) equipment.

The hard sell in the American example would be a sign of arrogance, suggesting in- equality for a reader in China, Japan, Malaysia, or Korea who is more comfortable with a compliment or a wish for prosperity.

3. Honor your reader’s place in the world economy. Phrases such as “third-world country,” “emerging nation,” and “undeveloped/underprivileged area” are deroga- tory. Including such phrases signals that you regard your reader’s country as inferior. Use the name of your reader’s country instead. Saying that someone lives in the Far East implies that the United States, Canada, or Europe is the center of culture, the hub of the business community. The word “Oriental,” is insulting. Simply say “East Asia.”

4. Avoid derogatory stereotypes. Expressions such as “oil-rich Arabs” and “aggressive foreigners” unfairly characterize particular groups. Similarly, prune from your communications any stereotypical phrase that insults one group or singles it out for praise at the expense of another—“Mexican standoff,” “Russian roulette,” “Chinaman’s chance,” “Irish wake,” “Dutch treat,” “Indian giver.” Also note that the word Indian refers to someone from India; use Native American to refer to the indigenous people of North America, who want to be known by their tribal affiliations (e.g., the Lakota).

International Business Correspondence 177

Case study

Writing to a Client from a Different Culture: Two Versions of a Sales Letter

Let’s assume that you have to write a sales letter to an Asian business executive. As we saw, you will have to employ a very different strategy in writing to this executive as opposed to an American reader. For an American audience, the best strategy is to take a direct approach— fast, hard-hitting, to the point, and stressing your product’s strengths versus the opposition’s weaknesses. Businesses in the United States thrive on the battle of the brands, the tactics of confrontation symbolized in the sports metaphors on page 172. A typical sales letter to an American reader would be polite but direct.

But such a strategy would be counterproductive in writing to an Asian reader. Business in East Asia is associated with courtesy and friendship and includes a great many social customs. In a sales letter to an Asian reader, you have to first establish a friendship before business details are dealt with. The Asian way of doing business, including writing and receiving let- ters, is far more subtle, indirect, and complimentary than it is in the United States. The U.S. style of directness and forcefulness would be perceived as rude or unfair in, say, Japan, China, Malaysia, or Korea. A hard-sell letter to an Asian reader would be a sign of arrogance, suggest- ing inequality for the reader.

To better understand the differences between communicating with a U.S. reader and an Asian one, study the two versions of the sales letter in Figures 5.10 and 5.11. The letters, written by Susan DiFusco for Starbrook Electronics, sell the same product, but Figure 5.10 is written to a U.S. executive, while Figure 5.11 adapts the same message for a businessperson in Seoul, South Korea. See how the two letters differ not only in content but also in the way each is formatted.

Format The full-block style of the letter to the U.S. reader signals a no-nonsense, all-business ap- proach. Everything is lined up in neat, orderly fashion. For the Korean reader, however, DiFusco

5. Be sensitive to the cultural significance of colors. Do not offend your audi- ence by using colors in a context that would be offensive. Purple in Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina symbolizes bad luck, death, and funerals. Green and orange have a strong political context in Ireland. In Egypt and Saudi Arabia, green is the color of Islam and is considered sacred. But in China, green can symbolize infertility or adultery. Also in some Asian countries, white does not symbolize purity and wed- dings but mourning and funerals. Similarly, in India if a married woman wears all white, she is inviting widowhood. While red symbolizes good fortune in China, it has just the opposite meaning in Korea.

6. Be careful, too, about the symbols you use for international readers. Triangles are associated with anything negative in Hong Kong, Korea, and Taiwan. Political symbols, may have controversial implications as well (e.g., the hammer and sickle, a crescent). Avoid using the flag of a country as part of your logo or letterhead for global audiences. Many countries see this as a sign of disrespect, especially Saudi Arabia, whose flag features the name of Allah.

(Continued)

178 chapter 5 Writing Letters

wisely chose the more varied pattern of indenting her paragraphs. For Asian readers, the visual effect suggests a much more relaxed and friendly, yet respectful, communication. Note the different typefaces, too.

Opening Pay special attention to how the U.S. letter (Figure 5.10) starts off politely but much more directly, an opening the Korean reader would regard as blunt and discourteous. The sales letter written to the Korean audience (Figure 5.11) starts not with business talk but with a compli- ment to the reader and his company, praising them for trustworthiness and wishing them much prosperity in the future. DiFusco sought the advice of a Korean co-worker, Kim Ji, and from him she learned the Korean greeting that opens the letter. She knew that when address- ing the Korean administrator she should not get to business right away but instead used her introductory paragraph to show respect for the company and the reader—the equivalent of East Asian business executives socializing before any mention of business is made.

The Body Compare the second and third paragraphs of the letters in Figures 5.10 and 5.11. While the letter to the U.S. reader launches an aggressive campaign to get the reader’s business, the let- ter to the Korean reader avoids the hard sell of U.S. business tactics. DiFusco knew that for her Korean reader she must not promote too strenuously. The more she boasted about Starbrook’s work, the less likely it was that she would make a sale. She recognized, again from discussions with other Asian businesspeople over the years, that she had to supply key information—such as the application and the advantages of her product—without overwhelming or pressuring her audience. Yet DiFusco subtly reassures Kim Sun-Lim that her company is honorable and worthy to be recommended to his friends.

View of Competitors Observe, too, how the letter to the U.S. executive (Figure 5.10) undermines the competition by stating how much better Starbrook’s offer is. For most Asian readers, it would be considered impolite to claim that your product is better than another company’s or that your firm is cur- rently doing business with other firms in the reader’s country. Asian audiences prefer to avoid anything that hints of boasting or assertiveness.

The Conclusion Finally, contrast the conclusions of the two letters. Writing to a U.S. audience, DiFusco strongly urges her potential customer to get in touch with her. Such a call to action is customary in a sales letter to a U.S. firm. But in her concluding paragraph to Kim Sun-Lim, DiFusco adopts a more reserved and personal tone. Her use of such appropriate phrases as “kindly let me know” and “it would be a privilege” expresses the friendly sentiments of respect and esteem that would especially appeal to her reader. Note, too, that DiFusco has chosen a complimentary close (“Respectfully”) much more in keeping with her reader’s cultural sensitivities than the “Sincerely yours,” which was more suitable for the letter in Figure 5.10.

As these two letters show, writers need to know and respect their readers’ cultures. In address- ing an audience of non-native speakers of English, a writer must consider the readers’ commu- nication patterns, protocols, and cultural (or subcultural) traditions. The same guidelines apply whether you are writing to non-native speakers abroad or in this country. Your message and vocabulary should always be clear, understandable, and appropriate for the intended audience.

International Business Correspondence 179

April 6, 2015

Mr. Ellis Fanner, Director Morgan General Hospital 300 Oakland Drive Morgan, OR 97342-0091

Dear Mr. Fanner:

How many times have your physicians asked when Morgan General would have an Open MRI? This state-of-the-art imaging equipment will help maintain your reputation as a leading health care provider in the Morgan River Valley.

As the world leader in designing and manufacturing MRI equipment, Starbrook can offer you the latest technology to save your patients time and improve the care you give them. With our Open Imaging 500, Morgan General can deliver more accurate and timely diagnoses. Within an hour you can determine whether a patient has had a stroke rather than having to wait with less powerful scanner technology.

Thanks to our Open Imaging 500 model, Morgan General can also improve diagnoses for orthopedic and cardiac problems. Our MRI delivers much more extensive internal imaging than any other of our competitors’ equipment.

By obtaining the Open Imaging 500, you will surpass all other health care providers who do not offer this technology. By acting now, you will also receive Starbrook’s unsurpassed guarantee of exceptional service plus free maintenance for a year by our team of expert technicians.

And we will even give you free upgrades to make sure your Open Imaging 500 continues to be state of the art. Since software updates change so often, no other MRI vendor dares make such an offer. We deliver what we promise. Ask any of our recent satis�ed customers—Tennessee General, Grantsville Uptown Clinic, or Nevada Memorial Hospital.

We are hosting a demonstration on May 4 in Portland. Please call me today to arrange for your showing.

Sincerely yours,

Susan DiFusco Assistant Manager

[email protected] www.starbrook.com

Figure 5.10 Sales Letter to a Native English Speaker in a U.S. Firm

Begins with an aggressive question and emphasis on hospital’s competitive role

Hard-hitting appeal to sell reader on MRI features

Stresses MRI advantages over competitors’ models

Urges reader to act to surpass competition

Praises own company

Asks for immediate response from reader

01 7

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Le ar

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(Continued)

May 4, 2015

Mr. Kim Sun-Lim Administrator Tangki Hospital Nowonku 427–1 Seoul, Korea 100–175

Dear Mr. Kim:

In your beautiful language I say “Annyeonghaseyo hago insa” on behalf of my firm Starbrook Electronics. I am honored to introduce myself to you through this letter and send you greetings at this beautiful flower season.

Please let us know how we might be of service to you. One of the ways we may be able to serve you is by informing you about our new Open Imaging 500 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) equipment. This new model can offer you and your patients many advantages. It is far better than conventional scanner models. Your physicians can offer quicker diagnoses for patients with strokes, heart attacks, or orthopedic injuries. MRI pictures will also give you clearer and deeper pictures than any X-ray or scanner can.

It would be an honor to provide Tangki Hospital with one of our Open Imaging 500s. If you select the Open Imaging 500, we will be happy to give you all maintenance and software updates free for one year. Such service will provide the best in health care for the many people who come to you for help. Our firm is well known for its quality service.

Kindly let me know if I might send you information about the Open Imaging 500. It would be a privilege to meet you and to give you and your staff a demonstration of our Open Imaging MRI.

Respectfully,

Susan DiFusco Assistant Manager

[email protected] www.starbrook.com

Figure 5.11 Sales Letter to a Non-Native Speaker of English in a Foreign Firm

Font and format more appropriate for audience— more open and inviting—than in Figure 5.10

Opens with a compliment and subtle reference to business

Gives important equipment information without bashing competitors; appeals to the honor of reader’s company

Ends with courteous invitation

01 7

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Le ar

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180 chapter 5 Writing Letters

Sending Professional-Quality Letters: Some Final Advice to Seal Your Success 181

sending prOfessiOnal-Quality letters: sOme final adviCe tO seal yOur suCCess

Here is some final advice to follow that will help you format, draft, and tailor the business correspondence you will be asked to write.

●● Identify your reader. Are you writing to an individual, a group, a company or an agency, a new individual customer or a longtime one, a native or non- native speaker?

●● Pay special attention to an international reader’s needs. Research his or her cultural traditions and avoiding writing anything that may offend or con- fuse him or her.

●● Emphasize the “you attitude.” Keep the reader’s needs in the forefront of your message. Consider how your reader will respond to your message.

●● Organize your information. Make sure your letter has a clear introduction, body, and conclusion.

●● Include essential information: schedules; dates; prices and expenses; person- nel; explanation of services, warranties, and products; background.

●● Use an appropriate style and tone. Be professional and courteous, concise and focused, and sensitive to your reader’s needs, including his or her culture and traditions.

●● Make sure your letter looks professional. Choose an appropriate format and font, but always follow your company’s policies.

Planning your letter carefully—its purpose, organization, content, and format— will help you to make sure your message begins, continues, and ends professionally and successfully for readers in the United States and around the globe.

Audience Analysis and Research ●■ Made sure reader’s name and job title are correct. ●■ Researched something about my audience—interests and background, well

informed or unfamiliar with topic, former client or new one. ●■ Determined whether audience will be friendly, hostile, or neutral about my message. ●■ Did necessary research—in print, through online sources, in discussions with

colleagues—to give readers what they need. ●■ Acknowledged previous correspondence. ●■ Spent sufficient time drafting and revising letter before producing final copy. ●■ Determined what (if any) other means I needed to use in conjunction with sending

my hardcopy letter.

Letter Format and Appearance ●■ Followed one letter format (full-block, modified-block, semi-block) and your

company’s policies consistently.

✓ R E V I S I O n C H E C k L I S T

(Continued)

182 chapter 5 Writing Letters

●■ Used templates with caution. ●■ Set left margins wide enough to make my letter look attractive and well proportioned. ●■ Included all the necessary parts of a letter for my purpose. ●■ Made sure that my letter looks neat and professional. ●■ Printed my letter on company letterhead or quality bond paper, or created an

appropriately formatted e-version of the letter. ●■ Proofread my letter carefully and made sure each correction was made before

printing or distributing electronically the final copy. ●■ Eliminated any grammatical and spelling errors. ●■ Signed my letter legibly in black ink. ●■ Informed reader that copies were sent to appropriate parties. ●■ Printed envelopes properly.

Content and Organization ●■ Clearly understood my purpose in writing. ●■ Put most important point first in my letter. ●■ Began each paragraph with the central idea of that paragraph. ●■ Answered all the reader’s questions and concerns. ●■ Omitted anything offensive, irrelevant, or repetitious. ●■ Stated clearly what I want the reader to do. ●■ Used last paragraph to summarize and encourage the reader to continue cordial

relations with me and my company.

Style: Words, Tone, Sentences, Paragraphs ●■ Emphasized the “you attitude” by seeing things from the reader’s perspective. ●■ Avoided being too casual or colloquial. ●■ Chose words that are clear, precise, and friendly. ●■ Cut anything sounding flowery, stuffy, or bureaucratic. ●■ Ensured that my sentences are readable, clear, and not too long (less than fifteen to

twenty words). ●■ Wrote paragraphs that are easy to read, flow together, and are formatted correctly.

Writing to International Readers ●■ Did appropriate research about the reader’s culture—in print, through online

sources, and with colleagues who are native speakers (as well as teachers)— especially about accepted ways of communicating.

●■ Adopted a respectful, not condescending, tone. ●■ Avoided anything offensive to my reader, especially references to politics,

religion, or cultural taboos. ●■ Used plain and clear language that my reader would understand. ●■ Tested my sentences for length and active voice. ●■ Made sure nothing in my letter might be misinterpreted by my reader. ●■ Chose colors and symbols culturally appropriate for readers. ●■ Selected the right format, salutation, and complimentary close for my reader. ●■ Observed the reader’s units of measurement for time, temperature, currency,

dates, and numbers.

Exercises 183

1. Find two business letters and bring them to class. Be prepared to identify and comment on the various parts of a letter discussed in this chapter.

2. Find a form letter that is addressed to “Dear Customer,” “Postal Patron,” or “Dear Resident,” and rewrite it to make it more personal.

3. Correct the following inside addresses:

4. Write appropriate inside addresses and salutations to (a) a woman who has not specified her marital status; (b) an officer in the armed forces; (c) a professor at your school; (d) an assistant manager at your local bank; (e) a member of the clergy; (f) a government worker.

5. Rewrite the following sentences to make them more personal.

a. It becomes incumbent upon this office to cancel order #2394. b. Management has suggested the curtailment of parking privileges. c. ALL USERS OF HYDROPLEX: Desist from ordering replacement valves during the

period of Dec. 20–30. d. The request for a new circuit board has been honored; it will be shipped to same

address soon. e. Perseverance and attention to detail have made this writer important to company

in-house work. f. The Director of Nurses hereby notifies staff that a general meeting will be held

Monday afternoon at 3:00 p.m. sharp. Attendance is mandatory. g. Reports will be filed by appropriate personnel no later than the scheduled plans

allow.

6. The following sentences are discourteous, boastful, excessively humble, vague, or lacking the “you attitude.” Rewrite them to correct those mistakes.

a. Something is obviously wrong in your head office. They have once more sent me the wrong model number. Can they ever get things straight?

a. Dr. Ann Clark, M.D. 1730 East Jefferson Jackson, MI. 46759

b. To: Miss Tommy Jones Secretary to Mrs. Franks Donlevey labs Cleveland, O. 45362

c. Debbie Hinkle 432 Parkway N. Y. C. 10054

d. Mr. Charles Howe, Acme Pro. P.O. Box 675 1234 S. e. Boulevard Gainesville, Flor. 32601

e. Alex Goings, man. Pittfield Industries Longview, TEXAS 76450

f. ATTENTION: G. Yancy (Mrs.) Police Academy 1329 Tucker N. O., La. 3410–70122

g. David and Mahenny Lawyers Dobbs Build. L.A. 94756

h. Barry Fahwd Man., Peninsular, Ltd. Arabia

E x E R C I S E S

184 chapter 5 Writing Letters

b. My instructor wants me to do a term paper on safety regulations at a small plant. Since you are the manager of a small plant, send me all the information I need at once. My grade depends heavily on all this.

c. It is apparent that you are in business to rip off the public. d. I was wondering if you could possibly see your way into sending me the local chap-

ter president’s name and address—if you have the time, that is. e. I have waited for my confirmation for two weeks now. Do you expect me to wait

forever, or can I get some action?

7. The following letter, filled with musty expressions and in old-fashioned language (legal- ese), buries key ideas. Rewrite and reorganize it to make it shorter, clearer, and more reader-centered.

Dear Ms. Granedi:

This is in response to your firm’s letter of recent date inquiring about the types of ad-

ditional services that may be available to business customers of the First National Bank of

Bentonville. The question of a possible time frame for the implementation of said services

was also raised in the aforementioned letter. Pursuant to these queries, the following an-

swers, this office trusts, will prove helpful.

Please be advised that the Board of Directors at First National Bank has a continuing repu-

tation for servicing the needs of the Bentonville community, especially the business com-

munity. For the last fifty years—half of a century—First National Bank has provided the

funds necessary for the growth, success, and expansion of many local firms, yours included.

This financial support has bestowed many opportunities on a multitude of business own-

ers, residents of Bentonville, and even residents of surrounding local communities.

The Board is at this present writing currently deliberating, with its characteristic caution,

over a variety of options suggested to us by our patrons, including your firm. These op-

tions, if the Board decides to act upon them, would enhance the business opportunities for

financial transactions at First National Bank. Among the two options receiving attention

by the Board at this point in time are the creation of a branch office in the rapidly growing

north side of Bentonville. This area has many customers who rely on the services of First

National Bank. The Board may also place a business loan department in the new branch.

If this office of the First National Bank of Bentonville might be of further helpful as-

sistance, please advise. Remember, banking with First National Bank is a community

privilege.

Soundly yours,

M. T. Watkins

Public Relations Director

8. Either individually or in a small group, write a business letter to one of the following indi- viduals and submit an appropriate envelope with your letter.

a. your mayor, asking for an appointment and explaining why you need one b. your college president, stressing the need for more parking spaces or for additional

databases at the library

Exercises 185

c. the local water department, asking for information about fluoride supplements d. the editor of an online magazine, requesting permission to reprint an article in your

company’s blog and stating why e. the author of an article you have read recently, telling why you agree or disagree

with the views presented f. the director of food services on campus asking for more ethnic meals g. a computer vendor, inquiring about costs and availability of a specific software

package; explain your company’s special needs

9. Rewrite the following letters, making them appropriate for a reader whose native lan- guage is not English. Identify the intended reader’s cultural heritage. As you revise the letters, pay attention to the words, measurements, and sentence constructions you em- ploy. Be sure to consider the reader’s cultural traditions and avoid cultural insensitivity.

a. Dear Mr. Wong,

It’s not every day that you have the chance to get in on the ground floor of a deal so

good you can actually taste it. But Off-Wall Street Mutual can make the difference in

your financial future. Give me a moment to convince you.

By becoming a member of our international investing group for just under $250, you

can just about ensure your success. We know all the ins and outs of long-term invest-

ing and can save you a bundle. Our analysts are the hot shots of the business and

always look long and hard for the most propitious business deals. The stocks we select

with your interests in mind are as safe as a bank and not nearly so costly for you.

Unlike any of your undertrained local agents, we can save you money by investing

your money. We are penny pinchers with our clients’ initial investments, but we are

King Midas when it comes to transforming those investments into pure gold.

I am enclosing a brochure for you to study, and I really hope you will examine it care-

fully. You would be foolish to let a deal like Off-Wall Street Mutual pass you by. Go

for it. Call me by 3:00 today.

Hurriedly,

b. Dear Mr. Bafaloukos,

My firm is taking a survey of businesses in your part of the world to see if there is

any likelihood of getting you on board our international computer network, and so I

thought I would see if you might like to take the chance. In today’s shaky world, busi-

ness events can change overnight and without the proper scoop you could be left out

in the cold. We can alleviate that mess.

Not only do we interface with major exchanges all around the globe, but we make

sure that we get the facts to you pronto. We do not sit on our hands here at Intertel.

Check out our website on who and how we serve and I have no doubts that you will

email or ring us up to find out about joining up.

One last point: Can you really risk going out on a limb without first knowing that you

have all the facts at your fingertips about worldwide business events? Intertel is there

to save you.

Fondly,

186 chapter 5 Writing Letters

10. Interview a student at your school or a co-worker who was born and raised in a non- English-speaking country about the proper etiquette in writing a business letter to someone from his or her country. Collaborate with this individual to write a letter to an executive from that country—for example, a sales letter or a letter asking for information.

11. In a letter to your instructor, describe the kinds of adaptations you had to make for the international reader you wrote to in Exercise 10.

12. Assume you work for a large international corporation that has just opened a new office in one of the following cities:

a. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania b. Istanbul, Turkey c. Caracas, Venezuela d. Manila, Philippines e. Kiev, Ukraine f. Beijing, China

g. Warsaw, Poland h. Mexico City, Mexico i. Amman, Jordan j. Perth, Australia k. Lagos, Nigeria l. Prague, Czech Republic

Write a short report (one to two pages; see Chapter 14) on the main points of letter etiquette that your boss will have to observe in communicating with the non-native speaker of English who is the manager at the new office. In researching your report, pay attention to such cultural differences such as those discussed in “Respecting Readers’ Nationality and Ethnic/Racial Heritage” (pages 176–177).

13. As a collaborative project, team up with three other students in your class to write sepa- rate letters tailored to executives in each of the following cities:

a. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia b. Tokyo, Japan

c. Munich, Germany d. Nairobi, Kenya

Assume you are selling the same product or service to each reader, but adapt your com- munication to the culture represented by the reader.

Turn in the four letters, and explain to your instructor in an accompanying memo how you met the needs of those diverse cultural audiences in terms of style, tone, level of content, format, and sales tactics. Describe the research tools you used to find out about your reader’s particular culture (and communication protocols) and how you benefited from using those tools.

187

Types of Business Letters and Memos

C h a p t e r

Chapter Outline

Formulating Your Message

The Five Most Common Types of Business Letters

Inquiry Letters

Cover Letters

Special Request Letters

Sales Letters

Customer Relations Letters

Memos

Writing Business Letters and Memos That Matter: A Summary

As we saw in Chapter 5, letters can be the lifeblood of any company or organization. In this chapter, you will learn to write a variety of letters for different workplace occasions. But regardless of your message, every letter you send needs to

●● establish or maintain good rapport with the reader ●● protect and promote your company’s and your own professional

image ●● continue or increase business sales, relationships, and opportunities

Letters can help or hurt your company as well as your career. You want to write letters that lead to promotions and greater professional opportunities.

You can also expect to write memos, a type of internal company cor- respondence that may announce a new policy, alert staff to a problem, or give instructions to team members. Memos are discussed on pages 220–227. Because business letters and memos are so significant to your career, this chapter will give you guidelines and problem-solving strategies to write effective letters and memos that will help you in your career.

FOrmulating YOur message Writing effective, diplomatic letters can be challenging. Business correspondence places a great demand on your ability to formu- late and organize a suitable message for your readers. You have to identify your audience, your purpose in writing to them, and their needs in wanting to hear from you. To communicate with your audience effectively, you have to determine

●● what to say ●● how to say it ●● where to say it

The second and third points are just as important as the first. In fact, they may be even more crucial to your success as a letter writer. As we saw in

Murat Taner/Flirt/Corbis

188 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

Chapter 5, the tone and organization of your letter will determine how your message is received. In the process of drafting and revising your letter, consider whether your reader will bristle at or welcome the words you use. Review the discussion of the “you attitude” (see “Making a Good Impression on Your Reader,” pages 164–168).

You will also have to select the best communication strategy, which means tak- ing into account where and how you give readers information. Some messages need to be direct and clear-cut; others require being indirect, holding off a bad news mes- sage until you prepare the reader for it. Consider the following two versions of sections from a letter that send the same message:

Insensitive Version

Your job is being outsourced next quarter. Corporate knows of your twelve years with the firm, but downsizing mandates this decision. The firm will try to place you in another job, but expect no guarantees.

respectful Version

Thank you for your twelve years of excellent work. We appreciate your many contributions. Unfortunately, downsizing means that your position, like several others in the department, will be outsourced. However, I will try to arrange a transfer for you. I may not succeed, but I know you will in your career because of your skills and dedication.

Clearly, the first letter has no respect for the reader’s feelings or contributions, while the second is a model of respect and sincerity.

Letter Writers play Key roles To be a skilled letter writer means that you will have to play several key roles, some- times all at once. Among them are

●● researcher ●● problem solver ●● decision maker ●● honest and ethical spokesperson ●● team player

These are the assets of a valued employee and the characteristics that employers want in job applicants (see “Preparing a Resume,” pages 254–266). In fulfilling these roles through your business letters, you demonstrate that you can work well with people, are sensitive to their needs, and represent your company with integrity.

Letters and collaboration at Work Like other types of workplace writing, letters can be collaborative documents. For instance, you may confer with specialists in IT to answer a complaint about one of your company’s products, or you may work with individuals in the legal or market- ing department to draft a sales letter. Possibly you may need to have your letter ap- proved by your boss, who may edit your letter before you send it. Or you may be asked to write a letter for another person’s signature.

Inquiry Letters 189

Whatever the degree of your collaboration, this chapter gives you guidelines and strategies to write successful business letters. It will also show you how not to write these letters, an equally valuable lesson worth learning about the world of work.

the Five mOst COmmOn tYpes OF Business letters The following section of this chapter discusses the most frequently used types of business correspondence you will be expected to write on the job.

1. Inquiry letters 2. Cover letters 3. Special request letters 4. Sales letters 5. Customer relations letters

●● Follow-up letters ●● Complaint letters ●● Adjustment letters ●● Refusal-of-credit letters ●● Collection letters

These business letters can be classified as positive, neutral, or negative, depending on their message and the anticipated reactions of your audience. Inquiry and special request letters are examples of neutral, routine letters. Other business letters can be positive or negative, depending on your message.

●● Neutral letters request specific information about a product or service, place an order, or respond to some action or question.

●● Sales letters are positive, promoting a product to carry good news, according to the companies that spend millions of dollars a year preparing them.

●● Customer relations letters can be positive (responding favorably to a writer’s request or complaint) or negative (e.g., refusing a request, saying no to an adjustment, seeking payment, denying credit or critiquing poor performance).

inquirY letters An inquiry letter asks for information about a product, service, or procedure. Busi- nesses frequently exchange such letters. As a customer, you too may write a letter asking about a service or a special line of products, the price, the size, the color, delivery arrangements, or recent technological changes. The clearer your letter, the quicker and more helpful your answers are likely to be.

Figure 6.1 (page 190) shows an inquiry letter from Michael Ortega to a real estate office managing a large number of apartment complexes. Note that it follows these five rules for writing an effective inquiry letter:

●● states exactly what information the writer wants ●● indicates clearly why the writer requests the information

190 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

Ortega has designed his own letterhead to use

Explains need for information

States precise request

Identifies area of interest

Specifies exact date when a reply is needed

Offers to confer with and then thanks the reader

April 7, 2016

Mr. Fred Stonehill Property Manager Hillside Properties 701 South Arbor St. Roanoke, VA 24015-1100

Dear Mr. Stonehill:

My wife, one-year-old son, and I will be moving to Roanoke for the summer so I can take classes at Virginia Western Community College. Would you please let me know if you will have any two-bedroom furnished apartments available for rent during June, July, and August? I did not see any short-term vacancies on your website, but I know such openings are usually not announced months in advance. I am willing to pay up to $1,100 a month plus utilities.

If possible, we would like to have an apartment that is within two or three miles of the college. We do not have any pets.

I would appreciate hearing from you within the next two weeks. My email address is [email protected], or you can call me at home (606-555-8957) any evening from 6–10 p.m.

If you have any suitable vacancies, we would be happy to drive to Roanoke to look at them and give you a deposit to hold an apartment. Thanks for your help.

Sincerely yours,

Michael Ortega

Michael Ortega 403 South Main Street

Kingsport, TN 37721-0217 [email protected]

www.facebook.com/michaelortega

Figure 6.1 A Letter of Inquiry Written in Semi-Block Format

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Special Request Letters 191

●● keeps questions short and to the point ●● specifies when the writer must have the information ●● thanks the reader

Had Michael Ortega simply written the following very brief letter to Hillside Prop- erties, he would not have received information he needed about size, location, avail- ability, and price of apartments: “Please send me some information on housing in Roanoke. My family and I plan to move there soon.”

COver letters A cover letter accompanies a document (e.g., a proposal, a report, a contract, a port- folio) that you send to your readers. It identifies the type of document you are send- ing and prepares your audience to read it. Adreienne Hong and her team (Figure 8.9, page 348) and Terri Smith Ruckel (Figure 15.2, page 606) both prepared cover letters to be sent with a copy of a long report. A cover letter should do the following:

●● Provide a written record that you have transmitted a document. ●● Tell readers why you are sending them the document. ●● Briefly summarize what the document contains—number of sections, visu-

als, statistics, appendices, etc. ●● Explain why the document is of interest to readers. ●● Express a willingness to answer questions about the document. ●● Thank readers for their time.

speCial request letters Special request letters do not make a routine inquiry as Michael Ortega’s did in Figure 6.1. For example, these letters can ask a company for information that you as a student will use in a paper, an individual for a copy of an article or a speech, or an agency for statistics or other information that your company needs to prepare a proposal or sell a product.

Make your request clear and easy to answer. Supply readers with an addressed, postage-paid envelope, a URL (if necessary), an email address, and fax and tele- phone numbers in case they have questions.

Follow these seven guidelines when asking for information in a special request letter.

1. Address your letter to the appropriate person. 2. State who you are and why you are writing—e.g., student doing a paper,

employee compiling information for a report, and so on. 3. Indicate clearly your reason for requesting the information. Mention any indi-

viduals who may have suggested you write for help and information. 4. Precisely and succinctly state your questions; list and number them. 5. Specify exactly when you need the information. Allow sufficient time—at least

three weeks. Be reasonable; don’t ask for the impossible.

192 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

6. Offer to forward a copy of your report, paper, or survey in thanks of the anticipated help.

7. Thank the reader for helping.

Figure 6.2 gives an example of a letter that follows these guidelines.

sales letters A sales letter is written to persuade the reader to buy a product, try a service, sup- port some cause, or participate in some activity. No matter what profession you have chosen, there will always be times you have to sell a product, a service, a com- munity or charitable program, a point of view, or yourself! In fact, an application letter for a job (see “Letters of Application,” pages 280–288) or an introductory letter to a new or prospective customer is a sales letter. Study the sales letters in Figure 6.3 (page 195) and the one to an international reader in Figure 5.7 (page 170). (Companies will also put sales information found in sales letters on their website as well, so company websites can be a good resource for examples.)

preliminary Guidelines You have undoubtedly received numerous sales letters from large companies, local merchants, charitable organizations, and campus groups. Because of the great vol- ume of sales letters like these in the business world, the ones you write face a lot of competition. To write an effective sales letter that stands out and does its job, you have to do the following:

1. Identify and limit your audience. Knowing who your target audience is and how to find them is crucial to your success. Companies often use previous custom- ers’ addresses, social media, and posts on their website or blogs to gather a list of possible customers. You will also have to determine how many people are in your audience. A sales letter may be written to just one person (Figure 5.7, page 170) or to hundreds of readers at different companies (Figure 6.3).

2. Use reader psychology. Think like your reader and ask: “What am I trying to do for the customer?” Ask that question before you begin writing and you will be using effective reader psychology. Appeal to readers’ health, security, convenience, comfort, or finances by focusing on the right issues (for instance, inform buyers that your product research involves no animal testing). Note that Patrice St. Jacques appeals to the reader’s ethnic and community values in Figure 5.7.

3. Send your sales letter at the right time. Back-to-school specials are best an- nounced in August. Appealing to customers to use their tax refund checks to buy a product or service is most effective from February to early April.

4. Don’t be a bore or boast. Save elaborate explanations about a product for after the sale. Put detailed documentation in instruction booklets, in warran- ties, or on your company’s website. Further, do not turn your sales letter into a glowing commendation of your company or yourself. Figures 5.7 and 6.3 both avoid that.

Sales Letters 193

October 5, 2015

Ms. Sharonda Aimes-Worthington Research Director Creative Marketing Associates 198 Madison Ave. New York, NY 10016-0092

Dear Ms. Aimes-Worthington:

I am a junior at Monroe College in Syracuse, and I am writing a report entitled “E-commerce Strategies for the Finger Lakes Region of New York” for my Marketing 340 class. Several of my professors have spoken highly of Creative Marketing Associates, and in my own research I have learned a great deal from reading your blogs that posted over the last few months.

Given your extensive experience in developing websites and apps to promote regional businesses and tourism, I would be grateful if you would share your responses to the following three questions with me:

1. What have been the most effective e-commerce strategies you have used for a regional marketplace such as the Finger Lakes?

2. How can area chambers of commerce and various municipalities help generate Web traffic to a regional marketplace website for the Finger Lakes area?

3. Which other regional area(s) do you see having the same or very similar marketing goals and challenges as the Finger Lakes?

Your answers to these questions would make my report much more authoritative and useful. I would be happy to send you a copy and will, of course, be honored to cite you and Creative Marketing Associates in my work.

Because my report is due by December 2, I would greatly appreciate having your answers within the next month so that I can include them. Would you kindly send your responses, or any questions you may have, to my email address listed above.

Many thanks for any help you can give me.

Sincerely yours,

Julie Kawatsu

Figure 6.2 A Special Request Letter

Explains reason for letter and how the writer learned about the firm

Proves writer has done research

Acknowledges reader’s expertise

Lists specific, numbered questions on the topic

As an incentive offers to send copy of report

Indicates when information is needed, and makes contact easy

Thanks reader

An example of a student- designed letterhead

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194 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

5. Use words that appeal to the reader’s senses. Choose concrete words instead of abstract, vague ones. Find verbs that are colorful, that put the reader in the pic- ture, so to speak. You will have a greater chance of selling readers if they can hear, see, taste, or touch your product in their mind. That way they can visualize them- selves buying or using your product or service. Note how St. Jacques fills the sales letter in Figure 5.7 with Caribbean sights, sounds, and tastes to appeal to Etienne Abernathy and his company.

6. Be ethical. Avoid untruths, exaggerations, distortions, false comparisons, and unsupported generalizations. Honesty is the best way to make a sale. Never make false claims about the cost, safety, or adaptability of your product or service. You could be prosecuted for mail fraud or sued for misrepresentation. (Review “Writing Ethically on the Job,” pages 35–37.) In addition, never attack a competitor and always get permission before you include an endorsement.

the Four a’s of Sales Letters Successful sales letters follow a time-honored and workable plan—what can be called the “Four A’s”:

1. It gets the reader’s attention—with a question or a how-to statement (e.g., “We can show you how to save $100 on your next credit card purchase”).

2. It highlights the product’s or service’s appeal—emotionally or financially, or both. Focus on benefits to the reader.

3. It shows the customer the product’s or service’s application—descriptions, spe- cial features, warranties.

4. It ends with a specific request for action—call, visit, participate, take advantage of a special sales price, register online. Motivate reader to act promptly. Provide any necessary order forms or information.

These four goals can be achieved in fewer than four or five paragraphs. Look at the sales letter in Figure 6.3 in which these parts are labeled.

Mail Merge

One way to help make your sales letters more personable (and to avoid, for example, the use of “Dear Consumer” or the like in the salutation) is the use of mail merge. This feature, available in many word-processing programs, allows you to personalize each of the letters you write by merging the content of a standard letter with unique informa- tion about a customer that you may need or want to highlight in your letter (such as their mailing address or other special information about their business or account). Mail merge allows you to produce multiple versions of a single letter, each one tailored to a specific customer. Such personalization can make your sales appeal stand out from other, more generic requests.

tech Note

Sales Letters 195

August 13, 2015

Ali Jen, Office Manager Circuit Systems, Inc. 7 Tyler Place Oklahoma City, OK 73101-0761

Dear Ali Jen:

Do you know how much money your company loses from repetitive strain injury (RSI)? Each year employers spend millions of dollars on employee insurance claims because of back pains, fatigue, eye strain, bursitis, and carpal tunnel syndrome injuries.

Workwell can solve your problems with its easy-to-use Exercise Program Software, which automatically monitors the time employees spend at their computers and also measures their keyboard activity. After each hour (or the specified number of keystrokes), Workwell software will take your employees through a series of brief exercises that will help prevent carpal tunnel syndrome and muscle strains.

Workwell’s Exercise Program Software will not interfere with your busy schedule. Each of the 27 exercises is demonstrated on screen with audio instructions. The entire program takes less than 3 minutes and is available for Windows 8, 8.1, and 10 as well as OS X 10.8 or higher. For only $1,499.00, you can provide a networked version of this valuable software to all of Circuit Systems’ employees. To view a short demonstration of the software, please visit our website at www.workwell.com/demo.

To help your employees stay at peak efficiency in a safe work environment, please call us at 1-800-555-WELL or visit us at www.workwell.com to order your software today.

Thank you. I hope to hear from you soon.

Cory Soufas Sales Representative

Figure 6.3 A Sales Letter Sent to a Business Reader

Gets reader’s attention with a question

Relevant, distinctive letterhead.

Emphasizes the product’s appeal using precise language

Shows specific application of the product

Links costs to benefits

Ends with a call for prompt action

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196 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

Getting the Reader’s attention Your opening sentence is crucial. That first sentence is bait on a hook. If you lose readers there, you will have lost them forever. A typical television commercial or website has about two to five seconds to catch the viewers’ attention. Keep your opening short, one or two sentences at most. Show how your product or service will make your reader’s life or job easier, save money, or make him or her safer (see Figure 6.3), happier, more productive, or get a job done more easily or quicker.

The following six techniques are a few of the many interest-grabbing ways to begin a sales letter. Adapt these techniques to your product or service.

1. Ask a question. Look, for example, at the opening question in Figure 6.3. Avoid such general questions as “Are you happy?” or “Would you like to make money?” Use more specific questions with concrete language. For instance, an ad for Air Force Reserve Nursing asks nurses, “Are you looking for something 30,000 feet out of the ordinary?”

2. Use a how-to statement. This is one of the most frequently used openers in a sales letter. Here are some effective how-to statements: “We can show you how to increase your plant growth up to 91%.” “This is how to provide nourishing lunches for less than eighty cents a person.” Note that the opening sentence of Cory Soufas’s sales letter in Figure 6.3 combines both a how-to and a question approach.

3. Compliment your reader. Appeal to the reader’s ego. But remember that read- ers are not naive; they will be suspicious of false praise. Patrice St. Jacques opens the sales letter in Figure 5.7 (page 170) with fitting and sincere praise.

4. Offer a gift or a buyer’s protection plan. Often you can lure readers further into your letter by sending a coupon for a discount on their next purchase, telling them they are eligible for a rewards program, assuring them of getting a second product free or at half price, providing a guarantee that will make their purchase of your product or service a safe buy, and so on. A realtor tempts customers to see lots for sale with this opening: “Enclosed is a coupon worth $50 in gas after you tour Deer Trails Estates.”

5. Introduce a comparison. Compare your product or service with conventional or standard ones. For instance, a clothing firm told police officers that if they pur- chased a particular jacket, they were really getting three coats in one because the product had a removable lining for winter or summer use and a visibility coating for nighttime use.

6. Announce a change. Link your sales offer to a current event that will af- fect your prospective buyer. For instance, when the sales tax on hybrid cars was about to be increased, a dealer sent sales letters to potential buyers, alerting them to the implications of delaying their purchase: “The sales tax on hybrids will jump a WHOPPING 4 percent effective next month. You may not think that 4 percent will mean that much money, but on a new 2017 model that increase could cost you an extra $1,500.” The sales letter continued: “Couldn’t you use that money for something else, say, those extras you’ve always wanted, like integrated Bluetooth connectivity or an extended warranty?

Sales Letters 197

Highlighting the Product’s appeal Once you have aroused your reader’s attention, introduce your product or service by making it so attractive, so necessary, and so profitable that the reader will want to buy or use it. In Figure 5.7 on page 170, the Island Jacques letter zeroes in on the reader’s ethnic pride and heritage. In Figure 6.3, Workwell Software’s mass mailing letter to office managers appeals to their desire for greater productivity and im- proved employee safety. Here is an appeal by the Gulf Stream Fruit Company:

Can you, when you bite into an orange, tell where it was grown? If it tastes better than any you have ever eaten . . . full of rich, golden flavor, brimming with juice, sparkling with sunshine . . . then you know it was grown here in our famous Indian River Valley where we have handpicked it, at the very peak of its flavor, just for your order.1

Showing the Customer the Product’s or Service’s application In the third part of your sales letter, supply evidence of the value of what you are selling. Don’t overwhelm readers with facts, statistics, detailed technical descrip- tions, or elaborate arguments. Keep the emphasis on the reader’s beneficial use of the product and not on the company that manufactures or sells it.

1. Supply the right evidence. What evidence best convinces readers about a prod- uct’s or service’s appeal?

●● Descriptions that emphasize state-of-the-art design and construction, efficiency, convenience, usefulness, and economy. Note how the letter in Figure 6.3 points out that the software will not interfere with the employees’ busy schedule.

●● Special features or changes that make your product or service more attractive. For example, a greenhouse manufacturer stressed that in addition to using its structure for growing plants, customers would also find it to be a “perfect sun room enclosure for year-round ‘outdoor’ activities, gardening, or leisure health spa.” A computer outlet store promised free IT support for a year.

●● Testimonials, or endorsements, from previous customers as well as from specialists.

●● Warranties, services, or special considerations that will make your customer’s life easier or happier—a loaner car, free home delivery, a ten-day trial period, a year’s free Internet access, or upgrades.

2. Do I mention costs? As a general rule, do not bluntly state the cost. Instead, relate prices, charges, or fees to the benefits provided by the services or products you are selling. Let customers see how much they are getting for their money, as Cory Soufas does in paragraph 3 in Figure 6.3. Similarly, a dealer who installs steel shutters did not tell readers the exact cost of this product but stressed that they will save money by buying them: “Your Reel Shutters also offer substantial savings in energy costs by reducing your heat loss through radiation by as much as 65% . . . and that lowers your utility bills by at least 35%.”

1From “Gifts from Gulf Stream,” Gulf Stream Fruit Company, Ft. Lauderdale, Fla. Reprinted by permission.

198 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

Ending with a Specific Request for action The last section of your letter is vital. If the reader ignores your request for action, you have written your letter in vain. Tell readers exactly what you want them to do and by when. Make it easy for them to

●● authorize a deduction ●● visit your business (as in Figure 5.7, page 170) ●● visit your website or blog (as in Figure 6.3) ●● take a test drive ●● participate in a meeting ●● fill out a pledge card ●● respond via the Internet (as in Figure 6.3) ●● sign and return an order form (provide a stamped, addressed envelope) ●● place an order through your company’s safe and secure website

As with price, link the benefits the customers will receive to their responses. “Respond and be rewarded” is the basic message of the last section of your letter. Note that in Figure 6.3, the call to action is made in the last paragraph; the writer urges the reader to call a toll-free number immediately in order to increase employee safety and efficiency.

CustOmer relatiOns letters Much business correspondence deals explicitly with establishing and maintaining friendly working relations. Customer relations letters show how you and your company regard the people with whom you do business. The letters should reveal your sensitivity to their needs. The first lesson to learn is that you cannot look at your letter only from your (the writer’s) perspective. You have to see it from the reader’s perspective and anticipate his/her needs and reactions. Customer relations letters send readers good news or bad news, acceptances or refusals. Good news tells customers one or more of the following:

●● You agree with them about a problem they brought to your attention. ●● You are solving their problem exactly the way they want. ●● You are approving their loan or request for a refund. ●● You are grateful to them for their business.

Thank you letters, congratulations letters, and adjustment letters saying “Yes” with these messages are all examples of good news messages.

Bad news messages, however, inform readers that:

●● You do not like their work or the equipment/technology they sold you. ●● You do not have the equipment or service they want or you cannot provide it

at the price they want to pay. ●● You cannot refund their purchase price or perform a service. ●● You are raising their rent or not renewing their lease. ●● You are denying a loan or a line of credit

Customer Relations Letters 199

Bad news messages often come to readers through complaint letters, adjustment let- ters that say “No,” and collection letters.

Diplomacy and reader psychology Writing effective customer relations letters requires skill in human relations and reader psychology. Regardless of the news—good or bad—you need to be a dip- lomatic and persuasive writer. In fact, customer relations letters, like other cor- respondence, call upon your most effective skills in persuasion (see “Persuading and Offering Recommendations,” pages 23–26). To be at your best persuasively, do some research about your readers—their business needs, their schedules, their areas of authority in the chain of command, and even their grievances (if applicable).

the customers always Write As you read this section on customer relations letters, keep in mind the two basic principles captured in the pun “The customers always write.”

1. Customers will write about how they would like to be or have been treated—to thank, to complain, to request an explanation.

2. Customers have certain rights that you must respect in your correspondence with them. They deserve a prompt and courteous reply, whether or not you think they are correct. If you refuse their request, they deserve to know why and what you can or cannot do about it; if they owe you money, you should give them an opportunity to explain and a chance, up to a point, to set up a payment schedule. Always be ethical in responding—be fair, honest, undeniably legal, and profes- sional. (Review “Ethical Writing in the Workplace,” pages 26–37.)

Being Direct or Indirect Not every customer relations letter starts by giving the reader the writer’s main point, judgment, conclusion, or reaction. Whether you are sending good news or bad news, determine what to say and where. Where you place your main idea is determined by the type of letter you are writing. Good news messages require one tactic; bad news ones, another.

Good News Message If you are writing a good news letter, use the direct approach. Start your letter with the welcome, pleasant news that the reader wants to hear. Begin by putting your reader in the right frame of mind and creating goodwill for your company. Then, provide any relevant supporting details, explanations, or commentary. Being direct is advantageous when you have good news to convey.

Bad News Message If you have bad news to report, do not open your letter with it. Be indirect. Prepare your reader for the bad news; keep the tension level down. If you throw

200 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

the bad news at your reader right away, you jeopardize the goodwill you want to create and sustain. Consider how you would react to a letter that begins with these slaps:

●● Your order cannot be filled. ●● Your application for a loan has been denied. ●● It is our unfortunate duty to report …

Having been denied, disappointed, or even offended in the first sentence or paragraph, the reader is not likely to give you his or her attentive cooperation thereafter.

We will discuss some specific types of good news/bad news letters in the next several sections: follow-up letters, complaint letters, adjustment letters, refusal- of-credit letters, and collection letters.

Two Versions of a Bad News Message

Figures 6.4 and 6.5 illustrate two versions of a letter written by A. J. Griffin, the business man- ager of a large mall, to one of her tenants, Daniel Sobol, notifying him about an increase in rent. Notice how Griffin’s bad news letter in Figure 6.4 curtly starts off with the bad news. Receiving such a letter, the owner of Flowers by Dan certainly could not be blamed for looking for a new place of business. Griffin was too direct when she should have been diplomatically in- direct. She did not consider her reader’s reaction; all she was concerned about was delivering her message.

Compare the curt version of Griffin’s letter in Figure 6.4 with her revised message in Figure 6.5. In the revised version, she begins tactfully with pleasant, positive words de- signed to put her reader in a good frame of mind. Then Griffin gives some background information that the owner of Flowers by Dan can relate to. Griffin makes one more at- tempt to encourage Sobol to recall his good feelings about the mall—last year they did not raise rents—before introducing the bad news of an increase.

Griffin softens the blow by saying that the River Road Mall knows it is not welcome news. Her tactic here is to defuse some of the anger that Sobol will inevitably feel. In fact, Griffin words the bad news so that the tenant sees the mall as acting in the best interest of his flower shop. The mall will not lower or compromise on the services that the tenant has enjoyed and profited from in the past. Griffin then ends on a positive, upbeat note: a prosperous future for Flowers by Dan.

Case study

Customer Relations Letters 201

December 3, 2016

Mr. Daniel Sobol Flowers by Dan Lower Level 107 River Road Mall

Dear Mr. Sobol:

This is to inform you of a rent increase. Starting next month your new rent will be $3,500.00, resulting in a 15 percent increase.

Please make sure that your January rent check includes this increase.

Sincerely,

A. J. Griffin Business Manager [email protected]

300 First Street Canton, OH 44701

(216) 555-6700 www.RRMall.com

www.facebook.com/RRMall/ @RRMall

Blunt opening disregards audience’s needs and feelings

Ends with a discourteously written demand

No attempt to help audience understand or accept message

Figure 6.4 An Ineffective Bad News Letter

(Continued)

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202 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

December 3, 2016

Mr. Daniel Sobol Flowers by Dan Lower Level 107 River Road Mall

Dear Mr. Sobol:

It has been a pleasure to have you as a tenant at the mall for the past two years, and we look forward to serving you in the future.

Over these last two years we have experienced a dramatic increase in costs at River Road Mall for security, maintenance, landscaping, pest control, utilities, insurance, and taxes. Last year we absorbed those increases and so did not raise your rent. We wish we could do it again, but, unfortunately, we must increase your rent by 15 percent, to $3,500.00 a month, effective January 1.

Although no one likes a rent increase, we know that you do not want us to compromise on the quality of service that you and your customers expect and deserve from River Road Mall.

Please let us know how we can assist you in the future. We wish you a very successful and profitable 2017. If you have any questions, please call or visit my office.

Cordially,

A. J. Griffin Business Manager [email protected]

300 First Street Canton, OH 44701

(216) 555-6700 www.RRMall.com

www.facebook.com/RRMall/ @RRMall

Opens with positive association

Prepares reader for bad news to follow

States bad news in most concise, upbeat way

Links bad news to reader benefits

Does not apologize but ends respectfully

Friendly complimentary close suitable for a long-term client

Figure 6.5 A Diplomatic Revision of the Bad News Letter in Figure 6.4

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Customer Relations Letters 203

Follow-Up Letters A follow-up letter is sent by a company after a sale to thank the customer for buying a product or using a service and to encourage the customer to buy more products and services. A follow-up letter is a combination thank-you note and sales letter. The letter in Figure 6.6 (page 204) shows how an income tax prepara- tion service attempts to obtain repeat business by doing the following:

1. begins with a brief and sincere expression of gratitude 2. discusses the benefits (advantages) the customer already knows about and then

transfers the firm’s dedication to the customer to a continuing sales area 3. ends with a specific request for future business

complaint Letters Each of us, either as customers or businesspeople, at some time has been frustrated by a defective product, late or prolonged deliveries, inadequate or rude service, or incorrect billing. When we get no satisfaction from calling an 800 number and are routed through a series of prompts, our frustration level goes up. Usually our first response is to write a letter or dash off an email or tweet, dripping with juicy in- sults. But an angry letter, like a flaming email (see Figure 4.3, page 125), rarely gets positive results and can hurt your company’s image.

A complaint letter is a delicate one to write. First off, avoid the following:

●● name calling ●● sarcasm ●● insults

●● threats ●● unflattering clip art ●● using all captial letters

The key thing to keep in mind is that you can disagree without being disagreeable. Be rational, not hostile. Just to let off steam, you might want to write an angry let- ter but then delete or tear it up, replacing all the heat with courteous and diplomatic language.

Establishing the Right Tone A complaint letter is written for more reasons than just blowing off steam. You want some specific action taken. The “you attitude” is especially important here to maintain the reader’s goodwill. Complaint letters that are professional and consid- erate are more likely to receive positive attention than letters bristling with angry words. An effective complaint letter can be written by an individual consumer or by a company. Figure 6.7 (page 205) shows Michael Trigg’s complaint about a defec- tive fishing reel; Figure 6.8 (page 206) expresses a restaurant’s dissatisfaction with a commercial dishwasher.

Writing an Effective Complaint Letter To increase your chances of receiving a speedy settlement, follow these seven steps in writing your letter of complaint. They will help you build your case.

204 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

Figure 6.6 A Follow-Up Letter to Encourage Repeat Business

Taylor Tax Service Highway 10, North Jennings, TX 78326 (888) 555-9681 | [email protected]

www.taylortax.com

December 3, 2015

Ms. Laurie Pavlovich 345 Jefferson St. Jennings, TX 78326

Dear Ms. Pavlovich:

Thank you for using our services in February of this year. We were pleased to help you prepare your 2014 Federal income tax return. Our goal is to save you every tax dollar to which you are entitled. If you ever have questions about your return, we are open all year long to help you. We are looking forward to serving you again next year. There have been quite a number of changes for this year that you need to be aware of; most of them relate to the Affordable Care Act, which asks if members of your household had health coverage for all the months of 2015. Additionally, several new federal tax laws enacted this year will change the types of deductions you can declare. These changes might appreciably increase your refund. Our consultants know the new laws and are ready to apply them to your return.

Another important tax matter in�uencing your 2015 returns will be any losses you may have suffered because of the hailstorms and tornadoes that hit our area �ve months ago. Our consultants are specially trained to assist you in �ling proper damage claims with your federal return.

To make using our services even more convenient, we �le your tax return electronically to speed up any refund. Please call or email us as soon as you have received all your 2015 tax forms to set up an appointment. We are waiting to serve you seven days a week from 9:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m.

Sincerely yours,

TAYLOR TAX SERVICE

Demetria Taylor, CPA

Links business goal to customer advantage

Stresses reasons for customer to return for service

Makes it easy and profitable for customer to act soon

Ends with commitment to customer convenience

Te xt

, © 2

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Yuri Arcurs/ShutterStock.com

Customer Relations Letters 205

Figure 6.7 A Complaint Letter from a Consumer

October 9, 2015

Mr. Ralph Montoya Customer Relations Department Smith Sports Equipment P.O. Box 1014 Tulsa, OK 74109-1014

Dear Mr. Montoya:

On September 21, 2015, I purchased a Smith reel, model 191, at the Uni-Mart Store on Marsh Avenue in Magnolia. The reel sold for $94.95 plus tax. The reel is not working effectively, and I am returning it to you under separate cover by first-class mail.

I had made no more than five casts with the reel when it began to malfunction. The button that releases the spool and allows the line to cast would not spring back into position after casting. In addition, the gears made a grinding noise whenever I tried to retrieve the line. Because of these problems, I was unable to continue my participation in the Gloucester Fishing Tournament last week.

I request that a new reel be sent to me free of charge in place of the defective one I returned. I would also like to know what was wrong with the defective reel.

Thank you for processing my claim within the next two weeks.

Sincerely yours,

Michael Trigg

Identifies appropriate persons to resolve problem

Documents all relevant details about the product

Explains politely what is wrong

Clearly states what should be done

Specifies an acceptable timeframe

1. Sending your letter to the right person further ensures your success. But, as we saw, never address it “To Whom It May Concern.” Do your homework—search the company’s website or go to Hoover’s Business Directory (www.hoovers.com) to get contact information. But don’t send your letter to the CEO. Find the appropri- ate person or office that responds to customer problems.

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June 21, 2016

Ms. Priscilla Dubrow Customer Relations Department Superflex Products San Diego, CA 93141-0808

Dear Ms. Dubrow:

On September 15, 2015, we purchased a Superflex commercial dishwasher model 3203876, at the Hillcrest store at 3400 Broadway Drive in Sunnyside, for $41,296. In the last three weeks, our restaurant has had serious and repeated problems with this machine. Three more months of warranty remain on the unit.

The machine does not complete a full cycle; it stops before the final rinsing and thus leaves the dishes dirty. It appears that the cycle regulators are not working properly because they refuse to shift into the next necessary gear. Attempts to repair the machine by the Hillcrest service team on June 4, 11, and 14 have been unsuccessful.

The Loft has been greatly inconvenienced. Our kitchen team has been forced to sort, clean, and sanitize utensils, dishes, pans, and pots by hand, resulting in an additional overtime expense of $1,100. Moreover, our expenses for proper detergents have increased.

We want your main office to send another repair crew to fix this machine. If your crew is unable to do this, we want a discount worth the amount of the warranty life on this model to be applied to the purchase of a new Superflex dishwasher. This amount would come to $8,260, or 20 percent of the original purchase price.

So that our business is not further disrupted, we would appreciate your resolving this problem promptly within the next four to five business days.

Sincerely yours,

Emily Rashon Co-Owner

Camerson and Dale Sunnyside, California 91793-4116 213-555-7500

Browse our menu, which changes daily, at www.theloft.com

Figure 6.8 A Complaint Letter from a Business

Writes to specific reader

Gives all product’s facts and warranty information

Describes what happened and when

Documents problem and reason for adjustment

Provides clear description of how problem should be solved

Concludes politely with justification for prompt action

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2. Be concise. Keep your letter to one page. Your reader wants essential details, not a saga of your troubles.

3. Begin with a detailed description of the product or service. Give the appropriate model and serial numbers, size, quantity, color, and cost, as Emily Rashon does in Figure 6.8. Indicate when, where (specific address), and how (through a vendor, the Internet, at a brick-and-mortar store) you purchased it and also the time remaining on a warranty. If you are complaining about a service, give the name of the company, the date of the service, and the personnel providing it.

4. State exactly what is wrong with the product or service. Be factual. Precise information will help the reader to understand and act on your complaint.

●● How many times did the product work before it stopped? ●● What parts were malfunctioning? ●● What parts of a job were not done or were done poorly? ●● When did all this happen? How many times? ●● Where and exactly how were you inconvenienced? ●● Was the service late, incomplete, rude?

Stating that “the brake shoes were defective” tells very little about how long they were on your car, how effectively they may have been installed, or what condition they were in when they ceased functioning safely. Michael Trigg specifies “no more than five casts” in Figure 6.7.

5. Briefly describe the inconvenience you have experienced. Show that your problems were directly caused by the defective product or service. To build your case, give precise details about the time and money you lost. Don’t just say you had “numerous difficulties.” Did you have to pay a mechanic to fix your car when it was stalled on the road? Did you have to buy a new printer or wireless router? In Figure 6.8, Emily Rashon cites overtime her staff had to put in. Where appropriate, refer to any previous telephone calls, emails, or letters. Give the names of the people you have written to or spoken with and the dates.

6. Indicate precisely what you want done. Be realistic. Don’t inflate costs or damages. And do not simply write that you “want something done.” State precisely that you want one or more of the following:

●● your purchase price refunded in full ●● a credit made to your account ●● a credit toward the purchase of another model (as in Figure 6.8) ●● your exact model repaired or replaced (as in Figure 6.7) ●● a new repair crew assigned to the job ●● an apology from the company for discourteous or late service

If you are asking for damages, state your request in dollars and cents and always include copies of bills documenting your expenses related to the problem.

7. Ask for prompt handling of your claim. In your concluding paragraph, ask the reader to answer any question you may have (such as finding out where calls

208 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

came from that you were billed for but did not make). Also specify a reasonable time by which you want to hear from the reader or need the problem fixed. Note how the writer does this in the last paragraph in Figure 6.8.

adjustment Letters Adjustment letters respond to complaint letters by telling customers dissatis- fied with a product or service how their claim will be settled. Customer feedback, whether through letters or social media, is crucial to maintain and expand a busi- ness. You need to take these posts seriously and provide fast follow-up to ensure your customers that their comments are being heard and acted upon. Adjust- ment letters should reconcile the differences that exist between a customer and a company, restore the customer’s confidence in that company, and encourage that customer to spread the good news about how your company or organization has treated him or her. Always treat your customers, regardless of their complaint, with respect and sincerity. Acknowledge that they are experiencing a problem with your product or service and that you have the customer’s best interest in mind in wanting to respond.

How to (and Not to) Write an Adjustment Letter An effective adjustment letter requires diplomacy. Be prompt, courteous, and deci- sive; do not brush the complaint aside in hopes that it will be forgotten. Respond quickly; the longer you wait, the more frustrated and angry your reader becomes. Investigate the complaint quickly, and determine its validity by checking previ- ous correspondence, warranty statements, guarantees, and your firm’s adjustment policies on merchandise and service, whether posted on the Web or in documents accompanying the product or service. In some cases you may even have to send returned damaged merchandise to your company’s laboratory to determine who is at fault.

A noncommittal letter signals to the customer that you have failed to investi- gate the claim or are stalling for time. Do not resort to vague statements such as the following:

●● We will do what we can to solve your problems as soon as possible. ●● A company policy prohibits our returning your purchase price in full. ●● Your request, while legitimate, will take time to process. ●● While we cannot now determine the extent of an adjustment, we will be back

in touch with you. ●● We are sorry you are having this problem, but there is little we can do about it. ●● Please get in touch with a customer service representative.

Customers want to be told that they are right; if they cannot get what they request, they will demand to know why. When you comply with a request, a be- grudging tone will destroy the goodwill that your refund or replacement would have created.

At the other extreme, do not overdo an apology by agreeing that the company is “completely at fault” or that “such shoddy merchandise is inexcusable.” If you

Customer Relations Letters 209

make your company look too bad, you risk losing the customer permanently, and saying your company was negligent or that a product was defective may result in a lawsuit. Before you reply, therefore, always check your company’s policies about what should and should not be said and promised in an adjustment letter.

Complaints are often made on social media; multiple complaints may justify an online response (such as the blog entry regarding the elimination of a popular product in Figure 4.7, page 134). In addition to checking your company’s social media sites, you should also review sites such as Yelp, Zagat’s, Angie’s List, or TripAdvisor to see if an adjustment letter needs to be posted on your company’s website.

Adjustment Letters That Tell the Customer “Yes” It is easy to write a “Yes” letter if you remember a few useful suggestions. As with a good news message, start with the favorable news the customer wants to hear; that will put him or her in a positive frame of mind to read the rest of your letter. Let the customer know that you sincerely agree with him or her—don’t sound as if you are begrudgingly honoring the request. Use a friendly, welcoming tone. Give read- ers contact information so they know how to reach you with questions or further comments.

The two examples of adjustment letters saying “Yes” show you how to write this kind of correspondence. The first example, Figure 6.9 (page 210), says “Yes” to Michael Trigg’s letter in Figure 6.7. Reread the Trigg complaint letter to see what problems Ralph Montoya faced when he had to write to Mr. Trigg. The sec- ond example of an adjustment letter that says “Yes” is in Fig ure 6.10 (page 211). It responds to a customer who has complained about an incorrect billing.

Guidelines for Writing a “Yes” Letter The following four steps will help you write a “Yes” adjustment letter.

1. Admit immediately that the customer’s complaint is justified and apolo- gize. Briefly and sincerely state that you are sorry and thank the customer for writ- ing to inform you.

2. State precisely what you are going to do to correct the problem. Let the customer know that you will

●● extend warranty coverage ●● credit the account with funds, more air miles, or additional bonus points ●● offer a discount on the next purchase ●● cancel a bill or give credit toward another purchase ●● repair damaged equipment ●● enclose a free pass, coupon, or waiver ●● upgrade a product or service

Do not postpone the good news the customer wants to hear. That way the rest of your letter will be much more appreciated and convincing. In Figure 6.9, Michael Trigg is told that he will receive a new reel; in Figure 6.10, Kathryn Brumfield learns she will not be charged for parts or service.

210 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

Responds within time frame specified in complaint letter

Apologizes and announces good news

Explains what happened and why problem will not recur

Expresses respect for customer

Closes with friendly offer to help again

Signed, not stamped, signature

Figure 6.9 An Adjustment Letter Saying “Yes” to the Complaint Letter in Figure 6.7

October 20, 2015

Mr. Michael Trigg 17 Westwood Drive Magnolia, MA 02171

Dear Mr. Trigg:

Thank you for alerting us in your letter of October 9 to your problems with one of our model 191 spincast reels. I am sorry for the trouble the reel caused you. A new Smith reel is on its way to you.

We have examined your reel and found the difƒculty. It seems that a retaining pin on the button spring was improperly installed by one of our new soldering machines on the assembly line. We have thoroughly inspected, repaired, and cleaned this machine to eliminate the problem from happening again.

Since we began making quality reels in 1955, we have taken pride in helping loyal customers like you who rely on a Smith reel. We hope that your new reel brings you years of pleasure and many good catches, especially next year at the Gloucester Fishing Tournament.

Thank you for your business. Please let me know if I might help you again.

Respectfully,

SMITH SPORTS EQUIPMENT

Ralph Montoya Customer Relations Department

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Responds promptly

Thanks customer and complies with request

Explains why problem occurred and how it has been resolved

Ends courteously and leaves reader with good feeling about the dealership

Provides company URL so customer can further explore product line

Figure 6.10 An Adjustment Letter Saying “Yes”

August 6, 2015

Ms. Kathryn Brumfield 34 East Main Giddings, KS 62034-1123

Dear Ms. Brumfield:

We appreciate your notifying us, in your letter of July 30, about the problem you experienced with warranty coverage on your new Phantom Hawk GT. The bills sent to you were incorrect, and I have canceled them. Please accept my apologies. You should not have been charged for a shroud or for repairs to the damaged fan and hose, since all those parts, and labor on them, are fully covered by your warranty.

The problem was the result of an error in the way the charges were listed. Our firm has begun using new billing software to give customers better service, and the technician apparently entered the wrong code for your account. We have since programmed our system to flag any bills for vehicles still under warranty. We hope that this new procedure will help us serve you and our other customers more efficiently.

Thank you for taking the time to write to us. We value you as a customer at Brunelli Motors. When you are ready for another Phantom Hawk GT, take a virtual test drive at www.brunellimotors.com/phantom. Please let me know if I can be of any further help to you. Happy motoring!

Sincerely yours,

Susan Chee-Saafir Service Manager

@BrunelliMotors www.brunellimotors.com

www.facebook.com/BrunelliMotors/

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212 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

3. Tell customers exactly what happened. They deserve an explanation for the inconvenience they suffered. Note that the explanations in Figures 6.9 and 6.10 (pages 210 and 211) give only the essential details; they do not burden the reader with side issues or petty remarks about who was to blame. But assure customers that the mishap is not typical of your company’s operations.

4. End on a friendly—and positive—note. Don’t remind customers about their trouble. Leave customers with a positive feeling about your company. You want them to purchase your product or service again.

Adjustment Letters That Tell the Customer “No” Writing to tell customers “No” is obviously more difficult than agreeing with them. You are faced with the sensitive task of conveying bad news, while at the same time convincing the reader that your position is fair, logical, and consistent. You want them to do business again. Do not bluntly start off with a “No.” Do not accuse or argue. Avoid remarks such as the following that blame, scold, or remind customers of a wrongdoing:

●● You obviously did not read the instruction manual. ●● Our records show that you purchased the equipment with no warranty left. ●● The company policy plainly states that such refunds are not allowed. ●● You were negligent in running the machine. ●● You claim that our portable hard drive was poorly constructed. ●● Your complaint is unjustified.

Guidelines for Saying “No” Diplomatically The following five suggestions will help you say “No” diplomatically. Practical applications of these suggestions can be found in Figures 6.11 (page 213) and 6.12 (page 214). Contrast the refusal of Michael Trigg’s complaint in Figure 6.11 with the favorable response to it in Figure 6.9.

1. Thank customers for writing. Open with a polite, respectful comment, called a buffer, to soften your reader’s response before he or she sees your “No.” Don’t put them on the defensive by beginning with “We regret to inform you.” The letter writers in Figures 6.11 and 6.12 use buffers to thank the customers for bringing the matter to their attention and sympathize with them about their in- convenience. As with other bad news letters, never begin with a refusal. Telling them “No” in the first sentence or two will negatively color their reactions to the rest of your letter. Use the indirect approach discussed earlier in this chapter (see “Being Direct or Indirect,” pages 199–200), and avoid these reader-hostile openings:

●● I was surprised to learn that you found our product unsatisfactory. ●● We have been in business for years and nothing like this has ever happened. ●● There is no way we could give you what you demand.

Customer Relations Letters 213

October 20, 2015

Mr. Michael Trigg 17 Westwood Drive Magnolia, MA 02171

Dear Mr. Trigg:

Thank you for writing to us on October 9 about the trouble you experienced with our model 191 spincast reel. We are sorry to hear about the dif€culties you had with the release button and gears.

We have examined your reel and found the dif€culty. It seems that a retaining pin in the button spring was pushed into the side of the reel casing thereby making the gears inoperable. The retaining pin is a vital yet delicate part of your reel. In order to function properly, it has to be pushed gently. Since our warranty does not cover pushing the pin forcibly, we cannot send you a replacement.

However, we want you to have many more hours of €shing pleasure, and so we would be happy to repair your reel for $49.98 and return it to you within 5–7 days. Please let us know your decision.

I look forward to hearing from you. Thank you for writing to us.

Respectfully,

SMITH SPORTS EQUIPMENT

Ralph Montoya Customer Relations Department

Figure 6.11 An Adjustment Letter Saying “No” to the Complaint Letter in Figure 6.7

Buffer—thanks and sympathizes with reader

Explains problem without directly blaming the reader; gives firm decision

Turns a “No” into a “Yes” for customer

Ends politely without any reference to the problem

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214 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

Figure 6.12 Another Adjustment Letter Saying “No”

August 28, 2015

Denise Southby, Director Bradley General Hospital Bradley, IL 60610-4615

Dear Director Southby:

Thank you for your letter of August 20 explaining the problems you encountered with our Puritan MAII ventilator. We were sorry to learn that you were unable to get the high-volume PAO2 alarm circuit to work.

Our ventilator is a high-volume, low-frequency unit that can deliver up to 40 cm of water pressure. The ventilator runs with a center of gravity attachment on the right side of the diode. The trouble you had with the high oxygen alarm system is due to an overload on your piped-in oxygen. Our laboratory inspection of the ventilator you returned indicated that the high-pressure system had blown a vital adapter in the MAII. An overload in an oxygen system is not covered by the warranty on the ventilator, and so we cannot replace it free of charge.

We would, however, be pleased to send you another model of the adapter, which would be more compatible with your system, as soon as we receive your order. The price of the adapter is $600, but because you are a valued customer, our service representative will install it at no charge to you.

Please let me know your decision. I look forward to hearing from you. You can reach me at my email [email protected], or at (801) 555-6028, extension 318.

Sincerely yours,

R. P. Gifford Systems Coordinator

Inside address and salutation list reader’s title

Professional you-centered opening with buffer

Justifies firm decision by explaining causes of problem and conditions of sale

Provides practical alternative with financial incentive to keep customer’s business

Ends with goodwill and specific contact information

Eye-catching and appropriate logo

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Customer Relations Letters 215

2. State the problem carefully to reassure the customer that you understand the complaint. You thereby prove that you are not trying to misrepresent or dis- tort what the customer has told you.

3. Explain what happened with the product or service before you give the cus- tomer a decision. Provide a factual explanation to show the customer that he or she is being treated fairly. Rather than focusing on the customer’s misunderstanding the instructions or a failure to observe details of a service contract, state the proper ways of handling a piece of equipment.

Poor: By reading the instructions on the side of the paint can, you would have avoided the streaking condition that you claim resulted.

Revised: Hi-Gloss Paint requires two applications, four hours apart, for a clear and smooth finish.

The revision reminds the customer of the right way to apply the paint without pointing an accusing finger. Note how the explanations in Figures 6.11 and 6.12 emphasize the appropriate way of using the product or equipment.

4. Give your decision without hedging. Do not say, “Perhaps some type of res- titution could be made later” or “Further proof would have been helpful.” Indeci- sion will infuriate customers who believe that they have already presented a sound, convincing case. Never apologize for your decision.

5. Leave the door open for better and continued business. Whenever possible, help customers solve their problem by offering to send them a new product or part, or installing or repairing a product free of charge or at a discount. Note how the second-to-last paragraphs in Figures 6.11 and 6.12 do that diplomatically.

refusal-of-credit Letters A special type of bad news letters deals with a company’s refusing credit to an in- dividual or another company. Like other bad news correspondence, writing such a letter requires a great deal of sensitivity. You want to be clear and firm about your decision; at the same time, you do not want to alienate the reader and risk losing his or her future business.

How to Say “No” Follow these guidelines when saying “No” in a refusal-of-credit letter:

1. Begin on a positive—not a negative—note. Find something to thank the reader for; make the bad news easier to take. Compliment the reader’s company or previous good credit achievements (if known), and certainly express gratitude to the individual for wanting to do business with your company.

2. In a second paragraph, provide a clear-cut explanation of why you must refuse the request for credit, but base your explanation on facts, not personal shortcom- ings or liabilities. Appropriate reasons to cite for a refusal of credit include

●● a lack of business experience or prior credit ●● being “overextended” or needing more time to pay off existing obligations

(Figure 6.13, page 216)

216 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

Figure 6.13 An Effective Letter Refusing Credit

March 18, 2016

Mr. Otto L. King Sunshine Interiors 8235 Mimosa Highway Vinedale, CA 92004-0318

Dear Mr. King:

We appreciate your interest in doing business with West Coast Savings & Loan. It is always gratifying to see a store like yours open in an expanding community like Vinedale.

In reviewing your credit application, we checked into the business history and credit references you supplied. We also called your local credit bureau and while there was nothing negative in your credit profile we did determine that for a business of your size you have already reached a maximum level of indebtedness. For that reason, we believe that this would not be the best time to extend your line of credit.

We would, however, encourage you to visit our website and fill out the credit survey. This site is periodically reviewed and evaluated and will give you up-to-date information on your credit availability. In the meantime, we wish you every success in your new business.

Cordially,

B. Rimes-Assante Supervisor

Begins on a positive note

Denies credit but explains precisely why in factual terms

Ends encouragingly by urging reader to reapply

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Customer Relations Letters 217

●● current unfavorable or unstable financial conditions ●● an order that is too large to process without prepayment ●● a lack of equipment or personnel for the company to do the business for

which they are seeking credit ●● demographics-too many competitors in the marketplace; too little traffic, etc.

3. End on a positive note. Encourage the reader to reapply when business condi- tions have improved or when the reader’s firm is in a better financial position. One of your goals is to keep the reader as a potential customer, as in Figure 6.13.

collection Letters Collection letters require the same tact and fairness as do complaint and adjustment letters. Each nonpayment case needs to be evaluated separately. A nasty collection letter sent to a customer who is a good credit risk after only one month’s nonpay- ment can send that customer elsewhere. Three easygoing letters to a customer who is a poor credit risk may encourage that individual to postpone payment, perhaps indefinitely.

Types of Collection Letters Many businesses send several letters to customers before turning matters over to a collection agency. But if you are asked to send a series of letters, know you will be employing different techniques, ranging from giving compliments and offering flex- ible credit terms to issuing demands for immediate payment and threatening legal consequences. One hospital uses the collection letters illustrated in Figures 6.14 and 6.15 (pages 218 and 219) to encourage patients to pay their bills. Figure 6.14 is a letter sent early in the collection process when a client is only a month or two late. The collection letter in Figure 6.15, however, is sent much later to a client who has ignored earlier notices.

The tone of Figure 6.14 is cordial and sincere—now is not the time to say “Pay up or else.” Instead, the letter stresses how valuable the patient is and underscores how pleased the hospital is to have provided the care he needed. The second-to-last paragraph makes a request for payment, offering: (1) a flexible payment schedule and (2) an escape from the inconvenience (or embarrassment) of receiving past due notices. The bottom of the letter conveniently lists payment options available to the patient. The last paragraph leaves the door open for cordial communication with the hospital.

The late collection letter in Figure 6.15, however, points out that the time for concessions is over and reminds the patient of all the efforts that the hospital has expended to collect its bills. Appealing to the reader’s need to maintain his good credit record, the last paragraph then announces what unfortunate consequences will result if he still does not pay.

218 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

May 16, 2016

Mr. Cal Smith 24 Mulberry Street Valley, TX 77212-3160

Dear Mr. Smith:

We are honored that we were able to serve your health care needs during your recent stay at Sabine County Hospital. It is our continuing goal to provide the best possible care for residents of Sabine County and its vicinity. To do so, we must keep our finances up-to-date.

Our records indicate that your account is now 30 days overdue and that we have not received a payment from you for two months. If you have recently sent one in, kindly disregard this letter and accept our thanks.

If for any reason you are unable to pay the full amount at this time, we would be happy to set up a convenient payment schedule. Just fill in the appropriate blanks below, and return this letter to me. That will enable us to avoid billing you on a “Past Due” basis. Thank you for your cooperation.

Please call me if you have any questions about our billing options.

Sincerely,

Morris T. Jukes Accounts Department (512) 555-6734, Ext. 721 [email protected]

( ) I will pay $ _________ ( ) monthly ( ) quarterly on my account.

( ) Enclosed is a check for full payment in the amount of $ __________.

Signature

___________________________

Re: Inpatient Services Date of Hospitalization: March 11–12, 2016 Balance Due: $6,725.48

Sabine Memorial Hospital 7200 Medical Blvd. Sabine, TX 77231-0011 (512) 555-6734 www.sabinememorial.org

Figure 6.14 A First, or Early, Collection Letter

Links hospital mission to patient’s payment

Important dates to remind reader of outstanding bill

Diplomatic reminder to pay now

Offers options to maintain goodwill

Closes with offer of assistance if customer cannot pay now

Personalizes letter with the writer’s contact information

Makes it easy for reader to respond

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Customer Relations Letters 219

September 21, 2016

Mr. Cal Smith 24 Mulberry Street Valley, TX 77212-3160

Dear Mr. Smith:

During the past few months we have written to you several times about your balance of $6,725.48 for hospital services you received on March 11 and 12. Your account is more than 190 days overdue, and we cannot allow any further extensions in receiving a payment from you.

As you will recall, we have tried to help you meet your obligations by offering several options for paying your bill. You could have arranged for installment payments that would be due each month, or even each quarter, whichever would be more convenient. Because you have not replied, we must ask for full payment now.

If we do not hear from you within the next ten days, we will have no alternative but to turn your account over to our collection agency, which will seriously hurt your credit rating. Neither of us would find this a welcome alternative. I look forward to receiving your payment.

Sincerely,

Morris T. Jukes Accounts Department (512) 555-6734, Ext. 721 [email protected]

Re: Inpatient Services Date of Hospitalization: March 11–12, 2016 Balance Due: $6,725.48

Sabine Memorial Hospital 7200 Medical Blvd. Sabine, TX 77231-0011 (512) 555-6734 www.sabinememorial.org

Figure 6.15 A Final Collection Letter

Direct opening about history and current status of the account

Documentation of important dates and balance due appears on all correspondence

Reminds patient of goodwill and insists on payment

States final option in a respectful yet firm tone

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220 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

memOs In addition to business letters you write to customers, you will be expected to write frequent memos to co-workers and employees. Memorandum, usually shortened to memo, is a Latin word for “something to be remembered.” The Latin meaning points to the memo’s chief function: to record information of immediate impor- tance and interest in the busy world of work. Memos are often internal business communications, short and to the point, clearly stating what must be done or not. They provide a record that serves a variety of functions, including

●● making an announcement ●● giving instructions ●● clarifying a policy, procedure,

or issue ●● changing a policy or procedure ●● alerting staff to a problem

●● sending recommendations ●● providing a legal record of an

important matter ●● calling a meeting ●● reminding employees of corporate

history, policy, procedures

Memos are important documents invaluable for audits, outlining employee responsi- bilities, and announcing company policies. They provide an opportunity for employees (or even customers) to ask questions, make comments, or express concerns. Memos can be sent as printed hard copy documents or as e-copies.

Although memos are usually written for an in-house audience, the memo for- mat can be used for documents sent outside a company, such as descriptions accom- panying proposals (see Chapter 13) or short reports (see Chapter 14), or for cover notes for longer reports (see Chapter 15).

Memos keep track of what jobs are done where, when, and by whom; they also report on any difficulties, delays, or cancellations and what your company or organization needs to do about correcting or eliminating them. Memos are the workhorses of business.

Memo protocol and company politics As with other business correspondence, memos reflect a company’s image and there- fore must follow the company’s protocol—accepted ways in which in-house commu- nications are formatted, organized, written, and routed. In addition to following your company’s protocol, use these commonsense guidelines when writing memos:

1. Be timely. Don’t wait until the day of the meeting or change in policy to announce it.

2. Be professional. Just because a memo is an in-house piece of correspondence does not mean you can dash off a poorly organized, poorly written, or factually inac- curate document. Notice that in Figure 6.16 (page 223), the memo to Lucy from Roger is professionally written, clearly organized, and properly spelled and punctuated.

3. Be tactful. Be polite and diplomatic, not curt and bossy. For example, in Figure 6.17 (page 225), Janet Hempstead adopts a firm tone regarding an important safety issue, yet she does not blame or talk down to her readers—the machine shop employees. Politeness and diplomacy count a lot at work.

Memos 221

4. Send memos to the appropriate individuals. Don’t send copies of a memo (ei- ther via hard copy or as an attachment) to people who don’t need to read them. It wastes time and energy. Moreover, don’t send a memo to high-ranking company per- sonnel in place of your immediate supervisor, who may think you are going over his or her head. For instance, in Figure 6.17, Janet Hempstead has sent her memo only to the machine shop workers, not to the upper management of the Dearborn Company.

Keep in mind, though, that memos are often sent up and down the corporate ladder. Employees send memos to their supervisors, and workers send memos to one another. Figure 6.16 shows a memo sent from one worker to another. Figure 6.17 contains a memo sent from the top down, and Figure 6.18 (page 227) illustrates a memo sent from an employee to management.

Sending Memos: email or hard copy? Similar to letters (see “Different Ways to Send Letters,” pages 154–155), a memo can be sent as printed hard copy, as an email attachment, in the body of an email, or—if appropriate—posted to a company’s website or social media platforms. Find out your company’s policies and follow them. Increasingly, email distribution is re- placing printed memos, but there are times when a hard copy memo is preferred.

Consider the level of importance and confidentiality of your memo. If your memo is an official document, such as the policy outlined in Figure 6.17, you will likely draft it on company letterhead or send it as an attachment. Printing your memo on company letterhead signals that a formal policy now in place. If your memo on company letterhead is confidential (e.g., an evaluation of a co-worker or vendor, or a message containing sensitive financial or medical information), you may not want to send it as an email because it could easily be forwarded to someone other than for whom it was intended. But when you send a routine message that must reach your readers quickly, use email (see “Email: Its Importance in the Workplace,” pages 118–125).

Memo Format Memos vary in format and the way they are sent. Some companies use standard, printed forms (as in Figure 6.16), while others have their names (letterhead) printed on their memos (as in Figures 6.17 and 6.18). You can also create a memo by includ- ing the necessary parts in an email, as in Figures 4.1 (page 120) and 4.2 (page 121).

As you can see from looking at Figures 6.16, 6.17, and 6.18, memos look dif- ferent from letters. Because they are often sent to individuals within your company, memos do not need the formalities necessary in business letters, such as an inside address, a formal salutation or complimentary close, or a signature line, as discussed in “Parts of a Letter” (see pages 158–162).

Memo parts Basically, the memo consists of two parts: the header, or the identifying informa- tion at the top, and the message itself. This identifying information includes four easily recognized parts: To, From, Date, and Subject lines. (If a memo is sent in the

222 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

body of an email, including these parts would not be necessary, as they are auto- matically included in the email’s heading.)

TO: Aileen Kelly, Chief Computer Analyst FROM: Stacy Kaufman, Operator, Level II DATE: January 28, 2016 SUBJECT: Progress report on the fall marketing schedule

You can use a memo template, which automatically formats headers such as the following, to save time.

TO: [Enter name] FROM: Linda Cowan DATE: [Enter date] RE: [Enter subject here.]

On the To line, write the name and job title of the individual(s) who will receive your memo. If you are sending your memo to more than one reader, make sure you list your readers in the order of their status in your company or agency, as Mike Gonzalez does in Figure 6.18 (according to company policy, the vice president’s name appears before that of the public relations director). If you are on a first-name basis with the reader, use just his or her first name, as in Figure 6.16. Otherwise, include the reader’s first and last names. Don’t leave out anyone who needs the information.

On the From line, insert your name (use your first name only if your reader re- fers to you by it) and your job title (unless it is unnecessary for your reader). Some companies ask employees to handwrite their initials after their typed name to verify that the message comes from them and that they are certifying its contents, as in Figures 6.17 and 6.18.

On the Date line, do not simply name the day of the week. Give the full calen- dar date (June 2, 2016).

On the Subject line, key in the purpose of your memo. The subject line serves as the title of your memo; it summarizes your message. Vague subject lines, such as “New Policy,” “Operating Difficulties,” or “Software,” do not identify your message precisely and may suggest that you have not restricted or developed it sufficiently. Note how Mike Gonzalez’s subject line in Figure 6.18 is so much more precise than just saying “Ramco’s Community Involvement.”

Questions Your Memo Needs to answer for readers Here are some key questions your audience may ask and your memo needs to answer clearly and concisely:

1. When? When did it happen? Is it on, ahead of, or behind schedule? When does it need to be discussed or implemented? When is answered in Figures 6.16 (“November 12,” “in the next day or two”), 6.17 (“during the past two weeks,” “after each use”), and 6.18 (“in early February,” “before the end of the month”).

2. Who? Who is involved? Who will be affected by your message? How many people are involved? Who is answered in Figures 6.16 (Jackie Wei), 6.17 (all machine shop employees), and 6.18 (Ramco Technologies as a whole).

Memos 223

TO: Lucy FROM: Roger DATE: November 11, 2016 SUBJECT: Review of “Successful Website” Seminar

As you know, I attended the “How to Build a Successful Website” seminar on November 10 and learned the “rules and tools” we can use to redesign our site.

Here is a review of the major topics covered by the presenter, Jackie Wei:

1. Keep your website content-based—identify your target audience. 2. Visualize and “map out” your site ahead of time. 3. Keep the design of your website simple and elegant; “busy” websites drive

potential customers away. 4. Be sure your site is easy to navigate, especially for international readers. 5. Use keywords to maximize your website’s search engine exposure. 6. Create hot links and image maps to move users from page to page. 7. Encourage customer interaction by including a comments section. 8. Complete your site with appropriate, professional sound and animation. 9. Keep your site updated on a regular (weekly) basis.

Could we meet in the next day or two to discuss recreating our website in light of these guidelines? I appreciate your suggestions about this project and how we can best proceed.

Thanks.

Figure 6.16 Standard Memo Format

Memo parts

Introduction provides background and tells reader what memo will do

Preview

Numbered list in body helps readers follow information quickly

Conclusion asks for comments

3. Where? Where did it take place or will it take place? Where is answered in Figures 6.16 (the website seminar), 6.17 (the brake shop), and 6.18 (the Mayfield facility).

4. Why? Why is it an important topic? Why is clearly answered in Figures 6.16 (because the website is being redesigned), 6.17 (because it’s a safety issue), and 6.18 (because favorable publicity will help the company’s image and mission).

5. Costs? How much will it cost? Will the costs be lower or higher than a com- petitor’s costs? Not every memo will answer financial questions, but in Figure 6.17, the injuries discussed cost the company money, and in Figure 6.18, the specific cost of an individual scholarship ($21,000) is an important issue.

6. Technology? What technology (software, equipment, infrastructure) is involved? Is the technology current, able to be upgraded, safe for the environment?

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Note that Figures 6.16, 6.17, and 6.18 all especially refer to technological issues— website design, equipment safety, education, robots.

7. What’s next? What are the next steps that should be taken as a result of the issues discussed in the memo? What are the implications for the product, service, budget, staff? A good example of this is in Figure 6.18 (the company needs to decide on how to implement the suggestions before the new plant opens).

Memo Style and tone The audience within your company will determine your memo’s style and tone (see “Identifying Your Audience,” pages 11–13). When writing to a co-worker whom you know well, you can adopt a casual, conversational tone. You want to be seen as friendly and cooperative. In fact, to do otherwise would make you look self- important, stuffy, or hard to work with. Consider the friendly tone appropriate for one colleague writing to another as in Roger’s memo to Lucy in Figure 6.16. Note how he ends in a polite but informal way.

When writing a memo to a manager, though, you will want to use a more formal tone than you would when communicating with a co-worker. Your boss will expect you to show a more respectful, even official, posture. See how formal yet conversa- tionally persuasive Mike Gonzalez’s memo to his bosses is in Figure 6.18. His tone and style are a reflection of his hard work as well as his respect for his employers. Here are two ways of expressing the same message, the first more suitable when writ- ing to a co-worker and the second more appropriate for a memo to the boss.

Co-worker: I think we should go ahead with Marisol’s plan for reorganization. It seems like a safe option to me, and I don’t think we can lose.

Boss: I think that we should adopt the organizational plan developed by Marisol Vega. Her recommendations are carefully researched and persuasively answer the questions our department has about solving the problem.

When an employer writes to workers informing them about policies or procedures, as Janet Hempstead does in Figure 6.17, the tone of the memo needs to be official and straightforward. Yet even so, Hempstead takes into account her readers’ feelings (she does not blame) and safety, which are at the forefront of her rhetorical purpose.

Finally, remember that your employer and co-workers deserve the same clear and concise writing and attention to the “you attitude” (see “Making a Good Impression on Your Reader,” pages 164–168) that your customers do. Memos, like letters, require the same care and should follow the same rules of effective writing discussed in Chapter 1 (see “Four Keys to Effective Writing,” pages 11–20).

Strategies for organizing a Memo Before you start writing, take a few minutes to outline and draft what you need to say and to decide in what order it needs to be presented. Organize your memos so that readers can find information quickly and act on it promptly. For longer, more complex communications, such as the memos in Figures 6.17 and 6.18, your message might be di- vided into three parts: (1) introduction, (2) discussion, and (3) conclusion. Regardless

Memos 225

To: Machine Shop Employees From: Janet Hempstead, Shop Supervisor Date: September 25, 2015 Subject: Cleaning Brake Machines Safely

During the past two weeks I have received several reports that the brake machines are not being cleaned properly after each use. Through this memo I want to explain and emphasize the importance of keeping these machines clean for the safety of all our employees.

When the brake machines are used, the cutter chops off small particles of metal from brake drums. These particles then settle on the machines and create a potentially hazardous situation for anyone working on or near the machines. If the machines are not cleaned routinely before being used again, these metal particles could easily fly into an individual’s face or upper body when the brake drum is spinning.

To prevent accidents like this from occurring, please make sure you vacuum the brake machines after each use.

You will find vacuum cleaners for this purpose in two places– (1) In work area 1-A (2) In the storage area

Vacuuming break machines is quick and easy: It should take you no more than a few seconds, a small amount of time to make the shop safer for all of us.

Thanks for your cooperation. If you have any questions, please call or text me at (609) 555-9899, email me at [email protected], or come by my office.

Figure 6.17 Memo on Letterhead with a Clear Introduction, Discussion, and Conclusion

Introduction explains purpose and impor tance of memo

Writer’s initals verify message

Discussion states why problem exists and how to solve it

Safety message is boldfaced for emphasis

Conclusion builds goodwill and asks for questions

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226 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

of how short or long your memo is, recall the three P’s for success: plan what you are going to say; polish your writing before you send it; and proofread everything.

Introduction The introduction of your memo should do the following:

●● Tell readers why you are writing to them about a problem, procedure, or other issue.

●● Explain briefly any background information the reader needs to know. ●● Be specific about what you are going to accomplish in your memo.

Do not hesitate to come right out and say, “This memo summarizes the action taken in Evansville to reduce air pollution.” See how clearly this is done in Figure 6.16.

Discussion In the discussion section (the body) of your memo, help readers in these ways:

●● State why a problem or procedure is important, who will be affected by it, and what caused it and why.

●● Indicate why and what changes are necessary. ●● Give precise dates, times, locations, and costs.

Notice how Janet Hempstead’s memo in Figure 6.17 carefully describes an exist- ing problem and explains the proper procedure for cleaning the brake machines, and how Mike Gonzalez in Figure 6.18 offers carefully researched evidence about Ramco increasing its favorable publicity in the community.

Conclusion In your conclusion, state specifically how you want the reader to respond to your memo. To get readers to act appropriately, you can do one or more of the following:

●● Ask readers to call you if they have any questions, as in Figure 6.17. ●● Request a reply—in writing, over the telephone, via email, or in person—by

a specific date, as in Figure 6.18. ●● Provide a list of recommendations that the readers are to approve, follow,

revise, or reject, as in Figures 6.16 and 6.18.

organizational Markers Throughout your memo, use the following organizational markers, where appropriate:

●● Headings organize your work and make information easy for readers to follow, as in Figure 6.18.

●● Numbered or bulleted lists help readers see comparisons and contrasts readily and thereby comprehend your ideas more quickly, as in Figure 6.16.

●● Underlining or boldfacing emphasizes key points (see Figure 6.17). But do not overuse this technique; draw attention only to main points and those that contain summaries or draw conclusions.

Organizational markers are not limited to memos; you will find them in email, let- ters, reports, and proposals as well. (See “The ABCs of Print Document Design,” pages 449–459.)

Memos 227

TO: Rachel Mohler, Vice President Harrison Fontentot, Public Relations FROM: Mike Gonzalez DATE: March 3, 2016 SUBJECT: Three Ways to Increase Ramco’s Community Involvement

At our planning session in early February, our divisional managers stressed the need to generate favorable publicity for our new Ramco facility in May�eld. Knowing that such publicity will highlight Ramco’s visibility in May�eld, I think the company’s image might be enhanced in the following three ways.

CREATE A SCHOLARSHIP FUND Ramco would receive favorable publicity by creating a scholarship at May�eld Community College for any student interested in a career in technology. A one-year scholarship would cost $21,000. The scholarship would be awarded by a committee of Ramco executives and staff. Such a scholarship would emphasize Ramco’s enthusiastic support for the latest technical education at a local college.

OFFER SITE TOURS Guided tours of the May�eld facility would introduce the community to Ramco’s innovative technology. These tours might be organized for academic, community, and civic groups. Individuals would then see the care we take in protecting the environment in our production and equipment choices and the speed with which we ship our products. Of special interest to visitors would be Ramco’s use of industrial robots working alongside our employees. Since these tours would be scheduled in advance, they should not con�ict with our production schedules.

PROVIDE GUEST SPEAKERS Many of our employees would be excellent guest speakers at civic and educational meetings in the May�eld area. Possible topics include the advances Ramco has made in designing and engineering and how these changes have helped consumers as well as boost the local economy.

Thanks for sending your comments in the next few days. If we are going to put one or more of these suggestions into practice before the facility opens in mid-April, we’ll need to act before the end of the month.

[email protected] www.Ramco.com

Where Technology Shapes Tomorrow

Figure 6.18 A Memo That Uses Subheads to Organize Content

Introduction supplies background and rationale

Company logo

Header

Boldfaced headings reflect organization

Relates plan to company mission and image

Body offers concrete evidence (costs, personnel, location) that plan can work

Closing emphasizes the plan’s feasibility

Ends with request for feedback and authorization

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Writing Business letters and memOs that matter: a summarY

As we saw, letters and memos are important in workplace writing. Your employer will expect you to respond to and send a variety of them. This chapter has introduced you to five different types of letters you can expect to write on the job, as well as the basic formats, parts, and strategies used to draft effective memos. Although you will send many more emails and texts than letters or memos, every job will require you to write this workplace correspondence.

Regardless of the type of letter or memo you have to write, follow these six guidelines:

1. Analyze your audience and their needs. Anticipate the types of information readers are expecting to receive from you and how they will use it.

2. Determine your reason for writing. Are you writing to make a routine or spe- cial request, offer an explanation, file a complaint, apologize, sell a product or service, build goodwill, express thanks, refuse credit, or collect a debt?

3. Organize your information. Would a direct or an indirect approach be best? Begin with good news or a buffer, and save negative messages for the middle of the letter.

4. Draft your letter or memo carefully. Be clear, concise, and diplomatic. Select the most appropriate language for your reader. Letters sent to interna- tional readers should respect their cultural traditions.

5. Revise your letter or memo. Double-check all facts; make sure you left nothing out.

6. Proofread, proofread, proofread.

planning Correspondence ●■ Made sure reader’s name, job title, and address are correct. ●■ Wrote to a specific individual. ●■ Determined if audience will be friendly, hostile, or neutral about my message. ●■ Did sufficient research—in print, through online sources, in discussions with

colleagues and, when necessary, with my boss—to meet my reader’s needs. ●■ Proved to reader that I am knowledgeable, professional, and easy to work with. ●■ Followed my company protocol in choosing the format, organization, style, tone,

and content of my letter. ●■ Ensured that my correspondence was timely. Answered all correspondence both

from people in my company and from customers promptly and reasonably.

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Writing Business Letters and Memos That Matter: A Summary 229

Inquiry letters ●■ Explained why I am writing and what information I need and why. ●■ Researched and formulated specific questions that are brief and to the point; put

them in easy-to-read format. ●■ Indicated when information is needed. ●■ Thanked reader for reply. ●■ Offered to share a copy of my report with reader.

Cover letters ●■ Told reader what I am transmitting. ●■ Concisely summarized contents of document. ●■ Explained why document is important for reader.

special request letters ●■ Stated why I am writing. ●■ Explained reasons for writing and how I will use the requested information. ●■ Numbered questions to make them easy to answer. ●■ Allowed reader enough time to reply; indicated by what date information is

needed; supplied stamped, addressed envelope or email address. ●■ Offered to cite reader’s help and share a copy of my work.

sales letters ●■ Identified and convinced my targeted audience. ●■ Got reader’s attention with question or with attention-capturing statement. ●■ Appealed to the reader’s senses. ●■ Emphasized how product/service applies to solving reader’s problem or ensures

competitor cannot offer benefits. ●■ Asked reader to take action. ●■ Was honest and ethical and did not attack the competition.

Customer relations letters ●■ Began my correspondence with reader-effective strategies. If reporting good news,

told the reader right away. If reporting bad news, was diplomatically indirect and considerate of my reader’s reactions.

Follow-Up letters ●■ Thanked reader for his or her patronage. ●■ Courteously stressed benefits to reader for his or her continuing business. ●■ Promised to resolve any problems or answer any questions. ●■ Requested future business.

Complaint letters ●■ Wrote promptly using a courteous, professional tone free from name-calling,

insults, or threats. (Continued)

230 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

●■ Described the problem with product or service in detail, including necessary documentation (invoices, model numbers, dealer’s name and address).

●■ Specified exactly what I wanted done and by when; was reasonable and objective. ●■ Ended politely.

adjustment letters saying “Yes” ●■ Started off with good news reader wants to hear. ●■ Apologized sincerely for problem. ●■ Told reader what was wrong and how problem will be corrected; did not blame

or make excuses. ●■ Ended on a friendly note without referring to the problem but encouraging

further business.

adjustment letters saying “no” ●■ Did not begin with a “No.” Instead, followed the indirect approach and used a

neutral buffer. ●■ Acknowledged reader’s point of view but provided clear and direct explanation for

denial of claim. ●■ Concluded by giving or suggesting an alternative to keep customer’s goodwill.

refusal-of-Credit letters ●■ Began positively by thanking reader for letter. ●■ Gave appropriate factual reasons for refusal that did not lay personal blame on reader. ●■ Encouraged further inquiries or applications. ●■ Took special care to meet the needs of non-native speakers of English in both tone

and message.

Collection letters ●■ Tailored letter according to audience, time, and circumstances of overdue account. ●■ Tried to maintain goodwill. ●■ Followed all legal guidelines in informing reader about past due account and

payment policies.

Memos ●■ Used appropriate and consistent format. ●■ Followed employer’s policy regarding routing memos. ●■ Announced purpose of memo early and clearly. ●■ Organized memo according to reader’s need for information, putting main ideas

up front, giving documentation, and supplying conclusion. ●■ Kept reader’s need for key information and considered his/her background in the

forefront of writing memos. ●■ Wrote clearly and concisely. ●■ Included bullets, lists, boldfacing, and underscoring where necessary to reflect

logic and organization of memo. ●■ Refrained from overloading reader with unnecessary details.

Exercises 231

1. Write a letter of inquiry to a utility company, a safety or health care agency, or a business in your town requesting information on how its services to the community protect the environment. Give specific reasons why you are requesting the information.

2. In which courses are you or will you be writing a report? Write to an agency or company that could supply you with helpful information, and request its aid. Indicate why you are writing, precisely what information you need, and why you need it. Offer to share your report with the company.

3. Choose one of the following, and write a sales letter addressed to an appropriate reader on why he or she should

a. work for the same company you do b. move to your neighborhood c. be happy taking a vacation where

you did last year d. dine at a particular restaurant e. use a particular app

f. have their cars repaired at a specific garage

g. give their real estate business to a particular agency

h. use your company’s new e-com- merce software when constructing its website

4. Rewrite the following sales letter to make it more effective. Add any details you think are relevant.

Dear Pizza Lovers:

Allow me to introduce myself. My name is Rudy Moore and I am the new manager of Tasty Pizza Parlor in town. The Parlor is located at the intersection of North Miller Parkway and 95th Street. We are open from 10 a.m. to 11 p.m., except on the weekends, when we are open later.

I think you will be as happy as I am to learn that Tasty’s will now offer free delivery to an extended service area. As a result, you can get your Tasty Pizza hot when you want it.

Please see your newspaper or newspaper’s website for our ad. We also are offering cus- tomers a coupon. It is a real deal for you.

I know you will enjoy Tasty’s pizza and I hope to see you. I am always interested in hear- ing from you about our service and our fine product. We want to take your order soon. Please come in.

Hungry for your business,

Rudy

5. Send a follow-up letter to one of the following:

a. a customer who informs you that she will no longer do business with your company because your prices are too high

b. a family of four who stayed at your motel for a week last summer c. a wedding party or professional organization that used your catering services

last month

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232 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

d. a customer who returned a coat for the purchase price e. a customer who purchased a used car from you and who has not been happy with

your service f. a company that bought a piece of equipment from you nine months ago, alerting

them about a recall

6. Write a bad news letter based on an experience at your workplace—rejecting an appli- cant for a job, notifying tenants of an increase in parking rates, or denying a request for funding, for example.

7. Write a bad news letter to an appropriate reader about one of the following situations:

a. Your company has to discontinue Saturday deliveries because of rising labor and fuel costs.

b. You are the manager of an insurance company writing to tell one of your custom- ers that, because of a reckless driving citation, his or her rates will increase.

c. You have to refuse to send a bonus gift to a customer who sent in an order after the promotion period ended.

d. You have discontinued a model that a business customer wants to reorder. e. You have to notify residents of a community that a bus route or hours of operation

are being discontinued. f. You represent the water department and have to tell residents of a community that

they cannot water their lawns for the next month because of a serious water short- age in your town.

g. You cannot repair a particular piece of equipment because the customer still owes your company for three previous service visits.

8. Write a good news letter about the opposite of one of the situations listed in Exercise 7.

9. Write a complaint letter about one of the following:

a. an error in your utility, mobile phone, credit card, or Internet provider bill

b. discourteous service you received on an airplane, train, or bus

c. frustratingly long waits or prompts to speak to a company’s representative

d. a shipment that arrived late and damaged

e. an insurance payment to you that is $357.00 less than it should be

f. a public television station’s decision to discontinue a particular series

g. junk mail or spam that you have been receiving

h. equipment that arrived with miss- ing or defective parts

i. misleading representation by a salesperson

j. incorrect or misleading information given on a website

10. This exercise might be done as a collaborative project. You are a section manager at e-Tech. Your company has a service contract with Professional Office Cleaners (POC). However, each morning when you arrive at work you are disappointed with what they’ve done. POC has overlooked some essential tasks and done a poor job on others. Your staff is also disappointed and has emailed or spoken to you about problems with POC. Write the following:

Exercises 233

a. a memo or email to your boss, the vice president, about POC’s shoddy work b. a complaint letter to POC that the vice president has asked you to write and to sign

his name to c. a letter to the vice president from the manager of POC, apologizing for the prob-

lem and offering a solution d. a letter from POC to the vice president taking issue with the complaint made

against the cleaning company and offering proof that the work was done accord- ing to contract specifications

e. an email you send to your staff about what’s happened with POC

11. Write the complaint letter that prompted the adjustment letter in Figure 6.10.

12. Write the complaint letter that prompted the adjustment letter in Figure 6.12.

13. Rewrite the following complaint letter to make it more precise, less emotional, and more persuasive.

Dear Sir:

We recently purchased a machine from your Albany store and paid a great deal of money for it. This machine, according to your website, is supposedly the best model in your line and has caused us nothing but trouble each time we use it. Really, can’t you do any better with your technology?

We expect you to stand by your products. The warranties you give with them should make you accountable for shoddy workmanship. Let us know at once what you intend to do about our problem. If you cannot or are unwilling to correct the situation, we will take our business elsewhere, and then you will be sorry.

Sincerely yours,

14. Write an adjustment letter saying “Yes” to the manager of The Loft, whose letter is in Figure 6.8.

15. Write an adjustment letter saying “No” to the customer who received the “Yes” adjust- ment letter in Figure 6.10.

16. Rewrite the following ineffective adjustment letter saying “Yes.”

Dear Mr. Smith:

We are extremely sorry to learn that you found the suit you purchased from us unsatisfac- tory. The problem obviously stems from the fact that you selected it from the rack marked “Factory Seconds.” In all honesty, we have had a lot of problems because of this rack. I guess we should know better than to try to feature inferior merchandise along with the name-brand clothing that we sell. But we originally thought that our customers would

accept poorer quality merchandise if it saved them some money. That was our mistake.

Please accept our apologies. If you will bring your “Factory Second” suit to us, we will see what we can do about honoring your request.

Sincerely yours,

234 chapter 6 Types of Business Letters and Memos

17. Rewrite the following ineffective adjustment letter saying “No.”

Dear Customer:

Our company is unwilling to give you a new toaster or to refund your purchase price. After examining the toaster you sent to us, we found that the fault was not ours, as you insist, but yours.

Let me explain. Our toaster is made to take a lot of punishment. But being dropped on the floor or poked inside with a knife, as you probably did, exceeds all decent treatment. You must be careful if you expect your appliances to last. Your negligence in this case is so bad that the toaster could not be repaired.

In the future, consider using your appliances according to the guidelines set down in their warranties. That’s why they are written.

Since you are now in the market for a new toaster, let me suggest that you purchase our new heavy-duty model, number 67342, called the Counter-Whiz. I am taking the liberty of sending you some information about this model. I do hope you at least go to see one at your local appliance center.

Sincerely,

18. You are the manager of a computer software company, and one of your salespeople has just sold a large order to a new customer whose business you have tried to ob- tain for years. Unfortunately, the salesperson made a mistake writing out the in- voice, undercharging the customer by $229. At that price, your company would not break even, and so you must write a letter explaining the problem so that the customer will not assume all future business dealings with your firm will be offered at such “below market” rates. Decide whether you should ask for the $229 or just “write it off” in the interest of keeping a valuable new customer.

a. Write a letter to the new customer, asking for the $229 and explaining the problem while still projecting an image of your company as accurate, professional, and very competitive.

b. Write a letter to the new customer, not asking for the $229 but explaining the mistake and emphasizing that your company is both competitive and professional.

c. Write a letter to your boss explaining why you wrote the letter in a. d. Write a letter to your boss explaining why you wrote the letter in b. e. Write a letter to the salesperson who made the mistake, asking him or her to take

appropriate action with regard to the new customer.

19. You just found out that a business that applied for credit has missed its mortgage pay- ment. You have to refuse credit to this local firm, which has been in business successfully for eight years. Write a refusal letter without jeopardizing future business dealings.

20. Write an appropriate collection letter to one of the following:

a. a loyal customer who has not responded to a first notice letter b. a new business customer who placed a large order with you last quarter and paid

for it promptly but who has ignored two notices you have already sent about an order filled this quarter

Exercises 235

c. a customer who has just placed an order over the Internet but has not responded so far to any of your notices for payment for previous purchases

d. a customer who has been continually late but has always paid eventually e. an international customer who has sent in only partial payment

21. Write a memo to your boss saying that you will be out of town two days next week and three days the following week for one of the following reasons: (a) to inspect some land your firm is thinking of buying, (b) to investigate some claims, (c) to look at some new office space for a branch your firm is thinking of opening in a city 500 miles away, (d) to attend a conference sponsored by a professional society, or (e) to pay calls on customers. In your memo, be specific about dates, places, times, and reasons.

22. Write a memo to two or three of your co-workers on the same subject you chose for Exercise 21.

23. Send a memo to your public relations department informing it that you are completing a degree or work for a certificate. Indicate how the information could be useful for your firm’s publicity campaign.

24. Write a memo to the director of your school’s library asking for one of the following. Be sure you include specific reasons for such a change.

a. extended weekend hours b. more vending machines c. more computers

d. more group study rooms e. increased journal subscriptions in

your field of study

25. Write a memo notifying the human resources department that there is a mistake in an insurance claim you filed. Explain exactly what the error is, and give precise figures.

26. Select some change (in policy, schedule, or personnel assignment) you encountered in a job you held in the last two or three years and write an appropriate memo describing that change. Write the memo from the perspective of your former employer explaining the change to employees.

27. You are the manager of a major art museum. Write a memo to various department heads at your museum giving them the following information. Use proper memo format.

old hours: Mon.–Fri. 9–5; closed Sat. except during July and August, when you are open 9–12

new hours: Mon.–Th. 8:30–4:30; Fri.–Sat. 9–9 old rates: Adults $12.00; senior citizens $5.00; children under 12 $3.00 new rates: Adults $15.00; senior citizens $7.00; children under 12 $5.00 added features: Paintings by Thora Horne, local artist; sculpture from West Indies in

display area all summer; guided tours available for parties of six or more; lounge areas will offer patrons sandwiches and soft drinks during May, June, July, and August

28. How would the memos in Exercises 21 to 27 have to be rewritten to make them suitable as an email message? Rewrite one of them as an email.

236

Chapter Outline

Steps an Employer Takes When Hiring

Steps to Follow to Get Hired

Analyzing Your Strengths and Restricting Your Job Search

Enhancing Your Professional Image

Looking in the Right Places for a Job

Using Online Social and Professional Networking Sites in Your Job Search

Dossiers and Letters of Recommendation

Career Portfolios/Webfolios

Preparing a Résumé

Transitioning into the Civilian Workforce

The Digital Résumé

Letters of Application

Going to an Interview

Keep a Job Search Record

Accepting or Declining a Job Offer

Searching for the Right Job Pays

How to Get a Job Searches, Networking, Dossiers, Portfolios/ Webfolios, Résumés, Transitioning to a Civilian Job, Letters, and Interviews

Obtaining a job in today’s tough market involves a lot of hard work. Before your name is added to a company’s payroll, you will have to do more than simply walk into the human resources office and fill out an application form or send a résumé online. Finding the right job takes time in this highly competitive job market. And finding the right person to fill that job also takes time for the employer.

StepS an emplOyer takeS When hiring From the employer’s viewpoint, the stages in the search for a valuable employee include the following:

1. Deciding what duties and responsibilities go with the job and deter- mining the qualifications the future employee should possess

2. Advertising the job on the company’s website and social media, on online job-posting sites, in newspapers, and in professional publications

3. Reviewing and evaluating résumés and letters of application 4. Having candidates complete application forms 5. Requesting further proof of candidates’ skills (letters of recommen-

dation, transcripts, portfolios/webfolios) 6. Interviewing selected candidates 7. Doing further follow-ups and selecting those to be interviewed again 8. Offering the job to the best-qualified individual

Sometimes the steps are interchangeable, especially steps 4, 5, and 6, but generally speaking, employers go through a long and detailed process to select employees. Step 3, for example, is among the most important for

C h a P T e R

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Analyzing Your Strengths and Restricting Your Job Search 237

employers (and the most crucial for job candidates). At that stage employers often classify job seekers into one of three groups: those they definitely want to inter- view, those they may want to interview, and those in whom they have no interest.

StepS tO FOllOW tO get hired Whether you are searching for your first job after college or looking to change careers, you will have to know how and when to give prospective employers the kinds of information the preceding eight steps require. You will also have to fol- low a definite schedule in your search for a job. Expect to go through the following eight procedures:

1. analyzing your strengths and restricting your job search 2. enhancing your professional image 3. looking in the right places for a job 4. assembling a dossier and a portfolio 5. preparing a résumé tailored for each job you apply for 6. writing a letter of application and filling out a job application 7. going to an interview 8. accepting or declining a job offer

Your timetable should match that of your prospective employer. This chapter shows you how to begin your job search, design an effective portfolio, prepare appropri- ate résumés, write a persuasive letter of application, and prepare for an interview. It also contains information to help individuals to transition from their military assignment to the civilian workforce (see “Transitioning to the Civilian Workforce,” pages 266–271).

analyzing yOur StrengthS and reStriCting yOur JOb SearCh

Job counselors advise students to start planning for their careers several years be- fore they graduate. The more you find out about what career path you want to take ahead of graduation, the better you will be able to target the jobs that are right for you. Individuals changing careers or transitioning from the military to the civilian sector also need to assess their experiences, skills, and job goals.

Before you apply for jobs, analyze your job skills, career goals, and interests. Here are some points to consider:

1. Make an inventory of your most significant accomplishments in your major or on the job—writing and speaking, working with people, organizing, and troubleshooting, making presentations managing money, speaking a second language, designing websites, working for a health care agency.

2. Decide which specialty within your chosen career appeals to you the most. If you are in a nursing program, do you want to work in a large teaching hospital, for a home health or hospice agency, or in a physician’s office?

238 chapter 7 How to Get a Job

3. What types of working conditions most appeal to you—small groups, travel- ing, telecommuting, relocating overseas?

4. What most interests you about a position—travel, technology, international contacts, on-the-job training, helping people, being creative?

5. What are some of the greatest challenges you face in your career today—or will face in five years?

6. Which specific companies or organizations have the best track record in hiring and promoting individuals in your field? What qualifications will such firms insist on from prospective employees?

Once you answer these questions, you can avoid applying for positions for which you are either overqualified or underqualified. If a position requires ten years of related work experience and you are just starting out, you will only waste the employer’s time and your own by applying. However, if a job requires a certificate or license and you are in the process of obtaining one, go ahead and apply.

enhanCing yOur prOFeSSiOnal image Whether you are looking for your first job in your career field, re-entering the job market, changing careers or transitioning to a civilian job, you can take several steps to help improve your chances of getting hired.

●● Attend job fairs and interviewing workshops on campus as well as those sponsored by municipal, state, and federal agencies.

●● Go to trade shows to learn about the latest products, services, and techno l- ogies in your profession and to meet contacts and even potential employers.

●● Use social media/networking sites to learn more about your profession. ●● Join and participate in student and professional organizations and societies in

your area of interest. ●● Apply for relevant internships and training programs to gain real-world

experience and increase your networking contacts. ●● If available, take a temporary job in your profession to gain some experience. ●● Confer with your academic adviser regularly, not just once a semester. ●● Find a mentor—someone in a field you might want to join. ●● Do volunteer work to gain or enhance experience working in a group setting,

preparing documents, and so on. ●● Find out if your school or university offers job shadowing opportunities,

where you can follow someone during his/her daily work routine to gauge whether or not a particular position or profession matches your skills and interests.

●● Follow companies or individuals in the field you are interested in on Twitter, Facebook, or other forms of social media (see “Writing for Social Media in the Workplace,” pages 139–147).

●● Establish a profile on a professional networking site such as LinkedIn (see Figure 7.2, pages 246–249) and connect to other people in your desired field.

Looking in the Right Places for a Job 239

lOOking in the right plaCeS FOr a JOb One way to search for a job is simply to send out a batch of letters and résumés to companies you want to work for. But how do you know what jobs, if any, those companies have available, what qualifications they are looking for, and what dead- lines they might want you to meet? You can avoid these uncertainties by consulting the following resources for a wealth of job-related information. Use as many of them as you can.

1. Personal (face-to-face) networking. One of the most successful ways to land a job is through networking. In fact, most jobs come through consulting with other people. John D. Erdlen and Donald H. Sweet, experts on job searching, cite the fol- lowing as a primary rule of job hunting: “Don’t do anything yourself you can get someone with influence to do for you.” Let your professors, co-workers, friends, classmates, neighbors, relatives, and even your clergy know you are looking for a job. They may hear of something and can notify you or, better yet, recommend you for the position. See how the job seekers in Figures 7.15 and 7.16 (pages 285 and 286) have successfully networked with people they know.

2. Your campus placement office. Counselors know about current available posi- tions, and they can also make your résumé available to recruiters when they come on campus. Placement offices have recruiting databases, allowing students access to a broad range of contacts and interview information. Counselors can also help you find summer and part-time positions that might lead to full-time jobs. Most important, they will give you sound advice on your job search, including strategies for finding the right job, salary ranges, and interview tips. Many placement offices also sponsor career fairs to bring job seekers and employers together in specific professional fields. Finally, your placement office will help you set up and archive your dossier, or credentials (see “Dossiers and Letters of Recommendation,” pages 251–252).

3. Online job-posting sites. A majority of jobs can be found on the Internet. You can learn about jobs at a specific company or organization by visiting its website to see what vacancies it has and what the qualifications are for them. (Many com- panies also list job openings through social media postings on Facebook, Twitter, and other sites.) Also consult the Riley Guide: Employment Opportunities and Job Resources on the Internet (www.rileyguide.com). This invaluable resource surveys and classifies job openings on the Web by field, location, and category (private or public). In addition, you might want to explore many of the job-posting sites, such as those in Table 7.1.

4. Newspapers. Look at local newspapers as well as the Sunday editions of large city papers with a wide circulation, such as The New York Times (http://jobmarket .nytimes.com). The Careers section of The Wall Street Journal also lists jobs in different areas, including technical and managerial positions (online.wsj.com/public /page/news-career-jobs.html).

5. Federal and state employment offices. The U.S. government is one of the big- gest employers in the country. Counselors at federal and state employment centers

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Table 7.1 Job-Posting Sites on the Web

Website URL Description

After College www.aftercollege.com Lists more than 400,000 entry-level jobs and internships; connects students, alumni and employers through faculty and career networks across the country

Career One Stop

www.careeronestop.com Sponsored by the Department of Labor; this site includes America’s Job Bank (www.ajb.dni.us) and lists employment services, job search sites, vocational trends, and help for military transitions

Career Builder www.careerbuilder.com Hosts the career sites for more than 1,000 partner companies, including 140 newspapers

College Recruiter

www.collegerecruiter.com Leading job board for college students searching for internships and recent graduates hunting for entry-level jobs and other career opportunities

College Grad www.collegegrad.com Targets college students and recent grads ex- clusively. Provides more entry-level job search content to job seekers and linked to more col- leges and universities than any other career site

Craigslist www.craigslist.com Classified ads website includes regionalized job postings in a wide variety of fields

Diversity Employers

www.diversityemployers.com Largest database of equal-opportunity employ- ers committed to workplace diversity. Dedicated to providing career- and self-development infor- mation on careers, job opportunities, graduate/ professional schools, internships/co-ops, and study-abroad programs

Indeed indeed.com A metasearch employment website that collects job listings from a wide variety of sources

Monster www.monster.com Biggest commercial online job board; lists hundreds of thousands of openings; includes global postings; offers advice on the job-search process

Monster College college.monster.com Jobs posted for college students and recent college graduates.

Net Temps www.net-temps.com Postings for temporary, temp-to-perm, and full- time employment through the staffing industry

Simply Hired www.simplyhired.com Job listings from thousands of websites, includ- ing newspapers, social media, and company career sites

Snagajob www.snagajob.com Claims to be the largest website dedicated spe- cifically to hourly based jobs (for both employ- ers and potential employees)

TweetMyJobs www.tweetmyjobs.com This social recruiting website helps job seekers to find job listings through Facebook and Twitter, and also enables them to receive targeted job recommendations by email or mobile notifications

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Looking in the Right Places for a Job 241

also help job seekers find career opportunities. Consult USAJOBS (www.usajobs .gov) for listings of government jobs. Figure 7.1 shows the home page of USAJOBS, a U.S. government website. Veterans can take advantage of My Next Move for Veterans (http://www.mynextmove.org/vets/) or the National Resource Directory run by the Veteran’s Administration and the Department of Defense (www.ebenefits .va.gov/ebenefits/nrd). The Occupational Outlook Handbook (www.bls.gov/ooh) provides information (including projections for job growth and salary ranges) for hundreds of occupations.

6. Professional and trade journals and associations in your major. Identify the most respected periodicals in your field and search their ads. For example, CIO Magazine—Information Technology Professional Research Center (itjobs.cio.com/a /all-jobs/list) can help you find jobs in the computer industry, engineering, and tech- no logy. Consulting WEDDLE’s Association Directory (http://www.weddles.com /associations) is one way to find out about professional organizations and the journals they publish in your field.

Figure 7.1 USAJOBS Website

Courtesy of the United States Office of Personnel Management

242 chapter 7 How to Get a Job

7. The human resources department of a company or an agency you would like to work for. Often you will be able to fill out an application online even if there is not a current opening.

8. A résumé database service. A number of online services will put your résumé in a database and make it available to prospective employers, who scan the database regularly to find suitable job candidates. Check to see if a professional society to which you belong (or might join) offers a similar service.

But be careful about posting personal information, such as your social security number. You never know who can gain access to this information. If your current boss finds out you are looking for another job, you risk being fired. (See “Should You Ask Your Current Boss,” page 252).

9. Professional employment agencies. Some agencies list jobs you can apply for free of charge (because the employer pays the fee), while others charge a stiff fee, usually a percentage of your first year’s salary. Be sure to ask who pays the fee for this service. Because employment agencies often find out about jobs through channels already available to you, speak to someone at your campus placement center first.

uSing Online SOCial and prOFeSSiOnal netWOrking SiteS in yOur JOb SearCh

Social networking sites (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and Google+) are essential tools to help you find a job and advance your career. Do not think of them only as personal media sites where you exchange news and photos with friends and family. These sites contain valuable information about the companies that might hire you. Companies also explore these sites to recruit potential employees.

Finding Jobs through Networking Sites Companies routinely post job openings on Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and other social media. Following companies, organizations or events related to your job search on social media can alert you to job openings. You can then reference the social media site in the first paragraph of your application letter (see Figure 7.14, page 283) as the place where you learned of the job. Facebook and Twitter also allow you to post links to your blog and/or your portfolio/webfolio (see “Career Portfolios/Webfolios,” pages 252–254) to attract potential employers.

Keep in mind that employers also search social media to do background checks to see if a candidate is a good fit with their corporate culture. Consequently, you want to make sure that you project a professional image on any social media site you post on. See the list of errors to avoid in Table 7.2 (page 250).

Also, you want to demonstrate your writing and organization ability with thoughtful posts that showcase your professionalism. But don’t come across as overly stiff or cold or too casual. Employers will pay special attention to your language—avoid slang, textspeak, insults, jokes, and inappropriate pictures and images.

Using Online Social and Professional Networking Sites in Your Job Search 243

Post comments about any interests or events that support your job application, including those about community affairs that show you are interested in building relationships or how you can help a prospective employer, and also any interests (such as creating a safer, green environment) that express your ethical values and dedication.

Using Facebook to Start Your Network Facebook can help you start your professional networking (see “Writing for Social Media in the Workplace,” pages 139–147). If you already have a Facebook account to socialize with friends, consider creating a separate account for professional net- working and be sure to adjust the privacy settings on your personal account (see Table 7.2, page 250).

In creating your Facebook network of contacts, begin with former employers or co-workers who know your work and who will say good things about your education, skills, and previous experience in your chosen career. As you prepare to enter the job market, contact these people through Facebook and ask if they would notify you of any relevant job openings and if they would write a letter of reference for you. Also be sure to “friend” former professors through Facebook, especially in your area of study and those who liked your work. Your teachers are impor- tant professional contacts because many of them are plugged into professional net- works themselves. Contact them to see if they have heard of any jobs in your field. Moreover, with their permission, your instructors can become some of your most important professional references. You can also expand your network by “Liking”

And don’t turn your social media comments into posts about your personal de- tails or your friends. Instead focus on professional issues in your field. Write about your career achievements, as Maria Lopez does in her Facebook “About Me” sec- tion below:

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professional organizations, companies, or related societies; this will help you as a job candidate by making you look career-oriented.

LinkedIn LinkedIn (www.linkedin.com) is the most important social network for your job search. As the name implies, its purpose is to link, or connect, you to people who can help you professionally. As job counselors repeatedly advise, the best way to land a job is through networking—that is, one person helping another. LinkedIn is all about networking, making contacts who have inside information at a company and who may introduce (and maybe even recommend) you to the individual who makes the decision to interview applicants and eventually hire. More than 300 million companies and individuals belong to LinkedIn, including executives from every Fortune 500 company, giving you valuable information about the company and al- lowing you to target people whom you may want to contact.

Benefits of Joining LinkedIn Joining LinkedIn is easy and free. Not only will belonging to LinkedIn help you find a job, it will enhance your professional image and signal that you value team- work. But networking entails more than someone helping you. You need to be prepared to help others through your contacts. Joining LinkedIn tells prospective network contacts and employers you are ready to do that.

Five Ways LinkedIn Can Help Your Job Search LinkedIn can help you find a position in five key ways.

1. LinkedIn allows you to search for a specific type of job by targeting a part icular specialized field, company, job title, or even zip code. LinkedIn includes thousands of classified posts, helping you to search the wider Internet more efficiently.

2. LinkedIn gives you valuable information about a company, such as its mission statement, the names of the CEO and directors, its products and services, its locations, its awards, and even its competitors. Company profiles on LinkedIn provide the names and contact information for hiring managers and human resource professionals, the very individuals you want to reach and have reach you.

3. LinkedIn helps you become part of a network and expand your list of con- tacts. The working principle behind LinkedIn is to assist you in joining a network and then finding out if someone in your network knows someone at the company you want to work for.

4. LinkedIn improves your search by including short recommendations from people in your network. Recommendations praising your work will enhance your profile on LinkedIn (see Figure 7.2, pages 246–249), and give potential employers proof that you are a qualified, conscientious, and respected worker.

5. LinkedIn allows you to create a public profile that shows you are a profes- sional. This profile shows your writing and organizational skills, and will be one

Using Online Social and Professional Networking Sites in Your Job Search 245

of the first pages that come up in a Google search when someone looks for you by name.

Establishing Your LinkedIn Network When establishing your LinkedIn network, the first thing you need to do is identify as many individuals as possible who might be able to help you in your job search. Look for people who know you and like your work. Here are some of the individuals you might consider asking to be possible members of your network:

●● Current and former instructors who have complimented your work ●● Former bosses, managers, or co-workers who are willing to write a rec-

ommendation on your behalf—for example, “I have worked with Agnes Delancy for two years and always found her cooperative and efficient.”

●● Individuals who belong to a professional association or organization that you have joined, such as the National Society of Black Engineers, the National Student Nurses Association, or the Society of Marketing Specialists

●● Community leaders you have worked for and who value what you have done ●● Individuals in the military to whom you reported and can comment on your

technical skills, cooperation, leadership ability, and so on ●● People you do business with on a regular basis and who may have a wide

circle of connections (e.g., current and former customers, suppliers) ●● Alumni of schools you attended

A Sample LinkedIn Profile Figure 7.2 (pages 246–249) contains the LinkedIn profile of Daniel Ricks Solter. Created using LinkedIn’s helpful prompts and drop-down menu options in many sections, the profile lists such job-relevant categories such as experience, certifications, organizations, languages, education, and a brief summary of his accomplishments. It provides a list of the relevant skills that Solter has acquired and indicates that he is interested in job inquiries, reference requests, expertise requests, and getting back in touch. And it includes important recommenda- tions about him.

promoting Your Best Image—Some Do’s and Don’ts Used effectively, social media and professional networking sites allow you to publi- cize your qualifications through text, photographs, audio, and video images. As we saw, hiring managers and recruiters check these social networks for potential job candidates as well as to screen applicants to interview and eventually hire. In fact, more than a million hiring managers, recruiters, and human resource profession- als look for qualified candidates on LinkedIn alone. These individuals scout other social networking sites, too, such as Facebook and Google+, and ask colleagues and other professionals to alert them to qualified job candidates.

But when you use these networks, make sure you enhance and don’t jeopardize your chances with prospective employers. You have to be careful about your digital

246 chapter 7 How to Get a Job

Figure 7.2 LinkedIn Profile

Includes recent, professional- looking photo

"Connections" are people in Solter's network, many of whom are in a position to help his career

Concisely describes job responsibilities emphasizing technical leadership, and communication skills

Uses incomplete sentences, the standard style for LinkedIn profiles; chooses strong active verbs

Supplies information about work history

Dan Vallero. Photo, iStockPhoto.com/ranplett

Using Online Social and Professional Networking Sites in Your Job Search 247

Figure 7.2 (Continued)

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Secured recommendations from current and former supervisors and co-workers praising his expertise, team spirit, and cooperative attitude, all qualities that hiring managers prize

Provides information about military background

Lists professional certifications

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Figure 7.2 (Continued)

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Groups from which Solter has built his network

Strong link between job goals and community service

Volunteer work shows professional commitment

Uses LinkedIn's helpful drop- down menus to create a comprehensive list of job- related skills

Using Online Social and Professional Networking Sites in Your Job Search 249

Figure 7.2 (Continued)

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footprint (e.g., presence) and your online reputation. Success is all about how you look online, including your social networking profile and what you post on your page and in your portfolio (see “Career Portfolios/Webfolios,” pages 252–254), in a blog, or on a website, whether it is your own or someone else’s. To project your best professional image, employ the same care as you would in preparing other job-related documents, such as memos, letters, reports, and proposals.

In Table 7.2 (page 250), you will find some Do’s and Don’ts when you create your profile on a social networking site.

Includes accurate and ethical assessment of language skills

Describes educational background

Identifies areas in which Solter wants to exchange information to further expand his network of professional contacts.

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Table 7.2 Do’s and Don’ts When Creating Your Online Profile

Do’s Don’ts

Supply a current, professional picture showing how you want employers to see you at an interview.

Never use a profile photo taken at a party, a sports event, or on your vacation. Exclude photos with revealing clothing or compromising poses or gestures.

Choose appropriate “likes” and “activities” re- lating to your professional, community service, or charitable work. Mention the titles of current books related to your major or articles in Time, The New York Times, or Bloomberg Business.

Make sure that the hobbies or activities you list do not detract from your professional profile (e.g., playing computer games, gambling, etc.).

Highlight your strongest career accomplish- ments to demonstrate your knowledge of the industry where you want to work.

Do not give out someone’s personal information (such as email addresses, phone numbers, or names) without first obtaining that person’s permission.

Ensure that your tone, words, and comments are ethical.

Never use sexist, racist, or obscene language online. Steer clear of sensitive or inflammatory topics, such as politics and religion.

Respect all the ethical guidelines of your current or former employer (see “Ethical Requirements on the Job,” pages 27–29).

Refrain from giving out any privileged company information (e.g., names of clients, financial details, marketing plans, etc.). Never use your company email address when registering for social networking sites, and do not log onto them via your office computer.

Check other websites where you may appear or may be quoted to make sure you look and sound professional. Google yourself to find these and other links.

Avoid posting anything that makes you look unprofessional in dress, actions, or words.

Be careful when blogging; exclude anything embarrassing or damaging to your job search.

Avoid criticizing a former or current co-worker, employer, client, vendor, competitor, instructor, or government official or agency.

Keep all information up-to-date. Do not bombard a potential employer with repeated small posts, queries, or updates.

Verify that all images and video clips are clear and professional.

Eliminate background noise or unnecessary background images.

Check your privacy/security settings to ensure that information is available only to those you authorize.

Because social media sites have a “default” mode allowing anyone to access and post on your page, be sure to exclude any embarrassing posts or comments on your page.

Contact website administrators if anything abusive has been posted about you and request that the material be removed.

Don’t forget that your profile is never as private as you think. Your current network of friends may include someone who has some type of connection to a prospective employer.

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Dossiers and Letters of Recommendation 251

dOSSierS and letterS OF reCOmmendatiOn Dossiers play a major role in the job search. A dossier, French for “bundle of docu- ments,” provides a file of information about you and your work— recommendations and so on—that others have supplied.

Basically, your dossier contains the following documents:

●● letters of recommendation ●● letters that awarded you a scholarship, gave you an academic honor, or

acknowledged your community service ●● letters that praised your work on the job, notified you of a merit raise, pro-

motion, or recognition (“Employee of the Month”) ●● your academic transcript(s)

A dossier collects important information about you that prospective employers will want to see to decide whether to interview you. You may ask your placement office to send your dossier to an employer, or employers may request it themselves if you have listed the placement office address on your résumé.

Obtaining Letters of recommendation Should You See Your Letters? You have a legal right to see your recommendation letters, but some employers be- lieve that if candidates read them, their references may be overly complimentary and more inclined to withhold information. Also, some of your references may re- fuse to write a letter of recommendation if they know you will read it. However, you may feel more comfortable knowing what your recommendation letters con- tain. But before you make any decisions about seeing your recommendation letters, get the advice of your instructors and placement counselors.

Whom Should You Ask? Be careful about whom you ask. Whether your recommendation letters are con- fidential or not, they can sell you or sink your chances, so select your references carefully. Ask the following individuals to be your references and to write enthusi- astically about your work qualifications and skills:

●● previous employers (even for summer jobs or internships) who commended you and your work

●● two or three of your professors who know and like your work, have graded your papers, or have supervised you in fieldwork or laboratory activities

●● supervisors who evaluated and praised your work in the military ●● community leaders or officials with whom you have worked successfully on

civic projects

Recommendations from such individuals, whether in a letter or via comments left on your LinkedIn profile page (see Figure 7.2, pages 246–249), will be regarded as more objective—and more relevant—than letters from friends, neighbors, or mem- bers of the clergy.

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Whoever you ask, make sure he or she is a strong supporter of yours, someone who has sincerely and consistently complimented your work and encouraged you in your career. Find out by asking if this person is willing to write a strong, enthu- siastic letter on your behalf. Stay clear of individuals who are lukewarm about your work or who might be reluctant to recommend you for another reason. Figure 7.3 shows a letter requesting a letter of recommendation.

Should You Ask Your Current Boss? Asking your current boss can be tricky. If your present employer is already aware that you are looking for work elsewhere (for instance, if your job is temporary or if your contract is about to run out) or you are working at a part-time job, by all means ask for a letter of recommendation. However, if you are employed full time and are looking for professional advancement and/or for a better salary elsewhere, you may not want your current employer to know that you are searching for another job. You may want to speak to a job counselor.

Career pOrtFOliOS/WebFOliOS Like dossiers, career portfolios/webfolios play a major role in the job search. The documents they contain work together to support and supplement your résumé. Increasingly, job seekers are providing both a dossier and portfolio/ webfolio to prospective employers. Unlike a dossier, which provides informa- tion about you and your work that others have written, a portfolio (or webfolio if it is submitted electronically) contains documents you have created or pro- duced yourself.

For example, a portfolio would contain samples of your professional work— written or visual (reports, plans, paintings, photos, graphics)—to show to prospec- tive employers.

Following is a sampling of the kinds of documents you might include in your career portfolio/webfolio.

●● a mission statement (two or three paragraphs) that outlines your career goals and work skills

●● an additional copy of your résumé ●● scans of diplomas, certificates, licenses, internships, papers ●● copies of awards (academic and job-related), promotion letters, or commen-

dations (e.g., for protecting the environment) ●● impressive examples of written work you did for college courses, such as re-

ports or proposals (include any positive comments provided by instructors) ●● newspaper or newsletter stories about your academic, community, or on-

the-job successes ●● pertinent examples of media presentations you have done, PowerPoint or

Prezi presentations you have created, or a USB flash drive containing the files for a website you designed

●● a list of your references with contact information

Career Portfolios/Webfolios 253

Figure 7.3 Request for a Letter of Recommendation

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Student- designed letterhead

Reviews employment history

Emphasizes skills learned on the job

Diplomatically requests strong letter of recom- mendation

Explains how letter will be used

Encloses copy of résumé and thanks reader

March 29, 2016

Mr. Sonny Butler, Manager Empire Supermarket 4000 West 79th Street Chicago, IL 66052-4300

Dear Mr. Butler:

I was employed at your store from September 2014 through August 2015. During my employment, I worked part time as a stock clerk and relief cashier, and during the summer I was a full-time employee in the produce department, helping to �ll in while Bill Dirksen and Vivian Ho were on vacation.

I enjoyed my work at Empire, and I learned much about the latest inventory tracking systems such as Blue Link ERP, ordering stock, calculating and helping to prevent merchandise shrinkage, and assisting customers.

This May, I will receive my A.A. degree from Moraine Valley Community Col- lege in retail merchandising and I have already begun preparing for my job search for a position in retail sales. Would you be willing to write an enthusias- tic letter of recommendation for me describing what you regard as my greatest strengths as one of your employees? Having your endorsement would be a great help to me.

To assist you, I can send you a letter of recommendation form from the Placement Of�ce at Moraine Valley via either email or regular mail. Your letter would then become part of my permanent placement �le.

I look forward to hearing from you. I thought you might like to see the enclosed résumé, which shows what I have been doing since I left Empire. Thank you for the opportunity to work at your store.

Sincerely yours,

Tadeus Majeski

Encl.: Résumé

TADEUS MAJESKI 5432 South Kenneth Avenue Chicago, IL 60651

3377-555-213 [email protected] www.facebook.com/tadeusmajeski @TadeusMajeski

254 chapter 7 How to Get a Job

What Not to Include in a career portfolio/Webfolio Be highly selective about what you include. Never include anything that would contradict or call into question information in your résumé or letter of application. Exclude the following types of documents from your career portfolio/webfolio:

●● documents or scans of documents that show your memberships in clubs, fraternities/sororities, sports teams, and so on, unless directly relevant to the job (e.g., applying for a job at the national office for Sigma Sigma Kappa or with the Professional Golfers Association of America)

●● links to personal webpages, including Facebook, Twitter, and Pinterest pages, if these contain inappropriate personal information or portray you as unprofes- sional; see “Promoting Your Best Image-Some Do’s and Don’ts,” pages 245–250).

●● pictures of your family, friends, pets, and the like ●● scans of newspaper or newsletter stories about you that are not directly related

to your job search, such as your winning a cruise or playing on a bowling team

career portfolio/Webfolio Formats When you provide a prospective employer with your career portfolio, you can either mail it or provide it electronically via hyperlinks as a webfolio. If you submit a hard-copy portfolio, always make high-quality copies of each document. Never include originals. If you provide a webfolio, make sure that any images posted are at the highest resolution possible (see “Ineffective Visuals: What Not to Do,” page 406). In addition, you can add hyperlinks to parts of your webfolio on your résumé, as Anthony Jones does in Figure 7.4 (page 258), making it easy for a job recruiter or prospective employer to find evidence of your qualifications.

preparing a réSumé The résumé, sometimes called a curriculum vitae (cv), may be the most impor- tant document you prepare for your job search. It merits doing some careful home- work. A résumé is not your life history or your emotional autobiography, nor is it a transcript of your college work. It is a factual and concise summary of your qualifications, convincing a prospective employer that you have the education and experience to do the job you are applying for. Regard your résumé as a persuasive ad for your professional qualifications. It is a billboard advertising you.

What you include—your key details, the wording, the ordering of information, and the formatting—are all vital to your campaign to sell yourself and land an inter- view. Employers want to see the most crucial and current details about your qualifica- tions quickly. Accordingly, keep your print résumé short (preferably one page, never longer than two) and hard-hitting. The same thing goes for your digital résumés. See Figures 7.10 to 7.13 for examples of digital résumés. Everything on your résumé needs to convince an employer you have the exact skills and background he or she is looking for.

What employers Like to See in a résumé Prospective employers will judge you and your work by your résumé; it is their first view of you and your qualifications. They will expect an applicant’s résumé to be

Preparing a Résumé 255

●● Honest. Be truthful about your qualifications—your education, experience, and skills. Distorting, exaggerating, or falsifying information about yourself in your résumé is unethical and could cost you the job. If you were a clerical assistant to an attorney, don’t describe yourself as a paralegal. Always tell the truth.

●● Attractive. The document should be pleasing to the eye, with generous margins, consistent punctuation, and suitable spacing, typeface, and use of boldface and italics; it shows you have a sense of proportion and document design and that you are visually smart. The print should be clear and dark, not faded, on high-quality paper, and not so small it would be hard to read. Do not use gimmicks like clip art or excessive capitalization.

●● Carefully organized. Arrange information so that it is easy to follow, logical, and consistent; the way you organize information shows you have the ability to process information and to summarize. Employers prize analytical think- ing. Include plenty of white space to separate major sections, and use bullets to list and highlight key facts within each section, as in Figures 7.4 and 7.5 (pages 258–259).

●● Concise. Make sure your résumé is to the point. Generally, keep your résumé to one page, as in Figure 7.4. However, depending on your education or your job experience, you may want to include a second page. Résumés are written in short sentences that omit “I” and that use action-packed verbs, such as those listed in Table 7.3 on page 256.

●● Accurate. Make sure your grammar, spelling, dates, names, titles, and pro- grams are correct; typos, inconsistencies, and math errors say you didn’t check your facts and figures.

●● Current. All information needs to be up-to-date and documented, with no gaps or sketchy areas about previous jobs or education. Missing or incorrect dates or leaving key information out are red flags.

●● Relevant. The information on your résumé must be appropriate for the job description and level, documenting that you have the necessary education and experience, and confirm that you can be an effective team player. Tailor your résumé using keywords from the job posting to help your résumé stand out if it is scanned by an applicant tracking system (ATS); see “Things to Keep in Mind When Preparing a Digital Résumé,” page 272.

●● Quantifiable. Emphasize your accomplishments, not just responsibilities. Include specifics about how much revenue you generated for an employer (or how much money you saved, or how many times you performed a complex job).

Your goal is to prepare a résumé that shows the employer you possess the sought-after job skills. A résumé that is unattractive, difficult to follow, poorly written, filled with typos and spelling mistakes or that is sketchy, vague, boastful, or not relevant for the prospective employer’s needs will not make the first cut.

Create Several Versions of Your Résumé It is critical to prepare several versions of your résumé and then adapt each one you send out to the specific job skills a prospective employer is looking for. It pays to customize your résumé based on information you may have gathered about the job

256 chapter 7 How to Get a Job

Table 7.3 Action Verbs to Use in Your Résumé

accommodated converted generated operated served

accomplished coordinated guided organized settled

achieved created handled oversaw sold

acquired customized headed performed solved

adapted dealt in hired persuaded spearheaded

adjusted delivered implemented planned streamlined

administered designed improved posted succeeded

advocated determined increased prepared supervised

analyzed developed informed presented surveyed

applied devised initiated programmed taught

appraised directed inspected protected teamed up

arranged discovered installed provided tested

assembled drafted instituted purchased tracked

assisted earned instructed ranked trained

attended economized interpreted reappraised transcribed

awarded edited judged received translated

bridged elected launched reconciled tutored

budgeted enforced learned recorded updated

built established led reduced upgraded

calculated estimated logged re-evaluated validated

chaired evaluated maintained reported verified

coached excelled managed researched visualized

collaborated expanded mapped restored volunteered

collected explored mastered reviewed weighed

communicated fashioned met saved wired

compiled figured monitored scanned won

completed formulated motivated scheduled worked

composed fostered navigated searched wrote

computed founded negotiated secured

conducted fulfilled observed selected

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from researching the company (see “Preparing for an Interview, pages 288–290), through networking (see “LinkedIn,” pages 244–245), and from analyzing and us- ing keywords both common to the industry and included by the employer in the job description. Keywords in your résumé are critical to having it stand out. Fol- lowing the process detailed in the next section will help you prepare any résumé.

Preparing a Résumé 257

the process of Writing Your résumé To write an effective résumé, ask the following important questions:

1. What classes did you excel in? 2. What papers, reports, surveys, or presentations earned you your highest grades? 3. What computer skills have you mastered—languages, software, e-commerce,

blog or website design, collaborative online editing? 4. What other technical skills or professional licenses and certifications have you earned? 5. What language(s) do you speak, write, or have limited proficiency in? 6. What relevant jobs have you had? For how long and where? What were your

primary duties and accomplishments? Did you supervise other employees? 7. How did you open or expand a business market? Increase a customer base?

Improve customer feedback? 8. What did you do to earn a raise or a promotion in a previous or current job? 9. Do you work well with people? What skills do you possess as a member of a

team working toward a common job goal (e.g., finishing a report)? 10. Can you organize complicated tasks or identify and solve problems quickly? 11. Have you had experiences or responsibilities managing money—collecting fees

or receipts, preparing payrolls, conducting nightly audits, and so on? 12. Have you won any awards or scholarships or received a commendation or other

recognition at work?

Pay special attention to your four or five most significant, job-worthy strengths, and work especially hard on listing them concisely and persuasively.

Although not everything you have done relates directly to a particular job, indicate how your achievements are relevant to the employer’s overall needs. For example, supervising staff in a convenience store points to your ability to perform the same duties in another business context.

Balancing Education and Experience If you have years of experience, don’t flood your prospective employer with too many details. You cannot possibly include every detail of your jobs for the last ten or twenty years.

●● Emphasize only those skills and positions most likely to earn you the job. ●● Eliminate early jobs that do not relate to your present employment search. ●● Combine and condense skills acquired over many years and jobs. ●● Include relevant military schools or service.

Figures 7.6 (page 262) and 7.7 (page 267) show the résumés of two individuals who have a great deal of experience to offer prospective employers.

Many job candidates who have spent most of their lives in school are faced with the other extreme: not having much job experience to list. The worst thing to do is to write “None” for experience. Any part-time, summer, or other seasonal jobs, as well as vol- unteer work, apprenticeships, workshops attended, and internships, show an employer that you are responsible and knowledgeable about the obligations of being an employee. Figure 7.4 contains a résumé from Anthony Jones, a student with little job experience; Figure 7.5 shows María López’s résumé, a student with a few years of experience.

258 chapter 7 How to Get a Job

Figure 7.4 Résumé from a Student with Little Job Experience

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Headlines major achievements and gives contact details, including social media and professional networking sites

Offers precise, convincing objective

Starts with most important qualification— education

Lists relevant software programs studied

Stresses job- related activities of internship

Includes part-time work experience

Again demonstrates skills in graphic and web design software; names programs to maximize the number of keyword “hits”

Relevant volunteer work

Webfolio documents accomplishments

with responsibilities including website design, page composition, and graphics creation.

Graphics Programs: Adobe Illustrator CC, Adobe Dreamweaver CC, CorelDRAW Graphics Suite X7, Adobe Photoshop CC

2015–2016

2015

5 Serving

Adobe InDesign CC, QuarkXPress 2015, Adobe Illustrator CC, Adobe Dreamweaver CC, XML, HTML, CorelDRAW Graphics Suite X7, Adobe Photoshop CC

and developed and maintained a Facebook page for the Santa Rosa

Humane

A webfolio containing designs, photographs, illustrations, graphics, and graphic designs is available at www.plat.com/users/ajones/resume.html

CC,

www.facebook.com/anthonyhjones @AnthonyHJones www.linkedin.com/pub/anthony-h-jones

73 Allenwood Boulevard Santa Rosa, CA 95401-1074

707-555-6390 [email protected]

www.plat.com/users/ajones/resume.html

Preparing a Résumé 259

Figure 7.5 Résumé from a Student with Some Job Experience ©

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Provides easy- to-find contact information, including LinkedIn profile

Objective tailored for a particular employer

Emphasizes skills that benefit employer and patients

Lists courses required for the job

Highlights previous job responsibilities in health care setting

Uses both the name and the acronym for the professional associations, to increase keyword “hits”

Includes career-relevant computer skills

Calls attention to bilingual skills of value to employer and patients

A.S. in Dental Hygiene, Miami-Dade Community College August 2014–May 2016 GPA: 3.58 (Ranked in the top 10 percent of class)

CAREER OBJECTIVE

EDUCATION

Position working in dental clinic specializing in pedodontics.

QUALIFICATIONS Will be certified by the Dental Assisting National Board (DANB) as of June 2, 2016. Completed final project for dental hygiene major on proper nutrition and dental health for preschoolers Worked on a pediatric medical unit for over two years. Experienced with procedures and instruments used with oral prophylaxis techniques Bilingual in Spanish

Oral pathology

MARÍA LÓPEZ

Periodontics Dental materials and specialties Community dental health

DentiMax Advanced, Dentrix Ascend, Maxident 6, Microsoft Office 365, Filemaker Pro 13

COMPUTER SKILLS

Fluent in Spanish

LANGUAGE SKILLS

St. Francis Hospital (Miami Beach, FL) April 2012–July 2014 Unit assistant on pediatric unit. Maintained medical supply levels using inventory tracking software, keyboarded all medical records into hospital-wide database, transcribed medical orders and surgical notes, greeted and assisted visitors

Minor: Psychology (12 hours in child and adolescent psychology)

1725 Brooke Street Miami, FL 32701-2121

(305) 555-3429 [email protected]

www.linkedin.com/pub/maria-lopez

Major courses:

(Miami, FL) June 2011–April 2012 Office assistant-receptionist. Did data entry and filing, and assisted with billing and creating project schedules in a small office (5 employees)

PROFESSIONAL MEMBERSHIPS American Dental Hygienists Association (ADHA) National Dental Hygienists Association (NDHA)

Murphy Construction Company

260 chapter 7 How to Get a Job

What to Exclude from a Résumé Knowing what to exclude from a résumé is as important as knowing what to in- clude. Because federal employment laws prohibit discrimination on the basis of age, sex, race, national origin, religion, marital status, or disability, do not include such information on your résumé. Here are some other details best left off your résumé:

●● salary demands, expectations, or ranges ●● preferences for work schedules, days off, or overtime ●● comments about fringe benefits ●● travel restrictions ●● reasons for leaving your previous job ●● your photograph (unless you are applying for a modeling or acting job) ●● your Social Security number ●● information about your family, spouse, or children ●● height, weight, hair or eye color ●● sexual orientation, religious and political affiliations ●● hobbies, interests (unless relevant to the job you are seeking)

Save comments about salary and schedules for your interview (see “Going to an Interview,” pages 288–294). The résumé should be written to earn you that interview.

parts of a résumé As with memos, letters, and reports, most résumés consist of specific parts shown in boldface headings on the following pages. These parts—contact information, career ob- jective, qualifications, credentials (education and experience), related skills and achieve- ments, and references/portfolios—are critical building blocks to consider for any résumé.

Contact Information At the top of your résumé, provide your full name (do not use a nickname), address including your zip code, home and mobile telephone numbers, and email address. If your academic address is different from your home address, list and identify both. The contact information can either be centered, flush left or right, or some combi- nation of these approaches (note how María López uses a combination of flush left and right in Figure 7.5). Avoid unprofessional email addresses such as toughguy @netfield.com or [email protected]. Make sure your voice mail message is straightforward and professional as well. You may also want to include links to a Facebook, Twitter, or LinkedIn professional profile (see “Promoting Your Best Image—Some Do’s and Don’ts,” pages 245–250). And don’t forget to include a URL for your website or webfolio (see “Career Portfolios/Webfolios,” pages 252–254).

Career Objective One of the first things a prospective employer will read is your career objective. It specifies the job you are looking for, and in what ways you are qualified to hold it. Create an objective that precisely dovetails with the prospective employer’s re- quirements. Incorporating precise keywords from the job listing/description the employer posts can be crucial in getting your résumé past the applicant tracking systems that many companies now use.

Preparing a Résumé 261

Career objective statements should be the result of your focused self-evaluation and your assessment of the job market. Depending on your background and the types of jobs you are qualified for, you might formulate many different career or employment objectives to use with different versions of your résumé as you apply for various positions. Your career objective must be tailored for the particular job you are applying for. María López, for example, adapted her career objective listed in Figure 7.5 when she applied for jobs at dental offices where general dentistry or cosmetic dentistry was emphasized.

To write an effective career objective statement, ask yourself five basic questions:

1. What kind of job do I want? 2. What kind of job am I qualified for? 3. What capabilities do I possess? 4. What kinds of skills do I want to learn? 5. What keywords from the employer’s job listing should I include?

Avoid trite, vague, or self-centered goals, such as “Looking for professional advancement,” or “Seeking high-paying job that brings personal satisfaction.” These are so general, a prospective employer may conclude you don’t have the background to do the job. Compare the vague objectives on the left with the more precise ones on the right.

Unfocused Focused Job in sales to use my aggressive skills in expanding markets

Regional sales representative using my proven skills in e-commerce and communication to develop and expand a customer base.

Full-time position as staff nurse Full-time position as staff nurse on cardiac step-down unit to offer excellent primary care nursing and patient/family teaching.

Position in cable industry Position as part of a service team to provide efficient cable repair service.

While inclusion of the career objective is important in many employment situa- tions, some job counselors advise leaving an objective off a résumé if you either need the space or have lots of education or work experience you need to include.

Credentials The order of the next two categories—Education and Experience—can vary. Generally, if you have lots of work experience, list it first, as Anna Cassetti does by including her realtor license information at the top of her résumé in Figure 7.6 (page 262). However, if you are a recent graduate short on job experience, list edu- cation first, as Anthony Jones does in Figure 7.4. María López (Figure 7.5) also decided to place her education before her job experience because the job she was applying for required the formal training she recently received at Miami-Dade Community College.

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262 chapter 7 How to Get a Job

Figure 7.6 Résumé from an Individual with Significant Job Experience

Provides home, work, and social networking contact information, as well as her realtor license number

Begins with the most important job qualification first—experience

Job history focuses on sales achievements, promotion, and responsibilities

Gives related military experience

Documents education; cites specific skills

Includes computer and communication skills

Provides examples of community service

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ANNA C. CASSETTI 6457 Blackstone Avenue MacMurray Real Estate Fort Worth, TX 76321-6733 1700 Ross Boulevard (817) 555-5657 Haltom City, TX 77320-1700 [email protected] (817) 555-7211

OBJECTIVE

EXPERIENCE MacMurray Real Estate, Haltom City, Texas, 2012–present

limited listings; sold individully over $3 million in residential property; appraised both residential and commercial listings.

Dallman Federal Savings and Loan, Inc., Fort Worth, Texas 2005–2011 Chief Teller. Responsible for supervising, training, and coordinating activities of six full-time and two part-time tellers. Promoted to Chief Teller, Mar. 2007, with bonus.

H&R Block, Westover Hills, Texas, 2005 (Jan.–Apr.) Tax Consultant. Prepared personal and business returns.

Cruckshank’s Hardware Store, Fort Worth, Texas, 2002–2004 Salesperson.

U.S. Navy, 1995–2001

Served as stores manager; earned three commendations.

EDUCATION Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas, 2004–2009 Awarded B.S. degree in Real Estate Management. Completed thirty-three hours in busi-

management. Also took twelve hours in programming and Web design. Wrote reports on appraisal procedures as part of supervised training program.

H&R Block, Westover Hills, Texas, 2004 (Sept.–Dec.) Earned diploma in Basic Income Tax Preparation after completing ten-week course.

U.S. Navy, 1995–2001 Attended U.S. Navy’s Supply Management School Applied principles of stores management at Newport Naval Base

COMMUNITY SERVICE Chair, Financial Committee, Grace Presbyterian Church, Fort Worth Adviser, Junior Achievement

Full-time sales position with large real estate of�ce in the Phoenix or Tucson area with opportunities to use proven skills in real estate appraisal and tax counseling.

Real estate agent. Excelled in small suburban of�ce (�ve salespersons plus broker) with

Honorably discharged with rank of Petty Of�cer, Third Class.

ness and real estate courses with a concentration in �nance, appraising, and property

Licensed Texas Realtor—756a2737

www.facebook.com/annaccassetti @AnnaCassetti www.linkedin.com/pub/anna-c-cassetti

Preparing a Résumé 263

Education Begin with your most recent education first, then list everything signifi- cant since high school. For each school, give the name, the dates you attended, and the degree, diploma, or certificate you earned. Don’t overlook relevant military ex- perience or major training programs (EMT, court reporter), institutes, internships, or workshops you have completed. Because he had little relevant work experience, Anthony Jones emphasized his internship in his résumé (Figure 7.4).

Remember, however, that a résumé is not a transcript. Simply listing a series of required courses will not set you apart from hundreds of other applicants taking similar courses across the country. Focus on courses that have specifically prepared you for the job. Avoid vague titles such as Science 203 or Nursing IV. Instead, con- centrate on describing the specific skills you learned.

30 hours in planning and development courses specializing in transportation, land use, and community facilities; 12 hours in field methods of gathering, interpreting, and describing survey data in reports.

Completed 28 hours in major courses in business marketing, management, and materi- als in addition to 12 hours in information science, including web design and publishing.

Mention any special projects, experiments, or reports that bear directly on the job you are seeking. Note how María López (Figure 7.5) briefly references her major project on preschoolers’ nutrition and dental health, a topic sure to interest her potential employer.

List your grade point average (GPA) only if it is 3.0 or above; otherwise, indicate your GPA in just your major or during your last year or term, again if it is above 3.0.

Experience Your job history is the key category for many employers. It shows them that you have held jobs before and that you are responsible. Here are some guidelines about listing your experience.

1. Begin with your most recent position and work backward—in reverse chronological order. List the company or agency name, location (city and state), your job title, and dates of employment. Do not mention why you left a job.

2. For each job or activity, provide a short description (one or two lines) of your duties and achievements. Quantify your achievements whenever possible; for example, you helped set up a chemistry laboratory and established protocols that reduced the breakage rate of glasswear by 45 percent. Instead of simply saying you were an administrative assistant, indicate that you maintained the company’s social media presence, prepared schedules for part-time help in an office of twenty-five people, or assisted the manager in preparing minutes, accounts, and presentations.

3. Prospective employers are interested in your leadership abilities, teamwork, financial responsibility, tact in dealing with the public, and communications skills. Always emphasize any responsibilities that involve:

●● handling money (such as assisting customers, filing insurance claims, or preparing payrolls)

●● managing other employees

264 chapter 7 How to Get a Job

●● working with customer accounts, services, and programs ●● writing letters and reports

They will also be favorably impressed by earning or saving money for your com- pany, commendations like “Earned Highest Sales Record,” recognized for “Exceptional Clinical Care” in serving geriatric patients, and promotions you have earned.

4. Include any relevant volunteer work you have done, as Anthony Jones did for an animal shelter in Figure 7.4. Note how Dora Cooper Bolger’s volunteer work translates into marketing skills an employer wants to see in a prospective employ- ee’s résumé in Figure 7.7 (page 267).

5. You might also note community or civic service, or any relevant skills you developed as a full-time parent or caregiver for a family member or friend. Anna Cassetti noted her involvement with her local church and with Junior Achievement (Figure 7.6). Dora Cooper Bolger, in her résumé in Figure 7.7 (page 267) skillfully related her role as a full-time parent and community organizer to the job she seeks.

Related Skills and Achievements Not every résumé will have this section, but the following are all employer-friendly things to include:

●● certificates or licenses you hold ●● memberships in professional associations (e.g., American Society of Safety

Engineers, National Black Law Students Association, National Hispanic Business Association, Texas Executive Women)

●● memberships in community service groups (e.g., Habitat for Humanity, Salvation Army, Big Brothers/Big Sisters); list any offices you held

●● second or third languages you speak or write

Computer Skills Knowledge of both common (such as Microsoft Office) and specialized software packages (such as Adobe InDesign CC in Figure 7.4 or Maxident 6 in Figure 7.5) is extremely valuable in the job market. Note how Anthony Jones and María López both inform prospective employers about their relevant technical competencies in Figures 7.4 and 7.5.

Honors/Awards List any civic honors (mayor’s award, community service award, cultural harmony award) and academic honors (dean’s list, department awards, scholarships, grants, honorable mentions), and military awards or medals you have won. Memberships in honor societies in your major and technical/business associations also demon- strate that you are professionally accomplished and active.

References You can list “References available upon request,” but employers generally assume these will be readily available. Never list the names of your references on a résumé. Instead, prepare a list of references, either to forward to an employer upon request or to bring with you to an interview (see “Going to an Interview,” pages 288–294).

Preparing a Résumé 265

Here is where networking can help you. Ask your instructors, previous em- ployer, or individuals who have supervised your work. Give the person providing the reference a copy of your current résumé, as Tadeus Majeski did in Figure 7.3. But always ask for permission before you list an individual as a reference. You could jeopardize your chances for a job if a prospective employer called one of your refer- ences and that person did not even know you were looking for a job or, worse yet, said that you did not have the courtesy to ask to use his or her name.

Organizing Your résumé There are two primary ways to organize your résumé: chronologically and by function or skill area. You may want to prepare two versions of your résumé—one chronological and one by function or skill area—to see which sells your experience and your talents better. Don’t hesitate to seek the advice of a placement counselor or instructor about which may work best for you.

Chronologically The résumés in Figures 7.4 and 7.5 are organized chronologically, with most recent education and experience listed first. This is the traditional (and generally more com- mon) way to organize a résumé. It is straightforward and easy to read, and employers find it acceptable. The chronological sequence works especially well when you can show a clear continuity toward progress in your career through your employment and schoolwork or when you want to apply for a similar job with another company.

A chronological résumé is also appropriate for students who want to emphasize recent educational achievements.

By Function or Skill Area Depending on your experiences and accomplishments, you might organize your résumé according to function or skill area. According to this plan, you would not list your information chronologically in the categories “Experience” and “Education.” Instead, you would sort your achievements and abilities—whether from course work, jobs, extracurricular activities, military service, or technical skills—into two to four key skill areas, such as

●● Sales/Customer Service ●● Public Relations ●● Training/Teaching ●● Management ●● Safety/Security ●● Counseling ●● Leadership ●● Communication

●● Network Operations ●● People Skills ●● Teamwork ●● Troubleshooting ●● Opening New Markets ●● Multicultural Experiences ●● Information Technology ●● Problem-Solving Skills

Under each area you would list three to five points illustrating your achievements in that area. Functional and skills résumés are often called bullet résumés because they itemize the candidate’s main strengths in bulleted lists. Some employers prefer the bul- let résumé because they can skim the candidate’s list of qualifications in a few seconds.

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The following individuals would probably benefit from organizing their résumés by function or skill area instead of chronologically:

●● nontraditional students who have had diverse job experiences ●● people who are changing professions ●● individuals who have changed jobs frequently ●● ex-military personnel reentering the civilian marketplace

Note Dora Cooper Bolger’s profitable use of a skills résumé format in Figure 7.7. She delayed attending college for several years to be a full-time parent, yet she uses the experiences she acquired during those years to her advantage in her résumé organized by “Skills.” No gap of ten years interrupts her valuable marketable skills.

Preparing a Functional or Skills Résumé When you prepare a functional or skills résumé, start with your contact information and career objective, just as in a chrono- logical résumé. To find the best two or three functional areas to include, use the pre- writing strategies (especially clustering and brainstorming) discussed in Chapter 2 (see “Planning,” pages 46–49).

After you discover and suitably revise the information to be included in your categories, briefly list your educational and work experiences, as Dora Cooper Bolger in Figure 7.7 and Anna Cassetti in Figure 7.8 (page 268) do.

tranSitiOning intO the Civilian WOrkFOrCe Transitioning from the military into the civilian workforce is not easy. It may re- quire you to greatly modify or adapt your military training or even to change ca- reers altogether. Above all, you will have to ask yourself questions such as those in “Analyzing Your Strengths and Restricting Your Job Search” on pages 237–238 to find out what skills you learned in the service—technical, communication, interper- sonal—that would readily transfer to the cvilian job market. Listing your skills will help you focus on the various kinds of jobs for which you can apply. Like other job seekers, you need to take advantage of networking sites such as LinkedIn and Face- book to find jobs and to make contacts. But also consult the following sites created to assist veterans in finding civilian employment.

●● MyNextMove.org: directory of civilian occupations based on specific military job and experience

●● NRD.gov: the National Resource Directory’s Veterans Job Bank lists post- ings from companies looking to hire veterans

●● www.ebenefits.va.gov/ebenefits/jobs: Links on this page include a skills translator that helps find transferable civilian skills for your military experience.

●● Military.com: resources for transitioning to civilian life ●● veterans.linkedin.com: networking microsite for veterans with tips, tools,

and webinars ●● SimplyHired.com; BranchOut.com; VetCentral.us.jobs; and VetJobs

.com: jobs sites tagging positions specifically for veterans

Transitioning into the Civilian Workforce 267

Figure 7.7 Dora Cooper Bolger’s Résumé Organized by Skills Areas

Restricted objective

Aptly features skill areas before education

Links achievements from volunteer and home-based activities most important to employer

Chooses strong, active verbs to convey image of a results-oriented professional

Places education after skills; includes major and related minor plus strong GPA

Excludes details about least recent jobs

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1215 Lakeview Avenue Westhampton, MI 46532 Cell: 616-555-4773 [email protected]

Objective Seek full-time position as public affairs of�cer to promote the goals of a health care, educational, or charitable organization

Organizational Communication Delivered 24 presentations to civic groups on educational issues Recorded minutes and helped formulate agenda as president of large, local PTA (800 members) for past 6½ years Possess excellent computer skills in Microsoft Of�ce 365 and Microsoft Dynamics CRM. Established and maintained the Facebook and Twitter accounts

and wrote blog posts for Teens in Trouble.

Financial Spearheaded 3 major fund-raising drives (total of $225,000 col- lected) Prepared and implemented large family budget (3 children, 8 foster children) Planned budget, Foster Parents’ Association Served as �nancial secretary, Faith United Methodist Church, for 4 years

Administrative Organized volunteers for National Kidney Foundation (2012–2016) Established and oversaw neighborhood carpool (17 drivers; more than 70 children) for 7 years Coordinated after-school tutoring program for Teens in Trouble; president since 2003 Vice-president, Foster Parents’ Association, 2014

“Volunteer of the Year,” (2015) Michigan Child Placement Agency

Metropolitan Community College, A.A., 2012 Mid-Michigan College, B.S., expected May 2016 Major: Public Administration; Minor: Psychology GPA: 3.55 | Dean’s List: 2014–2016

Secretary, 2004–2011 (full- and part-time): Merrymount Plastics; Foley and Wasson; Westhampton Health Dept.; G & K Electric

Skills

Honors

Education

Work Experience

DORA COOPER BOLGER

www.facebook.com/doracooperbolger www.linkedin.com/pub/dora-c-bolger

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Figure 7.8 Anna Cassetti’s Résumé Organized by Function or Skill Areas

Begins with a clear and focused objective

Groups accomplishments into three relevant and marketable skills areas for prospective employer

Uses bullets, strong verbs, and specific examples

Emphasizes written and oral skills

Stresses educational preparation after skills

Demonstrates professional commitment and successes

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ANNA C. CASSETTI 6457 Blackstone Avenue MacMurray Real Estate Fort Worth, TX 76321-6733 1700 Ross Boulevard (817) 555-5657 Haltom City, TX 77320-1700 [email protected] (817) 555-7211

OBJECTIVE

SALES/FINANCIAL ● Sold over $3 million of residential property (2012–present) ● Served as a tax consultant with special interest in real estate sales/market conditions ● Performed general banking procedures as chief teller ● Ordered and maintained ship’s stores, U.S. Navy

PUBLIC RELATIONS ● Helped clients select appropriate property for their needs and income ● Counseled commercial and individual clients about taxes/bene�ts/liabilities ● Supervised, trained, and coordinated the activities of six full-time and two part-time bank tellers ● Commended for rapport in assisting customers with their banking needs

COMMUNICATION ● Prepared detailed real estate appraisals ● Wrote in-depth business reports on appraisal procedures, property management problems, and banking policies affecting real estate transactions ● Achieved pro�ciency in CorpSheet and other spreadsheet programs ● Conducted small group training and sales sessions

EDUCATION ● B.S. in Real Estate Management, 2009, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas Advanced course work in business and real estate ● Diploma, Basic Income Tax Preparation, 2004, H&R Block, Westover Hills, Texas

EXPERIENCE MacMurray Real Estate, Haltom City, Texas 2012–present; sales agent

Dallman Federal Savings and Loan, Inc., Fort Worth, Texas 2005–2011; Chief Teller

H&R Block, Westover Hills, Texas 2005 (Jan.–Apr.); consultant, tax preparer

Cruckshank’s Hardware Store, Fort Worth, Texas 2002–2004; salesperson

U.S. Navy, 1995–2001 Stores manager, 1998–2001; honorably discharged with rank of Petty Of�cer, Third Class

Sales position with real estate of�ce in the Phoenix or Tucson area with opportunities to use proven skills in property appraisals and tax counseling

Licensed Texas Realtor—756a2737

www.facebook.com/annaccassetti @AnnaCassetti www.linkedin.com/pub/anna-c-cassetti

Transitioning into the Civilian Workforce 269

●● www.ebenefits.va.gov/ebenefits/jobs: Links on this page include a skills translator that helps find transferable civilian skills for military experience.

●● FedsHireVets.com: Run by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, site contains federal veteran employment information and resources.

Veterans bring a wealth of experiences and competencies that can improve their chances of landing a job in the civilian sector. The skills listed here, common to all branches and divisions of the armed services, appeal to employers who want to hire individuals who possess a strong work ethic and a sense of duty and loyalty that the military stresses. Capitalize on these when preparing your résumé and drafting your letter of application:

1. Offering leadership by training and example

2. Excelling in building teamwork and efficiency

3. Meeting deadlines under stressful conditions

4. Working respectfully with indivi- duals from diverse cultures

5. Adapting quickly to change

6. Paying attention to detail 7. Troubleshooting and solving prob-

lems quickly 8. Receiving specialized technical training 9. Managing budgets, equipment, sup-

plies and other resources 10. Maintaining equipment 11. Exhibiting self-discipline 12. Being physically fit

Illustrate your accomplishments in these categories with specific examples when you write your résumé or letter of application. The more you match your military competencies to your employer’s needs, the better your chances of land- ing an interview. Make your military service work for you in the civilian sector. See how Sandy Meagher did this in Figure 7.9 (page 270).

Using a civilian résumé Format, Language, and context While it is to your advantage to showcase the experience and technical skills you gained in the service, keep in mind that not all military duties automatically or even easily translate into civilian ones. You cannot prepare a résumé for a civilian boss the way you would your superior in the service. Study Figure 7.9, which contains a résumé prepared by a veteran, Sandy Meagher, who was discharged after eight years of service in the Marine Corps. As you prepare your civilian résumé, follow these guidelines:

1. Complete the Veterans Preference Document, and indicate that you have done so at the top of your résumé so that a prospective employer knows about your background, as Sandy Meagher has done in Figure 7.9.

2. When listing contact information, do not refer to yourself by your military rank, for example, Lance Cpl. Joseph Johns; Spec. E-3 Cathy Cookeston.

3. Avoid military abbreviations, and acronyms (Sitrep, FOB, LAV, MOS/MUC) that a civilian employer might not understand.

4. Provide a career objective consistent with the civilian job for which you are applying.

5. Describe your military job(s) in terms that an employer will easily understand. Rather than indicating you were a 1A2X1, simply say you were a cargo manager.

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Figure 7.9 Sandy Meagher’s Résumé Showing Transition from Military Service to Civilian Employment

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Easy to see contact information

Free from military jargon

Uses four skill areas thattransfer military accomplishments to civilian workforce

Helpfully organized with bulleted items

Chose effective strong verbs

Lists military honors to show dedication and service commitments

www.linkedin.com/pub/sandy-meagher

The Digital Résumé 271

6. Whether you use a chronological or functional résumé depends on the types of jobs you did in the military. If the job you performed involved immediately transferable skills and competencies, a chronological résumé may work well. But if your duties were diverse or appreciably different from those expected in a civilian job (for example, infantry, explosive detonation, warehousing sur- plus parts), then a functional résumé, like Dora Cooper Bolger’s in Figure 7.7 or Sandy Meagher’s in Figure 7.9 are preferable. (Meagher had other jobs in the military before being assigned to the motor pool.) It allows you to avoid any gaps that a chronological résumé shows and to summarize your military training and accomplishments spread over several enlistments and at various duty stations.

As the résumés in Figures 7.7, 7.8, and 7.9 do, quantify your accomplishments. Some possible skill/function categories from your tour(s) of duty you might use include:

Accounting/Finance Maintenance Administration Public Information/Affairs Communication Purchasing Criminal Justice Recruiting Cultural Diversity Research Engineering Safety and Security Health Care Special skills (heavy equipment operations, Human Resources special truck/vehicle license, etc.) Languages Teamwork Leadership Training/Teaching

7. List your education, including any significant military training you received or schools you attended. Omit your high school or GED.

8. Briefly describe your computer skills (for example, Proficient in Office 365) or any specialized military software you used, but only if it is relevant to the civilian job for which you are applying and in terms a civilian employer can understand.

9. Emphasize languages you know (and indicate level of competency). But if you know only a few words or phrases, skip this category; however, if you have conversational skills (for example, basic conversational Arabic) or reading knowledge, then certainly note that.

10. List military awards, medals, or promotions (for example, Commendation for Efficiency, Meritorious Service Medal, Exceptional Leadership; promoted to E-5).

11. Mention any affiliations relevant to your job search (for example, professional societies or military organizations in your area of expertise), but do not include political affiliations or clubs.

the digital réSumé In addition to drafting a hard copy of your résumé, expect to prepare multiple digi- tal versions of it, including creating and posting it to the Web, formatting a scanna- ble text, or emailing it. In today’s highly competitive job market, where employers

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have differing requirements, it is to your advantage to use these various formats to attract the interest of prospective employers.

things to Keep in Mind when preparing a Digital résumé As you did with your hard copy résumé, your digital résumé has to be carefully organized and accurately written to meet a prospective employer’s needs. But while the content of your résumé may remain the same when moving to a digital format, there are other things to keep in mind:

1. Always follow the employer’s instructions when submitting or posting your digital résumé.

2. Employers generally prefer submission of digital résumé as either plain text (.txt) files, Microsoft Word files, or PDF files.

3. When preparing your digital résumé, be sure to use the exact keywords from the job posting, so you can match your job skills with the ones employers are searching for when they review possible candidates and help your résumé stand out if scanned by an applicant tracking system (ATS). If a job posting requires a person to have “supervised” co-workers, don’t use “managed” instead of “supervised” in your résumé; keywords must be used exactly to be flagged by the applicant tracking system.

Ways to Submit Your Digital résumé Your digital résumé may be the most important document in your job search be- cause employers determine who will make their interview list based on what they see in a résumé. There are five basic ways to create, post, or submit your digital résumé. But however you submit it, you must remember to make any changes in all versions of your résumé to be consistent. The following guidelines will help you prepare different digital versions of your résumé:

1. Use the employer-provided application form. Many employers have their own dedicated website where they accept applications for employment; this is one of the most widely used ways to get a prospective employer to look at your résumé. Applicants to these companies are asked to “paste” the text of their résumé into the online application form in order to submit it. In these situations, using a scannable version of a résumé, similar to the one in Figure 7.13 (page 278), is usually the best way to proceed. When filling out an online application form, take care to fill out every required field (and even the optional ones) with as many keywords from the job posting as possible.

2. Post your résumé on the Web. The Internet offers a variety of sites to dissemi- nate your résumé. The main advantage of this strategy is that you will reach a large pool of potential employers. Here are some tips to help you post your résumé cor- rectly for a potential employer.

●● Post it on one of the sites listed in Table 7.1 (page 240) to reach the maximum number of employers. If you have a Pinterest page, you can pin your résumé there, but classify it by your occupation; IT résumé, practical nurse résumé, etc.

The Digital Résumé 273

●● Post your résumé directly on an employer’s website where it can be indexed and stored.

●● Employers often print out the résumés of job seekers they are interested in, so be sure your résumé can be downloaded easily and quickly.

●● If you post your résumé on your own website, do not provide more information than a prospective employer needs, and do not give out personal information. Protect your privacy by following the guidelines in “Making Your Résumé Cybersafe” (page 279).

3. Send your résumé via an email attachment. Many ads will ask you to email your résumé. To do so, save your résumé as a read-only PDF file. A PDF file will automatically retain the format, fonts, and graphics in your document, ensuring that it will look as you want it to no matter where and when it is printed. If you are given the option, email your résumé as a PDF document. Here are some practical guidelines to follow when emailing your résumé.

●● Unless the employer instructs not to, send it as a PDF attachment. ●● Include a short cover email, but also attach a longer application letter. ●● An employer may ask you to send your résumé as a rich text format (rtf)

document. If so, make sure you use a plain and simple design. Avoid un- derlining, boldface, italics, or shadowing, which can garble the text of your résumé, making it almost impossible for applicant tracking systems to read. Use all capital letters instead of bold or italics for emphasis and insert an as- terisk (*) or a plus sign (1) in place of bullets (see Figure 7.10, page 274).

●● Choose a simple, easy-to-read font like Arial, Times New Roman, or Verdana that is easy to scan and does not mask letters.

4. Create a scannable résumé. Many companies scan hard copy résumés (such as those in Figures 7.10 and 7.11) into their databases and applicant tracking systems so they can search for keywords (see “Making Your Digital Résumé Ready for Applicant Tracking Systems” pages 276–279). An increasing number of employers are now ask- ing job candidates to paste the text of their résumé into a special submission window. To be successful, format your résumé so that key information is easy to locate and stands out clearly. Adhere to the following points when creating a scannable résumé:

●● Follow all of the employer’s instructions on formatting and submitting a résumé online. Otherwise, your application will be rejected.

●● Choose and include nouns rather than action verbs to increase chance of key- word matches.

●● Where possible, make your scannable résumé longer than your hard copy version to increase the number of keywords or matches with the employer’s job description.

●● Do not include accented letters, unusual symbols, graphics, icons, or photo- graphs, as these will cause problems when your résumé is scanned.

●● Use ample white space, which a scanner recognizes as separating one heading or section from another.

●● If asked to submit hard copy of a scannable hard copy résumé, use a high- quality laser printer and put your résumé on white or off-white paper.

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Figure 7.10 A Scannable, Electronic Version of Anthony Jones’s Hard-Copy Résumé in Figure 7.4

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All lines aligned flush with the left margin

Includes all information from traditional print résumé, but removes formatting

Uses both full names for all degrees and software programs so keywords are captured by applicant tracking systems

All caps rather than bold, italics, or fancy fonts used to highlight skill categories

Where possible, chooses and includes nouns rather than action verbs to increase chance of keyword matches

Uses variations of important keywords to maximize matches in an applicant tracking system (“website designer” and “web developer”) Asterisks rather than bullets mark beginning of lines

URL provided for webfolio but does not use hyperlinks or underlining, as this can cause scanning problems

●● Make all text flush to the left-hand margin. ●● Avoid a script font. Use Times New Roman or Arial instead. ●● Use at least 10- to 12-point type and allow a maximum width of 6½ inches to

make your résumé easier to scan and read. ●● Do not surround your résumé with a frame or border, or use lines, rules, or

boxes, as this can lead to scanning difficulties.

Anthony H. Jones [email protected] Phone (707) 555-6390 www.facebook.com/anthonyhjones @AnthonyHJones www.linkedin.com/pub/anthony-h-jones

EDUCATION Santa Rosa Junior College 2014–2016 Associate of Science (A.S.) degree to be awarded in June 2016 Dean's List in 2015; GPA 3.25 Commercial Graphics Illustration major Specialty in design layout Related courses included digital photography; graphics programs Adobe Illustrator CC, Adobe Dreamweaver CC, CorelDRAW Graphics Suite X7, Adobe Photoshop CC; desktop publishing programs Adobe InDesign CC and QuarkXPress 2015.

COMPUTER SKILLS Excellent knowledge of web design, video editing, and graphic design software: Adobe InDesign CC, QuarkXPress 2015, Adobe Illustrator CC, Adobe Dreamweaver CC, XML, HTML, CorelDRAW Graphics Suite X7, Adobe Photoshop CC

EXPERIENCE

Salesperson; display designer for custom window displays, helped manage inventory database, Buchman’s Department Store, Greenview Mall, Santa Rosa, 2013–2015

Acted as website designer and developed and maintained a Facebook page for a successful fund drive that raised $5,600. Developed, Santa Rosa Humane Society, 2015.

Web developer, graphic artist, and display designer

WEBFOLIO A webfolio containing designs, photographs, illustrations, graphics, and graphic designs is available at www.plat.com/users/ajones/resume.html

Intern in layout and design department. Preparing page composition, photo archiving, and writing detailed assessment reports on digital photography, designs, and artwork used in Living in Sonoma County and Real Estate in Sonoma County magazines, McAdam Publishers, 8 Parkway Heights, Santa Rosa, CA, 2015–2016

The Digital Résumé 275

Figure 7.11 A Scannable, Electronic Version of Dora Cooper Bolger’s Hard-Copy Résumé in Figure 7.7

Avoids giving personal information; uses P.O. box, not address

Includes all information from traditional print résumé, but removes formatting

Where possible, chooses and includes nouns to list accomplishments, to increase chance of keyword matches

Uses variations of important keywords to maximize matches in an applicant tracking system (“budget planner” and “financial planner”)

Avoids any symbols, boldfacing, or italics that could garble text

Documents acquired computer skills

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Dora Cooper Bolger P.O. Box 3216 Westhampton, MI 46532 [email protected] www.facebook.com/doracooperbolger www.linkedin.com/pub/dora-c-bolger OBJECTIVE Seek a full-time position as a public affairs of�cer to promote the goals of a health care, educational, or charitable organization ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION EXPERIENCE Presenter at 24 civic group functions on educational issues Recorded minutes and helped formulate agenda as president of large, local PTA (800 members) for past 6 years Excellent computer knowledge of Microsoft Of�ce 365 and Microsoft Dynamics CRM Established and maintained the Facebook and Twitter accounts and wrote blog posts for Teens in Trouble FINANCIAL EXPERIENCE Fundraiser for 3 major campaigns, over $225,000 collected Prepared and implemented large family budget (3 children, 8 foster children) Budget planner, Foster Parent’s Association Financial secretary and �nancial planner for 4 years, Faith United Methodist Church ADMINISTRATIVE EXPERIENCE Volunteer Coordinator/Leader, National Kidney Foundation, 2012–2016 Neighborhood carpool organizer for 17 drivers and more than 70 children for 7 years President and coordinator of after-school tutoring program for Teens in Trouble since 2003 President and Secretary, local PTA, 2010–2016 Vice-president, Foster Parent’s Association, 2014 HONORS Volunteer of the Year, Michigan Child Placement Agency, 2015 EDUCATION Metropolitan Community College, Associate of Arts (A.A.), 2012 Mid-Michigan College, Bachelor of Science (B.S.), espected May 2016 Public Administration major Psychology minor Dean’s List 2014–2016, 3.55 GPA COMPUTER SKILLS Microsoft Of�ce 365 and Microsoft Dynamics CRM WORK EXPERIENCE Secretary, 2004–2011 (full- and part-time), Merrymount Plastics, Foley and Wasson, Westhampton Health Department, G & K Electric

276 chapter 7 How to Get a Job

●● Include hyperlinks to your online résumé (if applicable), webfolio, and rel- evant social media or professional networking sites.

●● Do not staple or fold the pages.

5. Create an HTML version of your résumé. You can post your résumé on your own website, social media page, or LinkedIn profile, and you can link to an HTML version of your résumé from other websites or from an email you send to a po- tential employer. In your online résumé you can include hyperlinks to your social media or professional networking sites, your own website, appropriate blogs you wrote, or to reviews of your professional work. If you include a webfolio, as in Figures 7.10 (page 274) or 7.12, hyperlinks will help an employer to access examples of your work quickly.

Making Your Digital résumé ready for applicant tracking Systems As mentioned previously (see “Things to Keep in Mind When Preparing a Digi- tal Résumé,” page 272), prospective employers use databases and applicant track- ing systems to scan résumés and find keywords they most want to see in the job seeker’s description of his or her experience, education, and interpersonal skills. The more matches, or hits, they find between appropriate keywords in your résumé and those on their list, the better your chances are of being interviewed. List keywords throughout your résumé in appropriate places. Keywords should highlight your technical expertise, training and education, knowledge of a field, leadership ability, teamwork, writing/speaking skills, sales experience, and so on.

Case study

Creating a Digital Résumé for a Job Search

Beth Pryor recently earned her B.S. in marketing at Southern Ohio University. Because the competition for jobs is fierce, she has to prepare several versions of a persuasive résumé as well as a cover letter.

Different companies’ requirements vary. Some companies want applicants to send their résumé as a PDF document attached to an email. Others require applicants to paste a text résumé into an online application form. And many employers ask candidates to submit digi- tal portfolios of their work. The most useful advice she received from a former teacher was to: “Make certain your résumé emphasizes the skills that a marketing manager will want to have—teamwork, leadership, enthusiasm, creativity, and most of all your strong sense of visual design and thinking.”

She created a version of her résumé in Microsoft Word first, then saved it as a PDF file (Figure 7.12). The scannable version of her résumé seen in Figure 7.13 on page 278 has removed the formatting and does not contain any boldface, italics, or indentations because these elements might prevent a scanner or the applicant tracking system from capturing her information. To accompany her résumé, Pryor developed a webfolio to display logo designs and advertising artwork plus copies of documents from her college marketing courses and an internship.

The Digital Résumé 277

Figure 7.12 A PDF File of Beth Pryor’s Résumé

Objective A position with an international marketing �rm emphasizing analysis of E- and M-Commerce strategies, management, and leadership skills

Southern Ohio University, Jamesville, OH B.S. in Marketing; Minor: Spanish Graduation: June 2016 — GPA in major: 3.36

Relevant Areas of Study Buyer Behavior E- and M-Commerce Ethics Management: Leadership and Learning Marketing Analysis Collaborating in the Workplace International Business Promotional Strategies

Study Abroad, Summer 2015, Southern Ohio University Business Administration Program in Santiago, Chile Completed 10-week program Developed second-language skills in Spanish

Archer Media Associates, Marketing Assistant, Spring 2014 Drafting marketing copy for Archer’s largest client, Techsure, Ltd. Led a team that created a marketing plan for 3 Amazon.com clients Prepared 8 major press releases for clients in health care, food service management, IT Tracked media coverage for clients Participated in corporate training seminars

The Boutique, Sales Representative, 2012–2014 Promoted to “key holder” (opened and closed store; supervised store short-term, Summer 2014) Helped train staff of 4 in weekly meetings Chaired 2-3 weekly meetings per quarter Implemented goal-oriented management strategies

IBM Notes, Microsoft Access 2013, Adobe InDesign CC, Adobe Illustrator CC, Adobe Photoshop CC, Microsoft Of�ce 365

LinkedIn: www.linkedin.com/pub/beth-pryor MarketingEdge: www.ms.marketingedge.com/pro�les/bpryor

Education

Business Internship

Retail Experience

Software Skills

Profiles

Beth Pryor PO Box 5112, Oxford, OH 45056 [email protected]

www.linkedin.com/pub/beth-pryor

Webfolio www.bethpryor.com/portfolio

Memberships Student Marketing Association, Southern Ohio University Treasurer, 2015–2016 Public Relations Committee, 2013–2015

Phone number not given because résumé posted on Web

PDF file retains all formatting— boldface, bullets, etc.

Information chunked into logically divided sections

Information is easy to access for employer through bulleted lists

Hyperlinks allow employer to access further relevant information about candidate

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(Continued)

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Figure 7.13 A Scannable Version of Beth Pryor’s Résumé in Figure 7.12

BETH PRYOR PO Box 5112 Jamesville, OH 45056 [email protected] www.linkedin.com/pub/beth-pryor

OBJECTIVE A position with an international marketing �rm emphasizing analysis of E- and M-Commerce strategies, management, and leadership skills

EDUCATION Southern Ohio University, Jamesville, OH Bachelor of Science (B.S.) in Marketing Spanish minor Graduation June 2014 3.36 GPA in major

RELEVANT AREAS OF STUDY Buyer Behavior E- and M-Commerce Ethics International Business Management Leadership and Learning Market Analysis Workplace Collaboration Promotional Strategies

STUDY ABROAD, Summer 2015 Southern Ohio University Business Administration Program in Santiago, Chile Graduate of 10-week program Reader, speaker, intermediate Spanish

BUSINESS INTERNSHIP, Archer Media Associates, Spring 2014 Marketing copywriter for Archer’s largest client, Techsure, Ltd. Team leader for marketing group that created a plan for 3 Amazon.com clients. Writer of 8 major press releases and copy for clients in health care, food service management, and information technology (IT). Researcher of media coverage and visual designs for clients. Participant in corporate training seminars.

SALES MANAGEMENT EXPERIENCE, The Boutique, 2012–2014 Sales Representative Promotion to key holder, short-term store supervisor, Summer 2014 Staff trainer of 4 employees Chair for 2–3 weekly meetings per quarter Developer of goal-oriented management strategies

SOFTWARE IBM Notes, Microsoft Access 2013, Adobe InDesign CC, Adobe Illustrator CC, Adobe Photoshop CC, Microsoft Of�ce 365

PROFILES LinkedIn www.linkedin.com/pub/beth-pryor MarketingEdge www.ms.marketingedge.com/pro�les/bpryor

PROFESSIONAL MEMBERSHIP Student Marketing Association, Southern Ohio University Treasurer, 2015–2016 Public Relations Committee, 2013–2015 WEBFOLIO www.bethpryor.com/portfolio

Omits personal details

Simple text easily scanned into company’s HR database, which will search for keywords

Does not use boldfacing, italics, etc.

All text formatted flush left for easy scanning

Key sections are separated with extra spacing and all caps

Where possible, uses nouns to increase chance of keyword matches

Uses numbers instead of words when quantifying achievements

Includes relevant URLs to professional networking sites and webfolio

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The Digital Résumé 279

Here are a few tips to help you select and use appropriate keywords:

1. Include the descriptive keywords found in the employer’s ad and website throughout your résumé to increase your chances of landing an interview.

2. Do not be afraid of using the shoptalk (or jargon) of your profession. An em- ployer will expect you to be familiar with current terminology.

3. Provide both full names and acronyms for software, degrees, and organizations, in case the employer uses one or the other in the job announcement.

4. Use variations of important keywords to maximize matches in an applicant track- ing system (for example, try to use both “website designer” and “web developer”).

5. Replace the action verbs found in conventional résumé (on the left in the fol- lowing list) with keyword nouns in digital résumé. Here are some examples:

Conventional Résumé Digital Résumé

Wrote business report Business report writer Performed laboratory tests Laboratory technician Solved consumer complaints Consumer advocate Responsible for managing accounts Accounts manager Won three awards Award winner Edited company newsletter Newsletter editor Solved software problem Software specialist

Making Your résumé cybersafe Whether you use a database service or post your résumé on your own website, protect your identity and your current job. Be careful about revealing personal information.

●● Post your résumé only on legitimate sites. Avoid those that say they will flood the market. You don’t know where your résumé will end up. Review Table 7.2 (page 250) regarding the Do’s and Don’ts when creating your on- line profile.

●● Do not put personal information in your résumé—home address, Social Security number, birthday, health status, or photograph.

●● Never put the names of your references or their contact information online. ●● Never use your present employer’s company name or business email address.

testing, proofreading, and Sending Your Digital résumé Never underestimate the negative impact of errors in your résumé, email, or application letter. Many prospective employers will discard a résumé if they spot a typo.

1. Test your formatting. Send your résumé to a friend to be sure your file is read- able and formatted correctly.

2. Print out your résumé and proofread the hard copy carefully. Do not rely on spell-check alone. It is easy to overlook mistakes if you only proofread what is on your computer screen.

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3. Don’t just put “résumé” as the subject of your email when sending your résumé to an employer. List the title, number, or code of the position for which you are applying.

4. Simply submitting your résumé online is sometimes not enough. If requested, also send a scannable hard copy and a letter of application (discussed next) to prospective employers. Do not fold or staple your résumé. Send it, along with your letter, in a large envelope (8½ 3 11 inches).

5. Always keep a log of where you have posted your résumé online (see “Keep a Job Search Record,” page 294).

letterS OF appliCatiOn Along with your résumé, expect to send your prospective employer a letter of application (also known as a cover letter), one of the most important pieces of cor- respondence you may ever write. Its goal is to get you an interview and ultimately the job. Letters you write in applying for jobs should be personable, professional, and persuasive—the three P’s. Knowing how the letter of application and résumé work together and how they differ can give you a better idea of how to compose your letter. Different companies have different policies about how they want letters of application sent to them; some prefer hard copy, some attachments, and some in the body of an email. You should be prepared for any of these methods.

how application Letters and résumés Differ The résumé is a persuasive record of dates, important achievements, skills, names, places, addresses, and jobs. As noted earlier, you may prepare several different résumés, depending on your experience and the job market.

Your letter of application, however, is much more personal. It introduces you to a prospective employer. Because you must write a new, original letter to each prospective employer, you may write (or adapt) many different letters. Each letter of application should be tailored to a specific job. It should respond precisely to the qualifications the employer seeks.

The letter of application is a sales letter that emphasizes and applies the most relevant details (of education, experience, and talents) in your résumé. In short, the résumé contains the raw material that the letter of application transforms into a fin- ished and highly marketable product—you.

Résumé Facts to Exclude from Letters of Application The letter of application should not simply repeat the details listed in your résumé. In fact, the following details that you would include in your résumé should not be restated in the letter:

●● personal data, including license or certificate numbers ●● specific course numbers ●● names and addresses of all your previous employers

Letters of Application 281

Writing the Letter of application The letter of application, such as those in Figures 7.14–7.16, can make the difference between your getting an interview and your being eliminated early from consider- ation. It should convince a prospective employer that you will use the experience and education listed on your résumé in the job he or she is hoping to fill. You want your letter to be placed in the “definitely interview” category. As you prepare your letter, use the following general guidelines.

1. Follow the standard conventions of letter writing. There are a variety of ways to send a letter (see “Different Ways to Send Letters,” pages 154–155). No matter how your letter is sent, proofread meticulously; a spelling error, typo, or grammati- cal mistake will make you look careless. As with your résumés, don’t rely only on your spell-checker. (See “The Appearance of Your Letter,” pages 162–163).

2. Supply all contact information as part of your heading. Include home ad- dress, phone numbers, email address, and links to your website or social media and professional networking profiles, if you have one. (See also “Heading,” page 159.)

3. Make sure your letter looks attractive. Use wide margins, and don’t crowd your page. Keep your paragraphs short and readable—no more than four or five sentences each.

4. Send your letter to a specific person. Never address an application letter “To Whom It May Concern,” “Dear Sir or Madam,” or “Dear Director of Human Re- sources.” Get an individual’s name from the company’s website or by calling the company’s main office, and be sure to verify the spelling of the person’s name and his or her title.

5. Don’t send a form letter to every potential employer. Stay away from generic application letter templates. Customize your letter to make sure you address the employer’s specific needs.

6. Be concise. A one-page letter is standard in today’s job market.

7. Emphasize the “you attitude.” (See “Achieving the ‘You Attitude’: Four Guidelines,” pages 167–168.) See yourself as an employer sees you. Focus on how your qualifications meet the employer’s needs, not the other way around. Employ- ers are not impressed by vain boasts (“I am the most efficient and effective safety engineer”). Convince prospective employers that you will be a valuable addition to their organization—a team player, a problem solver, an energetic representative, a skilled professional. (See “Making a Good Impression on Your Reader,” pages 164–168.)

8. Don’t be tempted to send out your first draft. Write and rewrite your letter of application until you are convinced it presents you in the best possible light. Get- ting the job may depend on it. A first or even second draft rarely sells your abilities as well as a third, fourth, or even fifth revision does.

9. Tell the truth. Don’t exaggerate the importance of any previous job experience or academic work. Never mislead a potential employer by lying about anything

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relating to degrees, continuing education units (CEUs), licenses, certificates, per- mits, or other professional qualifications.

The sections that follow give you some suggestions on how to prepare the vari- ous parts of an application letter successfully.

Your Opening Paragraph The first paragraph of your letter of application is your introduction. It must get your reader’s attention by answering four questions:

1. Why are you writing? 2. Where or how did you learn of the vacancy, the company, or the job? 3. What is the specific job title for which you are applying? 4. What is your most important qualification for the job?

Begin your letter by stating directly that you are writing to apply for a job. Don’t say that you “want to apply for the job”; such an opening raises the question, “Why don’t you, then?”

Avoid an unconventional or arrogant opening: “Are you looking for a dynamic, young, and talented accountant?” Do not begin with a question; be more positive and professional.

If you learned about the job through a newspaper or journal, make sure you italicize its title.

I am applying for the food service manager position you advertised in the May 10 edi- tion of the Los Angeles Times online.

Always check a company’s website or social media pages first to see if their position is listed online, as Anthony Jones did in Figure 7.14.

If you learned of the job from a professor, a friend, or an employee at the firm, indicate that. Take advantage of a personal (networking) contact who is confident that you are qualified for and interested in the position, as María López (Figure 7.15, page 285) and Dora Cooper Bolger (Figure 7.16, page 286) did. But first confirm that your contact gives you permission to use his or her name.

You have to attract the reader’s attention quickly and persuasively. In a sentence or two, tell the reader how your education and experience qualify you for the job. Use keywords from the job announcement.

The Body of Your Letter The body of your letter, comprising one or two paragraphs, cites evidence from your résumé to prove you are qualified for the job. You might want to spend one paragraph on your education and one on your experience or combine your accom- plishments into one paragraph.

Follow these guidelines for the body of your letter:

1. Keep your paragraphs short and readable—four or five sentences. Avoid long, complex sentences. Use the active voice to emphasize yourself as a doer. Review the action verbs in Table 7.3 (page 256) and, again, use keywords found in the employer’s ad.

Letters of Application 283

Figure 7.14 Letter of Application from Anthony Jones, a Recent Graduate with Little Job Experience

Clear and professional– looking letterhead

Writes to a specific person

Identifies position and source of ad

Applies education directly to employer’s business

Convincingly cites related job experience

Refers to résumé/webfolio

Asks for an interview and thanks employer

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your Linkedin page, which I

photos. Other related experiences I have include creating a website and developing and maintaining a Facebook page for the Santa Rosa Humane Society, and designing and executing custom window displays

a webfolio containing designs, photographs, illustrations, graphics,

contact information is

InDesign, Illustrator, and Photoshop CC, as well as QuarkXPress 2015. You might like to know that many my graphics

and graphic designs is available at www.plat.com/users/ajones/resume.html.

www.facebook.com/anthonyhjones @AnthonyHJones www.linkedin.com/pub/anthony-h-jones

73 Allenwood Boulevard Santa Rosa, CA 95401-1074

707-555-6390 [email protected]

www.plat.com/users/ajones/resume.html

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2. Don’t begin each sentence with “I.” Vary your sentence structure. Write reader-centered sentences, even those beginning with “I.”

3. Concentrate on seeing yourself as a potential employer sees you. Prove that you can help an employer’s sales and service, promote an organization’s mission and goals, and be a reliable team player.

4. Highlight your qualifications by citing specific accomplishments. Tell your reader exactly how your education and job experience qualify you to perform and advance in the job advertised. Show how you can make a positive contribution to the employer’s company. Don’t simply say you are a great salesperson. Demon- strate your accomplishments by stressing that you increased the sales volume in your department by 18 percent within six months, you won an award or received a promotion for customer service, or you reduced costs by 10 percent. Employers are not impressed by boasting or arrogance. They want hard facts to prove you are the right person for the job.

5. Mention you are enclosing your résumé. Put an “Encl.” notation at the bot- tom of your letter.

Education Recent graduates with little work experience, such as Anthony Jones in Figure 7.14, will, of course, spend more time discussing their education. Emphasize why and how your most significant educational accomplishments—course work, degrees, certificates, licenses, training—are relevant for the particular job. Mention significant extracurricular activities if they relate to the job description. Employers want to know which specific skills from your education translate into benefits for their company.

Only saying you will graduate with a degree in criminal justice does not explain how you, unlike all the other graduates of such programs, are best suited for a par- ticular job. Ask yourself which classes you took are most relevant for the employer. Consider grouping classes to show how and why you are the best qualified appli- cant for the job. For example, when you indicate that you have completed 36 credit hours in software security and have another 12 credit hours in global business, you prove you have an expertise other job candidates may not have. Note how Anthony Jones in Figure 7.14 and María López in Figure 7.15 establish their educational qualifications with specific details about their training. Be sure to also mention in- ternships or clinical training, as Jones and López do.

Experience After you discuss your educational qualifications, turn to your job ex- perience. But if your experience is your most valuable and extensive qualification for the job, put it before education and stress any previous experience similar to what a new position calls for. Be sure to stress any promotions or other leadership roles you have had. If you are switching careers or returning to a career after years away from the workplace (because of military service, for example), start the body of your letter with your experience or your community and civic service, as Dora Cooper Bolger does in Figure 7.16 (page 286). Her volunteer work convincingly demonstrates she has the organizational and communication skills her prospective employer seeks. Never minimize such contributions.

Letters of Application 285

Figure 7.15 Letter of Application from María López, a Recent Graduate with Some Job Experience

Uses professional– looking letterhead with contact information

Begins with personal contact

Verifies she will have necessary licensure

Links training to job responsibilities; demonstrates knowledge of employer’s office

Relates previous experience to employer’s needs; refers to résumé

Ends with a polite request for an interview and thanks reader

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May 15, 2016

Dr. Marvin Henrady Medical/Dental Plaza, Suite 34 839 Causeway Drive Miami, FL 32706-2468

Dear Dr. Henrady:

Mr. Mitchell Pelbourne, my clinical instructor at Miami-Dade Community College, informs me you are looking for a dental hygienist to work in your northside office. My education and experience qualify me for that position. This month I will graduate with an A.S. degree in the dental hygienist program, and I will take the Dental Assisting National Board exams in early June.

I have successfully completed all course work and clinical programs in oral hygiene, anatomy, and prophylaxis techniques. During my clinical training, I received intensive practical instruction from several local dentists, including Dr. Tia Gutiérrez. Since your northside office specializes in pediatric dental care, you might find the subject of my major project—proper nutrition and dental care for preschoolers— especially relevant.

My related job experience working with children in a health care setting would be both relevant for and helpful to your office. For over two years, I was a unit assistant on the pediatric unit at St. Francis Hospital, and have experience in greeting patients, transcribing medical orders and surgical notes, and assisting the nursing staff. An additional job strength I would bring to your office is my bilingual (Spanish/English) communication skills. You will find more detailed information about my accomplishments in the enclosed résumé.

I would appreciate the opportunity to talk with you about the position and my interest in pediatric dental care. I am available for an interview any time after 2:00 pm until June 9th, but after that I could visit your office at your convenience. Thank you for your consideration.

Sincerely yours,

María López

Encl. Résumé

MARÍA LÓPEZ 1725 Brooke Street Miami, FL 32701-2121

(305) 555-3429 [email protected]

www.linkedin.com/pub/maria-lopez

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Figure 7.16 Letter of Application from Dora Cooper Bolger, a Job Candidate with Years of Community and Civic Experience

Email address emphasizing professional achievement

Begins with contact made at professional meeting, highlighting her qualifications

Relates proven past successes to employer’s needs; gives concrete examples of her skills

Encourages reader to see her as best- prepared candidate; includes résumé

Requests interview and thanks reader

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DORA COOPER BOLGER www.facebook.com/doracooperbolger www.linkedin.com/pub/dora-c-bolger

maintaining the group’s Facebook page, and representing the orgnization before local and state governmental

welcome help promote its

you mefor

Letters of Application 287

Relate Your Education and Experience to the Job Link your education and experi- ence as benefits to the particular job you apply for. Persuasively show a prospective employer how your previous accomplishments, especially teamwork and respon- sibility, have prepared you for future success on the job. Relate your course work in computer science to being an efficient programmer. Indicate how your summer work for a local park district reinforced your exemplary skills in customer service. Connect your background to the prospective employer’s company. Any homework you can do about the company’s history, goals, or structure will pay off.

●● By citing Megalith publications as a model in his courses, Anthony Jones stresses he is ready to start successfully from the first day on the job (Figure 7.14).

●● Note how María López links her major school project and her work on a hospital pediatric unit to Dr. Henrady’s specialty (Figure 7.15).

●● Dora Cooper Bolger likewise proves that she is familiar with and can contrib- ute to Tanselle’s programs in community mental health though her extensive volunteer work and public speaking experience (Figure 7.16).

Closing The purpose of your last paragraph is clear-cut—to convince the reader to call or email you for an interview. Keep your closing paragraph short—about two or three sentences—but be sure it fulfills the following four important functions:

1. briefly emphasizes once again your major qualifications 2. asks for an interview or a phone call 3. indicates when you are available for an interview 4. thanks the reader

End gracefully and professionally. Be straightforward. Don’t leave the reader with a single weak, vague sentence: “I would like to have an interview at your con- venience.” That does nothing to sell you. Say that you would appreciate talking with the employer further to discuss your qualifications, as María López does in Figure 7.15. Then mention your chief talent. If you are applying for an international job or one far from home, you might request a phone interview instead of an in- person interview (see “Being Ready for a Phone Interview,” page 288). You might also express your willingness to relocate if the job requires it.

After indicating your interest in the job, give the times you are available for an interview and specifically tell the reader where you can be reached. If you are going to a professional meeting that the employer might also attend, or if you are visiting the employer’s city soon, say so.

The following samples show how not to close your letter and explain why.

Pushy: I would like to set up an interview with you. Please phone me to arrange a convenient time. [That’s the employer’s preroga- tive, not yours.]

Too Informal: I do not live far from your office. Let’s meet for coffee some- time next week. [Say instead that because you live nearby, you will be available for an interview.]

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Introduces New Subject: I would like to discuss other qualifications you have in mind for the job. [How do you know what the interviewer might have in mind?]

Note that the closing paragraphs in Figures 7.14, 7.15, and 7.16 avoid these errors.

gOing tO an intervieW There are various ways for a prospective employer to conduct an interview. It might be a one-on-one meeting—you and the interviewer—or you may visit with a group of individuals or even with several groups from different divisions in the company to decide if you would fit in. You could have an interview over the telephone, or through a videoconference, or via Skype (see the Tech Note on page 289).

Being ready for a phone Interview Often an employer has ten to fifteen viable candidates for a position and conducts a phone interview to narrow them down to the three or four they want to invite for a face- to-face interview. Be prepared for a phone interview by keeping the following in mind:

1. Indicate to the potential employer when you are available for a call, and specify your time zone—Central, Eastern, etc. If the call comes unexpectedly and you know you have a limited amount of time, ask the interviewer if it is possible to talk at another time, but offer alternative times within (at most) the next couple of hours or the next day, to stress your interest in the job.

2. Be prepared. Keep your résumé and information about the company at hand so that you can refer to them, if necessary, during the interview.

3. Find a quiet place for the call. Make sure your phone is charged and that there are no disturbing background noises. Music, a running appliance, or someone else talking in the same room are all distractions and can make you appear unprofessional.

4. Speak with confidence and poise. “Delivering Your Presentation” on pages 639–642 in Chapter 16 will give you tips on how to sound calm and professional.

5. Ask a couple of key questions about the job. Review “Questions You May Ask the Interviewer(s)” on pages 292–293). Impress the interviewer with your in- terest in his/her company and your enthusiasm about the job.

6. Always thank the interviewer. Be sure you get the interviewer’s correct spell- ing of his/her name and the address where you can send a thank-you letter.

preparing for an Interview You should always be prepared to discuss anything listed on your résumé at an in- terview. If you can’t recall the details about a job or activity listed on your résumé, refresh your memory so you won’t be caught off-guard. Before you go to an inter- view, prepare by doing the following:

Going to an Interview 289

1. Do your homework about the company. Show you are interested in the com- pany by learning as much as you can about it. Go to the corporate or agency web- site (or their Facebook page, or profile page on LinkedIn) to find out who founded the company, who the current CEO is, if it is a local firm or a subsidiary, its chief products or services, how many years it has been in business, how many employees it has, where its main office and plants are, and who its major clients and competi- tors are. Read company pages/boards on social media, its publications, blogs, and other news about it to get a sense of the corporate culture. If you know who is interviewing you, try to find out as much as possible about that person (looking up their LinkedIn profile is a good place to start). Also read recent stories about the company in leading business publications, such as the following:

●● The Wall Street Journal—www.online.wsj.com ●● The New York Times—www.nytimes.com ●● The Washington Post—www.washingtonpost.com ●● USA Today—www.usatoday.com ●● Bloomberg Businessweek—www.businessweek.com ●● Fast Company—www.fastcompany.com ●● Fortune—www.fortune.com ●● Forbes—www.forbes.com ●● Inc. Magazine—www.inc.com

2. Review the job description carefully. Research the job—what does it entail? What skills do you have that relate directly to the job?

3. Prepare a one- or two-minute summary of your chief qualifications. You will most likely be asked to summarize your education, experience, teamwork, and professional goals during the job interview. In doing so, identify how specific

tech NOte

Skype Interviews

Prospective employers also conduct interviews over Skype (see “Videoconferencing with Skype,” page 106). Less expensive than an on-site one, a Skype interview allows an employer to see you and assess your professional image. To have a successful Skype interview, be sure your webcam and Internet connections are working properly. Look directly into the webcam and do not stare at your computer screen. Eye contact is as important via Skype as in an on-site interview.

Be prepared. Keep a set of notes handy with the most crucial information you need to give to an employer. Dress professionally, too, even though the interview may be con- ducted from your dorm room or home. Position your webcam so that the background for your interview looks neat and business-like. Don’t sit or stand in front of anything that detracts from your professional image. And remember to turn off all music, tele- visions, and phones and make sure you will not be interrupted, which can sink your chances of getting hired.

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classes, course projects, jobs you have held, or community service have equipped you for the position the company wants to fill. Provide examples.

4. Take your portfolio, including three or four extra copies of your résumé, with you. Also bring a notepad and a pen (or your tablet) to write down essential details.

5. Practice your interview skills with a friend or job counselor. Be sure that this person asks tough questions about your education and experience so that you will get practice answering these questions realistically and convincingly.

6. Brush up on business etiquette. Silence your phone before your interview. Remember the name(s) of the interviewer(s) and others you may meet. Always be polite and respectful, saying “Thank you,” “You’re welcome,” and so on. Pay spe- cial attention to acceptable ways of communicating with international audiences if your interview is with a multinational company or with a non-native speaker of English.

7. Bring your photo ID and Social Security card. Also bring any licenses or certificates you may be asked to present to a human resources office. If you are not a U.S. citizen, bring your work visa.

Questions to expect at Your Interview An interviewer may ask many questions that call for examples--illustrations of your handling of a problem with a co-worker, customer, or vendor. Be prepared with ex- plicit instances that show you in a good light. The following questions are typical of those you can expect from interviewers, with advice on how to answer them.

●● Tell us something about yourself. Emphasize achievements that show you are responsible (e.g., working to pay for your tuition), conscientious (par- ticipating in a community or service activity), and eager to contribute to and learn more about your profession and potential employer.

●● Why do you want to work for us? Recall any job goals you have and apply them specifically to the job under discussion.

●● What qualifications do you have for the job? Point to educational achieve- ments and relevant work experience, especially IT skills.

●● What specific experience do you bring that can carry over to your job for us? Mention any situations that are directly relevant to the duties and responsibilities that the prospective job will entail.

●● Describe your leadership strengths, skills, and accomplishments. Describe specific instances when you have shown these qualities as part of your duties with any past employers or organizations.

●● What could you offer us that other candidates do not have? Why should we hire you? Say enthusiasm, being a team player, problem-solving skills, ability to meet deadlines under stress. Emphasize that you are diplomatic yet goal oriented.

●● Why did you attend this school? Be honest—location, costs, programs.

Going to an Interview 291

●● Why did you major in “X”? Do not simply say financial benefits; concen- trate on professional goals and interests.

●● In what course did you receive your lowest grade? Don’t say that you could have done better if you’d tried. Explain what the trouble was, and mention that you corrected it in a course in which you earned a B or an A.

●● What extracurricular activities did you participate in while in high school or college? Indicate any responsibilities you had—managing money, prepar- ing minutes, coordinating events. If you were unable to participate in such activities, tell the interviewer that a part-time job or community or church activities prevented you from participating. Such answers sound better than saying that you did not like sports or clubs in school.

●● Did you learn as much as you wanted from your course work? This is a loaded question. Indicate that you learned a great deal but now look forward to the opportunity to gain more practical skills, to put into practice the prin- ciples and procedures you have learned.

●● What is your greatest strength? Say being a team player, planning and or- ganizing tasks efficiently, concerned about the environment, being coopera- tive and willing to learn, having the ability to grasp difficult concepts easily, wanting to find a more efficient or economical way of doing something, be- ing proficient at managing time or money, taking criticism easily, and profit- ing from it.

●● What is your greatest shortcoming? Be honest here and mention it, but then turn to ways in which you are improving. Don’t say something deadly like, “I can never seem to finish what I start” or “I hate being criticized.” You should neither dwell on your weaknesses nor keep silent about them. Saying “None” to this kind of question is as inadvisable as rattling off a list of faults.

●● How did you solve a problem or conflict with a co-worker, supervisor, or customer? Describe a specific situation where you resolved a problem dip- lomatically and for the good of the company. Indicate what you learned that helped you on the job. Stress your ability to be courteous and honest and to work toward a productive resolution. State that you avoid language, tone of voice, or gestures that interfere with healthy dialogue.

●● How would you convince a co-worker about an issue? Emphasize your ability to argue effectively for a proposal by providing an example from experience.

●● Why did you leave your last job? Say “I returned to school full time” or “I moved from Jackson to Springfield,” or say that you changed professions. Never attack your previous employer. That only makes you look bad.

●● Why would you leave your current job? Again, never attack an individual or an organization. Say your current job has prepared you for the position you are now applying for. Emphasize your desire to work for a specific com- pany because of its goals, work environment, and opportunities.

●● What can you do in the first sixty days to make a difference at our com- pany? Handle this question diplomatically and don’t bring up a long list of things you would change. Instead, focus on how much you want to learn,

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contribute to the overall effectiveness/efficiency of an office, department, or company, and that you are happy to have the opportunity to offer your per- spective on the situation.

●● What are your career goals over the next three to five years? State your career objectives in terms of what you would like to accomplish for the com- pany, your profession, the community, and yourself. Be confident, not cocky.

What Do I Say about Salary? Find out what the salary range is for your professional level in your area. Consult the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Occupational Outlook Handbook at www.bls .gov/ooh as well as www.salary.com. You can also ask your instructors or indivi- duals you know who work for the company or call your professional organization for information. If the issue of salary comes up, ask if the company has established a salary range for the position and where you stand in relationship to that range. However, because many companies set fixed salaries for entry-level positions, it may be unwise to try to negotiate.

If you are asked what salary you expect for the job, do not give an exact figure. You may undercut yourself if the employer has a higher figure in mind. By doing your homework on salary ranges, you will have a better feel for the market when the employer does mention salary.

Factor other benifits into your salary calculations—health insurance, day care, housing, uniform/clothing allowances, product or service discounts, opportunities for travel and language instruction, and tuition reimbursement.

Questions You May ask the Interviewer(s) You will have a chance to ask the interviewer(s) questions. Watch for appropriate cues, and be prepared to say more than “No, I don’t have any questions,” which suggests either indifference or lack of preparation on your part. Here are some legitimate questions you can ask interviewers:

1. Will there be any safety, security, or proficiency requirements I will need to meet?

2. When is the starting date? 3. Is there a probationary period? If so, how long? 4. How often will my work be evaluated (monthly, quarterly, semiannually) and

by whom (immediate superior, committee)? 5. What types of on-the-job or professional training are required or offered? 6. Are there any mentoring programs in place? 7. Is there any support for continuing my education to improve my job

performance? 8. What do you regard as the top priority for this job? 9. Would you give me some examples of how or where I might collaborate with

follow employees or even my boss? 10. How will I be evaluated in terms of success on the job? Who will do the

evaluating?

Going to an Interview 293

11. What are the most important things I can accomplish or work toward during my evaluation period on the job?

12. What is the next step in your hiring process?

Also, ask questions about the company’s products and services, including a dedica- tion to greening the environment.

What Interviewer(s) can’t ask You Federal and state laws limit the questions an interviewer can ask. Questions about your age, marital status, the number or names of any children, religion, race, na- tional origin, disabilities, or sexual orientation violate equal opportunity em- ployment laws. Here are a few examples of questions that cannot be asked in an interview and the types of diplomatic responses you might use:

●● How many children do you have? Are you planning on starting a family? State that your family obligations will not interfere with your job, travel, overtime.

●● Are you a U.S. citizen? Simply respond that you are authorized to work in the United States.

●● What is your maiden name? This is a sneaky way of asking a woman about her marital status. You can answer by saying that the name on your résumé is the name on your professional license or other certification.

●● How far away from work do you live? Employers cannot discriminate against you based on where you live or ask about how long it will take you to commute to work. Say “I am ready to be here at the start of the work day or at other times the job calls for.”

●● Are you in the reserves or National Guard? Employers cannot ask about your current or possible future position in the military. But they can ask if there any upcoming occasions where you would not be able to be present for a job-related function.

Confronted with questions like these, it is always better to answer them positively rather than bristling—“It’s none of your business.”

ten Interview Do’s and Don’ts Keep in mind these other interview do’s and don’ts:

1. Be on time. In fact, show up about fifteen minutes early in case the interviewer or human resources office wants you to complete some forms.

2. Turn off your cell phone and any other media device! The last thing you want is for your phone to ring or receive a text message during your interview. Never text during an interview.

3. Dress appropriately for the occasion and be well groomed. Avoid using strong perfume or cologne.

4. Be careful about tattoos. Job counselors warn that visible tattoos can hurt a job seeker’s chance for success.

294 chapter 7 How to Get a Job

5. Greet the interviewer with a friendly and firm, but not vicelike, handshake. Don’t offer a limp, fishy handshake either. Thank the interviewer for invit- ing you.

6. Don’t sit down before the interviewer does. Wait for the interviewer to invite you to sit and to indicate where.

7. Speak slowly and distinctly; do not nervously hurry to finish your sen- tences, and never interrupt or finish an interviewer’s sentences. Avoid one- or two-word answers, which sound unfriendly or unprepared. Do not use slang (e.g., “Awesome!” or “Chill”) or overly casual language (“Like . . .” “You know?”). Don’t monopolize the discussion by talking too much and always about yourself. And don’t act arrogantly as if the job is yours already. Show a keen interest in the company and its products, services, employees, contribu- tions to the environment.

8. Do not chew gum, click a ballpoint pen, fidget, twirl your hair, or tap your foot against the floor, a chair, or a desk.

9. Maintain appropriate eye contact with the interviewer; do not sheepishly stare at the floor or the desk. If you are interviewed by a group of individu- als, make eye contact with each one of them. Body language is equally impor- tant. Don’t fold your arms—a signal that you are closed to the interviewer’s suggestions and comments. Sit up straight; do not slouch. Smile; it shows you are confident.

10. When the interview is over, thank the interviewer(s) for considering you for the job, and say you look forward to hearing from him or her.

the Follow-Up Letter Within twenty-four hours of your interview, it is wise to send a follow-up letter thanking the interviewer for his or her time and interest in you. In your letter, reemphasize your qualifications for the job by showing how they apply to the requirements described by the interviewer. You might also ask for further in- formation to show your interest in the job and the employer. The sample follow-up letter in Figure 7.17 accomplishes all of these things.

keep a JOb SearCh reCOrd A critical component of any job search is keeping track of

●● Where you sent your résumés/letters of application ●● The version of your résumé sent for each opening ●● Contact information for potential employers ●● People you have networked with ●● Responses you have received to job applications ●● Any information about salary range or working conditions you may have

received from the interviews you had

Tracking this information (either on paper or electronically) ensures you have the details you need.

Keep a Job Search Record 295

Figure 7.17 A Follow-Up Letter

Expresses gratitude for an interview and singles out main company feature

Reemphasizes qualifications

Asks for newsletter to express future interest

Ends politely by thanking interviewer

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September 22, 2016

Mr. Jack Fukura, Director Human Resources Dept. Global Tech 1334 Ridge Road N.E. Pittsburgh, PA 17122-3107

Dear Mr. Fukura:

I enjoyed talking with you yesterday and learning more about the security officer position available at Global Tech. It was especially helpful to take a tour of the plant’s north gate to see the challenges it presents for the security officer stationed there.

As you noted at the interview, my training in surveillance software has prepared me to operate the sophisticated equipment Global Tech has recently installed. Please thank Ms. Turner for me for taking time to demonstrate this technology.

I look forward to receiving the handbook about Global Tech’s employee services. Would you also kindly email me a copy of the newsletter from last quarter that introduced the new security equipment to your employees?

Thank you, again, for interviewing me for the position and your hospitality. Please let me know if you have any other questions. I look forward to hearing from you.

Sincerely yours,

Marcia Le Borde

Marcia Le Borde 2739 East Street Latrobe, PA 17042-0312 (610) 555-6373 [email protected]

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aCCepting Or deClining a JOb OFFer If you accept a job, send the employer a letter within a week of the offer. Accepting verbally on the phone is not enough, and never accept or decline a job offer through an email, text, or tweet. Your letter will make your acceptance official and will be included in your permanent personnel file. Accepting a job is easy. Make the com- munication with your new employer a model of clarity and diplomacy.

Refusing a job requires tact. Inform an employer why you are not taking the job. But do not bluntly begin with the refusal. Instead, prepare the reader for bad news by finding something about the company or agency to compliment—its prod- ucts, the friendly work environment, the interview process, etc. Then move to your refusal and supply an honest but not elaborate explanation of why you are not tak- ing the job. Many students cite educational opportunities, work schedules, geo- graphic preference, or additional professional opportunities. End on a friendly note because you may be interested in working for the company in the future and do not want to leave any bad feelings.

SearChing FOr the right JOb payS As we saw, finding the right job takes a lot of hard work (researching, organizing, networking, and writing). But all your efforts will pay off with your first and subse- quent checks. May all your letters, résumés, portfolios/webfolios, and applications be models of successful writing at work.

●■ Enhanced my professional image to apply for jobs for which I am qualified. ●■ Looked for relevant jobs on social and professional networking sites. ●■ Created a professional profile for Facebook and LinkedIn. ●■ Joined groups on LinkedIn to increase my network. ●■ Did not put personal information on a job board/the Internet. ●■ Prepared a dossier at school placement office, including supporting letters

from professors, employers, and community officials. ●■ Identified places where relevant jobs are advertised. ●■ Networked with instructors, friends, relatives, and individuals who work for the

companies I want to join; notified them that I am looking for a job. ●■ Researched the companies I am interested in—on the Internet, through printed

sources, and by networking with current employees. ●■ Inventoried my strengths carefully to prepare résumé. ●■ Wrote a focused and persuasive career-objective statement. ●■ Determined the most beneficial format of résumé to use—chronological,

functional, or both. ●■ Investigated creating a website for my job search–related documents.

✓ R e v I S I o N C h e C k L I S T

Exercises 297

●■ Prepared a portfolio/webfolio that includes documents demonstrating my professional skills and achievements relevant for the job.

●■ Made résumé attractive and easy to read, with logical and persuasive headings and descriptive keywords.

●■ Made sure résumé contains neither too much nor too little information. ●■ Proofread résumé to ensure everything is correct, consistent, and accurate. ●■ Adapted military experience for a civilian employer’s job listing. ●■ Created properly formatted digital résumé to send to prospective employers. ●■ Wrote a letter of application that shows how my specific skills and background

meet an employer’s exact needs. ●■ Prepared a short oral presentation about myself and my accomplishments

for an interview. ●■ Researched prospective employer’s company or organization and salary range. ●■ Sent prospective employer a follow-up letter within a few days after interview

to thank the interviewer and show interest in position. ●■ Maintained an accurate and up-to-date record of my job search, including where

I sent my resumes and letters of application and contact information for people I have networked with and potential employers.

1. Using at least four different sources, including social media/networking sites such as LinkedIn, compile a list of ten employers for whom you would like to work. Get their names, street and email addresses, phone numbers, and the names of the managers or human resources officers. Then select one company and profile it—locations, services, kinds of products or services offered, number of employees, clients served, awards, con- tributions to the community or environment, and any other pertinent facts.

2. Create an appropriate professional profile for LinkedIn.

3. Write a letter to a former employer, a community leader, or an instructor requesting a let- ter of recommendation.

4. Which of the following would belong on your résumé? Which would not belong? Why?

a. your student ID number b. your driver’s license number c. the zip codes of your references d. a list of all your English courses in college e. the section numbers of the courses

in your major f. a statement that you are recently

divorced g. subscriptions to journals in your field

h. the titles of stories or poems you published in a high school literary magazine or newspaper

i. your GPA for each year you were in college

j. foreign languages you studied k. years you attended college l. the date you were discharged from

the service

e x e R C I S e S

298 chapter 7 How to Get a Job

m. names of the neighbors you are us- ing as references

n. your religion o. job titles you held p. your summer job waiting tables q. your telephone number r. the reason you changed schools s. your current status with the

National Guard

t. the URL of your website or blog u. your volunteer work for the Red

Cross v. the number of hours per week you

spend reading science fiction w. the title of your last term paper in

your major x. the name of the agency or business

where you worked last

5. Indicate what is wrong with the following career objectives, and rewrite them to make them more precise and professional.

a. Job in a lawyer’s office b. Position with a safety emphasis c. Desire growth position in a large

department store d. Am looking for entry position in

health sciences e. Position in sales with fast promotion

rate f. Want a job working with semicon-

ductor circuits g. Desire a good-paying job, hours:

8–4:30, with time and a half for overtime. Would like to stay in the Omaha area

h. Insurance work i. Working with media j. Job with preschoolers k. Full-time position with hospitality

chain l. I want a career in nursing

m. Police work, particularly in a suburb of a large city

n. Any position for a qualified dietitian o. Although I have not made up my

mind about which area of forestry I shall go into, I am looking for a job that offers me training and rewards based upon my potential

RÉSUMÉ OF

Powell T. Harrison

8604 So. Kirkpatrick St.

Ardville, Ohio

345 37 8760

614 234 4587

[email protected]

PERSONAL Confidential

CAREER Seek good paying position with progressive Sunbelt

OBJECTIVE company.

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6. As part of a team or on your own, revise the following poor résumé to make it more precise and persuasive. Include additional details where necessary and exclude any details that would hurt the job seeker’s chances. Also correct any inconsistencies.

Exercises 299

EDUCATION

2014–2016 Will receive degree from Central Tech. Institute in Arch. St.

Earned high average last semester. Took necessary courses

for major; interested in systems, plans, and design develop-

ment.

2012–2014 Attended Ardville High School, Ardville, OH; took all courses

required. Served on several student committees.

EXPERIENCE None, except for numerous part-time jobs and student

apprenticeship in the Ardville area. As part of student app.

worked with local firm for two months.

HOBBIES Surfing the Net, playing Playstation, Member of Junior Achieve-

ment.

REFERENCES Please write for names and addresses.

7. Determine what is wrong with the following sentences in a letter of application. Rewrite them to eliminate any mistakes, to focus on the “you attitude,” or to make them more precise.

a. Even though I have very little actual job experience, I can make up for it in enthusiasm.

b. My qualifications will prove that I am the best person for your job. c. I would enjoy working with your other employees. d. This email résumé is my application for any job you now have open or expect to fill

in the near future. e. Next month, my family and I will be moving to Detroit, and I must get a job in the

area. Will you have anything open? f. If you are interested in me, then I hope that we make some type of arrangements

to interview each other soon. g. I have not included a résumé because all pertinent information about me is in this

letter. h. My GPA is only 2.5, but I did make two B’s in my last term. i. I hope to take state boards soon. j. Your company, or so I have heard through the grapevine, has excellent fringe ben-

efits. That is what I care about most, so I am applying for any position that you may advertise.

k. I am writing to ask you to kindly consider whether I would be a qualified person for the position you announced in the newspaper.

l. I have made plans to further my education. m. My résumé speaks for itself.

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300 chapter 7 How to Get a Job

n. I could not possibly accept a position that required weekend work, and night work is out, too.

o. In my own estimation, I am a go-getter—an eager beaver, so to speak. p. My last employer was dead wrong when he let me go. I think he regrets it now. q. When you want to arrange an interview time, give me a call. I am home every af-

ternoon after 4:00.

8. Explain why the following letter of application is ineffective. Rewrite it to make it more precise and appropriate.

Apartment 32 Jeggler Drive Talcott, Arizona Monday Grandt Corporation Production Supervisor Capital City, Arizona

Dear Sir:

I am writing to ask you if your company will consider me for the position you announced online recently. I believe that with my education (I have an associate degree) and experience (I have worked four years as a freight supervisor), I could fill your job.

My schoolwork was done at two junior colleges, and I took more than enough courses in business management and information technology. In fact, here is a list of some of my courses: Supervision, Materials Management, Work Experience in Management, E-commerce, Safety Tactics, Introduction to Software Analysis, Art Design, Contemporary Business Principles, and Small Business Management. In addition, I have worked as a loading dock supervisor for the last two years, and before that I worked in the military in the Quartermaster Corps.

Please let me know if you are interested in me. I would like to have an interview with you at the earliest possible date, since there are some other firms also interested in me, too.

Eagerly yours,

George D. Milhous

9. Select two sources discussed in “Looking in the Right Places for a Job” on pages 239–242, and find notices for two or three jobs you believe you are qualified to fill, and then write a letter of application for one of them.

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Exercises 301

10. Write a chronological résumé to accompany the letter you wrote for Exercise 9.

11. Write a functional résumé to accompany your application letter in Exercise 9.

12. Bring the two résumés you prepared for Exercises 10 and 11 to class to be critiqued by a collaborative writing team. After your résumés are reviewed, revise them. Write an email to your instructor about the revisions you made, and explain why they will help you in your job search. Attach your résumé to the email.

13. Prepare a digital version of the résumé you prepared in either Exercise 10 or Exercise 11.

Part III

Gathering and Summarizing Information

8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

9 Summarizing Information at Work

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ChaPter OutlIne

Skills Necessary to Do Research

Characteristics of Effective Workplace Research

The Research Process

Two Types of Research: Primary and Secondary

Primary Research

Secondary Research

The Importance of Note Taking

Documenting Sources

A Business Research Report

Conclusion

Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

Being able to do research is crucial for success on the job, whatever company or department you work for and whatever your job title. Research is the lifeblood of a company. You can expect to spend as much as 25 to 30 percent of your time at work doing research. Companies use research to make major decisions that affect production, sales, service, hiring, promotions, and locations, as the research report at the end of this chapter illustrates (Figure 8.10, pages 349–363). Research follows a process. You have to gather, summarize, and organize information be- fore you can interpret it. Then, in interpreting it, you must be able to answer questions and solve problems. Research does not always go as smoothly as you might expect it to. Don’t get discouraged. Understand that such hurdles are temporary, and see them as opportunities to make sure your work is accurate, complete, and relevant.

SkIllS neCeSSary tO DO reSearCh To do effective research, you need to know how to

●● network with people in your department, within your company, outside of your company, and potentially across the globe to gather relevant data

●● read a host of print and online sources at your company or a library to find the most relevant studies/opinions on your topic

●● do direct observations, perform tests, and make site visits ●● interview one person or a carefully selected group of people ●● prepare and send out surveys and analyze the results

C H A P T E R

8 George Hammerstein/Fancy/Corbis

The Research Process 305

●● organize information into clear and accurate reports that answer questions and solve problems

●● carefully and completely document your sources to give proper credit and to help readers find your sources

CharaCterIStICS Of effeCtIve WOrkPlaCe reSearCh The research you do on the job needs to follow the highest professional and ethical standards. Businesses leave little margin for error and often do not give employees a second chance to get it right. To make sure your research meets your employer’s expectations, it must be

1. Relevant. Job-related research must focus directly on providing specific an- swers and solutions to the key questions and problems affecting your company.

2. Current. Your information must be up-to-date. Markets and technologies change rapidly, and employers will insist that your research is on the cutting edge of your profession.

3. Accurate. Double- and triple-check all of the facts and figures, dates, addresses, names, regulations, URLs, and so on, used in your research. Don’t substitute guess- work and unsupported estimates for hard facts. Make sure you record all informa- tion accurately.

4. Thorough. Look at a question or problem from all sides. Network with col- leagues to look for any gaps or inconsistencies, as well as business opportunities. Confirm all options and opinions. Never omit important data.

5. Realistic. Base your research on realistic, profitable conclusions. Unsubstantiated recommendations that fly in the face of a company’s protocol (e.g., drop a product line, hire or fire twenty-five people, or move a plant) may not be logical, profitable, or acceptable. Be sure that your research is consistent with your company’s policies.

6. Ethical and legal. Obtain your findings ethically and lawfully so that you do not infringe on the rights of others. Plagiarism (see “What Must Be Cited,” page 338), raid- ing someone’s unpublished research, sharing confidential or privileged information with a third party, or skewing the results of a survey are all unethical acts. Be sure, too, that all of your recommendations are environmentally sound; follow a strong green philosophy.

the reSearCh PrOCeSS As in the writing process, in doing research you may find yourself repeating certain steps. Say, for example, you are writing a business proposal and are incorporating information from several sources you’ve researched. At this stage of the process, you might think you’ve gathered enough information. However, as you work on the proposal, you may realize that it raises new questions. That may lead you back to repeating previous steps.

306 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

Let’s look at the process in more detail:

Step 1. Confirm the purpose and audience of your report. Know who your audience is and why you are writing to them.

Step 2. Consult a variety of resources. Consult different sources in different me- dia formats: print, online, and possibly audio and video. Don’t rely on only a single source—one website or one trade journal.

Step 3. Evaluate sources, both in print and online. Given the explosion of in- formation online, you have to be able to evaluate the content of what you read. Be prepared to read newspapers, journals, tests, surveys, interviews, websites, social media sites, blogs, and printed sources critically to see if the writers have a particu- lar agenda or bias that might slant their opinion on the topic.

For more information, see “Evaluating Websites” on pages 331–333.

Step 4. Confer with appropriate resource people and experts at work, in your profession, and in your community. These can be individuals from different divi- sions of your company (IT, human resources, finance) or co-workers and members of your collaborative team. You might also consult various specialists who work for the local, state, or federal government.

Step 5. Continue to ask questions. Be sure to ask the right questions at each stage of your investigation. As you read, conduct an interview, make a site visit, send emails, or search databases, you may encounter dead ends, contradictions, and even new sources or leads you need to investigate.

Step 6. Document your sources. One of the most important steps in the research process is documenting—citing the various sources of information (online, in print, from interviews, site visits, etc.) on which your report or presentation is based. A later section of this chapter (“Documenting Sources,” pages 337–347) will give you specific guidelines for how to do this.

tWO tyPeS Of reSearCh: PrImary anD SeCOnDary As we saw, you can expect to use many sources of information during the re- search process. But essentially your research will fall into two categories: primary and secondary. Both kinds of research are important to help you obtain a bet- ter understanding of your topic and provide your supervisor or customers with the careful and complete answers and recommendations they expect. You will often do both types of research, as the marketing report at the end of this chapter (Figure 8.10, pages 349–363) illustrates. In fact, one type of research sheds light on the other.

conducting primary research Doing primary research means consulting sources of information not found in printed documents or on the Web. It involves interacting directly with people,

Primary Research 307

places, and things, and it is often done in the office, in the field, or in a laboratory. This type of research often requires gathering information from customers, clients, or other individuals who rely on your company’s products or services.

Doing Secondary research Secondary research involves consulting existing print and online sources. When you conduct secondary research, you work with materials that someone else—an expert in your field, a government agency, even a competitor—has published, posted, or distributed.

Methods of primary versus Secondary research Here are some examples of the different methods of doing primary and secondary research on the job:

Primary Secondary

making direct observations evaluating websites and social media sites performing tests searching databases going on site visits/inspections reading books, journals, and magazines conducting interviews consulting manuals and reference works coordinating focus groups examining product reviews developing, sending, and analyzing surveys using government documents

PrImary reSearCh There are several ways of doing primary research, including the following:

●● direct observation, site visits, and tests ●● interviews and focus groups ●● surveys

Direct Observation, Site Visits, and tests Direct observation is seeing what is right in front of you—for instance, watching how an individual performs a task, determining how a piece of equipment works, or studying how a procedure is performed. The key to conducting effective research is observing actively, not passively.

Site visits require you to use the same keen attention to detail that you use in direct observation, except you will need to go to an off-site location to report what you find there. A site visit could take you to another department in your company, a prospective customer’s office, the scene of an incident or accident, or an agricul- tural or manufacturing location relevant to your business report. See Figure 14.11 (see pages 585–586) for an example of an incident report based on visiting the site where a railroad accident occurred. Regardless of the location, you will have to de- scribe for your boss precisely what you witnessed firsthand. Figure 14.8 (pages 576–577) contains an example of a trip report about opening a new restaurant based on infor- mation obtained from a site visit.

308 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

Conducting tests is another productive way to do primary research involving the observation of people, places, conditions, and things. A test can be as simple as examining two pieces of comparable office equipment side-by-side and noting how they compare, or trying out a new email marketing strategy. Or it can be as sci- entifically demanding as conducting a laboratory test. Figures 14.9 (page 580) and 14.10 (pages 581–583) are examples of reports based on laboratory tests conducted in the world of work.

Sometimes you may have to use all three types of research based on observa- tion when preparing your report, as Kirk Smith did for a water-quality study in Figure 8.1. Not only did he observe and record the data-collection methods used at the three different municipal reservoirs, but he also visited these sites and conducted his own tests.

Interviews and Focus Groups Two other important sources of primary information come from interviews and focus groups. You can do a one-on-one interview with an expert in the field, a co-worker, a client, or another resource person. Or you can hold a focus group, a question-and-answer session with multiple people—both company representa- tives and customers—attending. Interviews with employees as well as with focus groups allow you to gather essential information from and about a variety of customers.

Interviews Interviews can be conducted in person, over the telephone, or through email, although Skype conversations and face-to-face meetings are the most productive way to generate relevant information. Figure 8.2 (page 310) contains an excerpt from an interview with a U.S. manager whose company transferred her to the com- pany’s Hongzhou, China, location for eighteen months. Note how the interviewer researched and structured his questions to help other employees who might be transferred to China.

Follow the process below when you have to conduct an interview for your workplace research.

1. Set Up the Interview

●● Ask your supervisor or co-workers to help you identify experts or relevant customers you should interview, or consult other sources, such as business directories, client or customer lists, or professional organizations.

●● Politely request an interview with the individual at his or her convenience. Be flexible. Your interviewee is giving you his or her time. Always let the in- dividual know ahead of time exactly what you would like to discuss and why you are conducting the interview.

●● Specify how much time you will need for the interview. Be realistic— fifteen minutes may be too short; two hours much too long.

Primary Research 309

Provides key background information

States purpose

Explains methods using specific techniques to record accurate measurements

Records data objectively

Identifies variables important for tests

Gives conclusion based on tests and observations

Water Flow and Quality Evaluation of the Cambridge, Massachusetts, Drinking Water Source Area Kirk P. Smith

The drinking water source for Cambridge, Massachusetts, consists of three primary storage reservoirs (Hobbs Brook Reservoir, Stony Brook Reservoir, and Fresh Pond), two principal streams (Hobbs Brook and Stony Brook), and nine small tributaries. Because previous investigations identified specific areas as potentially important sources of contaminants, several sites were selected for continuous monitoring to address the water supply regulations followed by the Cambridge Water Department (CWD). The purpose of this report is to evaluate the measurement methods used by the CWD. Reservoir altitude and meteorological measurement were recorded by monitoring stations installed at each reservoir. Water quality measure- ments of reservoir water were also recorded at USGS stations 01104880 and 42233020. These data were recorded at a frequency of 15 minutes, were uploaded to a U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) database on an hourly basis by phone modem, and were put on the Web at http://ma.water.usgs.gov. Stream-stage measurements were also recorded by monitoring stations on each principal stream and at the outlet of the Stony Brook Reservoir. These data were recorded every 15 minutes and were uploaded to a USGS data- base on an hourly basis by phone modem. In addition to measurements made on the principal streams, stream-stage and water-quality data were recorded by monitoring stations on 4 of the 9 small tributaries. My visits to these sites and independent water samplings confirm that CWD’s measurements comply with USGS standards. Since the drainage areas of these sites are small and have large percentages of impervious surface, the risk of flooding, and often the quality of the water itself, can change rapidly. To document these responses effectively, the moni- toring stations have recorded stream-stage and water-quality measurements at variable frequencies as high as 1 minute. These data were uploaded to a USGS database on an hourly basis and are available through http://ma.water.usgs .gov. I have found through visits and water sampling that CWD is not only compli- ant with, but exceeds, USGS standards in measuring drainage area water quality.

Source: Adapted from Hydrologic, Water-Quality, Bed-Sediment, Soil-Chemistry, and Statistical Summaries of Data for the Cambridge, Massachusetts, Drinking-Water Source Areas, Water Year 2004, by Kirk P. Smith. U.S. Department of the Interior/U.S. Geological Survey. Open-File Report 2005–1383.

Figure 8.1 A Report Based on Direct Observation, Site Visits, and Tests

310 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

Logical opening question about preparation for visit

Turns to problems in new job

Asks for clarification

Relevant follow-up question

Keeps interviewer focused on topic

Asks for further information

Good follow-up question

Q: How did you prepare for your transfer to China? A: Before I left for my eighteen-month stay, I profited most from partici-

pating in teleconferences with our other Chinese offices and attending China trade fairs in the United States and Canada. I also immersed my- self in intensive, but admittedly very basic, conversational Chinese. And, of course, I partnered with several of I-Systems Chinese employees and managers here in Pittsburgh.

Q: What would you say was the biggest obstacle an American manager might face when working in China?

A: Seeing China through Western eyes.

Q: When you say “seeing China,” what do you mean? A: By that I mean looking at China from an American business perspective. We

tend to think in U.S. terms about expanding and opening markets, that is, what we can do for China. But my Chinese colleagues reminded me about China’s impact on American markets. While the United States accounts for only about 5 percent of the world’s population, China has about 20 to 25 per- cent of it and can powerfully influence our company’s decisions. Accord- ingly, we needed to shift our thinking about what China could do for us. To do this, we must have an appreciation of the Chinese way of doing business.

Q: What characterizes the Chinese way of doing business, as opposed to how we do it in the United States?

A: Americans have no problems mixing business and pleasure. In fact, we are fa- mous for the business lunch or dinner. Banquets are great occasions to talk shop, to sell our products, services, and websites. But in China a dinner is strictly a social event, one for entertaining and not marketing. It is considered rude in China to inject talk about sales, quotas, operations, or e-markets at a dinner.

Q: Do you have any other advice for U.S. workers whose companies relocate them to China?

A: Be careful about gestures and gifts.

Q: Why do you link the two? A: To illustrate a major blunder, one of my colleagues kept patting a Chi-

nese executive on the back, a sign in America of friendship and approval. Not so in China. It is seen as discourteous.

Q: And the gifts? A: While some business gifts are appropriate, never give a Chinese execu-

tive a clock or stopwatch. It signals doom or death.

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Figure 8.2 An Excerpt from an Interview Transcript

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2. Prepare for the Interview

●● Continue to research your topic so that you have sufficient background information and do not waste time by requesting information available on the Web or from another source.

●● Determine what information you need from the interview to help you solve the problem or answer the questions essential to your report. Be sure to prioritize getting the essential information you need.

3. Draft Your Questions Prepare your questions ahead of time, and take them to the interview. Never try to wing it. Your questions should be

●● focused on the topic you want to find out about to avoid vague answers ●● open-ended and designed to prompt thoughtful responses, not just yes or no

answers ●● objectively worded so that the interviewee is not forced to respond to loaded

questions

Here are some examples of poorly written questions with effective revisions:

Vague Question Restricted Question

How can a website help customers? In what ways can we improve the navigational signals on our website to help

customers find information quicker?

Yes or No Question Open-Ended Question

Do you think big business is opposed to a Would you identify two or three ways we healthy environment? could green our office space?

Loaded Question Objectively Worded Question

Isn’t the future of real estate security What are your thoughts about the future of investments doomed to a bleak future? real estate security investments?

4. Conduct the Interview

●● Show up for the interview on time, and dress appropriately. ●● Always ask permission to record the interview or to take photographs. ●● Stay focused. Don’t stray from the topic or delve into personal matters. ●● Be an attentive and appreciative listener. Let the interviewee do most of the

talking. ●● If the interviewee does not want to answer a question or has no further

information to add, don’t press the point. Move to the next question. ●● If the interviewee(s) says that something is “off the record,” respect his or

her request and do not include it in your transcript or notes, or on tape. ●● At the end of the interview, allow time for your interviewee to clarify any of

his or her responses.

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5. Follow Up After the Interview

●● It’s best to read through your notes immediately after the interview, while the conversation is still fresh in your mind.

●● Thank the interviewee by letter or email within a day or two following the interview.

●● If the interviewee requested a transcript of the interview, send it to him or her. ●● Always request permission to quote anything from the interview in your

report or presentation to your company or clients.

Focus Groups Focus groups are typically composed of loyal or prospective customers who have been invited to give a company their opinions about a specific product, service, or future project. A company might also include paid consultants and even individu- als selected from competitors’ lists. Focus groups are used to obtain a wider variety of opinions than individual interviews may give and they are more personal and interactive than surveys. Businesses rely heavily on these groups to get honest, well- considered feedback from interested individuals and to incorporate that feedback into their research. Focus groups are usually conducted in face-to-face meetings, but virtual meeting technologies (see “Tech Note on Virtual Meetings,” page 104) allow people outside of the area, even globally, to participate.

Follow the guidelines below to conduct a successful focus group:

1. Set Up the Focus Group

●● Identify who should be invited to the focus group and how many individuals should be a part of that group. Effective focus groups usually consist of six to twelve participants to get a diversity of opinions but keep the group from being too crowded and unmanageable.

●● Once you decide on the participants, give them with all of the details they need about the location, payment or reimbursement, and topics to be discussed.

2. Prepare for the Focus Group

●● Formulate the specific questions you need to ask. As in a one-on-one inter- view, prepare your questions ahead of time, avoiding vague, yes or no, or loaded questions. Limit your questions to allow for ample discussion time.

●● Plan to record the focus group and to bring in a co-leader or moderator to take notes. Unlike in a one-on-one interview, you will not be able to take effective notes while leading a focus group.

3. Conduct the Focus Group

●● At the beginning of the meeting, establish reasonable ground rules, such as the importance of staying on topic, speaking in turn, and meeting the goals of the group (see “Sources of Conflict in Collaborative Groups and How to Solve Them,” pages 81–83).

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●● Politely remind the group about confidentiality. Many companies have par- ticipants fill out confidentiality agreements before the group meets.

●● Stick closely to the agenda. Don’t stray off topic yourself or allow partici- pants to do so.

4. Follow Up After the Focus Group Meets

●● Record any observations about the group dynamic as a whole and about the individual participants, since this information may affect your results.

●● Thank the participants again by letter or email within a day or two after the group meets.

Use of Social Networking Sites as a Recruiting Tool Many researchers and compa- nies find social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter useful for recruiting participants for research projects and for studying consumer trends. Companies or individuals wanting to organize a focus group, for example, can tweet a request to their customers on Twitter to generate participants, or have their followers partici- pate in a tweet chat that takes place at a designated day/time and uses specially des- ignated hashtags to allow participants to contribute their views. Questions can be posed and responses generated on Twitter, or you can direct participants to a more formal online survey outside of Twitter.

You can also use Facebook as a recruiting tool. By creating a Facebook “event” for a research project or focus group, companies and researchers can advertise the project or focus group session, distribute information, and even begin to collect data about participants, all from the same site. Twitter and Facebook are also useful for market researchers who need to find information about new products, services, technologies, and pricing. This type of research is especially helpful when you need to gather information within specific communities. Facebook, for example, allows users to create groups around virtually any topic, thus assisting researchers to find information, observe developing trends, or gauge reaction to new products by sim- ply joining the group and following the posts already there.

Surveys Surveys are among the most frequently used ways to conduct primary research in the world of work. Think of a survey as an interview with a relatively large number of people. The goal of a survey is simple—to collect and then quantify information about individuals’ attitudes, habits, beliefs, product loyalty, knowledge, or opin- ions. You can conduct a survey over the phone, online, or by mail.

Five Steps for Using a Survey There are five basic steps you need to follow when using a survey as a part of your research on the job:

1. Determine the Best Way to Deliver the Survey Surveys can be conducted over the phone, online, or by mail. Decide which medium you think will yield the best results and will work within your time frame and budget. If you need to receive detailed

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answers about a given topic, conduct a telephone survey, which gives you an oppor- tunity to talk directly to the respondents and allows them to clarify their answers. But if your aim is to obtain results quickly and inexpensively, do an online survey.

2. Create the Survey Questionnaire There are many types of questions you can ask, as illustrated in Figure 8.3, including yes/no, ranking, rating, multiple-choice, and open-ended questions. Researchers advise asking questions that require the least amount of effort on the part of the respondents (yes/no, multiple-choice) to in- crease their chances of answering your questionnaire. Keep your survey to ten to fifteen questions in increase your response rate. Note how the WH eComm ques- tionnaire in Figure 8.3 (pages 316–317) includes only twelve key questions, which the company needs to have answered to help it make important decisions. Finally, design your questionnaire to look inviting and streamlined. (See “The ABCs of Print Document Design” on pages 449–459 in Chapter 11 for guidelines to make your questionnaire look easy to complete.)

Here are some guidelines for writing specific questions to help you get the results you want—whether you are writing a mail or an online questionnaire or preparing a script for a telephone survey.

1. Phrase questions precisely. Vague questions only elicit answers that you cannot use or will be unable to analyze. Use valid, quantifiable questions.

Ineffective: Are we open enough hours on Saturdays? Yes____ No____

Better: How many hours would you like us to be open on Saturdays? 4____ 5____ 6____ 7____ 8____

2. Ask only one question at a time. Avoid multiple questions within the same question, since you will not know the exact answer to each question.

Ineffective: What is your overall impression of our customer support and delivery services? poor___ fair____ good____ very good____ excellent____

Better: (Turn the two questions above into two separate queries as follows.) What is your overall impression of our customer support service? poor___ fair____ good____ very good____ excellent____ How would you rate our delivery service? poor___ fair____ good____ very good____ excellent____

3. Clearly differentiate each option in multiple-choice questions. If respondents are not sure of the differences among options, they may answer inappropriately be- cause of question overlap, or they may skip the question altogether.

Ineffective: When is the best time to call you? Daytime___ Afternoon___ Weekday___ After work___ Evening___ Night___

Better: When is the best time to call you? Morning (8:00 a.m.–noon)___ Afternoon (noon–5:00 p.m.)___ Evening (5:00 p.m.–10:00 p.m.)___

4. Supply all of the necessary options in multiple-choice questions. If you omit an important option, respondents may choose a misleading answer or not answer at all.

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Ineffective: Which types of nonalcoholic beverages would you like us to offer? soda___ juice___ coffee/tea___ milk___

Better: Which types of nonalcoholic beverages would you like us to offer? soda___ juice___ coffee/tea___ milk___ bottled water___ other (please specify)___ (The “bottled water” and “other” options give respondents a fuller range of answers.)

5. Do not use unfamiliar jargon or abbreviations. Don’t assume that respon- dents will understand the jargon your company or profession uses.

Ineffective: What was your overall impression of the CGI in this film? poor___ fair___ good___ very good___ excellent___

Better: What was your overall impression of the computer-generated imagery used in this film to create the global village scene? poor___ fair___ good___ very good___ excellent___

6. Do not ask inappropriate questions. Refrain from asking questions about in- come, education level, or other personal matters such as age, ethnicity/race, gender, disability, religion, or sexual orientation unless these questions give you essential demographic information directly relevant to the topic of your survey.

7. Avoid leading or biased questions. Do not give your respondents slanted questions that bias their answer and thus the results of your survey.

Ineffective: Were you impressed by this award-winning product? Yes___ No___

Better: Did you think this was an award-quality product? Yes___ No___

8. Limit multiple-choice and ranking items to five items. The more complicated your list of multiple-choice or ranked items, the more difficult it will be for your re- spondents to give a clear and helpful answer and for you to analyze the survey results.

9. Limit rating ranges to a scale of 1 to 5. As with item 8 above, do not com- plicate your survey by providing a scale with such a wide range of options that respondents are unclear about how they differ or overlap.

The WH eComm Survey

Many online vendors ask customers, after a purchase, to rate their online shopping experience. Online customer feedback not only helps e-commerce companies learn about the level of their customers’ satisfaction; it also helps them find out about customer preferences to make crucial business decisions.

Note how the WH eComm survey in Figure 8.3 (pages 316–317) asks both types of ques- tions. Some questions ask about customer preferences (questions 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, and 9 fall into this category), while others ask about customer satisfaction (questions 3, 4, 7, and 10). The

Case study

(Continued)

Dear Valued WH eComm Customer,

At WH eComm, we are committed to providing our customers with high-quality e-commerce software through an efficient and user-friendly website. Customer feedback is extremely important in helping us continue to improve our website. So that we may best meet your needs, please answer a few questions about your experience at WH eComm. You will find the survey on our website by clicking here. Your answers will help us continue to improve WH eComm online and to give you the efficient and prompt service you deserve.

To say thank you for filling out this short questionnaire, we want to offer you a 25 percent discount on your next purchase. When you have completed the survey, your discount will automatically be credited to your WH eComm online account.

Many thanks for your time and your confidence in us,

Gregg Laos Manager WH eComm

1. How many times have you visited our website? � First visit � 2–4 times � 5–7 times � More than 7

2. How did you hear about our website? � Colleague � Advertisement in business journal � Another website � Search engine � Other (please specify)

3. Is the website easy to navigate? � Very easy � Easy � Somewhat easy � Not easy

revolutionizing e-commerce

Arial 10

<[email protected]> <[email protected]>

WH eComm Customer Satisfaction Survey

Figure 8.3 An Example of an Online Survey

Cover email explains why survey is important to customers

Provides incentive to reply

Easy-to-read format

Fill-in option does not require a lengthy answer

Question is not phrased in a leading manner

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Figure 8.3 (Continued)

4. How effective did you find the following sections of WH eComm? Extremely Could be effective Effective improved Ineffective Web features � � � �

Search � � � �

FAQ � � � �

Online checkout � � � �

5. How many times have you purchased our products? � 1–2 times � 3–4 times � 5–7 times � 8–9 times � More than 9

6. What types of products have you purchased from WH eComm? (Check as many as apply.) � E-commerce software � Web design software � Networking software � E-conferencing software

7. How helpful did you find our customer service? � Extremely helpful � Helpful � Could be improved � Not helpful

8. How have you most often contacted our customer service center? � Phone � Email � Fax � Web

9. How soon was your query answered (if applicable)? � Same day � Next day � Within 3 days � Within a week � Longer

10. How satisfied were you with the speed and efficiency of our customer service center? � Very satisfied � Somewhat satisfied � Dissatisfied

11. Please rank, in order of importance, which factors most influence your online purchases. Shipping Returns Website Price options/time policy quality Most important � � � �

� � � �

Least important � � � �

12. What would you most like to see changed or improved on our website?

Thank you for taking the time to answer our questions.

Home

Multiple-choice items clearly differentiated

Provides non- overlapping choices

Limits options

Ranking question supplies all necessary options

Provides opportunity for respondent to elaborate

One question can elicit a great deal of consumer information

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(Continued)

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3. Choose the Survey Recipients The success of a survey, of course, depends on tar- geting the right audience and in the right numbers. Sometimes that audience is small and easy to reach. For example, you might survey people within your own com- pany, agency, or department (all of the nurses in ICU). But more often, the group you want to survey—all of your California customers or vendors, for example—is so large that you could not possibly survey the opinions of every member of that group. In that case, you need to gather information from enough people to make reliable and relevant judgments about the larger population, and you have to select a representative cross section of individuals from the larger group (by age, gender, background, experience, education, etc.).

4. Reach the Survey Recipients Don’t expect all of your respondents, or even 40 or 50 percent, for that matter, to reply to your questionnaire. Researchers find that a response rate of 12 percent from a statistically chosen sample group is still valid. But to increase the chances of receiving replies from as many respondents as pos- sible, follow these time-tested procedures:

●● Provide a cover letter or email, as in Figure 8.3, asking recipients to reply and thanking them in advance for doing so.

●● Offer respondents some incentive to answer the survey, such as the discount that WH eComm promises in Figure 8.3.

●● Indicate whether respondents should identify themselves or remain anonymous. ●● Clearly specify how the respondents are to answer the questions—using a

check mark, circling the correct response, writing in a number, or just point- ing and clicking.

5. Compile and Analyze the Survey Results The final step in conducting a survey is compiling and analyzing the results and to arrive at reliable and workable solutions. Here are some helpful tips to follow:

1. Keep your completed surveys organized, and save them. Don’t throw away the completed surveys; you may need to refer to specific answers later, or your company or department may need to archive all surveys.

questions about customer preferences can be used to help the company decide where to ad- vertise (“How did you hear about our website?”) and to determine which products to promote (“What types of products have you purchased from WH eComm?”). The questions about customer satisfaction, meanwhile, elicit information to help the company improve its service by assessing such things as the usefulness of its website (“Is the website easy to navigate?”) and the quality of its customer service (“How helpful did you find our customer service?”).

In order to ensure that a meaningful number of customers replied to the survey, WH eComm made the questions easy to answer by simplifying the options as well as the format of the questions. Moreover, asking only twelve questions and providing an incentive (a 25% discount on the next purchase) also encouraged customers to respond.

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2. Create a data sheet. Originate a data sheet—for instance, an Excel spread- sheet—so that you can record all of the survey responses in one central document. Break the data sheet into logical categories, for instance, separate rows for each sur- vey question and separate columns for each possible answer.

3. Record responses completely and accurately. Always record responses exactly as you receive them. If the response to a question is blank or illegible (or gives several answers to the same question), discard that response rather than mak- ing something up or guessing what the respondent meant.

4. Present your findings clearly and effectively. To help your boss or other read- ers understand your findings, create one or more simple tables in which you present key information in an easy-to-read format. Also supply a blank sample question- naire for reference.

Online Survey Builders There are a wide variety of free online survey-building websites, such as Survey Monkey (surveymonkey.com), Qualtrics (qualtrics.com), Free Online Surveys (freeonlinesurveys.com), and Kwik Surveys (kwiksurveys.com) that allow you to create, tally, and draw conclusions. These programs provide help on how to gener- ate questions that will yield the best possible data, tabulate results automatically, and produce reports and graphics based upon those responses. An online program is especially helpful when you have to conduct a very large survey, reducing the amount of time it would take to compile and quantify responses. The automation of such programs further helps you to eliminate inaccuracies in the data that might otherwise occur as a result of human error.

SeCOnDary reSearCh As we saw earlier (“Two Types of Research: Primary and Secondary,” pages 306–307), secondary research requires you to consult sources that are already available (books, periodicals, reference works, websites, blogs, social media sites, etc.), as opposed to interacting directly with people, places, and things via direct observation, site visits, tests, interviews, focus groups, and surveys. Secondary research involves gathering documents and reading, summarizing, and incorporating them into your report.

Libraries As part of your workplace research, you can expect to use one or more of the fol- lowing types of libraries:

●● corporate libraries ●● public and academic libraries ●● e-libraries

Corporate Libraries One of the fastest, easiest, and most profitable ways to locate and collect crucial research data about your company is to consult your company or agency library.

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Corporate libraries contain a vital history of a company’s activities, past and pres- ent, and also houses business-specific and confidential documents not found in a public or academic library.

Types of Research Materials in a Corporate Library Regardless of the size of your company, the following documents and information are likely to be found in its corporate library, in its intranet archive, or in departmental files (e.g., IT, marketing, etc.):

●● client and customer records ●● corporate reports, studies, surveys, and proposals ●● corporate newsletters—from inception to the present ●● maps, diagrams, blueprints/specs ●● legal records, including patents and contracts ●● financial and operational information organized by month, year, or longer

cycles ●● books and trade periodicals directly related to your company’s research and

business ●● product and service literature (catalogs, descriptions, technical specifica-

tions, training manuals, warranties, etc.) (See “Tech Note: Gray Literature,” page 328.)

●● competitor information, including comparative analyses, competitor cata- logs, and sales information

Expect to supplement information from your corporate library with information from other sources and locations. Materials found in a corporate library may take you only part of the way toward what you need to learn. Supplement what you find in your corporate library with primary research, Web research, and trips to public or academic libraries.

Public and Academic Libraries To start your library research using a public or academic library, access the home page for a full range of its services and for directions on how to conduct a search. Figure 8.4 shows the home page for one academic library, including links for reaching a librarian, accessing electronic resources, and locating relevant docu- ments. Note how the library has made it easy for patrons to connect with the right department for assistance with their research. To make searching even more ef- ficient and convenient, many libraries belong to a network, regional or global, of participating libraries, enabling patrons to access the catalogs of member libraries in the group, for instance the New Jersey State Library’s Directory of Libraries. Also expect to consult WorldCat, a universal catalog of resources that lets you know whether the public and academic libraries in your area or the world over own a particular book, while Ex Libris Primo allows users to search their local library, regional, and international resources, as well as sources found with more standard web-based search engines like Google.

Start with your library’s online catalog to make your research easier because of the powerful search options available as well as the various databases the library

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Intranets

As the name suggests, intranets are internal communication networks modeled after the Internet. They use passwords, directories, search engines, and multimedia content. Like the Internet, diversified companies, government agencies, and many large corpora- tions use intranets to post documents, share and archive information, coordinate calen- dars, hold virtual meetings, conduct training sessions, make announcements, and post newsletters. (See Figure 4.5, page 128.) From a central directory, information is sent to, from, and within various divisions within the company—management, engineering, sales, human resources, environmental safety, public relations, and so forth. Documents might be designated as available to all employees or restricted, depending on the au- dience for and content of the document. Some files may, therefore, be closed to you because of confidentiality.

tech NOte

Figure 8.4 An Academic Library’s Home Page

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subscribes to. The library’s online catalog lists all of the materials the library owns, subscribes to, or has access to. See the library home page in Figure 8.4, which lists (a) reference (research) works, (b) databases, (c) websites, (d) digital collections of re- sources, and (e) ways you can contact the staff at the library if you have any questions.

How Using Your Library’s Online Catalog Can Help You Get Started Here are guidelines to help you do research on your library’s online catalog:

1. Know your topic. To get background information on your topic, start with an encyclopedia (print or online) or other general reference work so that you are aware of the various and relevant issues and subtopics involved.

2. Use a range of keywords. It is often difficult to know which keywords will generate the most complete or most useful search result. If your first attempts at using keywords don’t yield any useful results, try other keywords or use the library catalog’s own subject headings to try to find materials related to the topic you’re researching.

3. Restrict your subject. Narrow your topic to find a manageable amount of in- formation. For instance, suppose you are researching the use of lasers in cos- metic surgery. You might start your search with “medical uses of lasers.” To narrow your subject, you might specify “use in cosmetic surgery.” You could then further refine it by specifying “in ophthalmic cosmetic surgery.” Using the “Advanced Search” function (see the link to the “Advanced LionSearch” in Figure 8.4) also allows you to restrict searches to specific date ranges and resource formats, among others.

4. Take advantage of links. An online catalog usually provides links to related materials that may be even more helpful to your search.

5. Librarians are a resource. Many libraries now feature a variety of ways to connect and interact with staff librarians: via web chats, text messages, email, phone, or in person. (See the tab for “ASK a Librarian” in Figure 8.4 as well as the list at the bottom right of the figure.) They are experts in both their own library’s holdings and how to best search the catalog for your topic. They may have insights into resources you haven’t even considered.

E-Libraries E-libraries are designed to duplicate the experience of going to a library, as much as that is possible in a digital environment. They provide links to librarian-approved websites in a variety of subject areas, to books available online, and will connect you with general resources online (dictionaries, almanacs, encyclopedias, and more). They also make it easy to reach librarians who are available to answer ref- erence questions online. Most public and academic libraries have duplicated their library resources online, including access to librarians via live web chats, text mes- sages, email, or by phone. These sites offer a variety of helpful links as well.

There are a variety of e-libraries available online. A good starting point is the Internet Public Library (www.ipl.org), or ipl2. It is a well-known, comprehensive, and academically reliable e-library that not only provides the resources listed above, but also includes

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●● links to online periodical databases ●● links to online newspapers around the world ●● links to reliable blogs, exhibits of images, and much more

Other useful e-libraries include:

●● Library of Congress Online Catalog (catalog.loc.gov) ●● National Archives (www.archives.gov) ●● Internet Archive (archive.org) ●● Smithsonian Digital Library (library.si.edu/digital-library)

Databases Databases are among the most helpful resources for doing research in your library. These online indexes allow you to search for and retrieve a wealth of magazine, jour- nal, and newspaper articles, as well as reviews of books, films, art, music, etc., cataloged and classified by various search engines. These databases can be located through a li- brary’s online catalog or through a databases link at an e-library such as ipl2. Some libraries allow you to access their databases from a remote location.

Because most databases are available only by subscription, you need a library card to access them at a public library or an access code at a corporate library. To use an academic library, you have to be a registered student or alumnus. With these databases, you can search through thousands of articles in a few seconds. Many da- tabases are updated often—daily, weekly, or monthly.

Information Found in Databases Thousands of periodical databases are available from many different information services. They vary in terms of how they list information and what they offer. But most of them provide the following information, crucial for on-the-job research, when you do a keyword search to locate a particular article:

●● Bibliographic citation, including author, title, publication date, source infor- mation, and perhaps subject categories.

●● Keywords, which guide users to the main subjects that the article, poem, re- view, or op-ed covers to help them determine if it is useful in their research.

●● The full text of the article, either retyped for the database or scanned in as a PDF version of the original document. You may need to click on a further link to get past the informational page and open the complete article.

Frequently Used Databases You need to find out which databases are most relevant to your job-related re- search. Here are a few full-text databases that your corporate or community library will likely subscribe to:

1. EBSCOhost. This database provides full-text articles from thousands of popular magazines, professional journals, and newspapers and claims to offer the largest full-text collection of professional and academic articles in the world.

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2. Lexis/Nexis Academic. This database is helpful for locating articles, as far back as the 1940s, in business and law.

3. InfoTrac. One of the largest periodical databases, InfoTrac contains a variety of articles from both academic journals and general-interest magazines.

4. NewsBank. NewsBank’s database supplies over 70,000 news articles annually— from over 500 U.S. and Canadian newspapers.

5. ProQuest. Indexing more than 7,400 publications, this database includes news- papers and scholarly and general-interest sources in business, news, medicine, humanities, social sciences, hard sciences, and technology.

6. JSTOR. This resource provides full-text searches for almost 2,000 journals in the humanities, social sciences, and physical/biological sciences. JSTOR also will give you free access to public domain content from more than 200 journals published before 1923 in the United States and before 1870 in other countries.

7. ERIC (Education Resources Information Center). Run by the United States Department of Education, this digital library allows users access to education- related research, technical reports, journals, and other related materials.

8. USA.gov. Official database of the United States federal government, housing files, documents, and reports from all government agencies.

Business and Other Specialized Databases Many libraries, including corporate ones, subscribe not only to the most popular databases above, but also to several business and specialized databases. Almost ev- ery professional discipline has its own database. In addition to these databases, in- ternational companies frequently develop their own databases to assist employees in their research. GlaxoSmithKline, the international pharmaceutical manufacturer, for instance, prepared and archived a password- protected periodical database of its research studies for use by its 100,000 employees in labs and offices worldwide.

reference Materials In addition to finding articles in databases reference works, available in print or online, are useful for workplace research. These include encyclopedias, dictionaries, almanacs, and atlases, as well as government documents, industry directories, hand- books and manuals, and statistics. These reference works will give you up-to-date information when you just need a quick and accurate overview of a topic or specific statistical, historical, or financial data.

But use general reference works such as encyclopedias cautiously. While they supply basic information and are easily accessible, do not confine your research to them, because they are limited in scope. A wise rule of thumb is to always double- check the facts you garner from a general reference work against those you find in more specialized works.

Encyclopedias A general print encyclopedia, such as the Columbia Encyclopedia or the Encyclopaedia Britannica, is a useful starting point for research because it contains knowledgeable introductions to topics, summarizes events or processes, explains key terms, and

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includes recent updates, along with lists of further readings. Online encyclopedias include Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org), an encyclopedia written and updated by volunteers that contains over 2 million entries, and the Encyclopaedia Britannica Online (www. britannica.com).

For your workplace research, you may consult a more specialized business or technology encyclopedia, such as one of the following:

●● Blackwell Encyclopedia of Management—www.managementencyclopedia .com/

●● The Encyclopedia of Banking and Finance—www.eagletraders.com/books/int _fin_encyclopedia.htm

●● Webopedia (online technology dictionary for IT professionals)—www .webopedia.com/

Be especially careful when using Wikipedia. Unlike the more traditional en- cyclopedias above, which are authored by scholars and overseen by professional editors, Wikipedia articles are written by general readers and are not checked for accuracy or for bias by experts in the area.

Dictionaries Rather than relying exclusively on general dictionaries, such as The American Her- itage Dictionary of the English Language (available online at www.ahdictionary .com), you will have to use business and industry-specific dictionaries that define the words and phrases (jargon) of your profession. Most general and specialized dictionaries are available in print and online. Use only those specialized dictionar- ies that are officially endorsed by your profession. The following are two reliable online business dictionaries:

●● Deardorff’s Glossary of International Economics—www-personal.umich .edu/~alandear/glossary/

●● The Washington Post Business Glossary—www.washingtonpost.com / wp-dyn/business/specials/glossary/index.html

Almanacs An almanac is a collection of statistical data—charts, tables, graphs, and lists— published annually and carefully organized by general topics such as geography, awards/prizes, and science and technology. Here are some useful almanacs:

●● Infoplease—www.infoplease.com ●● Plunkett Research—www.plunkettresearch.com ●● FedStats—fedstats.sites.usa.gov/ ●● International Statistical Agencies—www.bls.gov/bls/other.htm

Atlases Atlases are collections of worldwide maps. Many types of workplace research in- volve consulting an atlas for locations as well as for statistical information about specific geographical areas. While print atlases are limited in what they can show, online atlases provide much more detail, including three-dimensional images,

326 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

shading, and elevations. Among the most widely used print atlases are the Times Atlas of the World and the National Geographic Atlas. Here are some other handy online atlases:

●● Google Earth—www.google.com/earth ●● Mapquest—www.mapquest.com ●● National Geographic Map Machine—maps.nationalgeographic.com/map

-machine

Government Documents Many government documents are available through the website of the department or agency that created them. But you can access all of these websites via www.USA .gov, the official government Web portal. You can use this link to take advantage of the millions of federal Web resources. Figure 8.5 shows the USA.gov Reference Center and General Government page, listing by category a variety of sites. Other major sites that provide access to government documents include

●● American Fact Finder—http://factfinder2.census.gov ●● Library of Congress—www.loc.gov

Directories If in your job-related research you need to find information about specific com- panies and their decision makers, turn to one of the many industry-specific di- rectories. They include a wide range of companies along with links to those

Figure 8.5 USA.gov Reference Center and General Government Page

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companies’ websites, or, more helpfully, staff-written overviews of companies, contact information, lists of key people, and financial statistics. Directories are invaluable in helping you find and build email lists and lists of prospective cli- ents. Figure 8.6 shows the home page for Hoover’s (http://www.hoovers.com) which provides industry overviews, company contact information, business statistics, and lists of competing companies. Other useful online directories in- clude these:

●● Corporate Information—www.corporateinformation.com. Similar to Hoover’s, Corporate Information provides snapshots of over 35,000 compa- nies in 65 countries.

●● Zacks—www.zacks.com. Intended for investment purposes, Zacks supplies financial information about many companies.

Handbooks and Manuals Handbooks and manuals include explanations of procedures, definitions of terms and concepts, descriptions of industry standards, and overviews of professional is- sues within the field. The Occupational Outlook Handbook (www.bls.gov/ooh), produced by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, for instance, “describes what workers do on the job, working conditions, the training and education needed, earnings, and expected job prospects in a wide range of occupations.”

Figure 8.6 Home Page for Hoover’s

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Among the most frequently consulted handbooks and manuals for workplace research are Moody’s Manuals and Standard and Poor’s Corporate Descriptions, both of which give information on the history of a company, descriptions of prod- ucts and services, and basic financial details (stocks, earnings, and mergers).

Statistics Statistical reference works give you valuable numerical data on a wide range of business-related subjects—employment, housing, immigration, population, pol- lution, technology, and overseas markets, among others. Statistical data are gener- ated from numerous sources, mostly from the U.S. government, private agencies, international organizations, and colleges and universities. Here are several U.S. gov- ernment websites that provide valuable statistical references to assist you in your workplace research:

●● Federal Trade Commission—www.ftc.gov ●● Fedstats—fedstats.sites.usa.gov ●● Minority Business Development Agency—www.mbda.gov ●● Small Business Administration—www.sba.gov ●● U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis—www.bea.gov ●● U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics—www.bls.gov ●● U.S. Census Bureau—www.census.gov ●● U.S. Data and Statistics—www.usa.gov/Topics/Reference_Shelf/Data.shtml ●● U.S. Department of Education—www.eddataexpress.ed.gov ●● U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development—www.huduser.org

Gray Literature

Gray literature refers to documents prepared by a company, industry, or agency but not readily available through databases or online catalogs. Examples of gray literature in- clude internal reports, newsletters, fact sheets, conference proceedings, and instruction booklets. Government agencies, special interest groups, and professional associations also produce gray literature.

Gray literature is an important resource for workplace research because it often pro- vides information unavailable in books, journals, or newspapers or in scholarly publica- tions. It includes public health information leaflets; appliance repair manuals; consumer product ratings; and business and industry reports on such topics as annual stockholder meetings, promotions, and new markets. Consult these resources when you compare your product or service with a competitor’s.

North Dakota State University has provided a helpful compilation of websites that host gray literature (library.ndsu.edu/gray-literature-resources). Keep in mind that gray literature reflects the viewpoints and preferences of the company or industry that produced it; consult other sources as well.

Source: Sherry Laughlin, Librarian, William Carey University.

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Secondary Research 329

Internet Searches The enormous amount of information available on the Internet grows larger every day. Acting as a “network of networks,” the Internet gives you access to hundreds of millions of websites, databases, libraries, newsgroups, chat rooms, blogs, and other on- line sources. As a result, it is one of the quickest, easiest, and most effective ways to do secondary research. It is also one that requires caution. Just like conducting any other kind of research, your Internet research needs to be carefully planned and focused.

Subject Directories Subject directories allow users to locate appropriate websites (as opposed to arti- cles, which are located via periodical databases). Subject directories are organized into logical categories (e.g., Business) and subcategories (e.g., International Business and Trade) for easy navigation. Typically, each subcategory is annotated. Here are two examples of reliable subject directories:

●● Library of Congress Virtual Reference Shelf (www.loc.gov/rr/askalib /virtualref.html)

●● The WWW Virtual Library (vlib.org)

Search Engines When you begin your research, start by using a search engine. A search engine scans webpages to find the keywords most relevant for your research. It then indexes the information it finds to create a frequently updated database of results. Search en- gines rank the results of your search using a computer algorithm that takes into ac- count the popularity of websites, their contents, where the keywords appear on the page, and other sites that link to that page, presenting you with the most relevant matches for your keywords.

Since the Internet is vast, it only makes sense that multiple search engines are available, as Table 8.1 (page 330) shows. These include general and metasearch engines (which combine multiple search engines) as well as specialized, subject- specific search engines. Like the Web itself, search engines are constantly expand- ing as they index more pages in cyberspace each second. No single search engine is comprehensive. Researchers estimate that almost 40 percent of the Web is not even indexed by the most popular search engines. But by using a variety of search en- gines to conduct keyword searches, you will access a broader scope of sources and thereby increase your chances of finding the information you need.

Following are descriptions of three of the most frequently used search engines listed in Table 8.1.

1. Google (www.google.com) is currently one of the world’s largest and easiest- to-use search engines, indexing over 8 billion pages. Google offers specialized engines such as Google Books, Google Images, and Google Videos.

2. Yahoo! (www.yahoo.com), one of the earliest search engines, Yahoo! suggests related keywords and allows you to open links in new windows.

3. Bing (www.bing.com) provides one of the most comprehensive searches, including image, audio, and video links, and divides findings into categories.

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how to conduct Keyword Searches: Some Guidelines To use search engines effectively, you need to know how to conduct a keyword search. As you saw, when you enter a keyword into a search engine, it goes through its indexed websites and presents you with those that feature your keyword in the title, heading, meta tags, or text of the page. Follow the guidelines below to conduct successful keyword searches:

●● Be specific. Although it might be tempting to start off with a broad subject like business travel, you may find yourself confronted with millions (if not billions) of hits that range from earning travel miles to news about corporate balance sheets. Before you start your search, narrow your focus to two or three significant keywords (and omitting of, to, in, from, and on, which most search engines exclude).

●● Modify your keywords. Unlike the vague keywords business travel, spec- ify the type of information you want to receive by refining your topic to reflect your specific need for information. Search for business travel train Los Angeles to net more precise, pertinent information. Try using synonyms if your original or modified keywords do not yield useful results.

●● Use Boolean connectors. Boolean connectors, such as AND, OR, and NOT, are essential to limit and guide your search by reducing unrelated search re- sults. For example, business AND travel AND Los Angeles OR Santa Monica

Table 8.1 Different Types of Internet Search Engines

Search Engines Metasearch Engines

Bing Dogpile

DuckDuckGo Mamma

Google Search.com

Yahoo WebCrawler

Zoo Search

Specialized Search Engines

General News

allsearchengines.co.uk (UK directory of subject-specific search engines)

Google News (news.google.com)

Newspapers.com (directory of interna- tional, national, college, and business papers)

World News Network (wn.com)

Yahoo! News (news.yahoo.com)

Business

allbusiness.com

business.com

searchenginecolossus.com (an international directory of search engines)

Media

Google Images (images.google.com)

Google Videos (www.google.com/videohp)

Yahoo! Image Search (images.search.yahoo.com)

Yahoo! Video Search (video.search.yahoo.com)

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AND train NOT airplane NOT automobile would yield pages that included the terms business and travel, and Los Angeles or Santa Monica, and specifi- cally via train (as opposed to by car or airplane).

●● Use delimiters. To refine your search even further, use the following delimit- ers, sometimes called wildcard characters:

● ● ●Quotation marks around a string of keywords limit your term to that par- ticular phrase.

● ● ●A plus sign (+) between terms can be used to replace the Boolean AND command, and a minus sign (−) can replace the OR command in many search engines.

● ● ●An asterisk (*) at the end of a term broadens your search beyond that af- forded by the keyword. For example, the term employ* will return all terms that use employ as the stem of a keyword, such as employment, employer, and employability.

● ● ●Some search engines, such as Google, allow you to use an asterisk within quotation marks to indicate a missing word. Searching for “Australian * technology” will find results including keyword phrases ranging from Aus- tralian medical technology to Australian information technology.

● ● ●Enter advanced delimiters to specify the exact type of domain you want to search. Searching Google for “internet security” site:gov will retrieve all .gov (government) sites with information on Internet security. Similarly, searching for “international training” site:edu will pull up all .edu (educa- tion) sites with information on international training.

●● Use Shortcuts. There are a number of shortcuts that allow users to access frequently requested information quickly and easily on the Internet. The fol- lowing is not by any means a comprehensive list but does give you some ad- ditional ways to access information faster and more efficiently.

● ● ●To find sites in a particular language, file format (Word, PDF, PowerPoint), or date, use the Advanced Search options available on most search engines.

● ● ●To locate a map, type in the street address of the area you want, and a street map will automatically appear.

● ● ●To receive a selection of web definitions taken from a variety of respected sources, type in “define” and then your keyword into Google.

● ● ●Choose country-specific search engines, such as those available at Yahoo! or Google, to access information about companies, laws, news, and inter- national relations essential for communicating with international readers.

evaluating Websites The criteria used to evaluate websites are similar to those you follow to assess print documents (see “Evaluate sources, both in print and online” on page 306). Just as not everything you read in print is accurate and unbiased, not everything on the Internet will be correct, up-to-date, objective, or useful. The fact that something is posted on the Web does not make it correct—after all, anyone can post practically anything. Remember that much of the information on the Internet is placed there without a peer-review process—that is, facts may not have been checked, sources

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may not be authoritative, and ideas and opinions may be biased and not be backed up by solid evidence. Overall, the quality of information you find on the Internet can range from unsupported, slanted, unethical, or just plain wrong, to authorita- tive, well supported, and objective.

Here are some questions to determine whether websites (and print sources, too) are credible, accurate, up-to-date, relevant, and objective.

Credible

●● What credentials does the author or the organization post? Read the “About Us” or “About Me” page of any website critically to learn more about the author’s qualifications and awards or the organization’s history, mission statement, and track record.

●● Does the website refer to the most respected and current research being done in the field?

●● Is the author cited in other sources, including reference works and highly re- spected websites? Are there links to or from the author’s or company’s web- site to those sites?

Accurate

●● How have the data been gathered, recorded, and interpreted? Are they com- plete, valid, logical, and consistent with the procedures and protocols of your profession?

●● Do the facts, dates, and statistical information match those found in other sources, such as on other websites or in traditional research sources such as almanacs and encyclopedias (see “Encyclopedias,” pages 324–325 and “Almanacs,” page 325)? Again, do not rely on only one website for your facts and figures.

●● Are visuals clear and undistorted (see “Choosing Effective Visuals,” pages 402–406)?

Up-to-Date

●● When was the content written and placed on the website? Does the website provide “Last updated on...” information?

●● Does the website contain materials referring to current events, studies, and experiments, or do all the references go back many months or years?

●● Is the information given on the website contradicted, supplemented, or la- beled out-of-date on other more recent websites and in print reference works?

Relevant

●● Is the website’s content directly related to the subject of your report, or is it only remotely close to your topic.

●● Does the website offer enough of the right type of data to be useful, or is it sketchy?

The Importance of Note Taking 333

●● How does the website help or hurt the case you are trying to build? Even a respected competitor’s figures can give you valid and relevant information you can convincingly apply to your report.

Objective

●● Does the website openly and clearly state its purpose and the audience for whom it is intended? Does it claim to give objective information, or is it re- ally just trying to sell something or present a biased point of view? Again, read the “About Me” or “About Us” page carefully.

●● Is the website legitimate? Verify whether a company or organization is legiti- mate by checking with the National Consumers League, www.nclnet.org.

●● Does the website acknowledge opposing viewpoints and theories, and does it freely and clearly admit its own limitations and agendas?

●● Does the author use a professional, objective tone and avoid using sexist, rac- ist, and other demeaning stereotypical language or visuals?

●● Is this website part of a reputable online discussion community (a listserv or chat room), or is it a platform for one individual’s or organization’s viewpoints?

the ImPOrtanCe Of nOte takIng Note taking is the crucial link between finding sources, reading and responding to them, and writing your business report. At this stage, you are gathering cru- cial background information to build and support your report. Never trust your memory to keep all of your research facts straight. Taking notes is time well spent.

Notice how the business research report at the end of this chapter (Figure 8.10, pages 349–363) and the one in Chapter 15 on international employees in the work- force (Figure 15.3, pages 607–621)) incorporate a variety of important quotations, statistics, and even visuals from the notes from the sources that the writers con- sulted, including blogs, surveys, and interviews.

how to take effective Notes Effective note taking requires you to (a) identify only the most relevant points, (b) exclude irrelevant or inessential ones, (c) summarize key information concisely and accurately, and (d) document the results. Follow these guidelines to make note taking easier and more efficient:

1. Photocopy or scan hard copy or download print or online articles, sections of books, reports, and other sources that you consult and mark relevant quota- tions, statistics, and other information you may incorporate into your work.

2. Record all quotations verbatim. 3. Bookmark any sites on the Internet that you know will be important for your

work and that you may be likely to return to. 4. Cut and paste information from online sources directly into your word-processing

program for reference, being careful to include exact source information.

334 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

What to record To take effective notes, you have to know how to summarize a great deal of in- formation accurately. Study the guidelines on writing summaries in Chapter 9 (see “Contents of a Summary,” pages 373–374). Here are the types of information you need to record in your notes.

1. Include full bibliographic information for each source. For books, list author, title, city of publication, publisher, date of publication, edition (if not the first), and page numbers. For journal articles, include author, title, publisher, volume number, date, and page numbers. For websites, record author, title, name of the site, URL, and the date you accessed the site.

2. Copy quotations, names, facts, dates, and statistics accurately from the source. Compare your notes with the original.

3. Distinguish quotations from paraphrases. Place quotation marks around any words, sentences, or extended quotations you record directly to avoid plagiarizing (see “What Must Be Cited,” page 338).

4. Indicate in your notes why the material you quoted or paraphrased is sig- nificant. You may not remember later why the material is significant, so help your memory by leaving yourself a reminder—“Use in introduction”; “pro- vides most current data.”

5. Clearly mark separate works by the same author. If you are using two or more works by the same author in your research, be sure to indicate which quotations or paraphrases apply to which works.

6. Identify and record only the most relevant and useful points. You cannot copy down everything in your notes. Include only what you plan to actually use in your report.

to Quote or Not to Quote Before recording information from sources, ask yourself three questions:

1. How much do I need to quote directly? 2. Where can I shorten a quote by using ellipses? 3. When should I paraphrase instead of quote?

Incorporating Quotes A safe rule to follow is this: Quote sparingly. Do not be a human scanner. If you incorporate too many quotations in your report, you will simply be transferring the author’s words from the book, article, or website to your paper. Do not use direct quotations simply as filler. Save them for when they count most:

●● When an author has summarized a great deal of significant information con- cisely into a few well-chosen sentences

●● When a writer has clarified a difficult concept exceedingly well ●● When an author has made his or her chief statement or thesis

For example, the note in Figure 8.7 contains a brief, well-worded, and significant statement by an author. It is not necessary to quote verbatim all the evidence lead- ing to that statement. The note stands well on its own.

The Importance of Note Taking 335

If you are uncertain about exactly how much to quote verbatim, keep in mind that no more than 10 to 15 percent of your report should be made up of direct quotations. Remember that when you quote someone directly, you are telling your readers that these words are the most important part of the author’s work as far as you are concerned. Be a selective filter, not a large funnel.

Electronic Note-Taking Software

Electronic note-taking software offers a fast and convenient way to organize your notes, saving you from worrying about losing note cards or scraps of paper. Some popular elec- tronic note-taking programs include Evernote, Microsoft OneNote, and Google Keep. Although each is slightly different (some allow users to download or upload audio and video), most have the following features in common to help researchers input, organize, search, save, print, and share their notes:

●● Copy and paste text and images from Internet sources. Many programs automatically include the URL.

●● Keyboard your own notes or, if you have neat handwriting, write directly on the tablet with a stylus. First check that your tablet has handwriting recognition software.

●● Flag or color-code your notes to highlight and differentiate them. ●● Organize your notes into categories, folders, or outlines. ●● Reorganize your notes using a drag-and-drop feature. ●● Search your notes for keywords or flags to locate relevant information. ●● Back up your notes to make sure you don’t lose them. ●● Print your notes, export them to your office program, or email them to others. ●● Collaborate with others using the same program.

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Jacquiline Betz, “Importance of Internet Medicine,” Journal of Community Medicine 15 (Sept. 2015): 32.

“The Internet is a primary source of medical information for consumers. CybMed, an Internet marketing �rm, estimates that more than 80 million people in 2015 consulted the Web for a variety of health-related information. Most users searched popular sites such as WebMD and Medscape to look up the signs and symptoms of their medical problems. Consumers also �ocked to Drugs@FDA, an FDA website, to �nd information on new drugs and their possible side effects. These websites are the closest thing to a doctor who makes house calls.”

Figure 8.7 Note Containing a Direct Quotation ©

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Using Ellipses Sometimes a sentence or passage is particularly useful, but you may not want to quote it fully. You may want to delete some words that are not really necessary for your purpose. These omissions are indicated by using an ellipsis (three spaced dots within the sentence to indicate where words have been omitted). Here are some examples.

Full Quotation: “Diet and nutrition, which researchers have studied exten- sively, significantly affect oral health.”

Quotation with Ellipsis: “Diet and nutrition . . . significantly affect oral health.”

When the omission occurs at the end of the sentence, you must include the end- of-sentence punctuation after the ellipsis. In the following example, note how the shortened sentence ends with four spaced dots: the closing period and the three dots for the ellipsis.

Full Quotation: “Decisions on how to operate the company should be based on the most accurate and relevant information available from both within the company and from the specific community that the establishment serves.”

Quotation with Ellipsis: “Decisions on how to operate the company should be based on the most accurate and relevant information available. . . .”

At times you may have to insert your own information within a quotation. This addition, known as an interpolation, is made by enclosing your clarifying identification or remark in brackets inside the quotation; for example, “It [the new transportation network] has been thoroughly tested and approved.” Anything in brackets is not part of the original quotation.

Paraphrasing A paraphrase is a restatement in your own words of the author’s ideas. Even though you are using your own words to translate or restate, you still must document the paraphrase because you are using the author’s facts and interpretations. You do not use quotation marks, though. When you include a paraphrase be careful to do three things:

1. Be faithful to the author’s meaning. Do not alter facts or introduce new ideas. 2. Follow the order in which the author presents the information. 3. Use paraphrases in your report selectively. You do not want your report to be

merely a restatement of someone else’s ideas.

Paraphrased material can be introduced in your paper with an appropriate iden- tifying phrase, such as “According to Dampier’s study,” “To paraphrase Dampier,” or “As Dampier observes.” The note shown in Figure 8.8 paraphrases the following quotation:

While the effects of acid rain are felt first in lakes, which act as natural collection points, some scientists fear there may be extensive damage to forests as well. In the process de- scribed by one researcher as “premature senescence,” trees exposed to acid sprays lose their leaves, wilt, and finally die. New trees may not grow to replace them. Deprived of natural cover, wildlife may flee or die. The extent of the damage to forest lands is extremely difficult

Documenting Sources 337

to determine, but scientists find the trend worrisome. In Sweden, for example, one estimate calculates that the yield in forest products decreased by about one percent each year.1

DOCumentIng SOurCeS Documentation is at the heart of all the research you will do in school and on the job. To document means to furnish readers with information about the print and elec- tronic sources you have used for the factual support of your statements, including books, journals, newspapers, surveys, reports, websites, and other resources such as listservs and email.

Documentation is an essential part of any research you do for four key reasons:

1. It demonstrates that you have done your homework by consulting experts on the subject and relying on the most authoritative sources to build your case persuasively.

2. It shows that you are aware of the latest research in your field, thus lending credibility and authority to your conclusions and recommendations.

3. It gives proper credit to those sources and avoids plagiarism (see “What Must Be Cited,” page 338). Citing works by name and date is not a simple act of courtesy; it is an ethical requirement and, because so much material is protected by copyright, a point of law.

4. It informs readers about specific books, articles, surveys, blogs, or websites you used so they can locate your source and verify your facts or quotations.

the ethics of Documentation: Determining What to cite As a researcher, you have to be sure about what information you must document and what information you do not. Before you start consulting sources, you have to

Acid rain (body of report) damage to forests

Dampier, www.rainenviron.com

Acid rain is as dangerous to the forests as to the lakes. Victims of “premature senescence,” the trees become defoliated and die with no new trees taking their place. Without the trees’ protection, wildlife vanishes. Although the exact damage is hard to measure, Swedish scientists have observed that in their country forest products decreased by 1 percent yearly.

Figure 8.8 Note Containing a Paraphrase

1Bill Dampier, “Now Even the Rain Is Dangerous,” International Wildlife 10, pp. 18–19.

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be very clear about the ethical standards involved in documentation. The following sections will give you a useful overview to make the documentation process more understandable and easier to follow.

What Must Be Cited To ensure that your business report avoids plagiarism and maintains high ethical and professional standards, follow these guidelines:

●● If you use a source and take something from it, document it. Document any direct quotations, even a single phrase or keyword.

●● Stay away from patchworking—using bits and pieces of information and passing them off as your own—which is also an act of plagiarism. Always put quotation marks around anything you take verbatim, and document it.

●● If any opinions, interpretations, and conclusions expressed verbally or in writing are not your own (e.g., you could not have reached them without the help of another source), you must document them.

●● Even if you do not use an author’s exact words but still get an idea, concept, or point of view from a source, document that work in your report.

●● Never alter any original material to have it suit your argument. Changing any information—names, dates, times, test results—is a serious offense.

●● If you use statistical data you have not compiled yourself, document them. ●● Always document any visuals—photographs, graphs, tables, charts, images,

even clip art downloaded from the Internet (and if you construct a visual based on someone else’s data, you must acknowledge that source, too).

●● Never submit the same research paper for one course that you wrote for another course without first obtaining permission from the second instructor.

●● Do not delete an author’s name when you are citing or forwarding an Internet document. You are obligated to give the Internet author full credit.

What Does Not Need to Be Cited Be careful not to distract readers with unnecessary citations that only demonstrate your lack of understanding of the documentation process and can undercut the pro- fessionalism of your report. There is no need to cite the following:

●● Common-knowledge scientific facts and formulas, such as “The normal human body temperature is 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit” or “H2O is the chemical formula for water.”

●● Readily available geographical data, such as elevation of mountains; depths of lakes, rivers, etc.; population; mileage between two places; and so on.

●● Well-known dates, such as the date of the first moon landing in 1969. ●● Factual historical information, such as “George W. Bush was the 43rd

President of the United States.” ●● Proverbs from folklore, such as “The hand is quicker than the eye.” ●● Well-known quotations, such as “We hold these truths to be self-evident . . . ,”

although it may be helpful to the reader if you mention the name of the person being quoted.

Documenting Sources 339

●● The Bible, the Koran, or other religious texts, but provide a reference to the text and to the portion of the text quoted in parentheses (for instance, New Jerusalem Bible, Exod. 2.3).

●● Classic literary works, but again reference the original author and the name of the work parenthetically—for instance, Mark Twain, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Chapter 4), or Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice (5.3.15). Indicate, though, from which edition you took the quotation.

parenthetical Documentation Two frequently used systems of parenthetical documentation are MLA (Modern Language Association) and APA (American Psychological Association):

●● MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th ed. (New York: Modern Language Association, 2009), www.mla.org/style

●● Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th ed. (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2010), www .apastyle.org

MLA is used primarily in the humanities while APA is used in psychology, nursing, social sciences, and several technological/scientific fields. In business, however, your employer will determine whether you will follow MLA or APA. Because MLA and APA are the most well-known and accessible documentation styles, many busi- nesses prefer to rely on one or the other, or they adapt or modify these methods to suit the company’s needs and those of its clients. Both MLA and APA use par- enthetical, or in-text documentation. That is, the writer tells readers directly in the text of the report what source is being quoted or referenced.

MLA: “Creating an interactive website was among the top three priorities businesses have had over the last two years” (Morgan 203).

APA: “Creating an interactive website was among the top three priorities businesses have had over the last two years” (Morgan, 2015, p. 203).

The MLA citation “(Morgan 203)” or the APA “(Morgan, 2015, p. 203)” informs readers that the writer has borrowed information from a work by Morgan, specifically from page 203. APA also includes the year Morgan’s work was published. Such a source (author’s last name, year, and page number) obviously does not supply complete documentation. Instead, the parenthetical reference points readers to an alphabetical list of works that appears at the end of the report. The list, called “Works Cited” in MLA or “References” in APA, contains full bibliographic data—titles, dates, web addresses, publishers, page numbers, and so on—about each source cited in your report.

Every work that appears in your report must be listed in your references section. (The only exceptions are personal communications such as emails and texts or well-known works like the Bible; these do not have to appear in an APA- style References section.) To provide accurate parenthetical documentation for your readers, first carefully prepare your Works Cited or References list (see “Preparing MLA Works Cited and APA References Lists” on page 340) so that you know which sources you are going to cite in the right form and at the right place in your text.

340 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

Keep your documentation brief and to the point so that you do not interrupt the reader’s train of thought. In most cases, all you will need to include is the author’s last name, date, and appropriate page number(s) in parentheses, usually at the end of sentences. When you mention the author’s name in your sentence, though, MLA and APA both advise that you do not redundantly cite it again parenthetically; for example:

MLA: Moscovi claims that “tourism has increased 17 percent this quarter” (76). APA: Moscovi (2015) claims that “tourism has increased by 17 percent this quar-

ter” (p. 76).

For unsigned articles, use a shortened title in place of an author’s name parenthetically.

MLA: Shrewd bosses know that “chain-of-command meetings provide the opportunity to pass information up as well as down the administrative ladder” (“Working Smarter” 33).

APA: Shrewd bosses know that “chain-of-command meetings provide the opportunity to pass information up as well as down the administrative ladder” (“Working Smarter,” 2015, p.33).

Similarly, if you list the title of a reference work in the text of your paper, do not repeat it in your documentation.

MLA: According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, Cecil B. DeMille’s King of Kings was seen by nearly 800,000,000 individuals (3: 458).

APA: According to the Encyclopedia Britannica (2014), Cecil B. DeMille’s King of Kings was seen by nearly 800,000,000 individuals (3, p. 458).

The first number in parentheses in both versions refers to the volume number of the Encyclopedia Britannica; the second is the page number in that volume.

preparing MLa Works cited and apa references Lists Whether you follow MLA or APA, you will need to list your sources at the end of your report, on a new page, under the title of “Works Cited” or “References” at the top and then arrange the list alphabetically by authors’ last names (except when no author is listed). Both MLA and APA advise that you begin each citation flush to the left margin (but indent subsequent lines one-half inch) and that you double-space within and between the entries. But, as Table 8.2 points out, there are major differences between the MLA and APA guidelines on where to place infor- mation, punctuation, the use of italics and quotation marks, and capitalization. The following sections provide examples, following both MLA and APA, of some of the references you are most likely to include.

Sample entries in MLa Works cited and apa references Lists

Book by One Author

MLA: Spinello, Richard. Cyberethics: Morality and Law in Cyberspace. Burlington: Jones & Bartlett, 2013. Print.

APA: Spinello, R. (2013). Cyberethics: Morality and law in cyberspace. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett.

Documenting Sources 341

Table 8.2 Basic Differences Between Preparing an MLA Works Cited List and an APA References List

MLA APA

Author ● List author’s last name first, fol- lowed by a comma, and then first name and (if applicable) middle name or initial.

● List author’s last name first, fol- lowed by a comma, and then cite only his/her first initial and middle initial (if known).

● For two or three authors, invert only the first author’s name (e.g., Smith, John, and Jose Alvarez), and connect the last two authors’ names with and.

● For multiple authors, invert all authors’ names, separate the last two names with an ampersand (&), and still use only an initial for first names of authors.

● For more than three authors, cite just the first author listed on the work (Smith, John) and add et al. (“and others”), or you can provide all names in full in the order in which they appear on the title page or byline.

● For more than seven authors, invert the first six authors’ names, insert an ellipsis (. . .) and then list the name of the last author (also inverted).

Title ● Italicize the full title of the book, newspaper, journal, or magazine, including any subtitles.

● For a book, italicize the full title, and capitalize only the first word of the title and any proper names. If there is a subtitle, place it after the main title, followed by a colon, and capitalize only the first word of the subtitle.

● Capitalize the initial letters of all words in the title except for preposi- tions, articles, and coordinating con- junctions, unless the book or journal begins or ends with one of these.

● For articles in newspapers, journals, or magazines, the title is not italicized.

● Enclose titles of journal, newspaper, and magazine articles in double quo- tation marks.

● Do not enclose titles of newspaper, journal, or magazine articles in quo- tation marks.

● Capitalize the initial letters of all words in the journal, newspaper, or magazine article title except for prepositions, articles, and coordinating conjunctions, unless the book or journal begins or ends with one of these.

● Capitalize only the first word of the article title (even if it is a preposi- tion) and any proper nouns.

Volume and Page Numbers

● For articles, cite the volume and the issue number (separated by a pe- riod), followed by the year in paren- theses: 52.1 (2015). For newspapers and magazines, use only the date— 12 Aug. 2015. (Note that the day is listed first, followed by the month.) Then include page numbers without a “p.” or “pp.”: 91–100.

● Put the volume number of the journal or magazine in italics, with the issue number (not in italics) in parentheses immediately following, without a space. Then insert a comma and include page numbers: 12(3), 87–102.

(Continued)

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342 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

MLA APA

Publication ● For books, give the city of pub- lication. Then, after a colon, supply the publisher’s name, fol- lowed by a comma, the year of publication, and a period.

● Place the date of publication in parentheses immediately after the author’s name. Then add a period after the closing parenthesis.

● Include the publication me- dium for all entries (e.g., Print, PDF, DVD, Radio, Web, etc.) at the end of the publication information.

● For books, provide the city and two-letter abbreviation for the state, and then include the publisher’s name after a colon— for example, Detroit, MI: MegaPress.

Web Sources (Websites, Blogs, Social Media, etc.)

● You do not need to include URLs, but indicate the website name, sponsor or publisher, date of publication, and medium of publication, followed by the date of access.

● Insert URLs in place of page numbers with the following designation: Retrieved from [and then list the URL].

● If a DOI (digital object identifier) has been assigned to the source, pro- vide the DOI instead of the URL, as follows: doi:xxxxx

Personal Interview

● Provide the name of the person in- terviewed (last name first), followed by the type of interview that was conducted (email; in person) and the date.

● Interviews, conversations, and per- sonal communications such as email are not included in APA reference lists, but you must still cite them within your paper.

Table 8.2 (Continued)

Book by Two Authors

MLA: Wu, Melody, and Tren Tucker. China’s Role in the Global Economy. Denver: Tradevision P, 2015. Print.

APA: Wu, M., & Tucker, T. (2015). China’s role in the global economy. Denver, CO: Tradevision Press.

Book by Three Authors

MLA: Barsh, Joanna, Cranston, Susie, and Geoffrey Lewis. How Remarkable Women Lead: The Breakthrough Model for Work and Life. New York: Crown, 2011. Print.

APA: Barsh, J., Cranston, S., and Lewis, G. (2011). How remarkable women lead: The breakthrough model for work and life. New York, NY: Crown.

Book by Four or More Authors (MLA)

MLA: Del Guidice, Manlio, et al. Cross-Cultural Management: Fostering Innovation and Collaboration Inside the Multicultural Enterprise. New York: Springer, 2012. Print.

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Documenting Sources 343

Book by Eight or More Authors (APA)

APA: Berkowitz, H. A., Barner, P. L., Choi, D. G., Osler, T. O., Ruiz, J., Rowell, C. F., . . . Emmons, W. D. (2015). Collaborating effectively and efficiently: A case study. Los Angeles, CA: Ridgeway.

Electronic Version of a Printed Book

MLA: Martin, Dick. OtherWise: The Wisdom You Need to Succeed in a Diverse World. AMA COM, 2012. Books 247. Web. 19 Mar. 2015.

APA: Martin, D. (2012). OtherWise: The wisdom you need to succeedin a diverseworld. [Books 247 version]. Retrieved from http:// library.books247.com.logon.lynx.lib.usm.edu/toc.aspx?site= PB3FH&bookid=45534

Edited Collection of Essays

MLA: Yang, Harrison Hao, and Shuyan Wang, eds. Cases on E-Learning Management: Development and Implementation. Hershey: Information Science Research, 2012. Print.

APA: Yang, H.H., & Wang, S. (Eds.). (2012). Cases on e-learning management: development and implementation. Hershey, PA: Information Science Research.

Work Included in a Collection of Essays

MLA: Maque, Isabelle, et al. “Profiting from Diversity in the Bank Sector.” Lessons on Profiting from Diversity. Ed. Gloria Moss. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. 186–212. Print.

APA: Maque, I., Becuwe, A., Prim-Allaz, I., & Garnier, A. (2012). Profiting from diversity in the bank sector. In Gloria Moss (Ed.), Lessons on profiting from diversity (pp. 186–212). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Book by a Corporate Author

MLA: African Development Bank. African Economic Outlook: 2014 . Washington: Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 2014. Print.

APA: African Development Bank (2014). African economic outlook: 2014. Washington, D.C., Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development.

Article in a Professional Journal

MLA: Freeman, Douglas C. “Veterans in Corporate America: A New Source of World Class Diverse Talent.” Black Enterprise 43.5 (2012): 82-84. Print.

APA: Freeman, D.C. (2012). Veterans in corporate America: A new source of world class diverse talent. Black Enterprise, 43(5), 82-84.

344 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

Article in a Print Magazine

MLA: Kurowska, Teresa. “Is the Boss Watching Every Keystroke You Make?” Today’s Workplace Oct. 2015: 47+. Print.

APA: Kurowska, T. (2015, October). Is the boss watching every keystroke you make? Today’s Workplace, 47, 72–73.

Article in a Professional Online Journal

MLA: Sayburn, Anna. “Health Campaigns that Have Changed Public Understanding.” British Medical Journal Online 344 (2012). Web. 25 April 2012.

APA: Sayburn, A. (2012, April 25). Health campaigns that have changed public understanding. British Medical Journal Online, 344. doi: 10.1136 /bmj.e2866

Article in a Print Newspaper

MLA: Moss, Caroline. “The First Family of Instagram.” The New York Times 1 January 2015: E1. Print.

APA: Moss, C. (2015, January 1). The first family of instagram. The New York Times, p. E1.

Online Encyclopedia Article

MLA: Kling, Arnold. “International Trade.” Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. 2nd ed. Library of Economics and Liberty, 2008. Web. 27 Mar. 2010.

APA: Kling, A. (2008). International trade. In Concise encyclopedia of economics (2nd ed.). Retrieved March 27, 2010, from http://www.econlib.org /library/CEE/html

Online Unsigned Encyclopedia Article

MLA: “Link Sharing.” Small Business Encyclopedia. Entrepreneur, 2013. Web. 20 Sept. 2013.

APA: Link Sharing. (2013). In Small business encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.entrepreneur.com/encyclopedia/

Unsigned Article in a Print Magazine or Newspaper

MLA: “The Green Machine.” Economist 11 Mar. 2010: 7–8. Print. APA: The green machine. (2010, March 11). Economist, 7–8.

Article in an Online Newspaper or Magazine

MLA: King, David Lee. “Revamping Social Media for 2013.” Business Review USA. 6 Nov. 2012. Web. 20 Mar. 2013.

APA: King, D.L. (2012, November 6). Revamping social media for 2013. Business Review USA. Retrieved from http://www.businessreviewusa .com/marketing/social-media/revamping-social-media-for-2013

Documenting Sources 345

Government Document

MLA: Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs. Greener Communities, Greater Opportunities: New Ideas for Sustainable Develop ment and Economic Growth. Washington: GPO, 2010. Web. 12 Dec. 2010.

APA: Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs (2010). Greener communities, greater opportunities: New ideas for sustainable develop- ment and economic growth. (Publication No. 1035-E online). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Website

MLA: Natl. Council of La Raza. Home Page, 2015. Web. 17 May 2015. APA: When referencing an entire website, APA style is to provide the URL in

the body of the text and not list it in the References section.

Radio

MLA: “What Do Employers Really Want from College Grads.” Reporter Amy Scott. Marketplace. American Public Media. WHYY, Philadelphia, 4 Mar. 2013. Radio.

APA: Scott, A. (Reporter). (2013, March 4). What do employers really want from college grads [Radio]. In Marketplace. Philadelphia, PA: WHYY American Public Media.

Television

MLA: “How Will Employment Change as U.S. Job Market Recovers?” Prod. Russ Clarkson. NewsHour. PBS. 8 Mar. 2013. Television.

APA: Clarkson, R. (Producer). (2013, Mar 8). How will employment change as U.S. job market recovers? [Television series episode.] In NewsHour. Arlington, VA: PBS.

Podcast

MLA: Coughlin, Chrissy, host. “60: Why climate change is a matter of policy for insurers.” Nature of Business Radio. GreenBiz Group. 11 Nov. 2012. Web. 17 May 2013.

APA: Coughlin, Chrissy (Host). (2012, November 25). Why climate change is a matter of policy for insurers [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from http://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2012/11/25/why-climate -change-matter-policy-insurers

Blogs

MLA: Hamilton, Tina. “How to Really Make Twitter Work for Your Business.” Successful Blog. N.p., 8 Mar. 2013. Web. 20 Mar. 2013.

APA: Hamilton, T. (2013, March 8). How to really make Twitter work for your business [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://www.successful-blog .com/1/how-to-really-make-twitter-work-for-your-business/

346 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

Personal Interview

MLA: Alvarez, José. E-mail interview. 15 Feb. 2016. APA: Interviews, conversations, and presentations are not included in APA

Reference lists, but you must still cite them within your paper as fol lows: (J. Alvarez, personal communication, February 15, 2016).

MLA: Frazer, Tim. “Site Inspection Report for Landsdowne Corners.” Message to the author. 12 July 2015. Email.

APA: Emails are not included in the References list. They are cited in the text as a personal communication.

Facebook Post

MLA: Snap Power. “Great review of our Chargers!” Facebook. Facebook, 31 Mar. 2015. Web. 15 May 2015.

APA: Snap Power (2015, March 31). Great review of our Chargers! [Facebook status update]. Retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/snaprays /posts/791412980936977

MLA: NYU Langone Medical (@NYULMC). “Our nurses are making a difference—from aiding disaster relief at home to helping kids around the world bit. ly/1JBVHA8 #NursesWeek.” 11 May 2015, 9:41 a.m. Tweet.

APA: NYU Langone Medical [@NYULMC] (2015, May 11). Our nurses are making a difference—from aiding disaster relief at home to helping kids around the world bit.ly/1JBVHA8 #NursesWeek. [Tweet]. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/NYULMC/status/597803705686163456

Brochure

MLA: Gao, Hubert. Coping with Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. New York: Beth Israel Hospital, 2015. Print.

APA: Gao, H. (2015). Coping with carpal tunnel syndrome [Brochure]. New York: NY: Beth Israel Hospital.

Survey

MLA: Guttierez, Joseph. “Market Survey for Duron, Inc.” Survey. n.p. 10 Apr. 2015. Print.

APA: Surveys are unpublished personal communications not included in the References list.

A Business Research Report 347

Lecture or Speech

MLA: Phillips-Ricks, Jonathan. National Association of Black Business Leaders Conference. New York, 15 Aug. 2015. Lecture.

APA: Phillips-Ricks, J. (2015, August 15). Lecture presented at the National Association of Black Business Leaders Conference, New York, NY.

Press Release

MLA: American Council of Organic Farmers. New Ways to Eliminate Chemicals from Home Gardens. Omaha: ACOF, 31 Mar. 2015. Print.

APA: American Council of Organic Farmers. (2015, March 31). New ways to eliminate chemicals from home gardens [Press release]. Retrieved from aaof.org

Map

MLA: Fineberg, Donald. Sonoma, California. Map. Sonoma: Professional Maps, 2015. Print.

APA: Fineberg, D. (2015). Sonoma, California [Map]. Sonoma: Professional Maps.

Motion Picture

MLA: Understanding Diabetes: From Diagnosis to Cure. Dir. Jayne T. Cahill. Healthcare Videos. 2015. DVD.

APA: Cahill, J. T. (Director). (2015). Understanding diabetes: From diagnosis to cure [DVD]. Allentown, PA: Healthcare Videos.

a BuSIneSS reSearCh rePOrt The rest of this chapter consists of a business report written by members of the marketing team at New Horizons Development, Inc., a real estate group with holdings across the country. The marketing team was asked to solve a frequent workplace problem—how to sell a new product, location, and so on. To do so, the team created a plan to attract tenants to Sawmill Ridge, a new apartment com- plex that New Horizons was constructing in the Dallas/Fort Worth area, and submitted it both as a PDF attachment to an email and in hard copy form. Study the report in Figures 8.9 and 8.10 (pages 348–363) to see how the team mem- bers successfully combined primary and secondary sources to research and write their business report. Also note how the report documents these sources in the text and references them on the Works Cited list using the MLA format. Com- pare the documentation style in this report to the long report in Chapter 15 (see Figure 15.3, pages 607–621), which uses APA in-text documentation and includes a References list.

348 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

Specifies purpose, scope, and importance of the plan

Emphasizes that the plan is based upon careful research

April 13, 2015

Talia Martinez-Ryals, Director New Horizons, Southeast 170 Waters Drive Tucson, AZ 85749-3001

Dear Director Martinez-Ryals:

We are happy to include the attached marketing plan for Sawmill Ridge that you commissioned. The development is scheduled to open in three months in this rapidly growing community of South Arlington, Texas.

Our plan projects launching both an online and a print campaign to market Sawmill Ridge for its community atmosphere and benefits as well as its proximity to expanding major employers and retail centers. We have determined that our most appropriate target audience will be young professionals, and will utilize Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and our own website to reach them.

Our report is based on extensive demographic and market research. For the last two months, we have thoroughly investigated the South Arlington area, interviewed numerous business and community leaders, conducted focus groups, and explored current and projected demographics.

Thank you for asking us to prepare this report for New Horizons and you. We would be happy to answer any questions you have about this report or supply you with further information. We look forward to hearing from you.

Respectfully,

Adrienne Hong

Tyrell Carpenter

Margarita Gonzales

Enclosure: A Marketing Plan for Sawmill Ridge, 2015

New Horizons

2800 Taylor Blvd. Fort Worth, TX 76003

817-555-3300 www.newhorizons.com

Building Apartment Homes Since 1984

Distinctive, relevant letterhead

Indicates that plan was requested by the reader

Invites reader’s questions

Formal inside address style used, as the letter was submitted both in hard copy form and as a PDF attachment to an email

Figure 8.9 Transmittal Letter for a Long Report

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A Business Research Report 349

A Marketing Plan for Sawmill Ridge, 2015

Adrienne Hong, Tyrell Carpenter, and Margarita Gonzales

Prepared for Talia Martinez-Ryals, Project Director, New Horizons

Southeast, Inc.

April 13, 2015

Title page provides report title, authors, date of submission, and company name

Information is clearly formatted and listed

Gives date submitted

Figure 8.10 A Long Report

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350 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

Abstract

This report contains a marketing strategy for our new Sawmill Ridge develop- ment in South Arlington, scheduled to open in three months. Based upon extensive primary and secondary research, our strategy for long-term success is to promote this new apartment complex by fostering a sense of community and emphasizing the proximity of the complex to businesses, schools, and shopping. These benefits will attract our target audience of young profes- sionals (ages 24–34) whose jobs, income, family demographics, and lifestyle will also help guide us in determining how and where we advertise Sawmill Ridge. We need to take advantage of both online and print media, including Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and developing a customized Sawmill Ridge website that will provide links to our social media sites and offer news about weekly and monthly activities. Essential to our strategy is developing a follow-up program to retain renters (and thus reduce turnover expenses) by providing the services and amenities that our target audience appreciates and expects. If accepted, our plan promises maximum occupancy at Sawmill Ridge with a minimum attrition when leases expire.

Figure 8.10 (Continued)

The purpose of the report is stated clearly and presented first

Describes research methods used in generating the report and the conclusions drawn

Lists recommenda- tions for actions that support the conclusions presented

Footer uses Roman numerals in front matter pages

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A Business Research Report 351

Figure 8.10 (Continued)

Table of Contents

Abstract ii

Introduction: Strategic Plan 1

Building Community 1

Background 1

Rental Market Conditions: Supply and Demand 1

Location: Selling the Community 2

Proximity to Retail Centers 2

Proximity to Employers 3

Targeting the Right Demographics 4

Advertising Strategy 5

Online Advertising 5

Costs 5

The Most Effective Online Rental Sites 6

Creating a Custom Website 6

Print Advertising 8

Creating a Follow-Up Program 9

Retaining Renters 9

Conclusion 10

Works Cited 11

Logically divides report into sections

Gives readers a quick glance at the organization of the report

Headings clearly distinguished through strategic and consistent use of boldface and italics

iii

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352 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

Introduction: Strategic Plan

Two years ago, New Horizons Development, Inc., purchased a large tract of land (21.2 acres) in South Arlington to develop Sawmill Ridge, a Class A apartment com- munity with a 54-building complex. The opening of Sawmill Ridge is scheduled for completion in three months. To fulfill our objectives for this project, we have created a marketing plan for the next phase of Sawmill Ridge to attract tenants. Our plan, described in this report, is based on a key marketing strategy linking Sawmill Ridge to community development. We provide background information about market conditions and location, describe the target audience, and outline plans for both print and online advertising, including the use of Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and our own website. Our report also covers how to follow up inquiries and how to retain residents.

Building Community

To attract and retain tenants to Sawmill Ridge, our plan is based on the marketing approach developed by Juanita Lagares and her team at the Tuscon, Arizona branch of New Horizons, “Building Community by Offering Neighborhood Convenience.” Having access to neighborhood conveniences is essential to our target audience, described below. Consequently, the theme of community involvement is woven throughout our plan.

Background

The rental market conditions in the Arlington area, as well as Sawmill Ridge’s prox- imity to three major employers and many new retail establishments, have shaped the focus and goals of our marketing plan.

Rental Market Conditions: Supply and Demand

Sawmill Ridge is opening at a favorable time. The Arlington rental market has con- tinued to thrive for over three decades (D’Argento 211-13), and apartment net leasing activity in this area is the highest it has been in the past three years, with the annual absorption reaching 5,225 units (Evinson 211). As Figure 1 on page 2 shows, during the fourth quarter of 2014 occupancy in the Arlington area tightened significantly, standing at 92.7%. These figures point to a steady and impressive increase since the beginning of 2014. The Donnelley Realty Group (donneleyrg.com), which provides monthly data on apartment trends, record a healthy 4.7 percent growth in apartment occupancy in South Arlington throughout 2014. Further contributing to this strong demand, apartment communities have lost fewer residents to first-time home pur- chases over the last year (North Central Texas Council).

Uses headers for page numbers

Introduction clearly states the purpose and organization of the report

Succinctly spells out marketing plan and how it will be developed in report

Typical MLA in-text citation includes author and page(s)

Statistics backed up by current secondary sources

No page number for Web source—North Central Texas Council

Figure 8.10 (Continued)

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A Business Research Report 353

Most important, though, in fueling this sizable demand for apartments, the greater Dallas/Fort Worth metro area has added a large block of new jobs. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that from October 2013 to October 2014, more than 111,000 jobs were generated in the area (U.S. Dept. of Labor). According to Betty Costinga, a Texas real estate expert frequently appearing on Dallas This Morning, “The single most important factor when selecting housing in the state of Texas is the location of jobs in the area.” Corroborating this view, a recent article in Time magazine declared that Texas was “the job leader … adding more jobs faster than any other state.” (“Texas Boom Times” 20). We can take advantage of this increase in jobs.

Location: Selling the Community

As the map in Figure 2 illustrates, Sawmill Ridge is located in South Arlington, near the intersection of Pike Blvd. and Interstate 20, a major east-west corridor in the Metro area (South Arlington). Dallas is 9 miles to the east, while Fort Worth is 11 miles to the west. Moreover, Sawmill Ridge is close to major retail centers and several large businesses.

Proximity to Retail Centers

Sawmill Ridge is conveniently located near two major retail centers. Table 1 illustrates the proximity and size of the Parks Mall and the Highlands (which just opened).

Figure 1 Quarterly South Arlington Occupancy Rates (2014)

Bar graph is appropriate visual to summarize statistics

Government source lends authority to job statistics

Cites television program and article in popular magazine

Citation lists name of map

Figure 8.10 (Continued)

Quarterly South Arlington Occupancy Rates (2014)

88% 87.5%

88.9%

92.7%

Pe rc

en ta

g e

1st quarter 84

2nd quarter 3rd quarter 4th quarter

Table 1 Retail Centers Near Sawmill Ridge

Distance from Sawmill Ridge (miles)

Retail Space (square feet)

Parks Mall 1.2 2,000,000

Highlands 1.8 900,000

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354 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

Based on our interview with Highlands’ Associate Director, companies like Ethan Allen, Golf Galaxy, Talbot’s, and Studio Movie Grill have already leased retail space in the new center (Weir). Other retailers—possibly the Body Shop, Gemstone Jewelers, Filene’s Basement, and Media, Inc.—have been negotiating for retail space and are leasing units quickly (Stratton 341). Having so many diverse retailers nearby substantially increases the attractive- ness of Sawmill Ridge and further emphasizes the neighborhood ethos for our subdivision. Our Arlington Area Quality of Life survey (available on our intranet) of over 700 area residents, conducted between November 15 of last year and January 31 of this year, highlights this fact. Response rate was high—over 30% of those surveyed responded. Ninety-five percent of the area residents indicated that they visit the Parks Mall weekly, and an additional 86% plan to visit the Highlands just as frequently after it opens. Only 12% were concerned that the Highlands would not cater to their needs (Hong, Carpenter, and Gonzales, “Survey”).

Proximity to Employers

Sawmill Ridge’s proximity to major employers is also a tremendous advan- tage in terms of rental appeal. Our campaign will make maximum use of this benefit. Among the area’s largest employers is South Arlington Mutual, whose central office with 1,500 employees is within easy driving distance of Sawmill Ridge. Another major group of employers is located at East Park Office Complex. A recent study revealed that over forty tenants employ more than 1,100 individuals there, a highly convenient location since the complex is less than a mile from Sawmill Ridge (D’Argento, “Booming Market”). We can also target our campaign to current employees at these firms. Our semiannual focus group, which surveyed 14 employees from

Map provides readers with a clear visual of the site location

Successful blend of primary research (interview) and secondary research (articles)

Primary research (survey) provides useful statistics not available elsewhere

Second work by previously cited author requires title

Report supplies essential data to support the plan

Figure 8.10 (Continued)

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Pi ke

Hi gh

la nd

Parks Mall

Sawmill Ridge

South Arlington Mutual

East Park Office

Complex

Figure 2 Map of Sawmill Ridge and the South Arlington Area

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South Arlington Mutual, and 12 employees at the three largest firms at the East Park Office Complex, concluded that more than half of the employees at these companies are dissatisfied with their long commute to work and would strongly consider relocating to Sawmill Ridge. (Hong, Carpenter, and Gonzales, “Notes”).

Targeting the Right Demographics

Based on the large numbers of varied retailers and businesses found in the South Arlington area, we will tailor our marketing strategy to attract young professionals (ages 24–34) with per capita incomes between $43,200 and $54,600 per year, individuals already working at these businesses or most likely to be employed there. Because many individuals in this group are young single professionals or have small children, Sawmill Ridge will emphasize the security and satisfaction with the community that our develop- ment offers. (Three top-rated elementary schools and one junior high school are within 2.4 miles of Sawmill Ridge.) Our plan is firmly based on the demographics of the area. The U.S. Census Bureau report (U.S. Dept. of Commerce) and local real estate studies (Kearny-Schwartz 15-16; Evinson 211) provide the statistics in the infograph below, relevant to the 5-mile area surrounding Sawmill Ridge, reinforcing why and how our plan needs to reach this target audience:

Total Population: 380,085 *within 2.5 miles of Sawmill Ridge

in management

33.2% in non- management

25.7% in entry level

17.1% +13% than the national average

$60,142 average household income

2.56 Average household size for renter- occupied units

37.4% with children under 12 years old

9.4% with teenage children

Percent of population that is a single-earner or a dual-earner household

Based on these South Arlington demographics, we should easily be able to attract this target group to Sawmill Ridge, offering them the comfort,

Focus group provides otherwise unavailable information

Goverment agency listed like a corporate author

Target demographic solidly backed up by federal and local statistics

Identifies target audience

Primary research cited

Figure 8.10 (Continued)

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356 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

convenience, and security they demand from a large home apartment developer such as New Horizons. (“New Complex” D11).

Advertising Strategy

We plan to advertise online and through print media and to also use social media to reach the maximum number of potential tenants for Sawmill Ridge.

Online Advertising

Based upon our research, potential renters use all three media platforms: print, online, and mobile. Yun Je-mun points out that 91% of professionals looking for rentals rely on Web-based media as their resource versus 7% who only use print resources. Yet Alvarez and Pick find that 62% use Web and print resources, with many moving toward using apps on their mobile phones (4–5). According to Harold Slavens, in his posting at forrentpress .com, “Mobile marketing is a leading method of communication to engage consumers.” Similarly, Sue McCallister (par. 4) claims that showcasing apartment rentals via ads in mobile apps clearly and persuasively directs traffic to developers’ sites. We need to explore the options/costs of con- tracting with a Web-based mobile provider. Regardless of the route, if an inquiry is followed up within the first eight hours of being received, a leasing professional has a 75% chance of renting the space to that client, a higher success rate than with prospective tenants responding to print advertisements (Bruckner).

Costs In terms of bottom-line costs, while advertising through online rental sites is highly adventageous, most local newspapers offer combined print/ online advertising contracts that help us reach the widest audience possible at an affordable cost. A combined print/online advertising contract is, on average, 35% less than doing either option separately, which provides us with substantial savings. Additionally, there are some print-only options that are worth pursuing because they reach our target audience in ways that compli- ment our online advertising options (see pages 6–7). Table 2 on page 6 shows the cost of running a full-color, quarter-page advertisement for one-month via the most preferred media options. Social media promotion of Sawmill Ridge can also be achieved at very little cost, as the expense has already been accounted for as part of the yearly operating budget. We will use New Horizon’s presence on Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube to promote Sawmill Ridge to our target audience of young professionals.

Work with no author listed

All statistics and key points solidly backed by research

Figure 8.10 (Continued)

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The Most Effective Online Rental Sites To determine the most attractive Internet sites, we met with consultants at E-Pointe, a firm New Horizons has consulted with successfully on previous projects. Our team also at- tended a seminar regarding the top Internet rental sites in the Dallas/Fort Worth area to determine which were most frequently accessed by renters (Je-mun). Based on the information we gathered from these sources, we believe that the following three real estate-specific sites are the most effective avenues for advertising Sawmill Ridge (see Table 2 for details on cost):

• www.rent.com—The number one national rental source with a popular Arlington area section.

• www.apartments.com—The number two rental source in America, again with an Arlington area section.

• www.DFWapartments.com—A rental source accessed more often than any other site by Dallas/Fort Worth residents.

Creating a Custom Website In addition to advertising the sites above and through our social media outlets, we need to follow through with our “Creat- ing Community” theme by designing our own website aimed at reaching our target audience. Creating our own website is essential to target our audience

Type of Media Cost Notes

Online Only www.rent.com www.apartments.com www.DFWapartments.com

$170 $182 $185

Monthly rate Monthly rate Monthly rate

Newspaper 1 Online Dallas Monitor Dallas Tribune El Mundo (Hispanic weekly) Alt Dallas (alternative culture weekly)

$865 $825 $585 $495

4 Sunday print ads + 1 month of internet ads 4 Sunday print ads + 1 month of internet ads 4 weeks + 1 month of internet ads 4 weeks + 1 month of internet ads

Print Only The Arlington Advocate (local weekly) Apartment Guide Magazine

$350

$850

4 consecutive weeks

Monthly rate

Table clearly spells out differences between print and Internet ad rates

Table appears at right place in report and is easy to find and follow

No source line listed for table because it is original work

Attending seminar represents an important part of secondary research

Speech cited by speaker’s name

Bulleted list breaks up text and improves readability

Figure 8.10 (Continued)

Table 2 Rates for a Full-Color, One-Quarter Page Advertisement (or Equivalent) in Various Media for 30 days (rates current as of April 1, 2015)

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and enhance our professional image (Punji par. 7). Developing our website will help us by:

1. Ensuring that New Horizons will surpass other developers whose Internet presence is less robust in the Arlington area.

2. Providing our on-site personnel with a powerful marketing tool (Gilbert). All of our print media, social media sites, signage, and station- ary will include the Sawmill Ridge URL for maximum exposure.

3. Reflecting New Horizons’ green philosophy, through a virtual tour of Sawmill Ridge’s eco-friendly landscapes and energy-saving features. Videos of the tour will be posted on YouTube and our website, and we will cross-promote the virtual tour on both Facebook and Twitter.

4. Making it easy for prospective tenants to fill out application forms and submit them online, considerably simplifying the leasing process. When potential customers complete the form online, we can waive the application fee of $50.00, thus “encouraging the Web shopper to action,” as Alvarez and Pick describe it (224).

5. Giving prospective tenants the convenient option of paying their security deposit and monthly rent online.

6. Featuring a Sawmill Ridge Twitter feed and a link out to the Sawmill Ridge Facebook page and Instagram account, enabling rapid communi- cation with residents about things like building-related issues or upcom- ing events in the South Arlington area, further fostering our emphasis on “building community.”

In designing our South Arlington website, we can profit from and be consistent with similar sites that other divisions in our company have created. Figure 3, for instance, shows the homepage, located at www.newhorizonstucson.com, for a comparable development in Tucson, Arizona, which has targeted a similar audience. This website receives over 3,100 hits a week and incorporates the following features we would include on the Sawmill Ridge website

• Advertisements for discounts and specials at local businesses • Information and links to area social, recreational, and educational

resources • A “Residents’ Page” with uploaded pictures from parties, comments

from residents, and news about upcoming events at Sawmill Ridge • Design and feature updates on a regular basis

Print Advertising

Even though we can use online and print/online marketing as our major plat- forms to attract new tenants, targeted, strategic print-only advertising remains

Numbered list is easy to follow

Interview with expert backs up authors’ plan

No need to cite authors mentioned in sentence

Includes the use of social media to help market the development

Uses privileged (internal) company information to create similar website in South Arlington

Figure 8.10 (Continued)

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A Business Research Report 359

useful as well. Camille D’Argento points out that 60% of the area’s young professionals still pick up the local print-only newspaper for information on area cultural events (311). Our own research shows that when these young profession- als are looking for housing, 36% of them will utilize the free glossy apartment guides found in area salons, market-places, restaurants, and bars (Hong, Carpen- ter, and Gonzales, “Survey”). Studying this print market, we believe that the fol- lowing are the chief publications in which ads for Sawmill Ridge should be run:

• The Arlington Advocate. As Table 1 indicates, the cost for ads in most newspapers is very high. The Arlington Advocate charges are reasonable by comparison, and though it doesn’t have the same extended reach as some of the other options, the newspaper can boast a dedicated, loyal readership of Arlington residents. After interviewing Darius Tant, man- ager of The Arlington Advocate’s advertising department, we negotiated favorable terms for a three-month contract. We can run ads every week for 12 weeks for only $750 (a savings of $300 over the usual fee for that time frame).

• Apartment Guide Magazine. One of the most popular rental publi- cations for prospects in the Arlington area, with a circulation of 125,000, the AGM is readily available at many locations in the Sawmill Ridge area. A free advertisement on their website, located at www .apartmentguide.com, is included with the cost of a print ad in

The Greater Tucson Area

The Horizons Neighborhood

Area Resources

Specials at Local Businesses for New Horizons

Residents

Residents’ Page

Upcoming Events

Welcome to New Horizons Apartment Homes of Tucson, Arizona

Thank you for visiting our site. We are honored to give you a virtual tour of our New Horizons Apartment Homes, the most convenient, safe, and friendly address in the greater Tucson area: Just click on the links on the left.

Location, location, location–easy to reach, premiere address Close to work, shopping, recreation Two-, three-, four-bedroom models to choose from The feel of a neighborhood in the middle of a city Safety comes first–what makes our units stand out from others We go green–New Horizons is environmentally proactive Amenities at New Horizons–from spas to game rooms Residents’ page–comments from our proud residents

Home Related Sites Contact Us Pay Online

http://www.newhorizonstucson.com

New Horizons Tucson, Arizona

New Horizons

Figure 3 Home Page for New Horizons Tucson Complex

Easy-to- navigate, user- friendly site

Social media icons included to provide easy links to pages/feeds

Provides relevant links

Writing is clean and concise

Light background color makes writing easy to read

Assures reader that print media will not be neglected

Lists in easy- to-read bulleted segments the top five print advertising options

Research on price and circulation backs up argument and convinces reader to accept plan

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Figure 8.10 (Continued)

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360 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

Apartment Guide. A one-page ad in Apartment Guide costs $850 per month.

• Brochures. Visually appealing brochures will be given to potential ten- ants during property tours and can also be distributed to local businesses relatively inexpensively.

Creating a Follow-Up Program

Responding to every telephone call, email inquiry, or text communication from potential tenants is crucial. When we receive a query, an expression of interest, or a referral, we need to follow up by gathering all relevant contact information from potential clients, including cell, home, and work phone numbers; email address; and street address. In addition, we should try to set up appointments at the prospective tenant’s convenience. Follow-up contact is also critical for prospective tenants who have visited Sawmill Ridge. Accordingly, we propose that each visitor to our develop-receives both a follow-up phone call (or email) and a thank-you card. As Kelly Talos emphasizes in her survey in Rental Professionals Today, 47% of rental communities do not respond to prospective residents effectively, resulting in numerous missed opportunities (90).

Retaining Renters

Our marketing plan also takes into account ways to retain residents at Sawmill Ridge. Roger Cho, in Resident Developer’s Monthly, emphasized that developers need to link keeping residents with initial lease signing:

Developers and renters often neglect the importance of retaining residents, perhaps the most basic ingredient in the leasing recipe. . . . Retention is particularly important in apartment complexes, where, depending on monthly rental rates, the owners can expect to lose as much as 15% of their annual revenue as a result of turnover . . . and as much as 8% of annual revenue due to residents withholding rent when their satisfaction is low and repairs are neglected. Those numbers may seem

Authors plan ahead for second phase of marketing strategy

Uses secondary research (published article) to document consequences of not following plan

Research goes beyond just renting units

Long quotation indented 1 inch with no quotation marks

Ellipses tell reader part of quotation omitted

Gives reader clear idea about quantities, distribution, and importance of publications

Figure 8.10 (Continued)

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A Business Research Report 361

standard, but add them together and you stand to lose nearly 25% annually—a percentage you can drastically reduce with a smart retention plan. (34)

To minimize turnover and maximize occupancy, our plan of “Creating Com- munity” is geared to fulfill the expectations of our audience:

• To accommodate our residents’ schedules, the office will open early (6:00 a.m.) and close late (7:00 p.m.) five days a week. This policy should help residents unable to visit the office during typical nine-to-five business hours.

• Sawmill Ridge will host at least four functions each month, includ- ing a monthly resident brunch, all announced on our Facebook page, Twitter feed, and Instagram account. In months with greater chances for decreased occupancy, the number of activities could increase by two to three.

• Thanks to an agreement we made with the Pet Motel in South Arlington, Sawmill Ridge residents will receive a 15% discount on kennel care.

• Emergency maintenance service will be provided 24/7. Maintenance technicians will be instructed to leave follow-up cards in each apartment home after they complete the service request.

• A monthly online newsletter, similar to that used at New Horizons Tucson, can supplement our website, showing our appreciation to tenants, providing information about upcoming events and announcing policy changes.

Conclusion

Our twofold approach—building a sense of community and emphasizing the proximity of the complex to businesses, schools, and shopping—is vital to attracting our target audience of young professionals to Sawmill Ridge. As part of this approach, we will market Sawmill Ridge in online, print, and social media to reach potential renters. Customer follow-up and our com- mitment to foster a sense of community and professionalism can ensure sustained, maximum occupancy.

Focuses on marketing strategy consistently

Gives reader carefully thought-out procedures staff must follow; ideas stem from primary research and collaborative thinking

In-house research is essential for preparing a new, related document

Conclusion succinctly summarizes report, listing only main points

Figure 8.10 (Continued)

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362 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

Works Cited

Alvarez, Jesus, and Mary Ellen Pick. eMarketing Tools for Interactive Com- munication. Columbus, OH: Capital City P, 2014. Print.

Bruckner, Hans. “Don’t Forget to Follow Up.” Real Estate Today Mar. 2015: 45. Print.

Cho, Roger. “Retaining Renters.” Resident Developer’s Monthly Oct. 2014: 34+. Print.

Costinga, Betty. “The Texas Real Estate Market.” Prod. Victor Jenkins. Dallas This Morning. KXAS, Dallas. 27 Feb. 2015. Television.

D’Argento, Camille. A Contemporary Assessment of Dallas/Fort Worth Real Estate. Dallas: Dallas UP, 2015. Print.

---. “South Arlington’s Booming Market.” Dallas Real Estate Journal Online 5.1 (2015): n. pag. Web. 2 Feb. 2015.

Donnelley Realty Group. “South Arlington Market Update.” 29 Dec. 2014. Print.

Evinson, Lakita. “Leasing is Three-Year High in Arlington.” Dallas/Fort Worth Today Jan. 2015: 211. Print.

Gilbert, Ray. Personal interview. 3 Oct. 2014.

Hong, Adrienne, Tyrell Carpenter, and Margarita Gonzales. “Arlington Area Quality of Life Survey.” Survey. Arlington, TX. 30 Jan. 2015. Print.

---. “Notes.” Focus group. Arlington, TX. 12 Dec. 2014. Print.

Je-mun, Yun. “Selling Dallas on the Web.” Dallas Association of Real Estate Brokers conference, Dallas. 14 Sept. 2014. Lecture.

Kearney-Schwartz, Marianne. “2014 Local Real Estate Statistics.” Dallas Real Estate Journal 6.1 (2015): 15–19. Print.

McCallister, Sue. “Mobile Apps Can Assist Homebuyers, Renters.” The Mobile Dallas News. May 2014: n. pag. Web. 7 Nov. 2014.

“New Complex State of the Art.” Dallas Times 20 Jan. 2015: D11+. Print.

North Central Texas Council of Governments. 2014 Population Estimates. Arlington, TX: Author, 2014. Web. 7 Jan. 2015.

Punji, Kamlesh, “Your Internet Image.” Punji’s Picks: Blog. N.p., 30 Oct. 2014. Web. 16 Dec. 2014

Slovick, Harold. “ForRent Launches New Mobile App.” Forrent.com Press Blog. 30 June 2014. Web. 14 Dec. 2014.

Works Cited list begins on a new page with the title centered at the top

List ordered alphabetically by author

Second and subsequent lines indented one-half inch. (Note this is approximated here in the figure.)

Two works by the same author team

Volume numbers and issue numbers for journals are separated by a period

Figure 8.10 (Continued)

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Conclusion 363

South Arlington, Texas. Map. Dallas: MapMakers, 2014. Web. 8 Apr. 2015.

Stratton, Daniella-Kay. “Highlands Center on the Move.” Dallas Life Nov. 2010: 341. Print.

Tant, Darius. Personal interview. 18 Mar. 2015.

Talos, Kelly. The Importance of Brokerage Follow-Through.” Rental Profes- sionals Today 16.5 (2014): 90. Print.

“Texas Boom Times.” Time, 23 Mar. 2015: 20-22. Print.

United States Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2014). Dallas-Fort Worth Area Economic Summary. PDF. 5 Jan. 2015.

United States Dept. of Commerce, Census Bureau. American FactFinder. 16 June 2014. Web. 3 Nov. 2014.

Weir, Heidi. Personal interview. 25 Mar. 2015.

Organizations listed alphabetically by name

Unsigned map listed by map title

Figure 8.10 (Continued)

COnCluSIOn This chapter has introduced you to some basic yet essential strategies and tools for doing primary and secondary research on the job. Clearly, you will need to rely on a host of resources—print and online reference works, databases, various search en- gines, websites, blogs, social media posts, interviews, and surveys. Relying on these sources, research tools, and strategies, you will have the most up-to-date, thorough, and relevant answers to the questions you are asked to investigate and the problems you need to solve on the job. Exploring these resources will prepare you to write the types of documents—websites, instructions, short and long reports, proposals— discussed in later chapters. The business report included in this chapter documents the types of research your employer will expect you to do.

Process of Research ●■ Identified ways to research a significant, timely, and restricted topic. ●■ Formulated a mission statement to develop a clear sense of the purpose of research

for employer. ●■ Consulted a wide variety of research materials, including social media posts.

✓ R E V i S i O N C H E C k L i S T

(Continued)

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364 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

●■ Conducted database, online catalog, and Internet searches. ●■ Used both primary and secondary research methods as needed. ●■ Evaluated the relevance and validity of my sources. ●■ Met with employers, reference librarians, or experts in my field. ●■ Networked with colleagues and boss to meet all deadlines. ●■ Documented sources accurately and completely.

Primary Research ●■ Conducted, or observed directly, an experiment or visited a site to describe and

evaluate events, places needed for research. ●■ Set up an appointment with an authority on my topic. Prepared a list of appropri-

ate questions beforehand. ●■ Interviewed experts, customers, and relevant government officials, used pre-

pared questions, and stayed focused on the subject. Asked important follow-up questions.

●■ Identified a target audience for surveys. ●■ Created and distributed surveys using only valid, accurate questions and then

interpreted my respondents’ answers.

Secondary Research ●■ Searched online catalogs and databases for relevant articles and necessary

research materials. ●■ Obtained full text of appropriate articles and other materials in hard or electronic

copy. ●■ Checked relevant reference materials, such as almanacs, abstracts, encyclopedias,

maps. ●■ Located relevant government sources using USA.gov, the Library of Congress, or

the U.S. Government Printing Office. ●■ Read and evaluated periodicals, books, government documents, blogs, websites,

and social media sites.

internet Searches ●■ Searched for pertinent information using several search engines. ●■ Used multiple specific, concrete keywords to conduct Internet searches. ●■ Used search strategies such as Boolean connectors or delimiters to narrow and

focus my keyword searches. ●■ Conducted a directory search or used e-library sources. ●■ Downloaded electronic sources available via library’s online catalog or databases. ●■ Located webpages relating to my topic. ●■ Continued to refine my search using synonyms, alternative keywords, or more

specific terms to access only the most useful material for my project. ●■ Joined a newsgroup, explored social media, or surveyed corporate blogs to extend

my research.

Exercises 365

Taking Notes ●■ Took careful notes and identified precisely the source from which my information

came. ●■ Recorded all quotations accurately. ●■ Paraphrased fairly, ethically representing original material. ●■ Distinguished my comments and responses clearly from those of my sources. ●■ Incorporated information from notes into appropriate places in my document. ●■ Used correct punctuation with direct quotations, especially ellipses and brackets

for interpolations.

Documentation ●■ Gave full and proper credit to sources consulted and cited in my work. ●■ Avoided plagiarism by supplying complete and accurate documentation

of all sources quoted, paraphrased, or consulted for the paper or report.

●■ Recorded all direct quotations accurately; included page references where applicable.

●■ Paraphrased information correctly and acknowledged sources fully and accurately. ●■ Double-checked spelling of authors’ and publishers’ names and accuracy

of all pertinent publication information. ●■ Followed MLA or APA documentation method (or whatever method your work-

place requires) consistently in preparing Works Cited or References lists. ●■ Included all necessary in-text (parenthetical) references; cited each parenthetical

reference fully and in correct alphabetical order in Works Cited or References lists. ●■ Made sure all works, including Internet sources, referred to in my report were

included in Works Cited or References lists and alphabetized properly.

E x E R C i S E S

1. Choose, define, and restrict a topic based on a problem or issue you might deal with in one of the following divisions of a company:

a. IT b. human resources/diversity c. security d. marketing e. accounting

f. health care/health risks g. energy/utilities h. animal rights i. transportation j. environment

Discuss the steps you took to narrow the topic, the audience you would be writing for, and the types of questions that audience may have.

2. Based on the problem you identified in Exercise 1, select an expert relevant to that field to interview for primary research. Confer with classmates or co-workers to decide on

366 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

whom to interview. Prepare a list of ten questions for the interview, remembering to stay focused on your topic.

3. Visit an appropriate office, plant, agency, environmental site, or other location relevant to the topic you chose in Exercise 1.

4. Plan a direct observation experiment in a laboratory or other appropriate location to fur- ther investigate the topic you selected in Exercise 1. Construct an outline for this experi- ment, considering the types of information you expect to record and how it will enhance your research.

5. Construct a questionnaire to gather more information about the topic you selected in Exercise 1 or one of the following:

a. mobile app security b. greening the workplace c. international business etiquette

d. safety in the workplace e. global business trade f. corporate image/mission

Prepare a list of ten questions and vary the format to include multiple-choice, yes/no, ranking, and open-ended questions. Think about how you will select your participants, the type of information you want to gather, and how it will enhance your research.

6. Working in a group, assume you are employed by a company that is marketing a new product or service. Your group is conducting market research into possible competitors. Choose three or four different brands of a product or service that is comparable to yours. Write a short report in which your group observes, tests, and analyzes these competing products or services, including packaging, contents, pricing, and endorsements. Make recommendations about how the product or service offered by your company can excel in the marketplace.

7. Gather a focus group to plan an advertising campaign for the product or service you se- lected in Exercise 6. Write a short report to your instructor on outcomes.

8. Prepare a list (providing full bibliographic information) of fifteen articles for the restricted topic you selected in Exercise 1. Use at least one of the online databases discussed in this chapter (see “Databases,” pages 323–324).

9. Using the secondary research strategies explained in this chapter (see “Secondary Research,” pages 319–333), investigate recent developments in online credit card fraud. Narrow your topic to a specific aspect of credit card fraud, such as prevention, detection, prosecution, and so on. Find the following:

a. two recent and reliable Web sources using one of the resources mentioned in “Search Engines” (pages 329–330).

b. two government sources (e.g., articles, reports, statistics, handbooks) using USA.gov. c. two online articles using one of the resources listed in the “E-Libraries” section

(pages 322–323). d. two online newspaper articles. e. one corporate website using one of the sites listed in the “Directories” section

(pages 326–327). f. one piece of gray literature (see “Tech Note: Gray Literature,” page 328).

Exercises 367

10. Using the search tools discussed in this chapter, locate the following items related to your major or job. Select titles that are most closely related to your career and explain how and why they would be useful to you. Prepare a separate bibliographic citation for each title.

a. titles of three important journals that are available in print and online

b. an abstract of an article appearing in one of the journals

c. a term in a specialized dictionary d. a description or an illustration in a

specialized encyclopedia

e. an article in an international news- paper available online

f. a training film or recording made after 2013

g. three U.S. government documents released after 2014

11. Assume you have to write a blog post about one of the following topics, introducing it to an audience of consumers. Using the resources and databases discussed in this chapter, prepare a working bibliography that contains at least ten relevant sources. After gather- ing and reading those sources, prepare the text and a visual for the blog post and submit them with your bibliography to your instructor. This assignment may be done as a col- laborative writing exercise.

a. social media b. fiber optics c. online home security systems d. 3-D television e. robotics in medicine f. the greenhouse effect g. computer dating

h. laser surgery i. globalization j. diversity in the workplace k. DNA testing l. ethics of business blogging

m. airport security n. latest generation of the iPhone

12. Using appropriate references discussed in this chapter, answer any five of the following questions. After your answer, list the specific works you consulted. Supply complete bib- liographic information. For books, indicate author or editor, title, edition, place of publi- cation and publisher, date, and volume and page numbers. For journals and magazines, include volume and page numbers; for newspapers, precise date and page numbers. For Internet sites, provide complete URL.

a. What is nanotechnology? b. How many calories are there in an

orange? c. List three interviews that Hillary

Clinton granted in 2014. d. What is the boiling point of coal tar? e. What was the headline in the New

York Times the day you were born? f. List three publications on out-

door recreation issued by the U.S. Department of the Interior from 2014 to the present.

g. What was the populat ion of Spokane, Washington, in 2010?

h. List three articles, published be- tween 2014 and 2015, on the ad- vantages of electronic signatures.

i. Who discovered the neutrino? j. What is the first recorded (printed)

use of the word ozone? k. Who edited the second edition of

the Encyclopedia of Psychology, published in 1994?

l. What is the total number of Ebola cases reported in Sierre Leone in 2014–2015?

m. How many factories does Toyota have in the United States?

368 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

n. Who is the head of public relations for the Red Cross?

o. Name five plants that have the word fly as part of their common name.

p. What are the names and addresses of all the four-year colleges in the state of South Dakota?

q. Who is India’s current head of state?

r. What is the current membership of the American Dental Association?

s. What are the names of the justices who currently serve on the U.S. Supreme Court?

13. Write a paraphrase of two of the following paragraphs:

a. Deep-fat frying is a mainstay of any successful fast-food operation and is one of the most commonly used procedures for the preparation and production of foods in the world. During the deep-frying process, oxidation and hydrolysis take place in the shortening and eventually change its functional, sensory, and nutritional quality. Current fat tests available to food operation managers for determining when used shortening should be discarded typically require identification of a change in some physical attribute of the shortening, such as color, smoke, foam development, etc. However, by the time these changes become evident, a considerable amount of degradation has usually taken place.2

b. Phishing is a form of identity theft in which victims are tricked into turning over their personal information to criminals through bogus email and websites. Phishing schemes, which rely on spam email, emerged in 2004 as a method of capturing personal information to use in identity theft. In phishing schemes, con- sumers receive email that purports to convey some urgent message about their financial accounts. Recipients are encouraged to respond promptly by clicking a link in the message to what are imitations of legitimate, trusted websites. As a result, the online consumer, believing he or she is connected to a legitimate en- terprise, divulges personal financial information, which is diverted to the location of the criminal perpetrator. Essentially, phishers have hijacked the trusted brands of well-known banks, credit card issuers, and online retailers, to obtain valuable personal financial information that can be misused or sold to others for the same purpose. Although later phishing attacks have been more generic, they are based on a similar pretext.

Spam email easily reaches thousands if not millions of unsuspecting consum- ers at a time. With perhaps 5 percent of recipients estimated to divulge personal financial information, the spam scams are lucrative. In November 2004, the Anti- Phishing Working Group (APWG) reported over 1,500 new phishing attacks that month and a 28 percent average monthly growth rate in phishing sites from July through November. The APWG also identified a new form of fraud-based web- sites that pose as generic e-commerce sites, rather than brand-name sites, and perpetrate loan scams, mortgage frauds, online pharmacy frauds, and other bank- ing frauds. While the United States hosts the largest number of phishing sites,

2Vincent J. Graziano, “Portable Instrument Rapidly Measures Quality of Frying Fat in Food Service Operations,” Food Technology 33, page 50. Copyright © by Institute of Food Technologists. Reprinted by permission.

Exercises 369

South Korea, China, Russia, Nigeria, Mexico, and Taiwan have also been identified as hosts. Federal law enforcement and others work with foreign counterparts to take down offending sites.

Thus, phishing attacks and “spoofed” email afford criminals an easy and cheap means of obtaining sensitive personal information from consumers, which can be very lucrative even if the false website is shut down within 48 to 72 hours.3

14. Ask a professor in your major what he or she regards as the most widely respected peri- odical in your field. Find a copy of the periodical, and explain its method of documenta- tion (providing examples). How does it differ from the MLA method?

15. Put the following pieces of bibliographic information in proper form according to the MLA method of documentation for Works Cited. Correct errors in formatting, punctua- tion, and so on.

a. New York Times. “Cisco and Texas Instruments Adapt to a New Tech World.” Bits blog post. February 12, 2015. Quentin Hardy.

b. Enterprise & Society. 16(1)2015. “Green Pastures of Plenty from Dry Desert Ground”: Nature, Labor, and the Growth and Structure of a California Grape Company. Gabriel Winant. Pages 109 to 140.

c. EDN Network. Access date: 10 July 2015. Simon Moffatt. “Handling Privacy and Security Concerns in the IoT: The Importance of Identity.” http://www .edn.com/electronics-blogs/eye-on-iot-/4439853/Handling-Privacy-and-Security -Concerns-in-the-IoT–The-Importance-of-Identity

d. “Managing Your Time.” Blog post. Aug. 10, 2015. Being Smart at Work Blog. Debra Horowitz. [email protected].

e. “Bill Gates Gives $500 Million to Fight Malaria.” Post Date: 11/3/2014. http://www .forbes.com/sites/danalexander/2014/11/03/bill-gates-gives-500-million-to-fight -malaria-other-diseases/. Forbes. Access Date: August 21, 2015. Dan Alexander.

f. “Recycling Electronic Waste Responsibly: Excuses Dwindle.” http://www.nytimes .com/2015/01/01/technology/personaltech/recycling-electronic-waste-responsibly -excuses-dwindle.html&assetType=nyt_now. The New York Times. Molly Wood. Access Date: May 18, 2015. Post Date: December 31, 2014.

g. “401(k) Plans for Small Businesses.” http://www.dol.gov/ebsa/publications /401kplans.html. U.S. Department of Labor. Access Date: 11 April 2015.

h. “Artificial Intelligence and Data Mining.” Pages 323–341. Newton Lee. Counte rterrorism and Cybersecurity: Total Information Awareness. Published in 2015 by Springer Press in New York.

i. “Social Dollars: The Economic Impact of Customer Participation in a Firm- Sponsored Online Customer Community.” Marketing Science. Puneet Manchanda, Grant Packard, Adithya Pattabhiramaiah. Volume 34, Issue 3. May/June 2015.

j. Volume 38, Issue 7. “Green Havens and Pollution Havens.” The World Economy. Steven Poelhekke and Frederick van der Ploeg. Pages 1159-1178. July 2015.

3Anti-Phishing Working Group (APWG), “Phishing Attack Trends Report” (July 2004). See http:// www.antiphishing.org. APWG is an industry association focused on eliminating the identity theft and fraud resulting from phishing. It reports regularly on the form and volume of phishing scams.

370 chapter 8 Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

k. “Google to Unleash Its Self-Driving Cars on California Roads.” http://www .bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-05-15/google-s-own-self-driving-cars -set-for-public-road-test. Brian Womack. Bloomberg Business Week. May 15, 2015.

l. Inc.com. Access Date: 23 October 2015. Post Date: 16 July 2015. “8 Tips to Running an Actually Successful Social Media Campaign.” http://www.inc.com /ed-zitron/8-tips-to-running-an-actually-successful-social-media-campaign.html .Ed Zitron.

m. Personal interview. 13 Sept. 2015. Marsha Keys, CEO, Biltmore Polymers, Chicago, IL.

n. The Nation. April 22, 2014. “Where Have All the Green Jobs Gone?” http://www .thenation.com/blog/179439/where-have-all-green-jobs-gone. Blog post. Michelle Chen.

o. The International Trade Journal. “Foreign Direct Investment, Pollution, and the Environmental Quality: A Model with Empirical Evidence from the Chinese Regions.” 2015. Volume 29, Issue 3. Yanqing Jiang. Pages 212–227.

p. November 2015, Volume 63, Issue 11. New Investor Magazine. “Why Purchase Trouble?” Veronica Braverman and Beth Crewes. Pages 78–83.

q. “Introducing the Apple Watch.” Pages B1–B3. Kevin Seitzer. April 20, 2015. The Wall Street Journal.

r. Theodore Brandon. July 2015. Pages 26–28. “Greece’s Economic Folly.” Rochester Daily News.

s. EH.Net Encyclopedia. Mushin, Jerry. http://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-euro-and-its -antecedents/ “The Euro and Its Antecedents.” Edited by Robert Whaples. January 1, 2015. Access Date: August 23, 2015.

t. William D. Cohan. The Atlantic Monthly. May 2015. “Can Bankers Behave?” http:// www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/05/can-bankers-behave/389558/. Accessed June 12, 2015.

u. “Workplace culture a benefits differentiator.” Andrea Davis. Employee Benefit News. July 1, 2015.

v. “What Is Code?” Bloomberg Businessweek. June 11, 2015. Paul Ford.

16. Put the bibliographic references you listed in MLA format in Exercise 15 into APA format for a References list.

17. Select one article from the periodical you chose for Exercise 14. Convert the bibliographic information for that article into the MLA parenthetical style.

18. The following passage contains mistakes in the MLA method of documentation. Find the mistakes and explain how to correct them.

More and more companies are allowing employees to “telecommute” (see Smith;

Dawson; Brown; Gura and Keith; and Allen). One expert defines telecommuting as

“home-based work” (13). Having terminals in their homes “allows employees to work

at a variety of jobs” (“New Employment Opportunities”). It has been estimated that cur-

rently 900,000 employees work out of their homes (Pennington, p. 56). That number

is sure to increase as computer-based businesses multiply in the late 1990s (Brown). In

one of her recent articles on telecommuting, Holcomb (167) found that “in the last year

Exercises 371

alone 43 companies in the metropolitan Phoenix area made this option available to their

employees.”

Employees who telecommute cite a variety of benefits for such an arrangement (see in

particular articles by Gura, Smith, and Kaplan). One employee of a mail order company

whose opinion was quoted observed that “I can save about 15–17 hours a week in driving

time” (from Allen). Working at home allows the telecommuting employee to work at his

or her optimum times (“The Day Does Not Have to Start at 9:00 a.m.”). Also, in articles by

Kaplan and Keith the benefits of not having to leave home are emphasized: “A telecom-

muting parent does not have to worry about child care” (39). Telecommuting may “be

here to stay” (quoted in a number of different website sources).

19. Submit your preliminary list of references (your tentative Works Cited page) for a long report to your instructor.

372

Summarizing Information at Work

Summaries are vital in the world of work. They get to the main points— the bottom line—right away for busy readers, giving them the big picture. A summary is a brief restatement of the main points of a book, report, website, article, laboratory test, PowerPoint presentation, or meeting. A summary saves readers hours of time because they do not have to study the original work or attend a conference. A summary can reduce a report or an article by 85 to 95 percent (or even more) and can capture the essen- tial points of a three-day convention in a one-page memo. Finally, since only the most important points of a work are included in a summary, readers will know they have been given the crucial information they need.

SummarieS in the information age Thanks to the Web and other communication technologies, we have an abundance of information. It would be impossible to locate, classify, un- derstand, and assess all this information without the help of summaries. They can be found all around you.

●● Google retrieves positive “hits” by looking for keywords that summarize a source and help users determine whether the mate- rial is relevant for their purpose.

●● A home page on the Web is in essence a summary of the various pages to which it is connected.

●● Television and radio stations regularly air one- or two-minute “news breaks” that summarize in a few paragraphs the major stories of the day.

●● A blog, such as that shown in Figure 4.7 (pages 134–135) often summarizes the results of many weeks of research and decision making.

●● IMs, tweets, and text messages, require you to summarize infor- mation concisely for readers who have small screens and tight schedules.

Chapter outline

Summaries in the Information Age

The Importance of Summaries in Business

Contents of a Summary

Preparing a Summary

Executive Summaries

Evaluative Summaries

Abstracts

Writing Successful News Releases

Conclusion

C H A P T E R

9 George Hammerstein/Fancy/Corbis

Contents of a Summary 373

the importanCe of SummarieS in BuSineSS On the job, writing summaries for employers, co-workers, and customers is a regular and important responsibility. Chapter 14 discusses a variety of reports— periodic, sales, progress, trip, test, and incident—whose effectiveness depends on a faithful summary of events. You may have to condense a proposal to fit a one-page format for an organization. Or you may be asked to summarize the main features of a competitor’s product or a new model you saw at a trade show. You may be asked to write a news release—another type of summary vital for your organization’s im- age (see “Writing Successful News Releases,” pages 390–392)—for your employer’s website.

Figure 9.1 is a summary of a long report evaluating workplace child care fa- cilities. Note how it concisely identifies the main purpose and conclusions of the report.

ContentS of a Summary The chief objective in writing a summary is deciding what to include and what to omit. Determine what is most relevant for your audience and its purpose. As we have seen, a summary is a streamlined review of only the most significant points. You will not save your readers time if you simply rephrase large sections of the original. That will simply supply readers with another report, not a summary.

Make your summary lean and useful by briefly telling readers the main points: purpose, scope, conclusions, and recommendations. A summary should straightfor- wardly and accurately answer readers’ two most important questions:

1. What are the findings of the report or meeting? 2. How do the findings apply to my business, research, or job?

Figure 9.1 A Summary of a Long Report on Workplace Child Care Facilities

01 7

Ce ng

ag e

Le ar

ni ng

BENEFITS TO EMPLOYERS WHO OFFER ON-SITE CHILD CARE

Every week, close to 12.5 million children between the ages of six weeks to five years were in some kind of child care. According to a new study by The Pennabe Group, the 643 workplaces that offered accredited on-site care, were ten times more likely to reap major benefits, including:

On average, workers use 35% less sick days than companies that do not offer on-site facilities.

• Year-to-year employee retention is 22% higher at workplaces that offer on-site child care.

• Employee satisfaction scores are 31% greater at these workplaces. • Workplaces voted among the most favorable in a Forbes survey.

374 chapter 9 Summarizing Information at Work

What to Include in a Summary

1. Purpose. Why was the article or report written or hearing or meeting held? Give readers a brief introduction (even one sentence will do) indicating the main purpose of the report or event.

2. Essential specifics. Include only the essential names, costs, titles, places, or dates. 3. Conclusions or results. Emphasize what the final vote was, the result of the

tests, or the proposed solution to the problem. 4. Recommendations or implications. What they are, when can they be carried

out, and why they are necessary, or why a plan will not work.

What to Omit from a Summary

1. Opinion. Avoid injecting opinions—your own, the author’s, or the speaker’s. A later section of this chapter (pages 385–387) will deal with evaluative summaries that require you to state your views.

2. New data. Stick to the original article, report, book, or meeting. Avoid intro- ducing comparisons with other works or conferences; readers will expect an unbiased digest of only the material being summarized.

3. Irrelevant specifics. Do not include biographical details about the author of an article that might be included in “Notes on Contributors.”

4. Examples. Readers will want to know outcomes, results, and recommenda- tions, not the illustrative details supporting or elaborating on those results.

5. Background. Readers want the big picture, not supporting or technical details. 6. Jargon. Technical definitions or jargon in the original document may confuse

rather than clarify the essential information for general readers. 7. Reference data. Exclude information found in footnotes, bibliographies,

appendixes, tables, or graphs.

preparing a Summary To write an effective summary, you need to proceed through a series of steps to iden- tify the major points, and, finally, to put the essence of the material into your own words. Follow these steps to prepare a concise, useful summary.

1. Read the material once in its entirety to get an overall impression of what it is about. Become familiar with large issues, such as the purpose and organization of the work and the audience for whom it was written. Visual cues—headings, subhead- ings, words in italic or boldface type, sidebars—can help you to identify main ideas. Also look for a conclusion and any mini-summaries within the article or report.

2. Reread the material. Read it a second time or more if necessary. Locate all of the main points, and underline them. Pay attention to the key transitional words, which often fall into predictable categories:

●● Words that enumerate: first, second, third, initially, subsequently, finally, next, another

Preparing a Summary 375

●● Words that express causation: accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, subsequently, therefore, thus

●● Words that express contrasts and comparisons: although, by the same token, despite, different from, furthermore, however, in comparison, in contrast, in addition, less than, likewise, more readily, more than, not only . . . but also, on the other hand, the same is true for, similar, unlike

●● Words that signal essentials: basically, best, central, crucial, foremost, fun- damental, important, indispensable, in general, leading, major, obviously, principal, significant

Pay special attention to the first and last sentences of each paragraph. Often the first sentence of a paragraph contains the topic sentence, and the last sentence sum- marizes the paragraph or provides a transition to the next paragraph.

3. Collect your highlighted material or notes and organize the information into a draft summary. At this stage do not be concerned about how your sen- tences read. Use the language of the original, together with any necessary connec- tive words or phrases of your own. Expect to have more material here than will appear in the final version. Do not worry; you are engaged in a process of selection and exclusion. Your purpose at this stage is to extract the principal ideas.

4. Read through and revise your draft(s) and delete whatever information you can. As you revise, see how many of your highlighted points can be condensed, combined, or eliminated. You may find that you have repeated a point. Be sure to be faithful to the original by preserving its emphases and sequence. Put quotation marks around any direct quotations. But try to avoid direct quotation wherever possible at this stage.

5. Now put the revised version into your own words. Again, make sure that your reworded summary has eliminated nonessential words. Connect your sen- tences with words that show relationships between ideas in the original (also, although, because, consequently, however, nevertheless, since).

Using Software to Summarize Documents

Your word-processing software can help you prepare your summary. First, download and open an existing digital file of the material (article, report, technical paper) you need to summarize. Then, “save as” a new file with a new filename. If all you have is hard copy, do an OCR scan so you can create a digital file to edit. As you read through it on your screen, cut nonessential material. The first time through, it is easier to cut what you don’t want than it is to select exactly what you do want. Using this method of editing, you can delete single sentences or several paragraphs at a time. Also, highlight key points as you read through the original material. Highlighting during the first pass can guide you on your second reading as you attempt to include only relevant mate- rial for your summary and to start putting it into your own words (see “Paraphrasing,” pages 336–337).

tech NOte

376 chapter 9 Summarizing Information at Work

6. Edit your summary to make sure it is fair, clear, and concise. Compare your summary with the original to make sure you have captured the key points, espe- cially those in the conclusion and recommendation sections. Your summary also needs to be brief and to the point.

7. Identify the source you have just summarized. Include pertinent biblio- graphic information in the title of your summary or in a footnote or an endnote. This gives proper credit to the original source and informs your readers where they can find the complete text if they want more details.

Make Sure Your Summary Is ethical Your supervisor will expect your summary to be honest, fair, and accurate, identify- ing the most crucial points of the article. Figure 9.5 on page 383 contains an unethi- cal summary of Figure 9.2 that distorts the meaning and intention of the original by leading the reader to conclude that virtual reality is not valuable for law enforcement administrators—the very opposite point the author makes.

You can write an ethical summary by doing the following:

●● Make sure your summary agrees with the original. ●● Emphasize the main points the author makes. ●● Do not omit key points. ●● Be fair in expressing the author’s conclusions/recommendations. ●● Do not dwell on minor points to the exclusion of major ones. ●● Do not let your own opinions distort or contradict the message of the origi-

nal document.

Summarizing an Original Article

Figure 9.2, a 2,500-word article entitled “Virtual Reality: Essential in Law Enforcement Train- ing,” appeared in the The Law Enforcement Bulletin and hence is of primary interest to indi- viduals in law enforcement administration. Assume you have been asked to write a summary of the article for your boss, a police chief in a medium-sized city who would be interested in increasing the use of virtual reality in the city’s police academy training program.

By following the steps outlined above, you would first read the article carefully two or three times, highlighting the most important points, signaled by key words. Note what has been highlighted in the article. Also study the comments in the margins to see why certain informa- tion is to be included or excluded from the summary.

After you have identified the main points, extract them from the article and, still using the language of the article, join them into a coherent working draft summary, as in Figure 9.3. Then shorten and rewrite the working draft in your own words to produce the compact final version of your summary, as shown in Figure 9.4. Only 164 words long, the final summary is 6 percent of the length of the original article and records only major conclusions relevant to the audience for the article.

Case study

Preparing a Summary 377

Figure 9.2 An Original Article with Important Points Highlighted for Use in a Summary

Omit scenario— example of background; an opener

Include important observation

Major distinction

Include significant qualification

Emphasize author’s main point

Important reason for its neglect by law enforcement

Restatement of main point above

Note parallel items with key words signaling important applications

Source: © Cengage Learning / Adapted from Hormann, J.S. (1995). Virtual Reality: The Future of Law Enforcement Training. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 64(7), 7–12. (Continued )

Virtual Reality: Essential in Law Enforcement Training George P. Burroughs

A late night police pursuit of a suspected drunk driver winds through abandoned city streets. The short vehicle chase ends in a warehouse district where the suspect abandons his vehicle and runs into an unoccupied building. The suspect stops, pulls out a rifle, and fires at the pursuing officer before disappearing. The officer, shaken but uninjured, radios in his location and follows the suspect into the building. Whether the officer’s decision to pursue proves right or wrong, the training gained from this experience is immeasurable. Fortunately for this officer, the scenario occurred in the realm of virtual reality, where training can have a real-life impact without the accompanying risk.

Traditional Training Limitations In real life, police officers may not get a chance to learn from their mistakes. To survive, they must receive training that prepares them for most situations they might encounter on the street. However, because many training programs emphasize repetition to produce desired behaviors, they may not achieve the intended results, especially after students leave the training environment. Thus, the more realistic the training, the greater the lessons learned. Additionally, newer officers have less on-site crime experience. The key to teaching this new breed is to provide fast-paced, attention-getting instruction that is clear, concise, and relevant.

Training with Virtual Reality Years of data have proven that virtual reality simulations can provide the type of training that today’s law enforcement officers need. By fully immersing the senses in a computer-generated environment, the artificial world becomes reality to users and greatly enhances their training experiences. Considerable research has been conducted about the importance of virtual reality training for police departments, but the technology has not been as widely used as it needs to be. The apparent reason simply is that, for the most part, law enforcement has not asked for it. Because virtual reality technologies are complex systems, they can be seen as both difficult to implement and expensive, and, thus, most law enforcement administrators have not utilized virtual reality technologies in a systematic, comprehensive way for training exercises. By understanding how virtual reality works, its cost efficiency, and its adaptability as a training tool, law enforcement administrators can significantly improve their officers’ readiness in the field.

378 chapter 9 Summarizing Information at Work

Figure 9.2 (Continued)

Significant phrase

Omit further examples

Major conclusion

Major value to audience of administrators

Emphasize significant advantages in training

Omit example

Omit specific pieces of equipment

Use only main points relevant to target audience of administrators

Note main military advantage

How Does Virtual Reality Work? Using complex coding and algorithms, modern virtual reality systems create realistic, three-dimensional environments. In earlier versions of virtual reality systems, users viewed images through a head-mounted device such as a helmet, goggles, or other apparatus that restricted their vision to two small video monitors, one in front of each eye. Contemporary programs, however, can offer a 360-degree, physically immersive, multi-participant, real-time environment. Some systems even use full-body sensors on each trainee to create avatars–virtual, but lifelike, digitally-rendered people–for each participant that reproduces exactly a user’s height, weight, and overall body type. These avatars, controlled by the trainees, then move through the virtual space and scenario created for the training exercise. While the recent improvements in virtual reality technologies have been impressive, the systems still have trouble with properly showing realistic recoil on firearms, or the variety of random noises that will accompany many law enforcement situations. However, the systems do allow for simulations in certain close-quarter situations–interior room searches, confined or tight indoor spaces–that are impractical (or even impossible) to carry out in normal training sessions, due to real-world limitations.

Uses for Virtual Reality Virtual reality is an excellent method for providing realistic, safe, and cost-effective training. For example, a police officer can struggle with virtual shoot/don’t shoot dilemnas, or use it to learn how to best respond to crime scenes. Within a virtual environment, students can make decisions and act upon them without risk to themselves or others. By the same token, instructors can critique students’ actions, enabling students to review and learn from their mistakes. This ability gives virtual reality a great advantage over most conventional training methods. The Department of Defense (DOD) lead public and private industry in developing virtual reality training. Since the early 1980s, DOD has actively researched, developed, and implemented virtual reality to train members of the armed forces to fight effectively in combat. DOD’s approach to virtual reality training emphasizes team tactics, and allows groups of military personnel to engage in combat safely on a virtual battlefield. Virtual battlefields can easily re-create real-world locations with interchangeable characteristics that would be expensive or impossible to reproduce in the real world. To explore “what if” scenarios, participants can modify enemy capabilities, terrain, weather, and weapon systems. Conse- quently this form of training has proven quite cost-effective.

Preparing a Summary 379

Figure 9.2 (Continued)

Key word “major” signals relevant idea for audience

Omit military application

Omit example

Significant parallel points

Omit statistics

Note cost benefit again

Major conclusion signaled by key word “significantly”

Studies also show that military units perform better following virtual reality training. Even though virtual environments are only simulations, the complete immersion of the senses literally overwhelms users, totally immersing them in the simulated action. The realism provided by today’s state-of-the-art systems plays a major role in the program’s success. In fact, due to its past success, DOD trains infantry with virtual reality skill simulators.

Law Enforcement Training Just as virtual reality is valuable as a training and planning tool for the military, incorporating virtual reality training systems nonetheless offers law enforcement an effective and cost-efficient tool for training in pursuit driving, firearms, stealth tactics in close-quarter situations, high-risk incident management, incident re-creation, and crime scene processing. Unfortunately, few police forces have implemented virtual reality in law enforcement training in a systematic, comprehensive way. Previous encounters with earlier, inferior versions of the technology discouraged many law enforcement administrators, and the perception in many departments is that the current technology, while vastly improved, is too complex to implement on the local level. With start-up costs averaging $100,000 to $200,000, there are also budgetary limitations to implementation in many departments. Modern virtual reality systems, however, have never been easier to use and customize for individualized training. While most systems offer prebuilt training scenarios, many systems also allow departments to build their own unique scenarios based on common encounters or buildings and structures in their own community. Most companies also offer installment payment options to help cash-strapped departments, offer 24/7 technical support, and will provide free training on how to utilize their systems to all key stakeholders. Significantly, studies have shown that use of a virtual reality simulator in law enforcement training is cheaper in the long term than constantly retooling and repairing more conventional training areas.

Pursuit Driving Pursuit driving represents another area where virtual reality systems have benefited law enforcement. Simulators provide realistic feedback about road feel, steering capabilities, and other vehicle motions. As noted in demon- strations, the immersive experience features a 360-degree field of view and can feature one or more drivers. Environments can change between city streets and rural back roads, or be customized to represent specific streets and topographies. The vehicle itself can also be tailored to match that of a specific police force’s cruisers. Virtual reality driving simulators provide police departments with invaluable training at a fraction of the long-term cost of using actual vehicles. In fact,

Include application but omit examples

Include major advantage but exclude specific example

(Continued )

Note cost efficiency again

380 chapter 9 Summarizing Information at Work

Figure 9.2 (Continued)

Include major advantage but exclude specific example

Note major distinction for training purposes

New subtopic; include advantages but omit examples

Include significant points on advantages

Next three reasons to adopt virtual reality systems signaled by keywords “in addition,” “also,” and “likewise”

simulators are being used by a number of police departments around the country. The Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Office Emergency Vehicle Operations Center (EVOC) reports that simulators help police cadets develop more sensitive informal judgment and decision-making skills compared to cadets trained by more conventional methods. Still, as the EVOC supervisor cautions, virtual reality training should complement, not replace, actual behind-the-wheel instruction.

Firearms Training Virtual reality systems also greatly enhance_shoot/don’t shoot training scenarios. Many systems feature a weapons simulator that allows a user to chose any of his or her department’s current weapon options (whether it be a high-powered repeating rifle, a shotgun, a TASER, OC [pepper] spray, or even a flashlight), and realistically portrays outcomes based on a thorough assessment of the cadet’s firing techniques, including cant angle, trigger squeeze, and butt pressure. Evaluators can also alter the effectiveness of each weapon, including malfunctions that cadets might encounter. Assessors also have the benefit of observing the training program from any perspective, including stopping criminal activity. The training scenarios can involve actual building floor plans or local city streets, and criteria such as the weather or the number of participants can be altered easily.

High-Risk Incident Management In addition to force option training, virtual reality has also proven to be invaluable for SWAT team members before high-risk tactical assaults. Floor plans and other known facts about a structure or area can be entered into a virtual reality system to re-create the exact environment for commanders and team members to analyze prior to action, and the systems excel at depicting close-quarter situations that are very hard to replicate in real-world settings.

Incident Re-creation Law enforcement agencies can also collect data from victims, witnesses, suspects, and crime scenes to re-create traffic accidents, shootings, and other crimes. The virtual environment created from the data can be used to refresh the memories of victims and witnesses, to solve crimes, and, ultimately, to prosecute offenders.

Preparing a Summary 381

Figure 9.2 (Continued)

Omit examples

Crucial qualification and justification for expanding the use of virtual reality systems in law enforcement training

Is Virtual Reality Virtually Perfect? Though virtual reality systems may appear to be the ideal law enforcement tool, as with any technology, some drawbacks exist. Currently, areas of concern range from the near-impossibility of simulating hard surfaces such as walls in a three-dimensional, immersive environment to the “giggle factor” for participants in the first few minutes of a training exercise that use full-body sensors and avatars. Fortunately, however, technologies are evolving and improving constantly, and as the use of virtual reality models increases, many of these concerns should be dispelled.

Crime Scene Processing Virtual reality crime scenes can likewise be used to train both detectives and patrol officers. First, officers can search the site and analyze evidence without ever leaving the station. Then, actual crime scenes can be realisti- cally re-created, helping police departments to evaluate previous protocols and make any necessary modifications.

Figure 9.3 A Working Draft Summary of the “Virtual Reality” Article in Figure 9.2

Law enforcement officers put their lives on the line every day, yet their training does not fully allow them to anticipate what they will find on the streets. Virtual reality gives them realistic, high-tech benefits of encountering criminals without any risks. Traditional training methods, which work through repetition, cannot equal the advantages of virtual reality when it comes to teaching officers the lessons they must learn to survive in the field. Cadets today benefit from the attention-getting, highly realistic training that virtual reality affords them. Yet even though research has proven that virtual reality simulations can provide excellent training, law enforcement officials have not used it as often as necessary. Moreover, the perceived complexities of the systems and cost have created barriers to their extended use. It is essential that administrators know how virtual reality works, its flexibility, and cost efficiency. Working through complex coding and algorithms,virtual reality gives users a fully-immersible, three-dimensional environment. Some systems even use full-body sensors to create avatars fully controllable by cadets. But these devices do have problems; they have trouble simulating some aspects of firearms, and the random noise of law-enforcement situations. Even so, virtual reality programs provide cost-effective and life-saving benefits for law

(Continued )

382 chapter 9 Summarizing Information at Work

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Figure 9.3 (Continued)

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Figure 9.4 A Final, Effective Summary of the Article in Figure 9.2

Virtual reality offers benefits for law enforcement training that traditional

methods cannot provide. This computer-generated technology simulates and

re-creates real-life crime scenes without placing officers at risk. Thanks to

virtual reality’s fully-immersive, three-dimensional environment, officers

enter the criminals’ world to gain invaluable experience interacting with them.

Because virtual reality systems are perceived as complex to use and expensive,

administrators have not fully utilized them in training programs. Yet they

provide a cost-effective, realistic way to conduct police training. The

applications of virtual reality systems far exceed its military use of simulating

battlefield conditions. They allow administrators to give trainees hands-on

experience in pursuit driving, firearms training, SWAT team assaults, incident

re-creation, and crime scene processing. Officers achieve top-quality training

without ever leaving the station. Although virtual reality, like any technology,

has limitations, increases in computer processing power provides constant

improvements. Administrators need to fully embrace and adopt virtual reality

systems to give officers field-translatable experiences.

enforcement officers. Thanks to this technology, new officers will be able to make quicker and better decisions in the field. Virtual reality was developed by the Department of Defense; armed forces used it to re-create battlefield conditions, helping troops better understand enemy position and tactics. Similarly, virtual reality holds great appeal for law enforcement training. Unfortunately, few police forces have adopted virtual reality in training in a systematic, comprehensive way. Yet virtual reality systems are cheaper in the long term than more conventional training methods. Driving simulators help officers prepare for high-speed chases. In Los Angeles County, such simulators complement more traditional training. Virtual reality can help officers in a variety of training missions—firearms, high-risk incidents, re-creating crimes, understanding the crime scene. Using virtual reality systems, officers never have to leave the station to achieve top-quality training. Admittedly, virtual reality has drawbacks, but as computer processing power increases, users should face fewer problems.

Executive Summaries 383

exeCutive SummarieS An executive summary, found at the beginning of a proposal (Chapter 13) or a long report (Chapter 15), is usually one or two pages long (four to six concise para- graphs) and condenses the most important points from the proposal or report for a busy manager—the executive. An executive summary is written to help the reader reach a major decision based on the report or proposal. Your goal is to tell your employer concisely what findings the report includes, what those findings mean for the company or organization, and what action, if any, needs to be taken. Figure 9.6 (page 384), an executive summary of a report on software for a safety training program, directly advises a decision maker to purchase a safety software package.

What Managers Want to See in an executive Summary Managers use executive summaries so they will not have to wade through entire re- ports. They are most concerned with issues such as costs, profits, resources, person- nel, timetables, and feasibility. Your summary must supply key information on the executive’s four E’s: evaluation, economy, efficiency, and expediency.

Figure 9.5 An Unethical, Misleading Summary of the Article in Figure 9.2

Nonessential introductory material

Distorts article

Dwells on limitations at the expense of the main advantages

Misrepresents one of the limitations

Misrepresents the role of virtual reality

Comes to an erroneous conclusion

One-sided; omits success of simulation

Misrepresents the usefulness of the technology

Does not subordinate flaws

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A rookie police of�cer makes many mistakes in pursuing subjects. Training

can cover many realistic situations, but young of�cers have inadequate

experience. Given its complexity and cost, virtual reality holds little promise

for law enforcement training. Virtual reality has too many limitations,

including unrealistic �rearm recoil, the fact that hard surfaces are impossible

to replicate, and the random noises that distract trainees and causes a

so-called “giggle factor.” Instructors can gain much from virtual reality

because they can better criticize their cadets. In the early 1980s, the DOD

used virtual reality to duplicate battle�eld conditions, but the complete

immersion in the virtual world overwhelmed soldiers. Police forces have

also recognized the limitations of virtual reality systems and have avoided

using them to train recruits. The Los Angeles Sheriff’s EVOC used a driving

simulator but expressed their caution about it. There appear to be too many

options in virtual reality systems for �rearms training, causing confusion,

though �oor plans might have helped SWAT teams. Witnesses may need to

refresh their memories with virtual reality. Again drawbacks exist.

Computers have not evolved and improved the way they need to for these

systems to be effective tools in law enforcement training.

384 chapter 9 Summarizing Information at Work

Organization of an executive Summary An executive summary must be faithful to the report while giving readers what they need (Figure 9.6). First, read the report carefully, plan what you want to include, and then draft and revise using valuable connective words (see “Combine short,

Figure 9.6 An Executive Summary

Starts with purpose of report

Identifies problem the report investigates and why it is important

Explains the solution tested

Highlights benefits of trainer

Verifies effectiveness of solution

Ends by stressing action to be taken and by when

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A Report on Providing Better Training at Techtron Sites

Management has commissioned this report to investigate ways to prepare for the OSHA audits scheduled between February and June 2015, at our seven regional Techtron plants. Most directly, this report focuses on our ability to complete Phase One of ISO 14001 certi�cation.

Currently, the Techtron safety training programs are inadequate; they are neither comprehensive nor up-to-date. We lack necessary software to instruct employees about the EPA and OSHA regulations and requirements that apply to hazardous materials or procedures used in our company. Consequently, safety violations have occurred with lockouts, con�ned spaces, fall protection, and the “Right to Know Law” concerning labeling of chemicals.

Exploring better ways to conduct our training sessions, we purchased a copy of the software program EPA/OSHA Trainer, regarded as the best on the market (available from EDI @ $1,300 per copy). The Trainer offers effective guidelines on developing safety meetings and giving demonstrations. It also includes instructions, written in clear, nontechnical language, on how to identify, collect, and document hazardous materials. Additionally, the Trainer supplies the full text of EPA/OSHA regulations, with updates issued quarterly.

To test the effectiveness of the Trainer software, we scheduled an internal audit at our Hendersonville site last month. After progressing through the Trainer module, a core group of employees interviewed by management successfully completed all required regulatory training. Subsequently, employees who had undergone such training were able to instruct and monitor the performance of other employees in the program.

To ensure the safety of our employees and to compete in a global marketplace, Techtron must pass the OSHA 14001 certi�cation. Purchasing seven additional copies of the EPA/OSHA Trainer software (7 @ $1,300 = $9,100) in the next month is a wise and necessary investment.

Evaluative Summaries 385

choppy sentences,” page 61). Clearly you cannot write an executive summary of your report until after you have written the report itself.

Follow this organizational plan when you write an executive summary:

1. Begin with the purpose and the scope of the report. For example, a report might be written to study new marketing strategies, to identify inadequate soft- ware, or to relocate a store.

2. Relate your purpose to a key problem. Identify the source (background) and seriousness of the problem.

3. Identify the criteria used to solve the problem. Cite why and how the strate- gies used relate to solving the problems.

4. Condense the findings of your report. Specify what tests or surveys revealed. Be careful not to include too many details.

5. Stress conclusions and possible solutions. Be precise and clear. 6. Provide recommendations. For example, buy, sell, hire more personnel,

relocate, or choose among alternative solutions. Also indicate when a decision needs to be made.

The order of information in an executive summary does not have to follow strictly the order of the report itself. In fact, some executive summaries start with recommendations. Find out your boss’s preference.

evaluative SummarieS You may also have to write an evaluative summary, also called a critique. As with executive summaries, you will be expected to provide a commentary on the material (that is, give your opinion). For example, you may have to condense and judge the merits of a report, paying special attention to whether its recommendations should be followed, modified, or ignored. Your company or agency may also ask you to write short evaluative summaries of job candidates, applications, sales proposals, or conferences.

Guidelines for Writing a Successful evaluative Summary To write a careful evaluative summary, follow the guidelines below:

●● Keep the summary short—5 to 10 percent of the length of the original. ●● Blend your evaluations with your summary; do not save your evaluations for

the end of the summary. ●● Place each evaluation near the summarized points to which it applies so read-

ers will see your remarks in context. ●● Include a pertinent quotation from the original to emphasize your

recommendation. ●● Comment on both the content and the style of the original.

386 chapter 9 Summarizing Information at Work

evaluating the content Answer these questions on content for your readers:

1. How carefully and completely is the subject researched? Is the material accu- rate and up-to-date? Are important details missing? Exactly what has the writer left out? Where could the reader find the missing information? If the material is inaccurate or incomplete, is the whole work affected or just part of it?

2. Is the writer or speaker objective? Are conclusions supported by evidence? Is the writer or speaker following a particular theory, program, or school of thought? Is that fact made clear in the source? Has the writer or speaker em- phasized one point at the expense of others? What are the writer’s qualifications and background?

3. Does the work achieve its goal? Is the topic too large to be usefully discussed in a single talk, article, or report? Is the work sketchy? Are there digressions, tangents, or irrelevant materials? Do the recommendations make sense?

4. Is the material relevant to your audience? How would the audience use it? Is the entire work relevant or just part of it? Why? Would the work be useful for all employees of your company or only for those working in certain areas? Why? What answers offered by the work would help to solve a specific prob- lem you or others have encountered on the job?

You may want to review “Evaluating Websites” on pages 331–333.

evaluating the Style Answer these questions on style for the readers of your evaluative summary:

1. Is the material readable? Is it well written and easy to follow? Does it contain helpful headings, careful summaries, and appropriate examples?

2. Is the material organized and free of errors? Is each paragraph well- developed and does the author handle transitions well between paragraphs? Does it follow proper grammatical conventions (see Appendix, pages A-1–A-19)?

3. What kind of vocabulary does the writer or speaker use? Are there too many technical terms or too much jargon? Is it written for the layperson? Is the lan- guage precise or vague? Would readers have to skip certain sections that are too complicated?

4. What visuals are included? Infographs? Photographs? Videos? How are they used? Are they used effectively? Are there too many or too few?

Figures 9.7 and 9.8 (page 388) contain evaluative summaries. Note how the writ- ers’ assessments are woven into the condensed versions of the originals. Figure 9.7 is a student’s opinion of an article summarized for a class in information management. Figure 9.8 is an evaluative summary in memo format collaboratively written by two employees who have just returned from a seminar. They have divided their labor, one writing the opening paragraph and the summary of “Techniques of Health Assessment” and the other doing the summaries of “Assessment of the Heart and Lungs” and “Assessment of the Abdomen.” Together they drafted and revised the “Recommendations” and prepared the final copy of the memo.

Abstracts 387

aBStraCtS In addition to summaries, your employer may ask you to write abstracts. Abstracts are found in several key documents in the world of work and are a staple of the Internet.

Differences Between a Summary and an abstract The terms summary and abstract are often used interchangeably, resulting in some confusion. That problem arises because there are two distinct types of ab- stracts: descriptive abstracts and informative abstracts. An informative abstract is the same as a summary; it indicates what research was done, what conclusions were reached, and what recommendations were made. Look at the summary in Figure 9.4. It explains why the use of virtual reality should be incorporated in law enforcement training: because virtual reality gives officers field-translatable train- ing. Informative abstracts are found at the beginning of long reports. Descriptive abstracts, however, do not give conclusions.

All abstracts share two characteristics: the writer never uses “I” and avoids footnotes.

Figure 9.7 An Evaluative Summary of an Article

Identifies purpose of article

Comments on style and organization

Indicates why and how article is useful to diverse audiences

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Abbasi, Sami M., Kenneth W. Hollman, and Robert Hayes. “Bad Bosses and How Not to Be One.” Information Management Journal 42.1 (2008): 52–56.

According to this practical and convincing article, the way employees are managed determines a company’s success. The authors helpfully begin by describing the new twenty-first-century workplace where power has shifted from a top-down authoritative management style to one respecting employees as “knowledge workers” whose professional contributions are essential in a digital culture. The article then turns to a classifying six types of difficult bosses, ranging from incompetents, crooks, and bullies to dodgers, know-it-alls, and “walking policy manual[s]” who stick to a policy, however dated or contradictory. These bad bosses use intim- idation, manipulation, blame, conflict, and cover-ups to exert or protect their power. Effective bosses, on the other hand, remove fear from the workplace, build trust, encourage feedback, and act as advocates for their employees with upper management. Although aimed at information managers, the guidelines in this readable arti- cle apply to anyone who wants to be a good—or better—boss.

388 chapter 9 Summarizing Information at Work

Figure 9.8 A Collaboratively Written Evaluative Summary of a Seminar

Gives overall structure of seminar

Describes and evaluates each part of seminar

Explains why one part was unsuccessful

Continues to emphasize practical benefits of seminar

Ends with endorsement by offering suggestions for improving seminar

Photo by Mikecphoto/Shutterstock.com

TO: Mohammed Lau, M.S.N. SUBJECT: Evaluation of Physical Director of Nurses Assessment Seminar

FROM: Elena Roja, R.N. DATE: September 14, 2015 Lee Schoppe, R.N.

On September 7, Doris Fujimoto, R.N., and Rick Poncé, R.N., both on the staff of Houston Presbyterian Hospital, conducted a practical and beneficial seminar on physical assessment. The one-day seminar was divided into three units: (1) Techniques of Health Assessment, (2) Assessment of the Heart and Lungs, and (3) Assessment of the Abdomen.

Techniques of Health Assessment Four procedures used in physical assessment—inspection, percussion, palpation, and auscultation—were defined and demonstrated. Return demon- strations, used throughout the seminar, meant we did not have to wait until we went back to work to practice our skills. The instructors stressed the proper use of the stethoscope and the seven primary methods of taking a patient’s pulse (and the reasons why some methods are more useful than others). Participants were also asked to take the pulse of the person next to him/her using the methods discussed.

Assessment of the Heart and Lungs After we inspected the chest externally, the seminar covered the proper placement of hands for percussion and palpation and the interpretation of various breath sounds. The instructors helped us find areas of the lung and identify heart sounds. However, the film, “Cardiopulmonary Receptors,” on examining the heart and lungs was ineffective because it included too much information.

Assessment of the Abdomen The instructors warned that the order of examination of the abdoman differs from that of the chest cavity. Auscultation, not percussion, follows inspection so that bowel sounds are not activated. The instructors clearly identified how to detect bowel sounds and how to locate the abdomen and palpate organs.

Recommendations We strongly recommend a seminar like this for all nurses whose expanding role in the health care system requires more physical assessments. Although the seminar covered a wealth of information, the instructors admitted that they discussed only basics. In the future, however, it would be better to offer follow-up seminars on specific body systems (e.g., chest cavity, abdomen, central nervous system) instead of combining topics because of the amount of information involved and the time required for demonstrations.

Sabine Memorial Hospital 7200 Medical Blvd. Sabine, TX 77231-0011 (512) 555-6734 www.sabinememorial.org

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Abstracts 389

Writing an Informative Abstract An informative abstract is not as long as an executive summary, which gives more supporting details. As a part of your course work or your job, you will probably have to write informative abstracts for long reports (Chapter 15).

One way to approach writing the abstract of a report is to think of it as a table of contents in sentence form. A table of contents is, in effect, a final outline; it is easily fleshed out into an abstract.

Writing a Descriptive Abstract Unlike an informative abstract, a descriptive abstract is usually only a few sentences long; it does not go into any detail or give conclusions. As the name implies, a de- scriptive abstract provides information on what topics a work discusses but not how or why they are discussed. Here is a descriptive abstract of the article summa- rized in Figure 9.4:

Virtual reality can be used to teach law enforcement officers firearms training, SWAT team assaults, incident re-creation, and crime location processing. This training technol- ogy should be used extensively by law enforcement administrators to better train police recruits.

Figure 9.9 reproduces two descriptive abstracts from the Journal of Interactive Marketing, a publication that includes abstracts as a way to help readers learn about research in this specialized discipline.

Figure 9.9 Descriptive Abstracts of Journal Articles

Short, 3-4 sentence paragraph

Uses objective language

Strategic and Ethical Considerations in Managing Digital Privacy

Ravi Sarathy and Christopher J. Robinson (August 2003), Journal of Business Ethics, 46(2), pp. 111–126.

Information about customers and prospects is readily available through a variety of digital sources. e questions a marketer must answer is how much of this available data should be used for commercial purposes and how much should remain privileged and o„ limits. In this paper the authors develop a model of the factors in…uencing privacy strategy. is model incorporates external, ethical, and ‡rm-speci‡c factors that impact customer privacy protection strategy formulation. e model is then applied to various scenarios to determine the ‡rm’s most likely customer privacy strategy. International implications of the model are also discussed.

Scovotti. (8, 13)

e Professional Service Encounter in the Age of the Internet: An Exploratory Study

Gillian Hogg, Angus Laing, and Dan Winkelman (2003), e Journal of Services Marketing, 17(5), pp. 476–495.

e Internet, by providing access to an unprecedented amount of healthcare-related information, is changing the balance of power in the relationship between healthcare consumers and professionals. Patients play a more active role in the relationship, interacting with healthcare professionals and other consumers to understand their illnesses. is situation changes the nature of the doctor/patient relationship—where the doctor becomes only one of the advisors in the service encounter. e implications of this research extend to other types of service encounters, where consumers may be engaging in virtual, parallel service encounters.

390 chapter 9 Summarizing Information at Work

Writing SuCCeSSful neWS releaSeS A news release, sometimes called a press release or media release, is another type of on-the-job document that requires you to summarize key information for a variety of readers. Basically, a news release is an announcement (usually one page or a single screen on the Web) about your company’s or agency’s specific product, services, or personnel. It should be crisp and highlight only the most important and relevant facts clearly and straightforwardly, as the other summaries you have studied in this chapter do.

Figure 9.10 contains a sample news release distributed over the Internet.

Subjects appropriate for News releases News releases should be written only about newsworthy subjects, such as these:

1. New products, services, or publications 2. New policies or procedures 3. Personnel changes and awards 4. New construction and developments 5. Financial and business news 6. Ecofriendly (green) news 7. Special events

News releases about Bad News While the topics above focus on a company’s or organization’s achievements, not all the news you may be asked to announce will be positive. You may have to re- port on events that concern product recalls, work stoppages or strikes, layoffs, plant closures, limited availability or unavailability of products or parts, fires, computer viruses, alerts, higher prices, declining enrollment, or canceled events.

Even when you have to write about these difficult events, portray your com- pany honestly and professionally. Be accurate, ethical, honest and straightforward, and available.

Organization of a News release The following sections contain guidelines for organizing and writing the different parts of your news release. Note how these various parts flow together in the news release in Figure 9.10.

The cardinal rule in writing a news release is to put the most important piece of news first. Don’t bury it in the middle or wait until the end. Everything in a news release should be arranged in descending order of importance so that your first par- agraph contains only the most significant facts and ideas.

The Three Parts of a News Release The three components of a news release are the slug (headline), lead, and body.

Writing Successful News Releases 391

Figure 9.10 A News Release from the Web

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

Slug emphasizes importance of topic

Lead answers who, where, how, what, and why

Body emphasizes benefits for audience

Quotation from expert endorses new design and features

Conclusion invites reader interaction

Number 30 signals end of release

ATLANTA—The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) unveiled a re-designed, interactive website of one of CDC’s most widely disseminated publications, Health Information for International Travel, commonly dubbed “The Yellow Book.” The Yellow Book is considered by many health care providers, travel professionals, airlines, cruise lines, and humanitarian institutions to be the gold standard for health recommendations for inter- national travel.

The Yellow Book and companion website www.cdc.gov/travel/yb are published biennially by CDC’s Division of Global Migration and Quarantine as a reference for those who advise international travelers of health risks.

The key to the new, interactive website is the use of drop-down menus for all of the major subjects in the Yellow Book, including vaccination information, yellow fever requirements, malaria information, geographic distribution, and health hints. Users can obtain customized reports for individual travel plans and locate particular subjects or destinations in the text without having to search through unrelated topics.

“International travelers will find the interactive Yellow Book website to be very helpful,” said CDC Director Jeffrey P. Koplan, MD, MPH. “The new features make it easier to find information about preventive measures travelers can take to protect their health.”

The handy, interactive design of the Yellow Book website incorporated many comments and suggestions from the public and health care providers seeking more customized information in a user-friendly format. CDC encourages users to submit comments about the new website through the “comments section” on the site’s homepage.

http://bookstore.phf.org

392 chapter 9 Summarizing Information at Work

The Slug, or Headline One of the most crucial parts of your release is the headline, or slug. It should announce a specific subject for readers and draw them into it. Write a slug that entices or grabs your readers, but also informs them quickly and clearly.

The Lead The first (and most significant) sentence of a news release is called the lead. It introduces and aptly summarizes your topic, sets the tone, and continues to keep readers’ attention. For that reason it is also called the hook. The best leads eas- ily answer the basic questions Who? What? When? Where? Why?—the five W’s— and How? (or How much?). Here is an effective lead that answers these crucial questions:

who what Maryville Engineering, Inc., has been awarded a contract by Aerodynamics, Inc.,

why to develop an acoustical system to measure and monitor stress levels at the

where when Knoxville aircraft plant, district manager Carmelita Stinn, P.E., announced today.

The Body If the five W’s are answered in your lead, the following paragraphs can fill in only the most necessary supporting details. Regard your lead as a summary of a summary. The body of your release then amplifies the Why? and How? and may also get into the So what?

But avoid filling your news release with unnecessary technical details. Instead, relate your product or service to your targeted audience’s needs by emphasizing the benefits to them without loading your news release with hype.

Use quotations selectively to clarify and highlight, not to apple-polish. Use a quotation only to report vital facts or to cite an authority. Do not turn your release into an interview with your employer or customer.

ConCluSion Summaries are a vital part of workplace writing, and knowing how to summarize a document—a report, proposal, or presentation—and select only the most important and relevant points for your audience is a prized job skill. Busy managers, clients, and even co-workers will depend on your summaries to give them the big picture, the bottom-line conclusions and recommendations they need to get the job done. Your summaries, including executive and evaluative ones, must be accurate, concise, relevant, and ethical.

Exercises 393

●■ Read and reread the original thoroughly to gain a clear understanding of the purpose and scope of the work.

●■ Highlighted key transitional words, main points, significant findings, applications, solutions, conclusions, and recommendations.

●■ Separated main points clearly from minor ones, background information, illustra- tions, and inconclusive findings.

●■ Omitted examples, explanations, and statistics from summary or abstract. ●■ Deleted information not useful to the audience because it is too technical or

irrelevant. ●■ Changed language of original to my own words to avoid plagiarism. ●■ Made sure that emphasis of summary matches emphasis of original. ●■ Determined that sequence of information in the summary follows sequence of

original. ●■ Added necessary connective words that accurately convey relationships between

main points in original. ●■ Edited summary to eliminate repetition. ●■ Cited source of original correctly and completely. ●■ Avoided phrases that draw attention to the fact that I am writing a summary or an

abstract. ●■ Summarized material in informative summary objectively without adding

commentary. ●■ Commented on both content and style in an evaluative summary. ●■ Interspersed evaluative commentary throughout the summary so that assessments

appear near relevant points. ●■ Included a direct quotation in the evaluative summary or news release to illustrate

or reinforce my recommendation. ●■ Ensured that descriptive abstract is short and to the point and does not offer a

judgment. ●■ Prepared news release that projects a professional image of my employer. ●■ Arranged information from top down, with most important information first.

✓ R E v i s i o n C H E C k l i s T

1. Summarize a chapter of a textbook you are now using for a course in your major field. Provide an accurate bibliographic reference for that chapter (author of the textbook, title of the chapter, title of the book, place of publication, publisher’s name, date of publica- tion, and page numbers of the chapter).

2. Summarize a lecture you heard recently. Limit your summary to one page. Identify in a bibliographic citation the speaker’s name, the date, and the place of delivery.

E x E R C i s E s

394 chapter 9 Summarizing Information at Work

3. Listen to a television network evening newscast and to a later news update on the same station. Select one major story covered on the evening news and indicate which details from it were omitted in the news update.

4. Write a summary of the marketing report in Chapter 8 (see Figure 8.10, pages 349–363) or the business report in Chapter 15 on non-native speakers of English in the workforce (see Figure 15.3, pages 607–621).

5. Bring to class an article from Reader’s Digest and the original material it condensed, usu- ally an article in a journal or magazine published six months to a year earlier. In a para- graph or two indicate what the Digest article omits from the original. Also point out how the condensed version is written so that the omitted material is not missed and how the condensation does not misrepresent the main points of the article.

6. Assume that you are applying for a job and that the human resources manager asks you to summarize your qualifications. In two or three paragraphs, indicate how your back- ground and interests make you suited for the job. Mention the job by title at the begin- ning of your first paragraph.

7. Write a summary of one of the following articles.

a. “The Mouse That Knows You” in Chapter 1 (pages 40–41) b. “Mobile App Developers: Start with Security,” below

Mobile App Developers: Start with Security1

Smartphones and tablets are powerful and popular, with more than a thousand new

mobile apps hitting the market each day. In this fast-moving era of entrepreneurship

and creativity, is security keeping up? Apps and mobile devices often rely on consumer

data — including contact information, photos, and location to name a few — and can

be vulnerable to digital snoops, data breaches, and real-world thieves. The Federal Trade

Commission (FTC), the nation’s consumer protection agency, offers these tips to help

developers approach mobile app security.

Aim for reasonable data security

There is no checklist for securing all apps. Different apps have different security needs.

For example, an alarm clock app that collects little or no data will likely raise fewer secu-

rity considerations than a location-based social network. Apps that are more complex may

rely on remote servers for storing and manipulating users’ data, meaning that developers

must be familiar with securing software, securing transmissions of data, and securing

servers. Adding to the challenge: Security threats and best practices evolve quickly.

The FTC expects app developers to adopt and maintain reasonable data security practices

and doesn’t prescribe a one-size-fits-all approach. This brochure offers a starting point to

help you provide a secure experience for your users. If applied thoughtfully and consis-

tently, these tips can help protect you, your users, and the reputation of your app.

1Adapted from Federal Trade Commission. (2013, February). Mobile App Developers: Start with Security. Retrieved from https://www.ftc.gov/tips-advice/business-center/guidance/mobile-app -developers-start-security

Exercises 395

Tips for mobile app security

Your team should include at least one person responsible for considering security at every

stage of your app’s development. If you’re running a solo operation, that person is you.

It’s easy to assume someone else is handling security — whether that someone is a mobile

operating system provider, a device manufacturer, or another member of the develop-

ment team. It’s true that everyone has a role to play, but as the developer, you’re the final

line of defense.

Practice data minimization: Don’t collect or keep data you don’t need. For example, if

your photo-editing app doesn’t require access to a user’s contact info, don’t ask for it.

Simply put, data you don’t collect is data you don’t need to worry about protecting.

Avoid keeping data longer than you need to. For example, if you offer a location-based

mobile game, get rid of the location data when it’s no longer relevant.

Research the mobile platforms you work with. Each mobile operating system uses differ-

ent application programming interface (APIs), provides you with different security-related

features, and handles permissions its own way. Don’t expect that one platform works

exactly like another. Do your research and adapt your code accordingly.

Mobile platforms often provide helpful security features. But it’s your job to understand

those features (and their limitations), implement them properly, and take other measures

necessary to protect your users. In addition, while platform-based permissions might be

helpful in conveying security information to your customers, they’re no substitute for

your own effective communication. Talk to your users in your own words.

If you create credentials for your users (like usernames and passwords), create them

securely. For example, a short number string might be an appropriate token for authenti-

cating a user on a game score board, but the same credential wouldn’t be appropriate for

a social networking app.

Use transit encryption for usernames, passwords, and other important data; perform due

diligence on libraries and third-party code.

Anytime your app transmits usernames, passwords, API keys, or other types of important

data, use transit encryption. Mobile devices commonly rely on unsecure Wi-Fi access

points at coffee shops, airports, and the like — and it’s easy for troublemakers to snoop

and intercept connections.

To protect users, developers often deploy SSL/TLS in the form of HTTPS. Consider using

HTTPS or another industry-standard method. There’s no need to reinvent the wheel. If

you use HTTPS, use a digital certificate and ensure your app checks it properly. A no-frills

digital certificate from a reputable vendor is inexpensive and helps your customers ensure

they’re communicating with your servers, and not someone else’s. But standards change,

so keep an eye on current technologies, and make sure you’re using the latest and

greatest security features.

Before using someone else’s code to build or augment your app, do your research. Does

this library or SDK have known security vulnerabilities? Has it been tested in real-world

396 chapter 9 Summarizing Information at Work

settings? Have other developers reported problems? Third-party libraries can save time,

but make sure you stay accountable for your app.

Protect your data, servers, and passwords.

If your app handles personal information, consider protecting or obscuring the data —

for example, by using encryption. Some platforms have special storage schemes for sensi-

tive data like passwords and keys. Use them if they’re available. This helps protect your

users in the event of viruses, malware, or a lost device.

If you maintain a server that communicates with your app, take appropriate security mea-

sures to protect it. If you rely on a commercial cloud provider, understand the divisions of

responsibility for securing and updating software on the server. While some commercial

services will monitor and update your servers’ security, others leave you in control.

Server security is its own complex topic, so do some research. Take steps to protect your-

self from common vulnerabilities, including injection attacks, cross-site scripting, and

other threats.

Don’t store passwords in plaintext on your server. Instead, consider using an iterated

cryptographic hash function to hash users’ passwords and then verify against these hash

values. (Your users can simply reset their passwords if they forget.) That way, if your

server suffers a data breach, passwords aren’t left completely exposed.

Even after you ship your app, stay involved. New vulnerabilities arise daily, and even the

most reputable software libraries require security updates. Follow general and library-

specific mailing lists and have a plan for shipping security updates if needed. Check your

inbox, too. User feedback can help you spot and fix security vulnerabilities. When they

discover vulnerabilities, researchers often try to resolve the issue with developers before

publishing their findings. It’s best to be part of that discussion early on.

8. Write a descriptive abstract of the article you selected in Exercise 7.

9. Write an executive summary of the proposal in Figure 13.5 (pages 530–534) to purchase updated inventory software.

10. Write an evaluative summary of “The Mouse That Knows You” in Chapter 1 (pages 40–41).

11. Write an informative abstract of the report in Figure 15.3 (pages 607–621).

12. Write an appropriate news release on one of the following newsworthy topics to be included on your company’s website:

a. premiering a new product or service b. acquiring a smaller firm whose products and services are very different from those

of your company c. providing an environmentally sensitive service that enhances life in the community

in which your employer’s headquarters is located d. offering highly competitive warranties on a new line of products e. protecting a section of wetlands adjoining one of your company’s construction sites

Exercises 397

13. Write a news release on one of the following unpleasant topics, while still projecting a positive image of your company:

a. inconveniences because of recent construction b. a reduction in the hours of operation of a store or plant c. an increase in insurance premiums d. an order page is down on a frequently visited e-business site because of a computer

virus e. a sports injury that has benched a star player on a local team for the next month f. a boil-water notice issued for a subdivision that depends on a local reservoir for its

water supply

PART IV

Preparing Documents and Visuals

10 Designing Clear Visuals

11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

13 Writing Winning Proposals

14 Writing Effective Short Reports

15 Writing Careful Long Reports

16 Making Successful Presentations at Work

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Designing Clear Visuals

Visuals are essential in the world of work. No matter where you work— in a health care facility, government agency, retail business, bank, and so on—your employer will expect you to be visually competent. That means you will have to interpret, use, and create visuals and graphics. Visuals often explain the job you have to do and help you report on how well you did it. Tables, charts, graphs, drawings, diagrams, maps, and photographs are an important, functional part of almost every work- place document, including employee handbooks, instructions, propos- als, reports, blogs, newsletters, and websites.

Visuals work in conjunction with your writing to summarize, in- form, illustrate, and persuade. The tables, graphs, and charts you use to simplify financial and other statistical information in a report, and the photos and other graphics you incorporate in them, have a major impact on how readers will see and judge your work. Effective visuals can drive traffic to your website. But a poorly designed visual, either in a hard copy or an e-document—one that is incorrect, incomplete, unclear, or unethical—signals to readers that your research and writing may also be flawed.

VIsuAl ThInkIng In The globAl WoRkPlAce Our web-based, global culture highly prizes visual thinking, or seeing and presenting information in terms of spatial and organizational ap- pearance. Experts estimate that as much as 80 percent of our learning comes through our sense of sight. The way we process information visu- ally helps us to develop ideas, organize them, and even solve problems when they occur. As we saw in Chapter 2 (see “Planning,” pages 46–49), visual devices such as clustering, mindmapping, and outlining help writ- ers to discover, develop, and organize their ideas.

In our digital culture, whether we are navigating a website, using a media device, collaborating with colleagues, or communicating with clients, visuals play a major role in conveying information. Animation, color, icons, graphs, illustrations, charts, photographs, and infographs

chAPTeR ouTlIne

Visual Thinking in the Global Workplace

The Purpose of Visuals

Types of Visuals and Their Functions

Choosing Effective Visuals

Generating, Scanning, and Uploading Visuals

Inserting and Writing About Visuals: Some Guidelines

Two Categories of Visuals: Tables and Figures

Tables

Figures

Using Visuals Ethically

Using Appropriate Visuals for International Audiences

Conclusion

C H A P T E R

10 Adam Mork/Architecture (RM)/Corbis

The Purpose of Visuals 401

all contribute to our understanding and evaluation. Visuals make documents informative, inviting, and easy to read.

Visuals also play a powerful role in symbolizing corporate identity and re- inforcing brand loyalty in the minds of consumers across the globe; consider McDonald’s golden arches, Nike’s swoosh, Starbucks’ mermaid, or Ralph Lauren’s polo pony and rider. A company’s own logo reveals a great deal visually about its image, values, and mission.

Chapter 10 surveys the kinds of visuals you will encounter most frequently in the world of work. It shows you how to read, locate, create, and write about them, and it also describes the types of visuals and visual configurations you can create with graphics software packages. Finally, this chapter discusses the ethical ways to use visuals and explains how to select the most appropriate ones for global audi- ences. But as you have already seen, the discussion of visuals in this book is not confined just to this chapter. Visuals are discussed in other chapters as part of the process of preparing a variety of business documents—letters, memos, instructions, proposals, reports, blogs, websites, and presentations.

The PuRPose of VIsuAls Visuals are essential in the world of work. They are vital to the success of reports, proposals, instructions, PowerPoint presentations, websites, blogs, and many other documents. Even your company logo reveals a great deal about your firm’s or or- ganization’s image and mission. Here are several reasons visuals can improve your work; each point is graphically reinforced in Figure 10.1 (page 402).

1. Visuals condense and summarize a large quantity of information/text into a relatively small space. They can record data in far less space than it would take to describe those facts in words alone. Note how in Figure 10.1 a simple graph sum- marizes and documents the market shares of two different types of computer sales.

2. Visuals can simplify and communicate concepts. A visual shows ideas while a verbal description only tells about them. Visuals help readers more clearly see and understand percentages, trends, comparisons, contrasts, and reduce the chances of a reader misunderstanding a concept. Figure 10.1, for example, shows at a glance the growth of online computer sales.

3. Visuals arouse a reader’s immediate interest. They catch the reader’s eye quickly by setting important information apart and giving relief from having to wade through a page of monotonous text with only sentences and paragraphs. Visuals also have tremendous sales appeal, persuading readers to buy a product or service or accept your point of view.

4. Visuals help readers find key information quickly. They highlight, separate, or show relationships/data to emphasize points for readers so they do not have to hunt through text to find them. Visuals separate main points from supporting details.

402 chapter 10 Designing Clear Visuals

5. Visuals help readers remember information longer. Their impact reinforces a message and emphasizes what’s most important for readers. Well-chosen and designed visuals can motivate your reader to understand and accept your ideas.

TyPes of VIsuAls And TheIR funcTIons Table 10.1 shows some of the most common types of visuals found in workplace writing and explains how you can use them. Each of these visuals is discussed in this chapter.

choosIng effecTIVe VIsuAls Select your visuals carefully. Here are some suggestions that will guide you when choosing a visual:

1. Supply a visual only when it is relevant for your purpose and audience. Never include a visual simply for decoration. Tell your readers why you are includ- ing it and what to look for in it. A short report on fire drills does not need a picture of a fire station.

Figure 10.1 A Line-and-Bar Chart Comparing Market Share of Online Computer Purchases with Those Purchased at Brick-and-Mortar Stores

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Choosing Effective Visuals 403

Table 10.1 Types of Workplace Visuals

Table Table 1. Charting the Lesson

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PagePage

● Presents large amounts of data in a compact space

● Organizes data (figures, facts) into easy-to-read categories us- ing rows and columns

● Gives statistical data or verbal descriptions clearly and concisely

● Allows readers to see comparisons and contrasts more quickly when numbers are embedded

Line graph ● Transforms numbers into a picture (curves, shapes, patterns) that represents movement over time or in space

● Displays data that change often—costs, sales, rates, employment, production, temperature, etc.

● Forecasts trends in terms of variables

Circle or pie chart

● Uses wedges to show the parts/percentages (budgets, shares, time allotments, etc.) that make up the whole

● Shows the proportion of each part to another; relates each part to the whole

● Effective visual to show data from tables or charts

● Easily understood by audiences worldwide

Bar chart ● Uses vertical or horizontal bars to measure different data in space or time

● Represents comparisons/changes through the comparative length of bars

● Can be segmented (divided) to show multiple percentages within a single bar

● Less technical than a graph

Flow chart ● Reveals stages in an activity or process

● Arrows provide accurate directions on the order in which steps are to be taken

● Blueprints the actual steps to take, first to last, to complete a process/job

● Identifies places where retracing or skipping steps is required

Organizational chart

● Illustrates the relationship of one part of an organization to another

● Shows structure of an organization from chief executive to divisions and departments to employees

● Provides quick view of areas of authority and responsibility

● Helps in routing material to appropriate readers

(Continued)

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Table 10.1 (Continued)

Pictograph ● Represents statistical data by means of pictures varying in size, numbers, or color

● Easy for a global audience to understand if the symbols/icons (pictograms) are chosen carefully

● Must supply a key stating how much each symbol represents

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● Details specific geographic features (elevation, lakes/rivers, forests, etc.)

● Identifies roads, businesses (company locations, TV station, etc.)

● Displays census data (population density, number of households with children)

● Reveals location, distance, relationship of one place to another

Cutaway drawing

● Explains how something looks or works

● Reveals the interior view of an object by removing the exte- rior view

● Uncovers an internal mechanism that a photo or simple drawing cannot

Exploded drawing

● Shows an object with parts separated to indicate the relation- ship of the parts to one another

● Illustrates how parts fit together

● Explains how a piece of equipment is constructed and should be assembled or disassembled

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● Demonstrates the actual appearance of something

● Accurately shows “before” and “after” scenes

● Pinpoints color accurately—no guesswork

● Cannot reveal interior parts

Clip art ● Provides ready-made icons, images, symbols, and pictures

● Available online or in print form

● Must be appropriate for audience, especially international readers

● Should not look unprofessional or cartoonish

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Choosing Effective Visuals 405

2. Don’t include more detail in your visual than your reader needs. Unneces- sary details complicate and slow down any process.

3. Use visuals in conjunction with—not as a substitute for—your written work. Visuals do not take the place of words. Giving readers a set of illustrations or a table alone may not meet their need for a summary or recommendations. See how the visual of an MRI, along with a description of its function in Figure 10.2, makes the procedure easier to understand for a general audience.

4. Visuals should not simply repeat what is in your text. If your text is clear and concise without a visual, don’t include one.

5. Size your visuals carefully. Do not try to cram a visual onto a page or allow it to spill over the text or margins. Also, do not resize an image so that it becomes hard to read or distorted.

Figure 10.2 A Visual Used in Conjunction with Written Work

Source: Krames Communications.

A PICTURE FROM THE INSIDE OUT

406 chapter 10 Designing Clear Visuals

Ineffective Visuals: What Not to Do Here are some guidelines on what to avoid with visuals:

●● Avoid visuals that include more details than your audience needs. ●● Never use a visual that distracts from your work (for example, one that is too

small, too large, does not use the right type of shading, etc.). ●● Never use a visual that presents information that contradicts your work. ●● Never distort a visual for emphasis or decoration by adding unnecessary

lines, patterns, or bars (see “Using Visuals Ethically,” pages 433–438). ●● Be careful that you don’t omit anything when you reproduce an existing

visual. ●● Never use visuals that stereotype (for example, avoid pictures of a workforce

that excludes female employees). ●● Don’t use a visual that looks fuzzy, dotted, or streaked. Choose the correct

resolution for your image to make sure it appears sharp and contains the level of detail needed. The dpi of an image (or “dots per inch”) is one method of determining resolution. Getting the dpi right is crucial when printing im- ages in hard copy form. Check with your employer regarding the resolution needed for any images you generate.

See how Figure 10.3 violates many of these rules. It divides an image of a U.S. dollar bill into too many slices. Confronted with so many different wedges the reader would have trouble identifying, separating, comparing, and understanding the costs.

Figure 10.3 An Ineffective Visual: Too Much Information Is Crowded into One Graphic

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What a U.S. dollar spent on food paid for in 2015.

Inserting and Writing About Visuals: Some Guidelines 407

geneRATIng, scAnnIng, And uPloAdIng VIsuAls Here are three ways to incorporate a visual into your work.

1. You can easily generate charts, graphs, or tables through the templates in your software, such as Microsoft Word or Excel. By selecting, for instance, Insert Chart or Insert Table, you can insert your raw numerical data into the ap- propriate template and then add titles, labels, and color-coded keys, etc. This software also shows visuals from different perspectives, adds shading or three- dimensional effects, etc., and can help you insert the visual in your text.

2. With a scanner you can produce a high-resolution digital copy of an image or a document and then archive it for use it in any of your print or online docu- ments. Scanners also help you incorporate visuals that are unavailable in digital form, such as older photographs, diagrams, etc.

3. You can upload visuals into documents or presentations, often with just a few short clicks, with the right software. But always make sure when uploading a file with a visual that you’ve selected the highest-quality version available. That way, the visual is clear and sharp.

Regardless of how you incorporate a visual, always request permission if you did not create the visual yourself. Otherwise, you are guilty of plagiarism.

InseRTIng And WRITIng AbouT VIsuAls: some guIdelInes

Using a visual requires more of you as a writer than simply inserting it into your written work. You need to use visuals in conjunction with what you write. The fol- lowing guidelines will help you to (1) identify, (2) cite, (3) insert, (4) introduce, and (5) interpret visuals for your readers.

Identify Your Visuals Give each visual a number and caption (title) that indicates the subject or explains what the visual illustrates. An unidentified visual is meaningless. A caption helps your audience interpret your visual—to see it with your purpose in mind. Tell your readers what you want them to look for by doing the following:

●● Use a different typeface (bold) and size in your caption than what you use in the visual itself.

●● Include key words about the function and the subject of your visual in a caption.

●● Make sure any terms you cite in a caption are consistent with the units of measurement and the scope (years, months, seasons) of your visual.

●● Use arrows or lead lines to point to key parts of your visual and include labels to clearly identify important elements.

408 chapter 10 Designing Clear Visuals

Tables and figures should be numbered separately throughout the text—Table 1 or Figure 3.5, for example. (In the latter case, Figure 3.5 is the fifth figure to appear in Chapter 3.)

cite the Source for Your Visuals If you use a visual that is not your own work, give credit to your source (news- paper, magazine, textbook, company, federal agency, individual, blog, social media site, or website). If your paper or report is intended for publication (either in print or online), you must first obtain permission to reproduce copyrighted visuals from the copyright holder.

Insert Your Visuals appropriately Since many of the images you use will come from outside sources, especially the Web, you have to incorporate them clearly and in appropriate places in your written work.

Here are some guidelines to help you incorporate the visuals in the most appro- priate places for your readers:

●● Always plan ahead when you need to place a visual. They need to work in conjunction with your text (see “Choosing Effective Visuals,” pages 402–406). Determine why and how you need a particular visual.

●● Never insert a visual before a discussion of it; readers will wonder why it is there. Use a sentence or two to introduce your visuals before they appear in your document.

●● Do not insert a visual without a reference to it in the text, and do not refer to a visual in your text and then fail to include it.

●● Mention in the text of your paper or report that you are including a visual. Tell readers where it is found: “below,” “on the following page,” “to the right,” “at the bottom of page 3.”

●● Place visuals as close as possible to the first mention of them in the text. Try not to put a visual more than one page after the discussion of it. Never wait two or three pages to present it. By inserting a visual near the beginning of your discussion, you help readers better understand your explanation.

●● Use an appropriate size for your visual. Don’t make it too large or too small. There is no need to enlarge a photograph if a smaller image is understand- able. Gauge size by determining how much data you need to present and where the visual best fits into your discussion of it (see “Ineffective Visuals: What Not to Do,” page 406).

●● If the visual is small enough, insert it directly in the text rather than on a separate page. If your visual occupies an entire page, place that page contain- ing your visual on the facing page or immediately after the page on which the first reference to it appears.

●● Center your visual and, if necessary, box it. Leave at least 1 inch of white space around it. Squeezing visuals toward the left or right margins looks unprofessional.

Inserting and Writing About Visuals: Some Guidelines 409

●● Never collect all your visuals and put them in an appendix. Readers need to see them at the points in your discussion where they are most pertinent.

Introduce Your Visuals Refer to each visual by its number, and if necessary, mention the title as well. In introducing the visual, though, do not just insert a reference to it, such as “See Figure 3.4” or “Look at Table 1.” Relate the visual to the text it illustrates or helps explain. Here are two ways of writing a lead-in sentence for a visual.

Poor: Our store saw a dramatic rise in the shipment of electric ranges over the five-year period as opposed to the less impressive increase in washing machines. (See Figure 3.)

This sentence does not tie the visual (Figure 3) into the sentence where it belongs. The visual just trails insignificantly behind.

Better: As Figure 3 shows, our store saw a dramatic rise in the shipment of electric ranges over the five-year period as opposed to the less impressive increase in washing machines.

Mentioning the visual in this way alerts readers to its presence and function in your work and helps them to more easily understand your message. Explain why you are including a visual and how it will help your readers understand your work.

Interpret Your Visuals Tell readers what to look for and why. Let them know what is most significant about the visual. Point out any distinctive features, major parts, or crucial relation- ships. Do not expect the visual to explain itself. Inform readers what the numbers or images in your visual mean, how they make or prove a key point. What conclusions do you want readers to reach after seeing your visual?

In a report on the benefits of vanpooling, the writer supplied the following visual, a table:

Table 14 Travel Time (in minutes): Automobile versus Vanpool

Individual Automobile Vanpool

25 32.5

30 39.0

35 45.5

40 52.0

45 58.5

50 65.0

55 71.5

60 78.0

Source: U.S. Department of Transportation. Increased Transportation Efficiency Through Ridesharing: The Brokerage Approach (Washington, D.C., DOT-OS—40096): 45.

410 chapter 10 Designing Clear Visuals

To interpret the table, the writer called attention to it in the context of a discussion on transportation efficiency.

Although, as Table 14 suggests, the travel time in a vanpool may be as much as 30 per- cent longer than in an automobile (to allow for pickups), the total trip time for the vanpool user can be about the same as with an automobile because vanpools eliminate the need to search for parking spaces and to walk to the employment site entrance.1

TWo cATegoRIes of VIsuAls: TAbles And fIguRes Visuals can be divided into two categories—tables and figures. A table organizes information—numbers and/or words—in parallel columns and rows for easy com- parison of data. Any visual that is not a table is considered a figure. Figures include graphs, circle charts, bar charts, organizational charts, flow charts, pictographs, maps, photographs, drawings, and infographs. Expect to use both tables and figures in your work.

TAbles Tables contain parallel columns and rows of information organized and arranged into categories to show, in a compact space, changes in time, distance, cost, employ- ment, or some other distinguishable or quantifiable variable. Tables also summarize material for easy recall—causes of wars; provisions of a law; or differences between a common cold, flu, and pneumonia. See how Table 10.2 on sources of protein con- denses much information and arranges it in quickly identifiable categories.

parts of a table To use a table properly, you need to know the parts that constitute it. Refer to Table 10.2, which labels these parts, as you read the following:

●● The main column is “Amount Needed to Satisfy Minimum Daily Require- ment,” and the subcolumns are the protein sources for which the table gives data.

●● The stub is the first column on the left-hand side, below the column heading “Source.” The stub lists the foods for which information is broken down in the subcolumns.

●● A rule (or line) across the top of the table separates the title from the column headings and the column headings from the body of the table.

Guidelines for Using tables When you include a table in your work, follow these guidelines.

●● Number the tables according to the order in which they are discussed (Table 1, Table 2, Table 3). Tables should be numbered separately from figures (charts, graphs, photos) in your text.

1James A. Devine, “Vanpooling: A New Economic Tool,” AIDC Journal.

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●● Keep the table on the page where it is most appropriate. It is hard for readers to follow a table spread across different pages.

●● Give each table a concise and descriptive title to show exactly what is being represented or compared.

●● Use words in the stub (a list of items about which information is given), but put numbers under column headings.

●● Supply footnotes, often indicated by small raised letters (a, b), if something in the table needs to be qualified, for example, the number of cups of milk in Table 10.2, then put that information below the table.

●● List items in alphabetical, chronological, or other logical order. ●● Arrange the data you want to compare vertically, not horizontally; it is easier

to read down a column than across a series of rows. ●● Place tables at the top (preferable) or bottom of the page, and center them on

the page rather than placing them up against the right or left margin. ●● Don’t use more than five or six columns; tables wider than that are more dif-

ficult for readers to understand. ●● When possible, round off numbers in your columns to the nearest whole

number to assist readers in following and retaining information. ●● Always credit the source (the supplier of the statistical information) on which

your table is based.

Table 10.2 Parts of a Table

Table 1 Efficiency of Some Protein Sources in Meeting an Adult’s Minimum Daily Requirements

Source Percent of

Protein Percent of

Amino Acids

Amount Needed to Satisfy Minimum Daily Requirement

(grams) (ounces)

Cheesea 27 70 227 7.2

Corn 10 50 860 30.0

Eggs 11 97 403 14.1

Fisha 22 80 244 8.5

Kidney beans

23 40 468 16.4

Meata 25 68 253 8.8

Milk 4 82 1,311 45.9b

Soybeans 34 60 210 7.3

Subheading

Origin of data

Table number Title

Rule Column heading

Footnotes

a = Average value b = Equivalent of 6 cups

{Stub }

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fIguRes As we saw, any visual that is not a table is classified as a figure. The types of figures we will examine next are

●● graphs ● flow charts ● drawings ●● circle, or pie, charts ● pictographs ● clip art ●● bar charts ● maps ● infographics ●● organizational charts ●● photographs

Graphs Graphs transform numbers into pictures with shapes, patterns, and shading. They take statistical data presented in tables and put them into rising and falling lines or steep or gentle curves. The two main types of graphs are simple line graphs and multiple-line graphs.

Functions of Graphs Graphs vividly portray information that changes, such as

●● costs ● energy levels ● temperatures ●● distributions ● population ● tourism/travel ●● employment ● sales ● trends

Graphs not only describe past and current situations but also forecast trends over time.

Graphs versus Tables Because graphs actually show change, they are more dramatic than tables. You will make the reader’s job easier by using a graph rather than a table. Many finan- cial websites and print publications—the Wall Street Journal and USA Today, for example—open with a graph for the benefit of busy readers who want a great deal of financial information summarized quickly.

Simple Line Graphs Basically, a simple line graph consists of two sides—a vertical or y-axis and a hori- zontal or x-axis—that intersect to form a right angle, as in Figure 10.4. The space be- tween the two axes contains the picture made by the graph—the amount of snowfall in Springfield between November 2014 and April 2015. The vertical line represents the dependent variable (the snowfall in inches); the horizontal line, the independent variable (time in months). The dependent variable is influenced most directly by the independent variable, which almost always is expressed in terms of time or distance. The vertical axis is read from bottom to top; the horizontal axis from left to right. Sim- ple line graphs such as the one in Figure 10.4 can easily be created using spreadsheet software such as Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets.

Multiple-Line Graphs The graph in Figure 10.4 contains only one line of data. But a multiple-line graph can show how a number of dependent variables (different conditions, products, etc.)

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compare with one another. The six-month sales figures for three salespeople can be seen in the graph in Figure 10.5 (page 414). The graph contains a separate line for each of the three salespeople. At a glance, readers can see how the three compare and how many dollars each salesperson generated per month. Note how the line representing each person is clearly differentiated from the others by symbols and colors. Each line is clearly tied to a legend (an explanatory key below the graph) identifying the three salespeople.

Guidelines on Creating Graphs

1. Use no more than three lines in a multiple-line graph, so readers can interpret the graph more easily. If the lines run close together, use a legend to identify individual lines.

2. Label each line or color to identify what it represents for readers. Include a leg- end, as in Figure 10.5.

3. In a multiple-line graph, keep each line distinct by using different colors, dots or dashes, or symbols. Note the different symbols in Figure 10.5.

4. Make sure you plot enough points to show a reasonable and ethical range of the data. Using only three or four points may distort the evidence. (See “Guidelines for Using Visuals Ethically,” pages 434–436.)

5. Keep the scale consistent and realistic. If you start with hours, do not switch to days or vice versa. If you are recording annual rates or accounts, do not skip a year or two in order to save time or be more concise.

Figure 10.4 A Simple Line Graph Showing the Amount of Snowfall in Springfield from November 2014 to April 2015

Graph is easy to read and follow

Variables clearly labeled

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In ch

November December January 0

February March April

Horizontal axis (independent variable)

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6. For some graphs, there is no need to begin with a zero. A suppressed zero graph automatically begins with a larger number when it would be impossible to start with zero. For others, you may not have to include numbers beyond a certain point. Your subject and purpose will determine the range of data you need to show. If you use a suppressed zero graph, make sure you do so ethi- cally. (See “Using Visuals Ethically,” pages 433–437.)

charts Although charts and graphs may seem similar, there is a big difference between them. Graphs are usually more complex and plotted according to specific mathematical coordinates. Charts, however, do not display exact and complex mathematical data found in tables and graphs. Instead, they present an overall picture of how indi- vidual pieces of data (from a graph or table) relate to each other as parts of a whole.

Among the most frequently used charts are (1) pie, or circle, charts, (2) bar charts, (3) organizational charts, and (4) flow charts.

Pie Charts Pie charts are also known as circle charts, a name that descriptively points to their construction and interpretation. Tables are more technical and detailed than pie

Figure 10.5 A Multiple-Line Graph Showing Sales Figures for the First Six Months of 2016 for Three Salespeople

Uses different symbols and colors to represent each salesperson

Legend explains what different symbols and colors represent

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Sa le

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sa n

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January 0

100

150

200

250

JuneMayFebruary March April

Martin Klein Mary Venetti Janet Loo

Figures 415

charts. Figure 10.6 shows an example of a pie chart used in a government docu- ment. A table or graph with a more detailed breakdown of, say, a city’s budget would be much more appropriate for a technical audience (auditors, budget and city planners).

The full circle, or pie, represents the whole amount (100 percent or 360 degrees) of the data being represented; the entire budget of a company or a family, a popu- lation group, an area of land, the resources of an organization or institution. Each slice or wedge represents a percentage or portion of the whole.

A pie chart effectively allows readers to see two things at once: the relationship of the parts to one another and the relationship of the parts to the whole.

Preparing a Pie Chart Follow these six rules to create and present your pie chart.

1. Make sure the individual slices total 100 percent, or 360 degrees. Check your math.

2. Put the largest slice first, at the 12 o’clock position, and then move clockwise with proportionately smaller slices. Schools occupy the largest slice in Figure 10.6 because they receive the biggest share of taxes.

Figure 10.6 A Three-Dimensional Pie Chart Showing the Breakdown by Department of a Proposed City Budget for 2016

Puts largest slice first

Size of slice determined by percentage; totals 100%

Uses a different, easily contrasted color for each category

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Fire and Police 20%

Public Welfare 14%

Schools 35%

Other 7%

Hospitals 16%

Administration 8%

416 chapter 10 Designing Clear Visuals

3. Do not divide a circle, or pie, into too few or too many slices. If you have only three wedges, use another visual to display them (a bar chart, for example, discussed next). If you have more than seven or eight wedges, you will destroy the dramatic effect. Instead, combine several slices of small percentages (2 percent, 3 percent, 4 percent) into one slice labeled “Other,” “Miscellaneous,” or “Related Items.”

4. Label each slice of the pie horizontally. Do not put in a label upside down or slide it in vertically. If the individual slice of the pie is small, draw a connecting line from the slice to a label positioned outside the pie.

5. Shade, color, or cross-hatch slices of the pie to further separate and distin- guish the parts. Note how Figure 10.6 effectively uses color. But be careful not to obscure labels and percentages; also make certain that adjacent slices can be distin- guished readily from each other. Do not use the same color or similar colors for two adjacent slices.

6. Give percentages for each slice to further assist readers, as in Figure 10.6.

Bar Charts A bar chart consists of a series of vertical or horizontal bars that indicate com- parisons of statistical data. For instance, in Figure 10.7 vertical bars depict increases

Bars are evenly spaced and clearly labeled

Length of bar determined by the percentages listed on the left-hand side of visual

Years clearly marked at bottom of columns

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Figure 10.7 A Vertical Bar Chart

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

Pe rc

en ta

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Mothers in the Workplace: Working Women with Children

Figures 417

in the number of working mothers. Figure 10.8 uses horizontal bars to depict the nation’s top 20 metropolitan areas in 2014. The length of the bars is determined ac- cording to a scale that your computer software can easily compute.

Bar Charts, Graphs, and Tables—Which Should You Use? When should you use a bar chart rather than a table or a line graph? Your audience will help you decide. If you are asked to present statistics on costs for the company accountant, use a table. Because a bar chart is limited to a few columns, it cannot convey as much informa- tion as a table or graph. However, if you are presenting the same information to a group of stockholders or to a diverse group of employees, a bar chart may be more relevant and persuasive.

Types of Bar Charts There are three types of bar charts. Regardless of which type you use, leave adequate space between each bar.

1. Simple bar charts. Figure 10.7 is the most basic form of bar chart. Each bar rep- resents the percentage of working women with children, and the height of the bar corresponds to the number of percentage points for a given year.

Figure 10.8 A Horizontal Bar Chart

Arranges bars in decreasing order

Name of city precedes bar for easier reference

Provides exact numbers after each bar

Visual summarizes a large amount of information concisely

Source: U.S. Census Bureau

Top 20 Metropolitan Areas in the United States by Population (2014)

Chicago

Dallas

Houston

Philadelphia

Washington

Miami

Atlanta

Boston

San Francisco

Phoenix

Riverside

Detroit

Seattle

Minneapolis

San Diego

Tampa

St. Louis

Baltimore

New York

Los Angeles

20,092,883

13,262,220

4,732,161

5,614,323

5,929,819

6,033,737

6,051,170

6,490,180

6,954,330

9,554,598

4,594,060

4,489,109

4,441,890

4,296,611

3,671,478

3,495,176

3,263,431

2,915,582

2,806,207

2,785,874

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2. Multiple-bar charts. Figure 10.9 shows a variation of the simple, vertical bar chart. Four different colored bars are used for each year to represent the amount of money spent on different types of advertising from 2012 to 2015. A legend at the top of the chart explains what each bar stands for. Avoid using more than four bars in a group. More bars will make your chart crowded and difficult to read.

3. Segmented, or cross-hatched (divided), bar charts. To show the different components that constitute a measured whole, use a segmented bar chart like the one in Figure 10.10. A single segmented bar lists the travel expenses of Weemco Communications, a small firm, in January 2016. The entire bar equals the travel total—$274,000—which was spent in four areas: airfare, ground transportation, lodging, and meals. Each of these expenses is represented by a different type of shading on the single column. A group of segmented bars can be used to show multiple comparisons among many categories, as in Figure 10.11, which depicts energy consumption by sector in five states.

Organizational Charts An organizational chart pictures the chain of command in a company or agency, with the lines of authority stretching down from the chief executive, manager, or

Figure 10.9 A Multiple-Bar Chart Showing the Preferred Social Media Site of Teenagers, 2012–2015

Legend explains what each bar represents

Avoids confusion by using only four bars in a group

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Fall 2012 Fall 2013 Fall 2014 Fall 2015

Pe rc

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Instagram

Twitter

Facebook

Other

Figures 419

Figure 10.10 A Segmented Bar Chart Representing Total Travel Expenditures for Weemco Communications, January 2016

Figure 10.11 A Multiple-Bar, Segmented Bar Chart Showing Energy Consumption by Sector in Five States

Entire bar equals the travel total

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Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration.

Shows multiple comparisons among many categories

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20%

37%

10%

33%

Meals ($54,800)

Lodging ($101,380)

Ground transportation ($27,400)

Airfare ($90,420)

$274,000 Q

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3.55 3.46 3.34

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Transportation Industrial Commercial Residential

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administrator to the assistant manager, department heads, or supervisors to the workforce of employees. Figure 10.12 shows a hospital’s organizational chart for its nursing services.

Organizational charts have these functions:

●● to inform employees and customers about the makeup of a company ●● to depict the various offices, departments, and units ●● to show where people work in relationship to one another in a business

Flow Charts A flow chart displays the stages in which something is manufactured, is accom- plished, develops, or operates. Flow charts are highly effective in showing the steps of a procedure.

Flow charts often proceed from left to right and back again, as in the one ap- pearing on the next page, showing the steps students must take to graduate

Figure 10.12 An Organizational Chart Representing Critical Care Nursing Services at Union General Hospital

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Administrative Assistant

Evening Charge Nurse

Monitor Technicians

Nurse Technicians

Nursing Technicians

Cardiac Monitor Technicians

Director of Nursing Critical Care Services

Chief Nursing Officer (CNO)

Administrator

Charge Nurse 7 a.m. to 7 p.m.

Charge Nurse 7 p.m. to 7 a.m.

Staff RNs

Nurse Manager ICU and CCU

Nurse Manager Cardiac

Rehabilitation Unit

Day Charge Nurse

Night Charge Nurse

Staff RNs

Staff LPNs

Figures 421

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Flow charts can also be constructed to read from top to bottom. Computer pro- gramming instructions often are written that way. See, for example, Figure 10.13, which like a computer programming chart lists the steps that a customer must follow when ordering products online.

pictographs A pictograph uses picture symbols (called pictograms) to represent differences in statistical data, as in Figure 10.14 (page 422). Each symbol or icon stands for a spe- cific number, quantity, or value.

Figure 10.13 A Flow Chart for Ordering Products Online

Process moves from start to finish

Each step concisely described

Arrows clearly tell readers what steps to take and when

Each step included in a separate box©

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Go to login page.

Check to see if you already have an

account.

Follow the instructions on the login page for setting up a new account.

Enter the items you wish to order.

Yes

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Guidelines for Creating a Pictograph When you create a pictograph, follow these three guidelines:

1. Choose an appropriate symbol for the topic—such as a smartphone icon to represent the increase in the number of sales of iPhones.

2. Always indicate the precise quantities involved by placing numbers after the pictures or at the top of the visual.

3. Increase the number of symbols rather than their sizes because differences in size are often difficult to construct accurately and harder for readers to interpret.

Figure 10.14 A Pictograph Showing Financial Details from One Pension Fund

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Provides financial context/history to better understand visual

Specifies what each pictograph stands for

Uses easily recognized pictographs

Increases number, not size, of pictograph

Pension Fund

Holdings

Benefits Paid

Retirees

2005

2010

2015

2005

2010

2015

2005

2010

2015

Each = $250 million

Each = 25,000 retirees

Each = $2 billion

$ $ $ $

$ $ $ $ $ $

$ $ $ $

Figures 423

Maps The maps you use on the job may range from highly sophisticated and detailed geo- graphic tools to simple sketches such as the map in Figure 10.15, which shows the location of a town’s water filter plants and pumping stations.

You may have to construct your own map, like the one in Figure 10.15, or scan one in a printed source or copy one from the Internet. If you use a map from an outside source (such as Google Maps), be sure to obtain permission to use it from the copyright holder.

Guidelines for Creating a Map Follow these steps when you create a map:

1. Always acknowledge your source if you did not construct the map yourself. 2. Use distinct lines, colors, symbols, and shading to indicate features. 3. Include a legend, or map key, explaining dotted lines, colors, shading, and sym-

bols, as in Figure 10.15. 4. Exclude features (rivers, elevations, county seats) that do not directly relate to

your topic. For example, a map showing the crops grown in two adjacent coun- ties need not show all the roads and highways in those counties.

5. Indicate direction. Conventionally, maps show north, often by including a compass icon, such as that in Figure 10.15.

Figure 10.15 A Map Showing the Location of Smithville Water Department’s Water Filter Plants and Pumping Stations

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Provides directional sign

Uses distinctive symbols

Includes only relevant features

Supplies miles/ distance legends

Includes only necessary information- streets, rivers, a lake.

Water filter plants Pumping stations

Northwest Highway

0 1 2 miles

Lake Smith

Wes tern

Hardy St.

Pine Ave.

Broad St.

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ve.

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H alstead S

K ina R

iver

Smithville Water Dept.

Water department office

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photographs Correctly taken or scanned, photographs are an extremely helpful addition to job-related writing. A photograph’s chief virtues are realism and clarity. Among its many advantages, a photo can

●● show what an object looks like (Figure 10.16) ●● demonstrate how to perform a certain procedure (Figure 10.17) ●● compare relative sizes and shapes of objects (Figure 10.17) ●● compare and contrast scenes or procedures (Figure 10.18, page 426)

Guidelines for Taking Photographs Digital cameras and smartphones allow you to supply professional-looking, cus- tomized photos easily with your written work. One of the primary advantages of working with digital images is that they can be uploaded and shared quickly and

Figure 10.16 A Photo Showing What a Piece of Equipment Looks Like

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Figures 425

Figure 10.17 A Photo Showing How to Perform a Procedure and Comparing Relative Sizes and Shapes of Objects

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easily over the Internet, but you still have to follow these guidelines when taking photographs:

1. Take the photo from the most appropriate distance. Decide how much fore- ground and background information your audience needs. For example, if you are photographing a three-story office building, your picture may misleadingly show only one or two stories if you are standing too close to the building.

2. Select the correct angle. Take the photo from an angle that makes sense, usu- ally straight on so that the object or person photographed can be viewed in full.

3. Include only the details that are necessary and relevant for your purpose. Crop (edit out) any unnecessary details from the photograph (see “Tech Note: Using Photoshop,” page 427, and Figure 10.19, page 427).

4. Provide a sense of scale. So that readers understand the size of the object, in- clude in the photograph a person (if the object is very large), a hand (if the ob- ject is small), or a ruler.

5. Make sure you consider lighting and resolution. Take your photograph in ap- propriate light so that the subject of your photograph is clear and crisp, and use the highest resolution possible for mximum clarity.

6. Always ask for permission before you take a photograph of a person, place, or thing, unless you are photographing a public park or building. Do not take pho- tographs of copyrighted materials, for instance, a work of art, a page from a copy- righted book, or a movie or television screen. Also obtain permission from your boss if you are photographing your own company’s equipment, sites, or designs.

426 chapter 10 Designing Clear Visuals

Figure 10.18 Photos Showing Comparison/Contrast of Using Gasoline versus Electricity to Power an Automobile

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Figures 427

Figure 10.19 Removing Unnecessary Details from a Photograph Using Photoshop

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Before After

Using Photoshop®

Photoshop®, a software program from Adobe (www.photoshop.com), is used throughout the world of work to edit, combine, and manipulate images in various me- dia, including digital, mobile, print, and on the Web. With Photoshop you can

●● edit photographs for color, sharpness, contrast, brightness, size, and resolution—you can also edit out unnecessary details, and eliminate “red eye.” The original photo in Figure 10.19, for example, was changed to remove cars and bags of trash, to show the effects of a downtown beautification effort more clearly.

●● greatly improve the visual quality of your photographs with custom-made images that establish or enhance your company’s brands.

●● design impressive graphics, illustrations, logos, and letterheads. ●● supply navigational bars and color-coordinated photos for your websites or blogs. ●● work with customizable templates for social media.

While Photoshop offers all of these benefits and more, you must still prepare a prelimi- nary sketch or copy (similar to an outline or draft for a report) to create a framework for your final image. When working in Photoshop you also have to apply photography skills such as knowledge of the type and angle of the light source (see “Guidelines for Taking Photographs,” pages 424–425). You need to select the highest-resolution images pos- sible; otherwise your image may become blurry (or “pixilated”) and not reproduce at a high quality (see “Ineffective Visuals: What Not to Do,” page 406).

Photoshop offers all of these features at a relatively low cost, but it does require some technical skill to use it effectively. The software is primarily used by graphic design pro- fessionals, but you can learn some of the basic functions quickly. As with other types of graphics software, though, you need to follow all the ethical guidelines found on pages 433–438 (see “Using Visuals Ethically”).

tech Note

428 chapter 10 Designing Clear Visuals

To get a graphic sense of the effects of taking a photo the wrong and right way, study the photographs in Figures 10.20 and 10.21. In Figure 10.20, everything merges because the shot was taken from the wrong angle. The reader has no sense of the parts of the truck, their size, or their function. A clear and useful picture of a hydraulic truck (often called a “cherry picker”) used to cut high branches can be seen in Figure 10.21. The photographer rightly placed the truck in the foreground but included enough background information to indicate the truck’s function. The worker in the bucket helps to show the relative size of the truck and the function of the equipment.

Drawings Drawings can show where an object is located, how a tool or machine is put to- gether. A drawing can be simple, such as the schematic drawing in Figure 10.22 (page 430), which shows readers exactly where to place smoke detectors depending on the size of their homes.

A more detailed drawing can reveal the interior of an object. Such sketches are called cutaway drawings because they show internal parts normally concealed

Figure 10.20 A Poor Photograph—Taken from the Wrong Angle So That Everything Merges and Becomes Confusing

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Figures 429

Figure 10.21 An Effective Photograph—Truck in Foreground, Enough Background Information, and a Worker to Show the Size and Function of the Truck

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from view. Figure 10.23 (page 431) is a cutaway drawing of an extended-range electric vehicle, the Chevrolet Volt.

Another kind of sketch is an exploded drawing, which blows the entire object up and apart, as in Figure 10.24 (page 432), to show how the individual parts of a computer are arranged. An exploded drawing comes with many owner’s guide for equipment or devices, and uses callouts, or labels, to identify the components.

Guidelines for Using Drawings

1. Include only as much detail as your reader will need to understand what to do, be it to assemble or to operate a mechanism.

2. Clearly, label all parts so that your reader can identify and separate them. 3. Decide on the most appropriate view of the object to illustrate—aerial, frontal,

lateral, reverse, exterior, interior—and indicate in the title which view it is. 4. Keep the parts of the drawing proportionate unless you are purposely enlarging

one section (see Figure 12.9, pages 500–509).

430 chapter 10 Designing Clear Visuals

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Where to place smoke detectors . . . In a single-level home (A), a smoke detector (red square) should be located outside the sleeping area. But in a multilevel home (B) a smoke detector should be provided for each bedroom. In addition, smoke detectors should be placed at the head of the basement stairs and always in kitchen areas.

Bedroom

Bedroom Bedroom

Bedroom

Computer room

LR BR

K BR

Kitchen Bedroom BedroomDining

BedroomLiving room

Figure 10.22 A Schematic Drawing Showing Where to Place Smoke Detectors in a House

clip art Clip art (or icons) refers to ready-to-use electronic images. These small cartoon- style representations and photographs, such as the ones shown in Figure 10.25 (page 432), depict almost any workplace subject. Free clip art and photo-illustration databases can be found at the following websites (among others): www.wpclipart .com; www.reusableart.com; and freerangestock.com.

Guidelines for Using Clip Art When you use clip art, follow these guidelines:

1. Choose simple, easy-to-understand icons. Select an image that conveys your idea quickly and directly. Avoid using an icon of an unfamiliar object

Figures 431

Figure 10.23 Cutaway Drawing of an Electric Car

Source: General Motors Corporation. Used with permission, GM Media Archives.

or of a drawing or silhouette that might confuse your audience, especially a global one.

2. Use clip art functionally. Do not insert clip art as decorations. Make sure each has a specific function. Including too many will make your work look unprofessional.

3. Be sure the clip art is relevant for your audience and your message. A clip art airplane does not belong in a technical report on fuel capacity or jet engine design.

4. Make sure your clip art is professional. Some clip art is humorous, even silly, which may not be appropriate for a professional business report or proposal.

Infographics An infograph (information plus graphic) combines a variety of visuals (for example, bar charts, graphs, icons, photographs) with numerical data (for example, statistics) to give readers an easy-to-understand overview or timeline of a complex process. Infographs tell a story. Influenced by the Web, an infograph such as the

432 chapter 10 Designing Clear Visuals

Figure 10.25 Examples of Clip Art

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Figure 10.24 Exploded Drawing of a Notebook Computer

Display assembly

Palm rest assembly

Expansion connector dust cover

Left tilt-support foot

PC card

Hard disk drive assembly

Option compartment door Reserve battery

Main battery assembly

Right tilt-support foot

I/O panel dust cover

Keyboard assembly

Speaker

Adapted from Dell Computers

Using Visuals Ethically 433

Figure 10.26 Example of an Infograph

Courtesy of the Education & the Workforce Committee, U.S. House of Representatives.

one in Figure 10.26 summarizes information that otherwise would require many visuals and pages of text to explain. As with the other visuals discussed in this chapter, use only the highest-quality graphics, and make sure text and image work together, not in opposition to each other; words, numbers, pictographs, and visu- als all need to reinforce your message.

usIng VIsuAls eThIcAlly Make sure your visuals, whether you create or import them, are ethical. Ethical vi- suals convey and interpret statistical information and other types of data, products and equipment, locations, and even individuals without misinterpretation. Ethical visuals should be:

●● accurate ●● honest, fair ●● complete ●● appropriate

●● easy to read ●● clearly labeled ●● uncluttered ●● consistent with conventions

Combines numbers with images

Includes statistics

Uses appropriate icons

Helps readers understand a complex law quickly

434 chapter 10 Designing Clear Visuals

Guidelines for Using Visuals ethically To ensure that your visuals are ethical, honest, accurate, and easy to read, avoid the following unethical practices no matter what type of visual you use.

Photos

●● Don’t distort a photo by omitting key details or by misrepresenting dimensions, angles, sizes, or surroundings or by superimposing one image over another.

●● Don’t take a photo of your most expensive, top-of-the-line product/model but then place the cost of your lowest-priced product/model under it.

●● Don’t misrepresent location—for example, taking a photo in a “doctored” or off-site location, studio, or lab and then claiming it as an “actual” location shot.

●● Don’t counterfeit or subtly alter a company’s logo to sell, distribute, or pro- mote an imitation as the real thing.

●● Avoid stereotypes (e.g., showing only caucasian men using certain types of equipment or wearing a brand of clothing).

●● Never take a photo of an individual for business purposes (e.g., for a newsletter, an ad, the company’s website or social media site) without his or her permission.

Graphs

●● Don’t distort a graph by plotting it in misleading or unequal intervals—for example, omitting certain years or dates to hide a decline in profits. Contrast Figure 10.27, and its misleading interpretation, with the ethical revision in Figure 10.28.

●● Include information in correct chronological sequence along the horizontal axis. Note how Figure 10.27 omits key years.

●● Don’t switch the type of information usually given along the vertical axis with the horizontal axis.

●● Don’t project any growth or increase on your graph without having reliable and valid reasons.

●● Don’t misrepresent data or trends by making increments along the vertical axis too limited, leaving a much smaller (and incomplete) area to represent. When data are plotted wrongly this way, readers are unethically led to mis- interpret the numbers—to read that there was little loss in revenue, or no change in sales, for example. For instance, if the horizontal axis begins at $5 and advances to $6 a share, you leave only an intentionally small and mis- leading area to measure. If stocks fell below $5 a share, your graph would unethically not represent those declines.

Bar Charts

●● Don’t use color or shading to mislead or distort—for example, shading one bar to make it more prominent than the others.

●● Make sure the height and width of each bar truthfully represents the data it purports to. That is, don’t make one of the bars larger to maximize the prof- its, products, or sales in any one year.

Using Visuals Ethically 435

Figure 10.27 An Unethical Graph and Misleading Interpretation

Figure 10.28 An Ethical Revision of Figure 10.27

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Pr ic

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h ar

e ($

)

2008

0 20162014

Econospeak’s stock prices during 2008–2016 have been stable, resting securely at about $5.60. The graph above illustrates the stability of Econospeak’s stock. Given our steady market, we believe shareholders will be confident in our recent decision to proceed with Econospeak’s further expansion into global markets.

Econospeak Prices, 2008–2016 Pr

ic e

p er

S h

ar e

($ )

2008 2009 2010 2011

0 20162012 2013 2014 2015

Econospeak’s stock prices have not been as stable over 2008–2016 as we would have liked. The graph above illustrates the challenges the company has faced in the market in the past decade, resulting in fluctuation of prices. We believe, however, that Econospeak’s further expansion into global markets will increase dividends by 2017.

Econospeak Prices, 2008–2016

436 chapter 10 Designing Clear Visuals

●● Show bars for every year (or other sales period) covered. Note how the un- ethical bar chart (and accompanying text) in Figure 10.29 violates this rule, but the chart in Figure 10.30 ethically represents the data.

Pie Charts

●● Don’t use 3-D to distort the thickness of one slice of the pie and thereby mis- leadingly deemphasize other slices.

●● Avoid concealing negative information (losses, expenses, etc.) by including the information in another category, or slice, or lumping it into a category marked “Other” or “Miscellaneous.”

●● Make sure percentages match the size of the slices of the pie chart. Study Fig- ures 10.31 and 10.32 (page 438). Note how a larger expense for guest speak- ers (35% of budget) is unethically misrepresented in Figure 10.31 by using a smaller-sized wedge, while the expenses for venue rental (14%) are actu- ally less than for guest speaker expenses but are drawn larger to misrepresent costs.

Drawings

●● Avoid any clutter that hides features. ●● Label all parts correctly. ●● Do not omit or shadow any necessary parts. ●● Tell readers what to look for, as in Figure 10.22. ●● Draw an object accurately. Indicate if your drawing is the actual size of the

object or equipment or if it is drawn to scale. Provide a scale.

Pictographs

●● Choose icons that are culturally and ethnically appropriate, tasteful, and free from stereotyping (see Figure 10.14, page 422, and Figure 10.26, page 433).

●● Make sure the size or shape of your pictograph accurately represents the financial or other statistical information it is meant to represent.

●● Do not distort the size of a pictograph, increasing or decreasing its height or width, to suggest a larger or smaller quantity, whether in sales, population, services, etc.

usIng APPRoPRIATe VIsuAls foR InTeRnATIonAl AudIences

Whether you are writing for an expanding international business community in India or China, or for multicultural readers in the United States, you will have to prepare numerous documents that require visuals. These can range from instructions

Using Appropriate Visuals for International Audiences 437

Figure 10.30 An Ethical Revision of Figure 10.29

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Figure 10.29 An Unethical Bar Chart that Misrepresents Key Data

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Profits at Worldsphere have seen a healthy increase over recent years. This bar chart demonstrates the steady increase in profits, which have risen $4.5 million since 2008. Given the profit history of Worldsphere, our investors can be confident of future growth and the security of their stock in our company.

Worldsphere Profits, 2008–2016

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16 20162013 2014

Although profits at Worldsphere have been volatile recently, we are now at our highest profit margin of the last eight years. This bar chart shows the effects of market difficulties for the period 2008–2016, when the economy suffered major cutbacks. However, Worldsphere achieved a successful turnaround in 2013, with profits regaining strength due to our advances in research and technology.

Worldsphere Profits, 2008–2016

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2008 2009 20112010 2012 20162013 20152014

438 chapter 10 Designing Clear Visuals

Figure 10.32 An Ethical Revision of Figure 10.31

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Though they account for the largest share of expenditures for company conferences this year, the fees we paid for guest speakers may actually be our greatest advantage. These speakers have shown us ways to maximize our profits in expanding markets.

Expenditures for Company Conferences, 2015

35% Guest speakers

15% Catering

14% Venue rental

15% Promotional

material

21% Executive

accommodation

Figure 10.31 An Unethical Pie Chart with Inappropriately-Sized Wedges

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15% Promotional

material

21% Executive

accommodation

35% Guest speakers

15% Catering

14% Venue rental

Expenditures for Company Conferences, 2015

In light of corporate reductions for company conferences this year, we have tried to keep costs down for catering and guest speakers.

Using Appropriate Visuals for International Audiences 439

containing warning and caution statements to tables, graphs, charts, and photos for proposals, reports, presentations, websites, and social media.

Visuals Do Not always translate from one culture to another While there are internationally recognized icons, such as those in Figure 10.33, vi- suals do not automatically transfer from one culture to another. Visuals and other graphic devices may have one meaning or use in the United States and a radically different one in other countries around the world. To avoid confusing or offending your international audience, consult a native speaker from your audience’s country to see if your visuals are culturally acceptable.

Guidelines for Using Visuals for International audiences To communicate appropriately and respectfully with international readers through visuals and other graphics, follow these guidelines:

1. Do not use images that ethnically or racially stereotype your readers. De- picting Native Americans through clip art images of red-faced chiefs is insulting. Rather than using an ethnic or racial pictograph, use neutral stick figures or nonbi- ased clip art. See, for example, the human figure in Figure 10.25.

2. Be respectful of religious symbols and images. Portraying a smiling Buddha to sell products is considered disrespectful to residents in Southeast Asia.

3. Be careful when using political imagery. Using the Statue of Liberty to signify freedom to an international audience may prove confusing because the audience is not sure what this American-centric icon is supposed to symbolize. If you do include political symbols, make certain you are using them correctly and respect- fully. Including the Indian flag in a presentation, for example, may be necessary and appropriate, but displaying it hanging upside down is certain to anger Indian audiences.

4. Avoid using culturally insensitive or objectionable photographs. A photo- graph portraying men and women eating together at a business conference is unac- ceptable in Saudi Arabia. Moreover, sitting with one leg crossed over the other is seen as disrespectful in many countries in the world.

Figure 10.33 Internationally Recognized Icons ©

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5. Avoid icons or clip art that international readers would misunderstand. In the United States, an owl can stand for wisdom, thrift, and memory while in Japan, Romania, and some African countries it is a symbol for death. A software program showing an icon of a mailbox (shown here) to represent email confused readers in other countries who thought the icon represented a birdhouse. A better alternative would be an icon of an envelope.

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Similarly, the Apple icon for “trash” (a garbage can) confused some international readers because not all garbage cans look alike.

6. Be cautious about using images or photos with hand gestures, especially in manuals or other instructional materials. Many gestures are culture-specific; they do not necessarily mean the same thing in other countries that they do in the United States. Table 10.3 lists cultural differences around the globe for some com- mon gestures.

7. Don’t offend international readers by using colors that are culturally inap- propriate. Red in China symbolizes happiness while yellow in Saudi Arabia signi- fies strength. Green is regarded as a sacred color in Saudi Arabia.

Always research (on the Internet or by consulting a representative from the audi- ence you want to reach) if the color scheme you have chosen is appropriate for your target audience. For example, purple is the color of death and mourning in Thailand as white is in China. Although orange is the symbolic color of Northern Ireland, avoid using it when writing to readers whose culture does not value that color.

Table 10.3 Different Cultural Meanings of Various Gestures

Gesture Meaning in the United States Meaning in Other Countries

OK sign (index finger joined to thumb in a circle)

All right; agreement Sexual insult in Brazil, Germany, Russia; sign for zero, worthless- ness in France

Thumbs-up A winning gesture; good job; approval

Offensive gesture in Muslim countries

Waving or holding out open palm

Stop Obscene in Greece—equivalent to throwing garbage at someone

Pointing with the index finger

This way; pay attention; turn the page

Rude, insulting in Japan, Sri Lanka, and Venezuela; in Saudi Arabia used only for animals, not for people

Nodding head up and down

Agreement, saying yes Greek version of saying “no”; in China means “I understand,” not “I agree”

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8. Be careful when using directional signs and shapes. While road signs tend to be fairly recognizable throughout the world—for example, the octagon is gener- ally understood as the shape for the stop sign—there are country-specific signs and code books. For instance, a pennant-shaped sign, signaling a no-passing zone on American highways, may not have the same meaning in Nigeria or India. The fol- lowing symbol points to a railroad crossing for American readers but would baffle an audience in the Czech Republic.

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9. Refrain from using sports-related imagery and symbols. While international audiences may know images related to soccer (or football, as it is called in most other countries), they may not know what a baseball diamond, bat, or glove is, or what the goalposts or end zone in American football looks like. It is better to stay away from such visual images (See also “Ten Guidelines for Communicating with International Readers,” pages 169–173).

10. Avoid confusing an international audience with punctuation and other writing symbols employed in the United States. Not all cultures use a question mark (?) to end a sentence asking a question, to represent the Help function in a computer program, or for an FAQ link on a website. Similarly, ellipses (. . .) and slashes (and/or) may not be a part of the language your international audience reads and writes. Be careful, too, about using the following graphic symbols, famil- iar to writers and speakers of U.S. English but not necessarily to an international audience:

# pound & ampersand (and) © copyright * asterisk

Include a glossary or a key to these symbols or any other graphics your reader may not understand, or revise your sentences to avoid these symbols.

conclusIon This chapter has introduced you to the types of visuals you can expect to use fre- quently in the world of work and has given you guidelines on how to construct or import, label, insert, introduce, and cite them in your writing. Following the guide- lines in this chapter will make your documents more businesslike, more persuasive, and easier for your readers to follow. Equally important, whenever you use a visual, always keep in mind the same ethical standards that you follow in your written work. Intentionally distorting a visual is akin to plagiarizing. You also need to be respectful of your audience’s culture and the context in which your visual will be included.

442 chapter 10 Designing Clear Visuals

●■ Selected most effective type of visual (table, chart, graph, drawing, photograph, infograph) to represent information the audience needs.

●■ Drafted and edited visual until it met readers’ needs. ●■ Determined right amount of detail to include in visual. ●■ Made sure every visual is attractive, clear, complete, and relevant. ●■ Gave each visual a number, a caption (title), and, where necessary, a legend and

callouts. ●■ Inserted visual close to the description or commentary accompanying it. ●■ Planned where to best place visual and surrounded each one with adequate white

space. ●■ Inserted page number where visual can be found. ●■ Introduced and interpreted each visual in appropriate place in report or proposal. ●■ Explained what visual shows and why it is important. ●■ Made sure every photograph is clear and relevant. ●■ Acknowledged sources for any copyrighted visuals and gave credit to individuals

whose statistical data are the basis of a visual. ●■ Secured written permission to use visual in published work, whether in print or in

an e-document (such as a website). ●■ Used and interpreted visuals ethically and appropriately. ●■ Did not distort or skew any visual to misrepresent data. ●■ Selected visuals and colors that respect the cultural traditions of international

readers.

✓ R E V I S I O N C H E C k l I S T

1. Bring to class printouts or screen shots of three or four home pages that use especially effective visuals. In a short memo or email (three or four paragraphs) to your instructor, indicate why and how each visual is appropriate for and convincing to a particular audi- ence. What would each home page look like without its visual?

2. Find a website you think includes poorly designed or inappropriate visuals. Explain to your instructor why these visuals are ineffective, and redesign two of them.

3. Locate a print document that is visual-poor, and select an appropriate visual to accom- pany it. Justify your choice of visual and its inclusion in an email to your instructor.

4. Record the highest temperature reached in your town for the next five days. Then collect data on the highest temperature reached in three of the following cities over the same period: Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Salt Lake City, San Francisco, Seattle. (You can get this information on the Internet.) Prepare a table showing the differences for the five-day period.

E x E R C I S E S

Exercises 443

5. Go to a supermarket and get the prices of four different brands of the same product (a candy bar, a soft drink, a box of cereal). Present your findings in the form of a table.

6. Recently, a government agency supplied statistics on the world production of oranges (including tangerines) in thousands of metric tons for the following countries during the years 2011–2015: Brazil, 2,098, 2,132, 2,760, 2,872; Israel, 909, 1,076, 1,148, 1,221; Italy, 1,669, 1,599, 1,766, 1,604; Japan, 2,424, 2,994, 2,885, 4,070; Mexico, 937, 1,405, 1,114, 1,270; Spain, 2,135, 2,005, 2,179, 2,642; and the United States, 7,658, 7,875, 7,889, 9,245. Prepare a table with that information and then write a paragraph in which you introduce and refer to the table and draw conclusions from it.

7. Keep a record for one week of the number of miles you walk, ride, or drive each day. Then prepare a line graph depicting that information.

8. Prepare a table to show the following statistical data: According to the 2000 census, the town of Ardmore had a population of 34,567. By the 2010 census, the town’s popula- tion had decreased by 4,500. In the 2000 census, the town of Morrison had a popula- tion of 23,809, but by the 2010 census, the population had increased by 3,689. The 2010 census figure for the town of Berkesville was 25,675, which was an increase of 2,768 from the 2000 census.

9. Prepare a line graph for the information in Exercise 8.

10. Prepare a bar graph for the information in Exercise 8.

11. Write a paragraph (four to five sentences) introducing and interpreting the following table for a website aimed at general readers.

Year Soft Drink Companies Bottling Plants

Per Capita Consumption (Gallons)

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

750 578 457 380 231 171 118 92 54 43 45 37 34 31 30

750 611 466 407 292 229 197 154 102 88 82 78 72 70 69

10.3 12.5 18.6 17.2 15.9 15.4 16.0 18.7 21.1 23.1 25.3 27.6 30.1 32.3 31.4

12. According to a municipal study in 2015, the distribution of all companies classified in each enterprise in that city was as follows: minerals, 0.4 percent; selected services, 33.3 percent; e- and brick-and-mortar sales, 36.7 percent; wholesale trade, 6.5 per- cent; manufacturing, 5.3 percent; and construction, 17.8 percent. Make a pie chart to

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represent the distribution, and write a one- or two-paragraph interpretation to accom- pany (and explain the significance of) your visual.

13. Construct a segmented bar chart to represent the kinds and numbers of courses you took in a two-semester period or during your last year in high school.

14. Prepare a bar chart for the different brands of the product you selected in Exercise 5. Write a paragraph introducing your chart.

15. Find a pictograph in a math or business textbook, in a magazine, or on a website from the Census Bureau or the Department of Labor Statistics. Make a bar graph from the information contained in the pictograph, and then write a paragraph introducing the bar graph and drawing conclusions from it.

16. Make an organizational chart for a business or an agency you worked for recently. Include part-time and full-time employees, but indicate their titles or functions with dif- ferent kinds of shapes or lines. Then write a brief letter to your employer explaining why your organizational chart should be distributed to all employees. Focus on the types of problems that could be avoided if employees had access to such a visual.

17. Prepare a flow chart for one of the following activities:

a. jumping a “dead” car battery b. giving an injection c. making a reservation online d. using an iPhone to check the status

of a flight e. checking your credit online f. putting out an electrical fire g. changing your email password

h. preparing a visual using a graphics software package

i. uploading a video to a social media site

j. joining a chat group k. filing for an extension to pay state

taxes l. any job you do

18. Prepare a drawing of one of the following simple tools, and include appropriate callouts with your visual.

a. high-definition TV e. swivel chair b. iPad f. Galaxy S6 c. pliers g. Compact fluorescent lightbulb d. stethoscope h. Makita circular saw

19. Draw an interior view of a piece of equipment you use in your major or on your job, and then identify the relevant parts using callouts.

20. Prepare appropriate visuals to illustrate the data listed in parts (a) and (b). In a paragraph immediately after the visual, explain why the type of visual you selected is appropriate for the information.

a. Life expectancy is increasing in the United States. This growth can be dra- matically measured by comparing the number of teenagers with the num- ber of older adults (over age 65) in the United States during the last few years and then projecting those figures. In 1970, there were approximately 28 million teenagers and 20 million older adults. By 1990, the number of teenagers

Exercises 445

climbed to 30 million, and the number of older adults increased to 25 million. In 2000, there were 27 million teenagers and 31 million older adults. In 2010, the number of teenagers had leveled off to 23 million, but the number of older adults soared to more than 36 million.

b. Researchers estimate that for every adult in the United States 3,985 cigarettes were purchased in 1990; 4,100 in 1995; 3,875 in 2000; 3,490 in 2005; 2,910 in 2010; and 2,720 in 2015.

21. Find a photograph that contains some irrelevant clutter. The marketing department of your company wants to use the photograph. Write a letter to the department head explaining what to delete and why.

22. Below are three examples of poorly prepared visuals with brief explanations of how they were intended to be used. Redo one of the visuals to make it easier to read and to better organize the information. Write a paragraph to accompany your new visual.

a. To illustrate a report on problems that pilots have encountered with a particular model of jet engine.

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Bearings (2) 3%

Oil system (25) 38%

Fuel controls (11) 17%Fuel pumps (1)

General (3) 4%

Flameout/ thrust loss (11)

17%

FOD (2) 3%

Throttle system (6)

Exhaust (1) 1%

Turbines (2) 3%

Accessories (3) 4%

b. To show that a hiking trail is compatible with wheelchair access laws.

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446 chapter 10 Designing Clear Visuals

c. to encourage programmers to write applications for the Android operating system.

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23. You work for a large manufacturer of industrial heat pumps and have been asked to help write a section of a report on the increased business your firm has been doing overseas. Based on the sales figures below for the years 2013, 2014, and 2015 (listed in that order) for each of the following countries, prepare two different yet complementary visuals. Also, supply a one-page description and interpretation of the statistics represented in your visuals. You may work collaboratively with one or more students in your class to pre- pare the visuals and to write the section of the report on international sales.

Argentina, 45, 53, 34; Australia, 78, 90, 115; Bolivia, 23, 43, 52; Brazil, 29, 34, 35; Canada, 116, 234, 256; China, 7, 100, 296; Denmark, 65, 54, 87; England, 256, 345, 476; France, 198, 167, 345; Germany, 234, 398, 429; Holland, 65, 80, 89; Italy, 49, 52, 97; Japan, 67, 43, 29; Korea, 55, 43, 28; New Zealand, 12, 69, 114; Norway, 33, 92, 104; Switzerland, 164, 266, 306; Sweden, 145, 217, 266.

In your written report, take into account trends, shifts in sales, and possible consequences for further marketing, and conclude with a specific recommendation to your employer.

24. You have been asked to create a logo, including a visual, for one of the following new businesses opening in your town. Explain your design and why you think it is effective.

a. solar panel installation firm b. home health care company c. studio offering musical instrument lessons d. outdoor apparel manufacturer e. toxic waste removal company f. math and science tutor

Exercises 447

25. Explain why the following visuals and graphic symbols would be inappropriate in communicating with an international audience and how you would revise a document containing them:

a. clip art showing a string tied around an index finger b. a picture of a man with a sombrero on a website for Pronto Check Cashing

Company c. clip art of a lightbulb and the logo “Smart Ideas” for a CPA firm d. clip art showing someone crossing the middle finger over the index finger (wishing

sign) e. a drawing of a cupid figure for a caterer f. a sales brochure showing a white and blue flag for a French audience g. a poster showing a women’s track and field team used to advertise a brand of foot-

ware to an Arabic-speaking audience h. a satisfied customer making the “okay” gesture in an ad aimed at a Japanese

audience i. an image of a rabbit on a website for an automobile manufacturer to stress how

fast its cars are j. a photograph of a roll of Scotch tape to show international readers that your com-

pany can solve problems quickly k. a photograph of a baseball umpire holding up his hands to ask readers to repeat a

step in a set of instructions l. a drawing of a white glove to sell home and carpet cleaning supplies

m. a piece of clip art showing a rooster for a business that opens early in the day n. the letters a, b, c in a box to indicate that a directory is alphabetically arranged o. a pair of scissors moving along a rectangle of dotted lines to indicate a merchant

offers prospective customers a money-saving coupon

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Designing Successful Documents and Websites

The success of your documents and websites depend as much on how they look as on what they say. As we saw, in the workplace, you will be expected to design professional-looking memos, letters, instructions, and reports; you may also be asked to create or contribute content to blogs and websites. This chapter gives you practical advice for making your work more reader-friendly and visually appealing.

CharaCteristiCs of effeCtive Design In designing documents and websites, you need to project a positive, professional image of yourself, your company, and your product or ser- vice. A report or website filled with nothing but thick, unbroken long paragraphs crowded to the margins, with no visual clues to break them up or to make information stand out, is sure to intimidate readers and turn them away. They will conclude that your work is too complex and not worth their effort or time. Readers expect documents and websites to be interactive, to use color images, and to include easy-to-scan texts and visuals. Your company, too, will win or lose points because of your design choices. A visually appealing document or website will enhance a company’s reputation and improve its sales. A poorly designed one will not.

Make your documents look user-friendly—clear, logical, and consistent—by signaling to your audience that your message is

●● easy to read ●● easy to follow and understand ●● easy to find and recall

This chapter will show you how to design professional-looking, reader- friendly documents and websites that are a credit to you and your company.

Chapter outline

Characteristics of Effective Design

Organizing Information Visually

The ABCs of Print Document Design

Desktop Publishing

Before Choosing a Design

Writing for and Designing Websites

Creating Storyboards for Websites and Other Documents

Four Rules of Effective Page Design: A Wrap-Up

C H A P T E R

11 Adam Mork/Architecture (RM)/Corbis

The ABCs of Print Document Design 449

organizing information visually Today’s web-based culture prizes visual thinking when you design all kinds of doc- uments. The way you organize and visualize information can help readers move quickly and clearly through your document. Take a quick look at Figures 11.1 and 11.2 (pages 450–453). The same information is contained in each figure. Which visu- ally appeals to you more? Which do you think would be easier to read? Which is better designed? As the two figures show, design or layout plays a crucial role in an audience’s overall acceptance of your work.

Figure 11.2 exemplifies the effective design characteristics (on the left) while Figure 11.1 sadly displays the ineffective ones (on the right).

Effective Design Ineffective Design ●● visually appealing ●● crowded ●● logically organized ●● disorganized/cluttered ●● clear/simplicity ●● hard to follow ●● accessible/scannable ●● difficult to read ●● varied/contrasting ●● boring, repetitious ●● relevant ●● inconsistent

Study the annotations to these figures to see how the errors in Figure 11.1 are corrected in Figure 11.2. By modeling your written work after the document in Figure 11.2, you can guarantee that your readers will appreciate your layout.

the aBCs of print DoCument Design The basic elements of effective document design are

●● page layout ●● typography, or type design ●● heads and subheads ●● graphics ●● color

The proper arrangement and balance of type, white space, and graphics involve the same level of preparation that you would spend on your research, drafting, revising, and editing. Just as you do research to find information, you have to research and experiment in order to adopt the most effective design for your document.

Page Layout Each of your pages needs to coordinate space and text pleasingly. Too much or too little of one or the other can jeopardize the reader’s acceptance of your message. To design an effective page layout, pay attention to the following elements.

1. White space. White space (blank space) refers to open areas on a page, such as margins and space around images, is free of text, visuals, or other design fea- tures, e.g., headings. It can help you increase the impact and tone of your message;

450 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

No title

Single- spacing makes document difficult to read

Lack of headings in color or boldface makes it hard for readers to organize material

Using so many different fonts may confuse readers and not be effective in emphasizing or highlighting information.

Uneven presentation of numbers

Lack of adequate margins makes document look dense and complex

Unnecessary italics are confusing

Inconsistent use of italics and boldfacing

Figure 11.1 A Poorly Designed Document

The results for the recent cholesterol screening at our company’s Health Fair were distributed to each employee last week. Many employees wanted to know more about cholesterol in general, the different types of cholesterol, what the results mean, and the foods that are high or low in cholesterol.

High cholesterol, along with high blood pressure and obesity, is one of the primary risk factors that may contribute to the development of coronary heart disease and may eventually lead to a heart attack or stroke. Cholesterol is a fatty, sticky substance found in the bloodstream. Excessive amounts of the bad type of cholesterol can deposit on the walls of the heart arteries. This deposit is called plaque, and over a long period of time plaque can narrow or even block the blood �ow through the arteries. Total cholesterol is divided into three parts—LDL (low-density lipoprotein), or bad cholesterol; HDL (high-density lipoprotein), or good cholesterol; and VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein), a much smaller component of cholesterol you don’t have to worry about. Bad (LDL) cholesterol forms on the walls of your arteries and can cause a lot of damage. Good cholesterol, on the other hand, functions like a sponge, mopping up cholesterol and carrying it out of the bloodstream. You should have received One is for your HDL (or good cholesterol ) and the other is for your LDL, or bad cholesterol, reading. These two numbers are added to give you the third, or composite, level of your total cholesterol. As you can see, a total cholesterol reading of below 200 is considered safe. Continue what you have been doing. If your reading falls in the moderate risk range of 200–239, you need to modify your diet, get more exercise, and have your cholesterol checked again in six months. If your reading is above 240, see your doctor. You may need to take cholesterol-lowering medication, if your doctor prescribes it. Reducing your total cholesterol by even as little as 25% can decrease your risk of a heart attack by 50%. The Surgeon General recommends that your LDL, or bad cholesterol, should at least be below 100; and your HDL, or good cholesterol, needs to be at least above 40. Ideally, the ratio between your HDL and overall cholesterol numbers should be between 3.5 and 5 to 1. That is, your HDL should be at least 20% of your total cholesterol number. The higher your HDL is, the better, of course. So even if you have a high LDL reading, if your HDL is correspondingly high you will be at less risk. One of the easiest ways to decrease your cholesterol is to modify your diet. Cholesterol is found in foods that are high in saturated fat. Saturated fat comes from animal sources and also from certain vegetable sources. Foods high in bad cholesterol that you should restrict or avoid, include whole milk, red meat, eggs, cheese, butter, shrimp, oils such as palm and coconut, and avocados. Generally, food groups low in cholesterol include fruits, vegetables, and whole grains (assorted wheat breads, oatmeal, and certain cereals), lean meats (�sh, chicken), and beans. The goal of our cholesterol screening is to help each employee lower his or her cholesterol level and eventually reduce the risk of heart disease. Besides the advice given above, you can do the following: get regular aerobic exercise—bicycling, brisk walking, swimming, rowing—for at least 30 minutes 3–4 times a week. But get your doctor’s approval �rst. Eat foods low in cholesterol but high in dietary �ber (beans, oatmeal, brown rice). Maintain a healthy weight for your frame to lower your body fat. Minimize stress, which can increase cholesterol. Learn relaxation techniques.

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The ABCs of Print Document Design 451

(Continued)

Title clearly set apart from text with capitalization, larger font, and use of color

Text is double- spaced with more ample margins, making it more readable

Page does not look cluttered

Headings in color and larger font divide material into easy-to-follow units for readers

Only key words being defined are boldfaced

Types of cholesterol are helpfully labeled with numbers

Consistent use of one typeface for text

Figure 11.2 An Effectively Designed Document with the Same Text as Figure 11.1

Cholesterol Screening

The results for the recent cholesterol screening at our company’s Health

Fair were distributed to each employee last week. Many employees

wanted to know more about cholesterol in general, the different types of

cholesterol, what the results mean, and the foods that are high or low in

cholesterol. We hope the information provided below will help employees

better answer their questions concerning cholesterol and our cholesterol

screening program.

Determining Risk Factors

High cholesterol, along with high blood pressure and obesity, is one of

the primary risk factors that may contribute to the development of

coronary heart disease and may eventually lead to a heart attack or

stroke. Cholesterol is a fatty, sticky substance found in the bloodstream.

Excessive amounts of the bad type of cholesterol can deposit on the walls

of the heart arteries. This deposit is called plaque and over a long period

of time plaque can narrow or even block the blood �ow through the

arteries.

Separating Types of Cholesterol

Total cholesterol is divided into three parts: (1) LDL (low-density

lipoprotein), or bad cholesterol; (2) HDL (high-density lipoprotein), or

good cholesterol; and (3) VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein), a much

smaller component of cholesterol you don’t have to worry about. Bad

(LDL) cholesterol forms on the walls of your arteries and can cause a lot of

damage. Good cholesterol, on the other hand, functions like a sponge,

mopping up cholesterol and carrying it out of the bloodstream.

452 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

Figure 11.2 (Continued)

Concise paragraph provides clear opening for new section

Emphasizes range of risk categories by setting them apart in a shaded box

Paragraph clearly defines and distinguishes numbers

Includes additional space between sections

Paragraphs are neither too long nor too short

Functional use of boldface, not overdone

Headings consistently formatted

Page is numbered in footer

Understanding Your Cholesterol Results

You should have received three cholesterol numbers. One is for your HDL

(or good cholesterol), and the other is for your LDL (or bad cholesterol)

reading. These two numbers are added to give you the third, or composite,

level of your total cholesterol.

Cholesterol levels can be classified as follows:

Minimal Risk Moderate Risk High Risk

below 200 200–239 above 240

As you can see, a total cholesterol reading of below 200 is considered safe.

You are doing fine. Continue what you have been doing. If your reading

falls in the moderate risk range of 200–239, you need to modify your diet,

get more exercise, and have your cholesterol checked again in six months.

If your reading is above 240, see your doctor. You may need to take

cholesterol-lowering medication, if your doctor prescribes it. Reducing

your total cholesterol by even as little as 25% can decrease your risk of a

heart attack by 50%.

Knowing the Relationship Between Bad and Good Cholesterol

The Surgeon General recommends that your LDL, or bad cholesterol,

should at least be below 100. And your HDL, or good cholesterol, needs to

be at least above 40. Ideally, the ratio between your HDL and overall

cholesterol numbers should be between 3.5 and 5 to 1. That is, your HDL

should be at least 20% of your total cholesterol number. The higher your

HDL is, the better, of course. So even if you have a high LDL reading, if

your HDL is correspondingly high you will be at less risk.

Recognizing Food Sources of Cholesterol

One of the easiest ways to decrease your cholesterol is to modify your diet.

Cholesterol is found in foods that are high in saturated fat. Saturated fat

The ABCs of Print Document Design 453

Figure 11.2 (Continued)

A double- spaced, numbered list helps readers easily identify foods with bad cholesterol

Easy-to-follow examples of foods low in cholesterol in parentheses

Heading signals conclusion

Bulleted list serves as both conclusion and plan for future action

comes from animal sources and also from certain vegetable sources. Foods

high in bad cholesterol that you should restrict include:

1. whole milk

2. red meat

3. eggs

4. cheese

5. butter

6. shrimp

7. oils such as palm and coconut

8. avocados

Generally, food groups low in cholesterol include fruits, vegetables,

and whole grains (wheat breads, oatmeal, and certain cereals), lean

meats (fish, chicken), and beans.

Realizing It Is Up to You

The goal of our cholesterol screening program is to help each

employee lower his or her cholesterol level and eventually reduce the

risk of heart disease. Besides the advice given above, you can do the

following:

Get regular aerobic exercise—bicycling, brisk walking, swimming,

rowing—for at least 30 minutes 3–4 times a week. But get your

doctor’s approval first.

Eat foods low in cholesterol but high in dietary fiber (beans,

oatmeal, brown rice).

Maintain a healthy weight for your frame to lower your body fat.

Minimize stress, which can increase cholesterol. Learn relaxation

techniques.

Source: Thanks to Sgt. Mannie E. Hall of the U.S. Army for his advice in drafting this document

454 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

use white space between paragraphs and sections to signal beginnings and endings. Skimping on white space by packing too much print on the page only distracts the reader from the message you want to convey. White space, on the other hand, can entice, comfort, and appeal to your audience’s “psychology of space” by

●● attracting and sustaining the reader’s attention ●● assuring the reader that information is presented logically ●● announcing that information is easy to follow ●● assisting the reader to organize information visually ●● allowing the reader to highlight important information

Again, compare Figures 11.1 and 11.2. Which document shows that it was designed by someone who understands the importance of white space?

2. Margins. Use wide margins, usually 1 to 1 ½ inches, to “frame” your document with white space surrounding text and visuals. Margins prevent your document from looking cluttered or overcrowded. If your document requires binding, you may have to leave a wider left margin (2 inches).

3. Line length. Most readers find a text line of 10 to 14 words, or 50 to 70 char- acters (depending on the type size you choose), comfortable and pleasing to read. Excessively long lines that bump into the margins signal that your work is difficult to read. In the following example, note how the extra-long lines unsettle your read- ing and tax your eye movement; they signal rough going.

To succeed in the world of business, workers must brush up on their networking skills. The network process has many benefits that you need to be aware of. These benefits range from finding a better job to accomplishing your job more easily and efficiently. Through networking you are able to expand the num- ber of contacts who can help you. Networking means sharing news and opportunities. The Internet is the key to successful networking.

Conversely, do not print a document with overly short or extremely uneven lines. To succeed in today’s busy world of business, workers must brush up on their networking skills. The network process has many benefits you need to be aware of.

Readers will suspect your ideas are incomplete, superficial, or even simple-minded.

4. Columns. Document text can be organized in either single-column or multi- column formats. Memos, letters, and reports are usually formatted without col- umns, whereas documents that intersperse text and visuals (such as newsletters and magazines) work better in multicolumn formats. Smaller typefaces also work well in multicolumn formats.

typography Typography consists of font (also called typeface), font size, font styles, justification, heads and subheads. Take a look at Figure 11.3, which illustrates dif- ferent typefaces and sizes.

The ABCs of Print Document Design 455

Font The readability of your text is crucial. Select a font, therefore, that ensures your text is

●● legible ●● appropriate for your message ●● attractive ●● ●complementary with accompanying

graphics●● functional

Fonts are also characterized as serif (the short cross-lines at the ends of some let- ters, such as the top of the G in “Georgia” in Figure 11.3) or sans serif (without the serifs). The font you use can make your document look businesslike or too casual. Avoid using a font that looks like script or cursive, and don’t mix and switch fonts. The result makes your work look amateurish and disorganized, as in Figure 11.1. Although Times New Roman and Arial are preferred for most workplace docu- ments, other fonts have different visual impacts, and designers often employ them in both printed documents and websites.

Font Size Font size options are almost unlimited. Font size is measured in units called points. There are 72 points to the inch. The larger the point size, the larger the type. Never print your letter or report in 6- or 8-point type, like classified ads in a newspaper, or in a size larger than 12-point type unless you are designing for readers with visual difficulties (see “Tech Note: Website Accessibility,” pages 471–472)

Font Styles Font styles include roman, boldface, italics, underlining, and small caps.

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Figure 11.3 Sample Typefaces and Type Sizes

8 point Georgia works well for endnotes and footnotes

12 point Times New Roman works well for main text and figure legends

14 point Arial works well for section headings

18 point Georgia works well for chapter titles

Roman Boldface

Italics Underl ining Small CapS

456 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

Avoid overusing boldface and italics. Use them only when necessary and not just for decoration. Do not underline the text unless absolutely necessary. Not only will too many special visual effects make your work harder to read, but you will also lose the dramatic impact these features have to distinguish and emphasize key points that rightfully deserve to be set in boldface or italic type.

Justification Sometimes referred to as alignment, justification consists of left, right, full, and centered options. Left-justified (also called unjustified or ragged right) text is pre- ferred because it allows the space between words to remain constant, making the text easier to read. In full-justified text (both left and right margins are aligned) the word spacing varies from line to line. Left justification gives a document a less for- mal look than full justification. Narrow columns of text should be set left-justified to avoid awkward gaps between words and excessive hyphenation.

heads and Subheads Heads (e.g., titles) and subheads (e.g., subtitles) are brief descriptive phrases that signal starting points or major divisions in your document. They provide helpful road signs for readers charting their course through a document, as in Figure 11.2. Heads divide, or chunk, your document into its major parts, sec- tions, or segments. Note how many of the figures in this book include heads and subheads. Heads immediately attract attention and quickly inform readers about the function, scope, purpose, or contents of your document and its individual sections, or that one section is finishing and another starting. Moreover, they help readers prioritize information by emphasizing the main points they need to look for and remember. Without heads and subheads your work will look unorganized and cluttered.

Our website offers consumers a mall on the Internet. It gives shoppers access to our products and services and makes buying easy and fun.

Our website offers consumers a mall on the Internet. It gives shoppers

access to our products and services and makes buying easy and fun.

Left-justified text Right-justified text

Our website offers consumers a mall on the Internet. It gives shoppers access to our products and services and makes buying easy and fun.

Our website offers consumers a mall on the Internet. It gives

shoppers access to our products and services and makes buying

easy and fun.

Full-justified text Centered text

The ABCs of Print Document Design 457

How to Write Heads and Subheads It takes time to write appropriate heads and subheads and determine where to place them in your document. Following the writing process described in Chapter 2, first map out what you want to say. By carefully outlining your work and then revising it, you can determine how many sections you will need and what kinds of information each should contain. In your final copy, every major section will require a head; and each subdivision will use a subhead. Look at the “Table of Contents” section (page 601) and Figure 15.3 (page 608) to see how the writer logically divided her work.

How to Format Heads and Subheads To design a document with logical heads and subheads, follow these guidelines.

1. Insert white space between the sections to make room for the head. Leave at least two additional spaces above and below a head to set it off from a previous section.

2. Use consistent typeface for headings and subheadings. Be consistent in the way you key each type of head—that is, center each head or align it flush with the left margin.

3. Use larger type size for heads and subheads than for text; major heads should be larger than subheads. If your text is in 10-point type, your heads may be in 16-point type and your subheads in 12- or 14-point type.

4. To further differentiate heads from subheads, use all capital letters, initial capi- tal letters (capitalize the first letter of each important word), boldface, italics, or different colors (see “Guidelines on Using Color Effectively,” page 459).

Note how the long reports in Figures 8.10 (pages 349–363) and 15.3 (pages 607–621) incorporate heads and subheads to divide and highlight information.

How to Keep Heads and Subheads Grammatically Parallel Heads and subheads should parallel each other grammatically. Note how the following headings, from a poorly organized proposal from the Acme Company, are not parallel:

●● What Is the Problem? ●● Describing What Acme Can Do to Solve the Problem ●● It’s a Matter of Time. . . . ●● Fees Acme Will Charge ●● When You Need to Pay ●● Finding Out Who’s Who

Revised, the heads are parallel and easier for readers to understand and follow:

●● A Brief History of the Problem ●● A Description of Acme’s Solutions ●● A Timetable Acme Can Follow ●● A Breakdown of Acme’s Fees ●● A Payment Plan ●● A Listing of Acme’s Staff

458 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

Grammatically parallel heads are easier to follow and further demonstrate that you have logically structured your document.

How to Make Heads Functional Heads not only alert readers to major sections of your work, but they also summa- rize what readers will find in each section. To make sure your heads and subheads are functional, follow these three guidelines:

1. Keep your heads and subheads concise, but avoid using vague, one-word titles such as “Conditions.” Readers will not know if you are referring to the weather, financial markets, or the terms of an agreement.

2. Don’t overuse heads; having too many heads is as bad as having too few (e.g., don’t start each paragraph with a head or subhead). Note how even in a short document such as Figure 11.2, several heads help readers better follow the discussion about watching their cholesterol.

3. Make sure each of your heads and subheads matches the divisions and subdivi- sions, as well as page references, found in your table of contents (see “Table of Contents,” page 601).

Lists Placing items in a list helps readers by dividing, organizing, and ranking information. Lists emphasize important points and make your page easy to read. Lists can also be numbered (as in Figure 11.2), lettered, or bulleted. Take a look at Figures 6.16 (page 223), 13.5 (pages 530–534), and 15.3 (pages 607–621), which effectively use lists.

Captions Captions are titles that can be found either above or below figures and help read- ers identify or explain a visual, a photograph, or other graphic. Captions also can provide information about the source or copyright holder for an image. (Chapter 10 discusses using captions with visuals in a document.)

Graphics The following list identifies some common graphics elements used when designing documents. (Use of specific visuals in documents is covered in Chapter 10; see pages 400–447.)

1. Boxes. Boxes isolate or highlight text or visuals. Figure 11.3 (page 455) is enclosed within a box to help set its content apart from the text around it.

2. Rules. Rules are classified as either vertical or horizontal. Vertical rules might be used to separate columns of text, while horizontal rules might separate sec- tions introduced by subheads.

3. Letterhead and logo. A company’s corporate image is represented and symbol- ized by its letterhead, usually consisting of a graphic, or icon, integrated with the company name. Notice the variety of letterheads and logos used in letters in Chapters 5 and 6, especially Figures 5.7 (page 170) and 6.12 (page 214). Often

Desktop Publishing 459

the company’s street address, email address, website, and social media URLs are part of the letterhead. Company letterhead conveys the firm’s message and symbolizes its mission statement and goals. Typically, logos and sometimes the entire letterhead are imported as graphics files. Letterhead and logos should creatively set one company apart from others.

Using color Using other types of color: shading, highlighting, background color in workplace documents is a good way to enhance readability, break up long segments of text, contrast sections/images, and tie important ideas together. Tastefully done, color can help sell ideas more effectively than black and white alone. You can use color for borders and graphic accents, headings, titles, and keywords. Addresses, sidebars, rules, and boxes that link related facts, figures, or information in websites are often in color. But first determine if using color serves a functional purpose, as in Figure 11.2, or if it is merely a decoration. If it is window-dressing, stick with black and white.

Guidelines on Using Color Effectively Here are some guidelines to follow when you use color in your documents or websites:

●● Estimate how the color will look on the page—colors look different on the screen than they do on a sheet of paper. Print a sample page to get a clear idea.

●● Make sure text colors contrast sharply with background colors in both print and web-based documents.

●● Use no more than two or three colors on a page or screen unless there are photographs, illustrations, or graphics. Too many colors are confusing and can clutter your message.

●● Too many bright colors overwhelm the eye, so use them sparingly—only to call attention to important elements.

●● Select “cool” colors, such as blue, turquoise, purple, and magenta, for back- grounds. However, avoid light blue text, which is hard to read against a dark background, or yellow text on a light blue background.

●● Use colors that respect an international reader’s cultural heritage. (See “Guidelines for Using Visuals for International Audiences,” pages 439–441).

Desktop puBlishing Desktop publishing programs, sometimes referred to as page layout software, pro- vide an inexpensive alternative to a professional print shop. Because desktop publishing software permits users to design page layouts, include visuals, and produce high- quality final copies, you can create printed documents right in your own home or office.

With desktop publishing you can

●● select from templates specifically designed for reports, newsletters, bro- chures, and other formats

●● design your own templates if you create similar documents often

460 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

●● take advantage of numerous font choices, type sizes, and styles (such as bold- face, italics, and underlining).

●● delete, insert, and move entire blocks of text ●● justify margins ●● change line spacing ●● center words, titles, or lines of text ●● break and number pages ●● arrange text in multiple columns ●● insert sidebars, tables, footnotes, headers, footers, and sidebar quotes ●● create graphics, such as illustrations, charts, and graphs that you have created

using the drawing tools of your software program. ●● import graphics such as drawings, photographs, icons, and logos

Study the advice given in the Case Study (see page 462) by a publications manager who designs her company’s newsletter

type While Times New Roman and Arial are preferred in the world of work, there are many different styles of type (see “Typography,” pages 454–456). All comput- ers equipped with software that contains a large number of typefaces. Addition- ally, thousands of high-quality fonts are available over the Internet at such sites as http://1001freefonts.com and www.fonts.com.

templates Desktop publishing software sometimes includes predesigned templates. Tem- plates, like those shown in Figure 11.4, are page layout patterns for reports, newsletters, brochures, and other marketing and communications documents. A template for a report, for example, would contain all the headings and divisions you need. You can also create and save your own template for an original format you use frequently.

Graphics Like other visuals, graphics work in conjunction with your words. A document without visuals or graphics may look boring, confusing, or unattractive. You will have to judge how and when a graphic can improve your message and help you convince your reader. (For more on creating effective visuals, see Chapter 10, pages 400–447.)

A graphics program allows you to draw shapes and lines that can be mani- pulated (skewed, enlarged) and offers options for sophisticated use of color and shading. With a drawing program, you can create diagrams, charts, and illustra- tions that can be saved and imported into word-processing or desktop publishing documents.

You can move and place graphics anywhere in a document. Graphic design programs provide customized graphs, charts, tables, and expanded font sizes and shapes.

Desktop Publishing 461

Different heading styles can be used at the top of documents, depending on the information being conveyed

Using multiple columns allows for flexibility when designing for different types of content and visuals

A two-column format such as the one on the left allows for a margin to be used for additional information, notes, links, or vsiuals (see the Case Study on page 462)

The format on the right allows for a pull-out quote or visual to be placed at the center of the content, showcasing its importance

Figure 11.4 Examples of Templates ©

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462 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

Designing a Company Newsletter: Advice from a Pro

My name is Jameka Harris, the publications manager at Mellon IT, a firm that has a strong commitment to designing professional-looking documents. I oversee the publication of the company’s monthly newsletter, available in a variety of formats—electronically, posted on our website, and printed in a limited number of hard copies to save paper and reduce costs. I make sure that the text is readable and the visuals are crisp, clear, and relevant.

Doing the Layout for Each Issue The first thing I do is to plan the way each issue will look—that is, the layout of both text and graphics. I use a template with a two-column vertical grid (see Figure 11.4, page 461) on each page. Into the grid I fit three or four stories as well as our regular features, including

●● a question-and-answer section ●● a staff profile ●● a calendar ●● a boxed insert with a safety tip

I have to calculate how much space to give each of these items so that the newsletter look balanced, uncrowded, and aligned.

Sequencing Each Issue The most important story is inserted in the left column, where readers often start looking at the issue. I make sure each story is in the same typeface (font) and type size. The title is in a boldface color type to stand out, followed by a byline in small caps. If a story is continued on another page, a “jumpline” in italics tells readers where, and, of course, I must save room for it on the continuing page.

Using Space But I do more than fit text into the available space. I also have to fit space in and around each story or feature. Double-spacing between paragraphs gives our newsletter an uncrowded look. I leave 3 picas of space between columns on a page so that the text in one column does not crash text or graphics in the other column. I also leave room for a header, which carries the page number and the title of the newsletter, and for a generous footer, or bottom margin, to frame the contents.

Using Visuals and Color Every visual needs to relate to the right story or feature, be clear, and be properly sized. While a visual too big dwarfs a story, one that is too small is hard to read. But if a reader’s browser does not have the right plug-in installed, he or she will see “Image cannot be displayed.” To avoid this, I translate text and graphics into HTML and plain text. In photo captions, I always verify the names of individuals in the photo to identify them for our readers. I leave plenty of space around each photo and other visuals to set them apart from the text.

Like visuals, color can make or break a newsletter. Color has to be tasteful, improve read- ability, be functional, not used just for decoration. The question-and-answer section, for instance, carries a blue banner, while the safety tip is aptly framed in red.

Design thus works in conjunction with the overall message of our newsletter.

Case study ©

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Before Choosing a Design 463

Here are some types of graphic tools available to you:

1. Drawing tools. Desktop publishing programs allow you to create a variety of shapes, rules, borders, and arrows. Having drawn a shape, you can use other tools to fill in or alter the appearance of the shape or to add words to it. You can also arrange all the elements into a graphic that communicates quickly and effectively.

2. Icons. Icons are symbols or visual representations of concepts or actions. The skull and crossbones on a container of poison is an icon that warns of danger (see “Cautions,” page 498). Graphic icons are simply pictures that communicate directly. Using a combination of image and color (see “Guidelines on Using Color Effectively,” page 459), they tell us at a glance which restroom to use or how to fasten the seat belt in an airplane. Examples of public service information icons are shown below:

3. Clip art. Clip art is a type of simple drawing, often classified by themes, that can be imported to your document. (See “Clip Art,” pages 430–431.) Some clip art packages and websites offer tens of thousands of images, arranged into such diverse categories as animals, computers, holidays, famous people, food, and various busi- nesses and technologies. Clip art is widely used to make business documents attrac- tive and appealing.

4. Stock photos and art. Stock photos and art can be imported for use in your documents or on your website. Popular low-cost stock image websites are istockphoto.com and shutterstock.com.

Before Choosing a Design Before you begin designing a document, you need to know exactly what you are designing, for whom, and how. Note that planning is the first thing the publica- tions manager does in the Case Study on page 462. Think carefully about how your work will look on the page, what you want to achieve, and what your resources are. Always get your plans approved by your boss or the publications committee. Here are questions to ask:

1. Who is your target audience? Will your readers be local residents or global consumers? What do they have in common—gender, location, educational level? You must consider how to reach and appeal to this group before you decide on a

464 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

“look and feel” for your document. Print size, style, and so forth should be selected based on the audience’s characteristics and needs.

2. What is the purpose of your document? Will you have to motivate readers to look at it? Use an eye-catching cover page, attractive colors, and short para- graphs. Or is your document required reading for co-workers and therefore subject to “house style”? Are you designing a newsletter for a professional group? If so, must you comply with a set of guidelines about how, for example, your newsletter should be laid out?

3. How will your document be reproduced? Will it be set by a professional printer, posted on the company website, or is it a document that can be printed out and distributed? This will affect the number and type of colors you use, the layout of the document, and the type and size of paper you select.

4. How will it be distributed? Will it fit in a standard size envelope? Will it need to be folded more than once? Do you need larger envelopes or a smaller page size? Or will the document be posted or distributed electronically?

5. How much will it cost? Financial decisions are crucial in making design choices. Color printing can be more expensive than standard black-and-white printing. If you use color, try to stick to one or two colors throughout to keep the costs down. Talk to your boss about the costs of reproduction before you decide on anything.

Writing for anD Designing WeBsites In the global marketplace, you need to apply the skills you have just learned in designing documents and visuals to an online environment (websites, blogs, etc.). In fact, companies often ask their employees to write for and prepare visuals for a corporate website, and while you may not be expected to construct a website on your own, you will likely be part of a team of specialists in information technology, graphics, and marketing responsible for your firm’s web presence. To be a helpful member of this team, you have to keep up with the latest features of website design and information on how your company can incorporate them. You may also be asked to critique a competitor’s website or to assist a client in preparing his/her website. This section of Chapter 11 stresses the principles and guidelines you need to follow to

●● help readers navigate your website quickly, moving from one part to another easily

●● ensure that your site is current ●● make your site user friendly (for global readers as well as English-speaking

audiences) ●● create a visually attractive site ●● keep your design and content ethical

*I am grateful to Father Michael Tracey, of Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, for his invaluable advice on designing websites.

Writing for and Designing Websites 465

Differences between Print Document Organization and Website Organization

The organization of a print document differs greatly from the organization of a website. To illustrate this difference, look again at the article in Figure 9.2, “Virtual Reality: Essential in Law Enforcement Training” (pages 377–381). The article has eleven sections presented in the following order:

1. Traditional Training Limitations 7. Firearms Training 2. Training with Virtual Reality 8. High-Risk Incident Management 3. How Does Virtual Reality Work? 9. Incident Re-creation 4. Uses for Virtual Reality 10. Crime Scene Processing 5. Law Enforcement Training 11. Is Virtual Reality Virtually Perfect? 6. Pursuit Driving

This is not how information looks on the Web or how it is processed by Web readers. A print document is usually read sequentially, page for page, whereas information on a website can be “navigated” using the search function or hyperlinks or both. This allows readers to customize their experience and focus on specific information. When an article like that in Figure 9.2 ap- pears online, it has to be organized like a web-based document, as in Figure 11.5.

When determining the best way to present the article online, you should first create a sto- ryboard to decide how and what information is to be presented (see “Creating Storyboards for Websites and Other Documents,” pages 473–474), including a home page with a URL ad- dress, an eye-catching but professional image or photo, and navigational tools such as menus and hyperlinks. You might want to start the article on your home page and provide a “More” link to guide readers into your site.

You could convert each of the eleven headings from the print article into hyperlinks, grouped under a navigation bar on the left side of the screen (as in Figure 11.5). Instead of turning pages, readers will click on the hyperlinks to jump to any section of the website.

To allow visitors to comment on the site, you will need to provide a comment form or an email address for readers to send in their responses. You will also want to provide a link for contact information, so that interested readers can get in touch by mail, phone, or email.

Case study

Web Versus Print readers To help design and write for the web, you need to recognize how webpages are read differently from the way print documents are.

1. Readers do not generally go through a website word for word hunting for information, carefully studying each sentence. They want to find information at a glance. On the average, web readers spend ten to eighty seconds scanning a page. If they don’t find what they need, they’ll click to another site.

2. Web readers want articles, news stories, and features to be more condensed, and more strategically arranged. They want only essential information.

(Continued)

466 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

About the Website Contact Us Search

http://www.virtualreality.com

Introduction

Traditional Training Limitations

Training with Virtual Reality

How Does Virtual Reality Work?

Uses for Virtual Reality

LAW ENFORCEMENT

Law Enforcement Training

Pursuit Driving

Firearms Training

High-Risk Incident Management

Incident Re-creation

Crime Scene Processing

Is Virtual Reality Virtually Perfect?

VIRTUAL REALITY

virtual reality

Bob Daemmrich/Alamy

Figure 11.5 The Home Page for a Website Based on the Virtual Reality Article in Figure 9.2

General information about the website, contact information, and search functionality are set in the top navigational bar

Hyperlinks allow for easy navigation

Uses appropriate visual to catch reader’s attention

Short chunk of text designed to guide reading

3. A web audience will not necessarily read your entire website. Because they may not have even begun their search at your site, your web audience may not navigate through your pages in any predetermined order, or even read all of its parts.

4. Web readers will expect navigational cues that readers of a print source do not have. A web audience will be looking for visual markers such as highlighted keywords to click on or bulleted lists, different colored text, commands such as search, click here, go to, go back, contact us, arrows and crosses, or hyperlinks of other sites to visit. Note how these cues are incorporated into the website in Figure 11.6.

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Writing for and Designing Websites 467

Figure 11.6 A Well-Designed Home Page

Spare, simple design avoids using unnecessary visuals and images

Page is carefully organized, visually balanced, and uncluttered

Left column headers use appropriate icons

Uses concise and clear language

Links arranged by audience needs

Additional links to content on the website are provided at the bottom of the home page

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Preparing a Successful home Page Successful home pages need to catch a visitor’s attention and sell a product or service, and/or introduce your organization clearly and effectively. For example, students applying for financial aid can find it a daunting process, but the design of the FinAid home page, Figure 11.6 helps to keep the research process upbeat

468 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

and easy to follow. Even the image of the student “jumping for joy” contrib- utes to the site’s user-friendliness. The writing style and tone, for example, are also appropriately conversational, friendly, and helpful—“Find everything from grants to . . . tuition payment plans”; “Beware scholarship scams.” The FinAid home page also provides clear links to the other related websites. Similarly, the CDC home page in Figure 11.7 uses appropriate images for the “Health & Safety Topics”—an airplane for “Travelers’ Health” and a pictograph of a family for “Life Stages & Populations.”

Designing and Writing for the Web: eight Guidelines By adhering to the following eight guidelines, you can create an effectively designed and written website that will capture your audience’s attention.

1. Make your site easy to find.

●● Choose a professional domain name that clearly and quickly tells readers what you do. Avoid cute spellings and fanciful names, e.g., happihouse.com. Instead, use a clear, easy-to-remember name, e.g., toledohousepainters.com. A good place to start is the InterNIC website (www.internic.net) which provides updated information on domain name registrations.

●● To optimize your chances of being listed by search engines, use keywords that sell your business or organization. Use Google’s AdWords’ Keyword Tool (https://adwords.google.com/KeywordPlanner) for help in choos- ing terms that will increase traffic to your site. The website featured in Figure 11.6, for example, uses dozens of keywords (including ones such as student aid, student financial aid, student loans, federal student aid, and college financial aid) to improve the possibility the site will be listed by search engines. Make sure you cross-link to relevant pages on your web- site as well.

2. Make your site easy to navigate.

●● Help your visitors find their way easily through your site with logical and effective navigation tools such as

hyperlinks search engines navigation bars button links indexes and menus rollover icons site maps and tables of contents previous, next, and back links

Provide multiple navigation aids such as clearly labeled sections, each illustrated with icons, and links to multimedia and tools, as in Figures 11.6 and 11.7.

●● The main navigation menu needs to be absolutely consistent on every page of your website so users don’t get lost.

●● Test every link to make sure it is current, that it works, and that it connects to related sites.

Writing for and Designing Websites 469

Figure 11.7 The CDC Home Page with Examples of Navigational Links

Animated banner changes to highlight 5 different stories

Uses appropriate icons

Easy to navigate because of images and menus

White space ensures page does not look crowded

Writing is concise, clear, easy to understand

Provides means to search site

●● Don’t overload your page with images, making it look crowded. Note how the FinAid website in Figure 11.6 uses a single image, five smaller icons, and boxes at the bottom left of the home page to help readers.

●● Don’t have your website to autoplay videos or make any noise at all without the user’s permission. This is a mistake that amateurs make, and it will alien- ate potential customers who may be browsing the site at work, on a bus or train, or in a crowded environment.

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470 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

3. Make your site informative.

●● Provide essential information on your home page, including your company’s name, address, email, phone number, and links to social media sites and your corporate blog. The more helpful your site is, the more likely it will draw repeat visitors.

●● Tell visitors what products or services you offer. Figure 11.6 offers tailor- made services (such as “Calculators”) to students, parents, and educators.

●● Indicate what type of information can be obtained through your website, in- cluding links to your customer service and technical support. The FinAid website in Figure 11.6 provides information quickly on scholarships, savings, military aid, and more.

●● Offer readers different types of interaction—FAQs, bulletin boards, ani- mated product demonstrations, and free email subscriptions. For example, the FinAid site offers a “Free Scholarship Search” (see Figure 11.6).

4. Make your site easy to read for both native English speakers and interna- tional readers.

●● Not only does the writing need to be concise, but lines of text should contain no more than twelve to fifteen words, as it’s much harder to read long lines on a computer screen than it is in print since you don’t have your hands to guide you. Avoid squeezing lots of text, clip art, and images onto a webpage.

●● Put the most important point first in a seven- to eight-word headline (e.g., “The SmartStudentTM Guide to Financial Aid”).

●● Write short descriptions of content—no more than three to four lines, as in the FinAid site in Figure 11.6.

●● Provide headings with attention-grabbing keywords, bulleted lists, and num- bered lists to help readers locate information quickly, (e.g., Scholarships, Loans, Military).

●● Include plenty of white space between sections. ●● Insert scannable terms and hyperlinks (such as the buttons or text underlined

and in blue in Figure 11.6). ●● Select fonts that are easy to read (see “Typography,” pages 454–456). The

more different fonts you use, the more unprofessional your site will look. Choose one or two standard fonts and stick with them throughout the site. Ditto with text color and font sizes.

●● Select background colors that make your text easy to read. For example, don’t use dark green lettering on a black background.

5. Keep your site updated.

●● New information is vital for selling your product or service on a company website. Feature a blog, updates about your business, or preproduction in- formation on products, services, community projects, and environmental ef- forts. Build in hyperlinks to product reviews, conferences, awards, and so on.

●● Broken links are a complete disaster for a business, because users will feel if the business is not professional enough to keep its website in working order,

Writing for and Designing Websites 471

what guarantee do they have that the product will work well and be delivered on time? There are free link-checkers online that you can use to go through your site line by line to make sure all links are working.

●● Revise the design of your home page if your company offers a new product or service or a new promotion. A revised home page alerts customers to the latest products and services.

●● Indicate when your site was last updated so readers will know your informa- tion is kept current.

6. Use images and icons effectively.

●● Arrange images and photos so they do not interfere with text. ●● Choose appropriate icons or images to illustrate menus and page sections.

Figure 11.6 uses easy-to-recognize icons for money and military assistance. ●● Be careful of putting things on your website that will take a long time to

load, like huge, high-resolution images, fancy fonts, animations, or video backgrounds. Users lose patience quickly and may move on to another site before your home page is even done loading.

●● Keep images proportional so that they are neither too big nor too small for the page.

Website Accessibility

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (see http://www.ada.gov/2010_regs.htm) and Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act (see http://www.section508.gov/section508 -laws) ensure equal access online for individuals with disabilities who are blind or have low vision and use screen readers (a type of assistive technology which “verbalizes” text). It also applies to deaf or hard of hearing individuals (who thus may need other types of assistive technologies).

Making sure your website is accessible to customers, clients, fellow employees, and the general public who may have disabilities should be a top priority when planning website design and implementation. Making your website accessible enables all users to learn about your company’s website, regardless of their different needs, connection speeds, platforms, or technological set-ups.

The website Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) (http://www.w3.org /WAI/intro/wcag) provides extensive information on how to make your website acces- sible. There are also accessibility checkers available online that can be used, such as the IDI Web Accessibility Checker (http://achecker.ca/) and the WAVE Web Accessibility Tool (http://wave.webaim.org/). But here are just a few general guidelines you can to follow:

●● Keyboard access. Since some users are unable to operate a mouse or a track pad, accessible websites should allow these readers to navigate using only a keyboard.

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472 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

7. Encourage visitor interaction by soliciting feedback.

●● Ask readers to email or contact you on social media about your product, service, or website. Make sure a procedure for handling that feedback is de- veloped within your organization.

●● Include a feedback form or survey with specifically targeted questions— including multiple-choice, pull-down menus, and comment boxes—about your website to encourage visitors to leave useful comments, such as the “eCards” section in Figure 11.7. (See “Surveys,” pages 313–319.)

8. Make sure your website is ethical.

●● Never post confidential or proprietary information. ●● Never post anything insulting or harassing, and never attack a competi-

tor, a colleague, another department in your company, or a government agency.

●● Do not plagiarize from another web (or print) source. Just because images are freely available on another site doesn’t mean you can use them on your own website. If you don’t have original images that you created, you will need to purchase licenses to use images from stock photo sites like Shutterstock, iStockphoto, dreamstime, or 123rf. If you include any information from an- other site—including quotations, visuals, or statistics—obtain permission, and acknowledge the source on your site.

●● Do not use sexist, racist, or other biased forms of language. Moreover, do not offend an international audience by using terms, names, or visuals that are insulting, stereotypical, or condescending. (See “Using Appropriate Visuals for International Audiences,” pages 438–441.)

●● Never make false or exaggerated claims. Be honest and accurate. Earn your readers’ and employer’s trust.

●● Background/foreground colors. Make sure there is ample contrast between the two on your website (see “Using Color,” page 459) to help those with visual impairments.

●● Document format. “Text only” is the most accessible format for documents online, allowing for easy use by screen readers. This format can be used in both Word and Google Doc documents.

●● PDF’s should be “tagged” for access. Tags allow screen readers to read text ac- curately and help individuals who are blind or have low vision to access content that would otherwise be inaccessible. Tagging needs to include not only text but headings, tables, and captions for images as well.

●● Captions. Any videos or audio files posted on websites should be captioned. Where necessary, provide printed transcripts of any audio or video content.

●● Alternative text for images. Any images (photos, graphs, figures) on a website should also include text descriptions.

Creating Storyboards for Websites and Other Documents 473

Creating storyBoarDs for WeBsites anD other DoCuments

To help you plan the design of a website or a print document such as a brochure, newsletter, or even a handbook, you may find it useful to create a storyboard. The concept of storyboarding originated in the film industry as a way for direc- tors to visualize scenes in their films before actually shooting them. Figure 11.8 (page 474) illustrates successive versions of a storyboard for the home page of a website.

Acting as a map to your site or as a preliminary layout of a document, a story board gives you a clearer idea about the structure and navigation of each page of your website or document, and it allows you to plan the interplay be- tween text and visuals. Like a draft of a report or proposal, your storyboard will become fuller the more you revise it—adding, moving, and linking content and graphics.

Here are some guidelines for effective storyboarding:

1. Map out the site or document pages. Label them according to various pages of the site or sections of the document, for example, Home Page, About Our Com- pany, Contact Us, Place an Order.

2. Plan the layout of each page. Consider what content each page must have and how that information can be signaled through graphics and typography. For instance, a home page should include your company’s logo, a brief introduction to or history of the company, and information about the goods or services it offers.

3. Determine basic design elements. Decide which fonts, backgrounds, and frames will look professional and appealing to customers. Then decide on size and height and where to place columns, images, sidebars, or highlighted areas.

Website Design Templates

While professional website designers might use powerful commercial software like Adobe Dreamweaver, Microsoft FrontPage, or NetObjects Fusion to create a company’s website, there are several online, template-based website design programs available for those who are not designers or who are without any specialized software knowl- edge. Such template-based programs, including Weebly, Wix, Squarespace, and Word- Press (among others), come with customizable designs and are organized to help users navigate through them. Most importantly, perhaps, website design templates allow you to just focus on the content and not have to worry about HTML coding, functional- ity, or navigation.

tech Note

474 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

Figure 11.8 Successive Versions of a Storyboard for a Home Page

Draft 1. Draft 2.

Draft 3. Draft 4.

Company Logo Co. Logo Home Contact

PLM Electronics Menu About Press Inter- national Careers

New Content

hyperlink to “Press”

Welcome & Services

link to “Services”

PLM Electronics PLM Head- quarters

Welcome

hyperlink to “Press”

News

links to “Services”

Image

New Product Image

CEO’s Photo

Image

Menu About PLM Services Online Solutions Business services

Press Center PLM World Careers Site Map

4. Build in navigational aids. Make searching your website quick and effective. Always include hyperlinks to an email form so that readers can contact you. Ensure that your website is easy to navigate by using a clear, concise menu for each of the separate areas of your website, and make sure that every page links back to your home page. For brochures or other documents, make sure you insert clear and con- cise headings and subheadings, and provide contact information.

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Four Rules of Effective Page Design: A Wrap-Up 475

four rules of effeCtive page Design: a Wrap-up The following four rules summarize the basic principles of effective document and Web design. If you adhere to them, your work, online or in print, will be profes- sional looking.

1. Keep it straightforward. Do not overuse graphic effects and type fonts in an effort to impress your audience; keep it straightforward so that you do not lose sight of the purpose of the document or website by using an over-the-top design.

2. Be consistent. Use your layout and design elements consistently throughout your document and website. Repeat your design elements on each page, including fonts, text alignment, colors, borders, and headings.

3. Make it clear. Make your message easy to read. Fancy designs may look good, but they do not always add to the clarity of your document or website.

4. Remember that less is more. Limit the number of items on your page. An item can be a paragraph of text or a picture, as long as it provides a focal point on the page. Too much information on a Web or document page can make it difficult to digest, and in the process information can be lost in the clutter.

Printed Documents ●■ Arranged information in the most logical, easy-to-grasp order. ●■ Included only relevant visuals—clip art, icons, stock photos. ●■ Left adequate, eye-pleasing white space in text and margins to frame document. ●■ Maintained pleasing, easy-to-read line length and spacing. ●■ Chose appropriate typeface for message and document and did not mix typefaces. ●■ Used effective type size, neither too small (under 10 point) nor too large (over

12 point), for body of text. ●■ Incorporated appropriate visual cues (for example, italics or boldface) for readers. ●■ Inserted heads and subheads to organize information for the reader. ●■ Used lists, bullets, and numbers to divide information. ●■ Chose colors to make sure they look professional, contrast with background, and

are appropriate for international readers. ●■ Learned features of desktop publishing program.

Websites ●■ Planned location of text and visuals with a storyboard. ●■ Designed website so that it is easy to find on major search engines.

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✓ R E V I S I o n C H E C K L I S T

476 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

1. Find an ineffectively designed print document—a form, a set of instructions, a brochure, a section of a manual, a catalog, a newsletter—and assume that you are a document design consultant. Write a sales letter (see “Sales Letters,” pages 192–198) to the com- pany or agency that prepared and distributed the document, offering to redesign it and any other documents they have. Stress your qualifications, and include a sample of your work. You will have to be convincing and diplomatic; precisely and professionally per- suade your readers that they need your services to improve their corporate image, cus- tomer relations, and sales or services.

2. Provide two or three poorly designed print documents or websites. Working with a team of three or four students, determine which of the documents and/or websites the group provided is the hardest to follow, the most unappealing, and the least logically arranged. After selecting that document or website, collaboratively write a memo to your instruc- tor on what is wrong with the design and what you would do to improve its appearance and organization.

3. As a group, redesign the document or website your group selected for Exercise 2. (Refor- mat it; add headings, spacing, and visual clues; include relevant visuals; and so on.) Sub- mit both the original and the redesigned document or website to your instructor.

4. Redesign the document in Figure 11.9 to make it conform to the guidelines specified in this chapter.

5. Redesign the document in Figure 11.10 to make it conform to the guidelines specified in this chapter. Reformat it; add headings, spacing, and visual clues; and provide a short introduction.

E x E R C I S E S

●■ Made sure navigation is clear and logical, not overly complex. ●■ Identified all pages either with headings or with text that explains the purpose of

each page. ●■ Ensured that the site is informative and relevant and that the content is current. ●■ Kept the site current by revising it frequently and including the most recent

research. ●■ Used headings, subheadings, and white space to break information into readable

chunks. ●■ Encouraged visitor interaction by soliciting feedback. ●■ Provided ways for reader to interact with the site, whether via email, a feedback

page, social media, or a blog where comments can be posted. ●■ Did not crowd images and text on the same page. ●■ Chose appropriate background colors so text is clear and easy to read. ●■ Strove to make sure the site is ethical.

Exercises 477

Figure 11.9 The “Before” Document for Exercise 4

Source: Texas Transportation Institute’s Researcher; article author, Chris Pourteau. Reprinted with permission of the Texas Transportation Institute.

GROUND BOX ELECTRONIC

UNITUP TO 4000'

Researchers determined that lead length can be up to 4,000 feet—more than four times the accepted length on freeway entrance and exit ramps.

Researchers determinted that lead length can be up to 4,000 feet—more than four times the accepted length on freeway entrance and exit ramps.

GROUND BOX

UP TO 4000’ ELECTRONIC

UNIT

478 chaPter 11 Designing Successful Documents and Websites

Figure 11.10 A Poorly Designed Document for Exercise 5

WHY SHOULD YOU WASH YOUR HANDS? Bacteria and viruses (germs) that cause illnesses are spread when you don’t wash your hands. If you don’t wash your hands, you risk acquiring: The common cold or flu Gastrointestinal illnesses Shigella or hepatitis A Respiratory illnesses Should you wash your hands? You need to wash your hands several times every day. Some important times to wash your hands are: BEFORE

After Using the bathroom. Changing a diaper or helping a child use the bathroom (don’t forget the child’s hands) Handling raw meats/poultry/eggs Touching pets, especially reptiles handling garbage Sneezing or blowing your nose, or helping a child blow his/her nose Touching any body fluids like blood or mucus Being in contact with a sick person Playing outside or with children and their toys WHEN SHOULD YOU WASH YOUR HANDS?

6. The home page of Stanley’s Accounting Temps in Figure 11.11 violates the guidelines for web designs given in this chapter. Write a one-page memo to your instructor specifying how Stanley’s Accounting Temps might better address its online customers. Group your recommendations under the headings of content, design, and navigation. As a support- ing document for your memo, design a new home page for the company by creating a storyboard for it.

7. Locate two websites that advertise a similar product, service, or industry. Analyze some of the webpage elements each one uses, comparing the strengths and weaknesses of each site. Write a one-page memo to your instructor explaining which is the more effective site and why.

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Exercises 479

8. Find a website that you believe is ineffective. Using “The Four Keys to Effective Writing” (pages 11–20), as well as your knowledge of webpage elements, write a one- page assessment of the site, discussing three or four changes you think would make it more effective. Attach a printed hard copy of the website’s home page with your assessment.

Figure 11.11 A Poorly Designed Home Page for Exercise 6

STANLEY’S ACCOUNTING TEMPS Let us help you save!

Accounting Book keeping Company History Tax plannign Job Opportunities Complaints Payroll solutions FAQs Other links

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480

Writing Instructions and Procedures

Clear and accurate instructions and procedures are essential to the world of work. Instructions tell—and frequently show—how to do something: perform a specific task (draw blood; install new software); operate a machine (a pH meter); construct, install, maintain, monitor, adjust, or repair equipment (an incubator; a scanner).

While the purpose of writing instructions is to explain how to per- form a task in a step-by-step manner, the purpose of writing procedures is slightly different. Often the two terms are incorrectly used inter- changeably. Procedures refers to policies, duties, protocols, and guide- lines that a business or organization expects its employees to follow.

InstructIons, Procedures, and Your Job As part of your job, you may be asked to write instructions and proce- dures, alone or with a group, for your co-workers or for your customers who use your company’s services or products. Your employer stands to gain or lose much from the quality and the accuracy of these documents you prepare. Well-written instructions and procedures are important because they ensure safety and efficiency at your workplace. They help you and your colleagues

●● assemble a product ●● know what problems are present in a process ●● carry out the duties your employer expects

This chapter will first show you how to develop, draft, illustrate, edit, and design a variety of instructions. Then it will move into a discus- sion of writing procedures about job-related duties.

WhY InstructIons are ImPortant Perhaps no other type of occupational writing demands more from the writer than do instructions because so much is at stake—for both you and your reader. The reader has to understand what you write and be

chaPter outlIne

Instructions, Procedures, and Your Job

Why Instructions Are Important

The Variety of Instructions: A Brief Overview

Assessing and Meeting Your Audience’s Needs

Using Word-Processing Software to Help You Design Instructions

The Process of Writing Instructions

Using the Right Style

Using Visuals Effectively

The Six Parts of Instructions

Model of Full Set of Instructions

Writing Procedures for Policies and Regulations

Some Final Advice

C H A P T E R

12 Adam Mork/Architecture (RM)/Corbis

Why Instructions Are Important 481

able to perform the steps. You cannot afford to be unclear, inaccurate, or incom- plete. Instructions are significant for many reasons, including safety, efficiency, and convenience.

Safety Carefully written instructions get a job done without damage or injury. Poorly written instructions can cause an injury and may result in costly damage claims or even lawsuits. Notice how the product labels in your medicine cabinet inform consumers how to take a medication safely. Without those instructions, consumers would be endangered by taking too much or too little medicine or by not adminis- tering it properly. To make sure your instructions are safe, they must be

●● accurate ●● clearly written ●● consistent ●● effectively illustrated ●● thorough ●● carefully organized

Your instructions also have to be legally proper. Companies have a legal and eth- ical obligation to prepare instructions that protect readers’ safety. Instructions must

●● specify what constitutes normal and proper use ●● warn about misuse and identify potential risks and hazards ●● signal any cautions, risks, or dangers through prominently displayed

symbols, warnings, and cautions ●● inform readers how to obtain further help

Failure to provide such information in plain, clear language that readers can under- stand and easily follow is regarded by the courts to be as serious as manufacturing a defective product or not meeting code specifications. Several government agen- cies such as the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (www.cpsc.gov) notify consumers about products that have been found to be unsafe.

Efficiency Well-written instructions help businesses run smoothly and efficiently. No work would be done if employees did not have clear instructions to follow. For example, without instructions on how to operate a piece of equipment, employees would not know how to get a job done. Imagine how inefficient it would be for a business if employees had to stop their work each time they did not have or could not under- stand a set of instructions. Equally alarming, what if employees made a number of serious mistakes because of confusing directions, costing a business sales, decreas- ing productivity, and increasing expenses? Giving readers helpful tips to make their work easier will increase their efficiency in doing it.

Convenience Clear, easy-to-follow instructions make a customer’s job easier and less frustrat- ing. Instructions reflect a product’s or service’s quality and convenience. They can create goodwill or destroy it. How many times have you heard complaints about

482 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

a company because its instructions were hard to follow? Poorly written and illus- trated instructions will cost your customers time and you their business. Custom- ers want instructions that are written in clear, plain language and that use helpful photographs or drawings so they can assemble, install, or use a product right away. Instructions are also a vital part of “service after the sale.” Owners’ manuals, for example, help buyers avoid a product breakdown and help them keep the product in good working order.

the VarIetY of InstructIons: a brIef oVerVIeW Instructions vary in length, complexity, and format. Wordless instructions such as those in Figure 12.1 from an airline safety card can be quickly understood by a large international audience. Other instructions are one word long: stop, lift, rotate, print, erase. Others are a few sentences long: “Insert blank disk in external disk drive”; “Close tightly after using”; “Store in an upright position.”

Instructions can be given in a variety of formats, both in print and online, and can include

●● numbered steps (see Figures 12.2; 12.3, page 484; and 12.4, page 485) ●● bulleted steps (see Figure 12.4) ●● concise paragraphs (see Figures 12.2–12.4) ●● online instructions (see Figure 12.4 and Figure 12.9, pages 500–509)

You will have to determine which of the above formats are most appropriate for the kinds of instructions you are to write.

Many instructions are given online. If you purchase a new iPad, for instance, online instructions will guide you in setting up and registering it. Figure 12.4 shows a set of instructions posted online to help its customers repair a leaky faucet. Websites for products and services often include hyperlinks to “help screens” that give consumers information on assembly and use. The long set of instructions on installing the Epson WorkForce 610 series printer in Figure 12.9 combines print and online instructions.

Instructions are also provided through videos on YouTube and other sites that actually show viewers how to assemble or install a product or perform another task.

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FIGURE 12.1 Wordless Instructions on How to Use an Oxygen Mask on an Airplane

The Variety of Instructions: A Brief Overview 483

In these online instructions, someone talks you through each step, alerts you to po- tential problems, and gives helpful tips at various stages of the process. One smoke detector manufacturer, for example, hired a New Jersey fire chief to demonstrate how to properly assemble, locate and mount, maintain, and test its product.

Source: Reprinted by permission of American Dental Hygienists’ Association. Illustrations adapted and used courtesy of the John O. Butler Company, makers of GUM Healthcare products.

Uses easy-to- follow steps with ample space between each one

Clear, numbered visuals help readers follow directions

Begins each step with strong, active verbs listed in color

Offers helpful hints

Explains why a step is important

FIGURE 12.2 Instructions That Supply a Visual with Each Written Step

Proper Brushing

Proper brushing is essential for cleaning teeth and gums effectively. Use a toothbrush with soft, nylon, round-ended bristles that will not scratch and irritate teeth or damage gums.

Place bristles along the gumline at a 45-degree angle. Bristles should contact both the tooth surface and the gumline.

Gently brush the outer tooth surfaces of 2–3 teeth using a vibrating back and forth rolling motion. Move brush to the next group of 2–3 teeth and repeat.

Maintain a 45-degree angle with bristles contacting the tooth surface and gumline. Gently brush, using back, forth, and rolling motion along all of the inner tooth surfaces.

Tilt brush vertically behind the front teeth. Make several up and down strokes using the front half of the brush.

Place the brush against the biting surface of the teeth and use a gentle back and forth scrubbing motion. Brush the tongue from back to front to remove odor-producing bacteria.

484 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

assessIng and meetIng Your audIence’s needs To assess your audience’s needs, put yourself in your readers’ position. Do not assume that your readers have performed the process before or have operated the equipment as many times as you have. (If they had, there would be no need for your instructions.) No one who has written a set of instructions ever disappointed readers by making directions too clear or too easy to follow. Remember, too, that your audience will often include non-native speakers of English, a worldwide audi- ence of potential consumers. The more you know about how and why your reader will use your instructions, the steps likely to cause problems, and the background information you need to supply, the easier and clearer your instructions will be to follow.

FIGURE 12.3 Instructions in a Numbered List

Uses numbered steps

Strong, active verbs give readers clear directions

Provides photograph to assist readers

Inserts “CAUTION” statement at proper place

Tells reader how to determine if he/she did step accurately

How to Copy Files to a USB Flash Drive from Your Laptop or Notebook

Follow these instructions to copy your files to a flash drive from your laptop or notebook. As you perform these instructions, refer to the photo of a USB flash drive below:

1. Insert the USB flash drive into a USB portal of your laptop or notebook.

2. Find the folder or file to be copied to the USB flash drive, and right-click on it. NOTE: The folder or file will be highlighted, and a menu with “Open” at the top will appear.

3. Within the menu, move your cursor down to the “Send To” option. Here you will see a list of locations where you may send the selected folder or file.

4. Choose the USB flash drive location. Your folder or file will be automatically copied over. CAUTION: DO NOT REMOVE THE USB FLASH DRIVE AT THIS POINT, OR YOU WILL RISK DAMAGING IT.

5. Go to “My Computer” from the “Start” menu, and double-click on the USB flash drive. If the folder or files you selected in Step 2 are listed here, your copying was successful.

6. Eject the USB flash drive before removing it from the computer. To do so, go to “My Computer” again, right-click on the USB flash drive, and select the “Eject” option from the menu.

7. Remove the USB flash drive from the USB portal.

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Assessing and Meeting Your Audience’s Needs 485

Key Questions to ask about Your audience The more you know about your audience, the better your instructions can be. To determine your readers’ needs, ask yourself the following questions:

●● How and why will my readers use my instructions? (Co-workers, consumers, and experts in the field all have different expectations.)

●● What language skills do they possess? Is English their first (native) language? ●● How much do my readers already know about the product or service? ●● How much background information will I have to supply? ●● What steps will most likely cause readers trouble? ●● What types of visuals do I need to supply (photographs for consumers; dia-

grams and spec sheets for technicians)?

Courtesy of Denver Water.

The company’s home page helpfully includes links to customer support and emergency contact information, and also makes the website available in Spanish

Begins with helpful information about the importance of the instructions

Easy-to-follow boldfaced numbered steps

Exploded drawing shows relationship of parts to one another making disassembling easier

Alerts reader to differences in faucets

FIGURE 12.4 Online Instructions on How to Repair a Leaky Faucet, Using a Numbered List, a Sequence of Steps, and an Exploded Drawing

486 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

●● How often will readers refer back to my instructions—every day or just as a refresher?

●● Where will my audience most likely be following my instructions—in the workplace, outdoors, in a workshop equipped with tools, or in their homes?

●● What resources, such as special equipment or energy sources, will my readers need to perform my instructions successfully?

Writing Instructions for International audiences Your instructions will often be aimed at a worldwide audience of potential custom- ers, many of whom do not use English as their first language and may be following your instructions through a translation of them into their native language. Here are some useful guidelines when writing instructions for this diverse group of readers:

1. Write in plain, simple language. Use international English (see “International Business Correspondence,” pages 169–180).

2. Use terms and units of measurement that your readers will understand. Avoid abbreviations, acronyms, and jargon, and don’t assume that international readers will use or understand the units of measurement common in the United States.

3. Make sure all of your visuals are clear and culturally appropriate. In some instances, your instructions may be given exclusively through visuals (as in Figure 12.1).

4. Be aware that colors can have different meanings. Red, yellow, and green, for instance, may not convey the same meaning in other cultures that they do in the United States. (See “Guidelines for Using Visuals for International Audiences,” pages 439–441.)

5. Ask a non-native speaker to review your instructions. This will ensure that your instructions are easy to understand for international readers and culturally sensitive.

usIng Word-ProcessIng softWare to helP You desIgn InstructIons

Take advantage of the following word-processing features to help you draft, revise, and format your instructions:

1. Brainstorm and cluster to get ideas and steps down. Find and compile the in- formation you will need to include in the steps of your instructions, and think ahead about possible warnings, cautions, and any helpful hints that users may need to complete the steps (see “Planning,” pages 46–49).

2. Take advantage of the Outline feature. This feature of word-processing pro- grams makes it easy to identify, order, and change the steps in a set of instruc- tions, allowing you to try out different options quickly and easily.

3. Choose a font that is easy to read. Fonts like Arial or Times New Roman provide clean and easy-to-read text for your instructions. (See “Typography,” pages 454–456.)

The Process of Writing Instructions 487

4. Use numbered and bulleted lists. Numbered steps help readers follow the se- quence of your instructions, and bulleted lists break up text to make it easier to read.

5. Provide adequate spacing. Always double-space between steps to set each apart and to make following the steps easier. See “The ABCs of Print Docu- ment Design,” pages 449–459.

6. Put any notes, cautions, or warnings right next to the step to which they pertain.

7. Employ boldface sparingly. Use it to emphasize warnings, cautions, and notes (see “Font Styles,” pages 455–456) so readers will not overlook the crucial mes- sages they contain.

8. Include icons/visuals that will be easy to understand for a broad range of readers. Put them as close to the steps they apply to as possible. Size any image correctly—neither so big that it will look unprofessional, nor so small that it cannot be seen clearly.

9. Avoid the use of underlining for emphasis. Underlined text may introduce confusion to your readers because it could be interpreted as a hyperlink.

10. Give readers hyperlinks within instructions when they will make their jobs easier.

the Process of WrItIng InstructIons As we saw in Chapter 2, clear and concise writing evolves when you follow a pro- cess. To make sure your instructions are accurate and easy for your audience to perform, you must plan your steps, perform a trial run, write and test your draft, and revise and edit.

plan Your Steps Before writing, do some research to understand completely the process you are ask- ing someone else to perform. Make sure you know

●● the reason for doing something ●● the parts or tools required ●● the steps to follow in the right order to get the job done ●● the results of the job ●● the potential risks or dangers

If you are not absolutely sure about the process, ask an expert for a demonstration. Do some background reading and talk to or email colleagues who may have written or followed a similar instruction.

perform a trial run Actually perform the job (assembling, repairing, maintaining, servicing, dissecting) yourself or with your writing team. Go through a number of trial runs. Take notes as you go along, and be sure to divide the job into simple, distinct steps for readers to follow. Don’t give readers too much to do in any one step. Each step should be complete, sequential, concise, and easy for your audience to understand and perform.

488 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

Meeting Your Audience’s Needs

The instructions contained in the United Solar Power memo in Figure 12.5 were sent to a tech- nical audience—photovoltaic (PV) technicians—who needed instructions on a special process. Even though the instructions are for a technical audience, they still have a clearly defined and focused introduction, use numbered steps, include a visual, and have a caution or warning statement.

FIGURE 12.5 Instructions Alerting a Technical Audience to Special Circumstances

Because the instructions are written for technicians, there is no need to explain that “PV” means “photovoltaic”

Explains why the instructions are important

Lists directions in numbered steps

High level of specificity needed because the instructions are aimed at a specialist

Uses boldface to indicate important points

Case study

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TO: All PV Technicians

FROM: Linda Swarski, Vice-President, Service Department SUBJECT: Safely Mounting and Wiring the PV Modules in the US6000 System DATE: April 5, 2016

The following policy has been formulated to help you safely and effectively mount and wire the PV modules in the US6000 system. The steps to perform are as follows:

Step 1 Review the NEC Article 110, Chapter 2; Article 250, Chapter 3; and Articles 300, 310, 480, and 690. Follow these provisions exactly to ensure a safe electrical installation.

Step 2 Map out the base plate grid and ensure that the array layout is at least 12" away from the sides and top of the roof, and at least 16" away from the eave of the roof (see Figure 1).

UNITED SOLAR POWERUNITED SOLAR POWER

The Process of Writing Instructions 489

FIGURE 12.5 (Continued)

Clear visual illustrates one of the steps

Identifies important conditions

Indicates a dangerous situation with a red CAUTION and use of boldface

Contact information prominently displayed in boldface

The Process of Writing Instructions 489

Write and test Your Draft Transform your notes into a draft (or drafts) of the instructions you want readers to follow. Then conduct a usability test by asking individuals from the intended audi- ence (consumers, technicians) to follow your instructions as you have written them. Ask participants to read your instructions aloud and ask questions. Observe where they run into difficulty—or get results different from yours.

Step 3 When installing the PV panels to the base plates, never allow the output cable to be wedged in between the mount and the panel frame, as this can cause short circuits and fire.

Step 4 Make sure each PV panel's connectors are pushed in all the way; they will malfunction if not fully inserted.

Step 5 Properly secure the output cable to the mount, as high winds will cause damage to loose-fitting cables and result in substandard energy generation.

CAUTION: PV panels generate electricity whenever they are exposed to sunlight. Be extremely careful handling the panels during the installation process. You could experience an electrical shock if you touch the wires or connectors of the panel's electrical cable.

If you have any questions about the above, please feel free to text me at (609) 559-1002 or [email protected].

Figure 1

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At least 12" from the sides and top of roof

At least 16" from eave

490 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

revise and Edit Based on your observations and user feedback, revise your instructions to avoid

●● missing steps ●● too many activities in one step ●● steps that are out of order ●● unclear or incomplete steps

Consider whether your instructions would be easier to accomplish if you included visuals.

Analyzing the needs and the background of your audience will help you choose appropriate words and details. A set of instructions accompanying an en- vironmentally safe floor cleaner would obviously use different terminology, abbre- viations, and level of detail than would a set of instructions a professor gives a class in organic chemistry.

General Audience: Place 8 drops of vinegar in a test tube with a piece of limestone about the size of a pea.

Specialized Audience: Place 8 gtts of CH3COOH in a test tube, and add 1 mg of CaCO3.

usIng the rIght stYle To write instructions that readers can understand and turn into effective action, ob- serve the following guidelines.

1. Make sure verbs are in the present tense and imperative mood. Impera- tives are commands without the pronoun you. Note how the instructions in Figures 12.2, 12.3, and 12.4 contain imperatives—“Reinstall the stem” instead of “You reinstall the stem.” In instructions, deleting the you is not discourteous, as it would be in a business letter or report. The command tells readers, “These steps work, so do them exactly as stated.” Choose imperative verbs such as those listed in Table 12.1.

2. Write clear, short sentences in the active voice. Keep sentences short and uncomplicated. Sentences under twenty words (preferably under fifteen) are easy to read. Note that the sentences in Figures 12.2, 12.3, and 12.4 are, for the most part, under fifteen words. But do not omit articles (a, an, the) or any connective words (such as and, but, and however) which will make your instructions harder to follow.

3. Use precise terms for measurements, distances, and times. Indefinite, vague directions leave users wondering whether they are doing the right thing. Avoid vague words such as frequently, occasionally, probably, and possibly. The following vague direction is better expressed through precise revision.

Vague: Turn the distributor cap a little. (How much is a little?) Precise: Turn the distributor cap one quarter of a rotation.

Using Visuals Effectively 491

4. Include connective words as signposts. Connective words specify the exact order in which something is to be done (especially when your instructions are writ- ten in paragraphs). Words such as first, then, and before help readers stay on course, reinforcing the sequence of the procedures.

5. Number each step when you present your instructions in a list. You also can use bullets. Plenty of white space between steps also distinctly separates them for the reader.

usIng VIsuals effectIVelY Readers welcome visuals in almost any set of instructions. A visual can help readers get a job done more quickly and increase their confidence to

●● see what an object or piece of equipment looks like fully assembled ●● identify the size and placement of parts ●● understand how to assemble parts effectively and easily ●● illustrate the right and wrong way to do something ●● see if a piece of equipment works properly ●● identify possible sources of danger, injury, or malfunction ●● determine whether a problem is serious, minor, or even not a problem.

The number and kinds of visuals you include will, of course, depend on the pro- cess or equipment you are explaining and on your audience’s background and needs. Some instructions may require only one or two visuals. The instructions in

TablE 12.1 Some Helpful Imperative Verbs Used in Instructions

add adjust apply attach back up blow boldface call up change check choose clean click clip close connect contact copy cover create cut delete

determine dig display double-click download drag drain drill drop ease eject eliminate enter exit fasten find flip flush follow forward gather group

hold include increase insert inspect install lift link on load log on loosen lower lubricate maintain measure mix mount move navigate notify oil open

pass paste peel pick up plug point pour press prevent print provide pry pull push raise reboot release remove replace reply review roll

rotate rub run save scan scroll scrub select send set shake shift shut off slide slip spread squeeze start stop strain switch tab down

tear thread tie tighten tilt trace transect transfer trim turn twist type unplug use ventilate verify wash weigh wind wipe wire wrap

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492 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

Figure 12.3 telling users how to copy files using a USB flash drive show what a USB flash drive looks like. In Figure 12.2, however, each step is accompanied by a visual demonstrating a proper technique for brushing teeth.

One frequently used visual in instructions is an exploded drawing, like the one in Figure 12.4, which helps consumers see how various parts of a faucet fit together, or the one in Figure 12.6, which labels and shows the relationship of the parts of an industrial extension cord.

Guidelines for Using Visuals in Instructions Follow these guidelines to use visuals effectively in your instructions:

1. Set visuals off with white space so they are easy to find and read. 2. Place each visual next to the step it illustrates, not next to another step, buried

at the bottom of the page, or on another page. 3. Select a visual that is appropriate for your audience. For example, a photo of

a person demonstrating a proper stretch technique is sufficient for a general audience, which does not need an elaborate medical illustration of the muscular system.

4. Assign each visual a number (Figures 1 and 2), and refer to it by figure number in your instructions.

Source: Drawing courtesy of Sally Eddy.

FIGURE 12.6 Exploded Drawing Showing How to Assemble an Industrial Extension Cord

1. Run the end of the cord through the clamp end and then through the center hole of the housing.

2. Pull the cord through until it extends 2 inches beyond the housing. 3. Strip about 11⁄4 inches of outer insulation from the end of the cord. 4. Twist the exposed ends to prevent stray strands.

dClamp End Housing Black Wire / Yellow Screw

Green (Ground) Wire / Green Screw

Assembled Plug

White Wire / White Screw

Connector Insert

The Six Parts of Instructions 493

5. Make sure the visual looks exactly like the object the user must assemble, run, maintain, or repair. Using a photo of a different model might confuse readers.

6. Always inform readers if a part is missing or is reduced in your visual. 7. Where necessary, label or number parts of the visual, as in Figure 12.2.

Refer to Chapter 10 for further guidelines on numbering visuals (see “Identify Your Visuals,” pages 407–408) and inserting them in your document (see “Intro- duce Your Visuals,” page 409).

the sIx Parts of InstructIons Except for very short instructions, such as those illustrated in Figures 12.1 through 12.6, a set of instructions generally contains six main parts: (1) an introduction; (2) a list of equipment and materials; (3) the actual steps to perform the process; (4) warnings, cautions, and notes; (5) a conclusion (when necessary); and (6) a troubleshooting guide. The long set of instructions on installing a printer in Fig- ure 12.9 contains most of these.

Introduction The function of your introduction is to provide readers with enough necessary background information to understand why and how your instructions work. An introduction must make readers feel comfortable and well prepared before they turn to the actual steps.

What to Include in an Introduction Not every introduction to a set of instructions will contain all six categories of in- formation listed here. Some instructions will require less detail. You will have to judge how much background information to give your readers for the specific in- structions you write.

1. State why the instructions are useful for a specific audience. Many instruc- tions begin with introductions that stress safety, educational, or occupational ben- efits. Here is an introduction from a set of safety instructions describing protective lockout of equipment.

The purpose of these instructions is to provide plant electrical technicians with a uni- form method of locking out machinery or equipment. This will prevent the possibility of setting moving parts in motion, energizing electrical lines; or opening valves while repair, setup, or cleaning work is in progress.

Note how Figure 12.7 (page 495) highlights the safety and convenience of using an infusion pump, helping the nursing staff meet their patients’ needs.

2. Indicate how a particular piece of equipment or process works. An intro- duction can briefly discuss the “theory of operation” to help readers understand why something works the way your instructions say it should. Such a discussion sometimes describes a scientific law or principle. An introduction to instructions on

494 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

how to run an autoclave begins by explaining the function of the machine: “These instructions will teach you how to operate an autoclave, which is used to sterilize surgical instruments through the live additive-free stream.”

The introduction in Figure 12.7 describes the function and features of the LifeCare Provider 5500 System and pump.

3. Point out any safety measures or precautions a reader may need to be aware of. By alerting readers early in your instructions, you help them perform the pro- cess much more safely and efficiently. The introduction in Figure 12.7 cautions the nursing staff about an audible alarm signal in the event of a malfunction.

4. Stress any advantages or benefits the reader will gain by performing the instructions. Make the reader feel good about buying or using the product by ex- plaining how it will make a job easier to perform, save the reader time and money, or allow the reader to accomplish a job with fewer mistakes or false starts. Again, the introduction in Figure 12.7 informs nurses that the infusion pump can be quickly programmed.

5. Provide hyperlinks. When readers will be following your instructions online (as in parts of Figure 12.9), provide hyperlinks to any sites or materials they need to know about. Similarly, provide relevant cross-references in printed instructions.

List of Equipment and Materials Clearly, some instructions, as in Figure 12.2, do not need to list all of the materials readers will need. But when you do, make your list complete and clear. Do not wait until the readers are actually performing one of the steps to tell them that a certain type of drill or a specific kind of chemical is required. They may have to stop what they are doing to find the equipment or material; moreover, the procedure may fail or present hazards if users do not have the right equipment at the right time. For ex- ample, if a Phillips screwdriver is essential to complete one step, specify that type of screwdriver under the heading “Equipment and Materials”; do not list just “screw- driver.” See Figure 12.8 (page 496), which shows images of the types of tools and screws necessary to remove a refrigerator door.

Steps for Your Instructions The heart of your instructions will consist of clearly distinguished steps that read- ers must follow to achieve the desired results. Figure 12.9 (pages 500–509) contains a model set of steps on how to set up an all-in-one printer. Note how each step is precisely keyed to the visual, further helping readers perform the procedure. Refer to Figure 12.9 as you study this section.

Guidelines for Writing Steps To help your readers understand your steps, observe the following rules.

1. Put the steps in their correct order, and number them. If a step is out of order or is missing, the entire set of instructions can be wrong or, worse yet, dangerous.

The Six Parts of Instructions 495

Double-check every step, and number each one to indicate its correct place in the sequence of tasks you are describing (see Figure 12.9, pages 500–509).

2. Include the right amount of information in each step. Make each step short and simple. Giving readers too much information can be as risky as giving them

FIGURE 12.7 Introduction to a Guide for Using an Infusion Pump

Source: Reprinted by permission of Abbott Laboratories Hospital Products Division.

Gives function of equipment

Points out time- saving features

Explains security option

Describes different modes or options

Calls attention to convenience features

Emphasizes safety features

Use of color to distinguish parts, various modes

1OverviewOrientation

Bolus Mode

Continuous Mode

Intermittent Mode

Continuous-plus-Bolus Mode

Display Panel

496 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

too little. Keep in mind that each step should ask readers to perform a single task in the entire process. In the following example showing how to access voice mail, note how the first version combines too many steps, while the revision corrects the problem:

Incorrect: 1. To access your voice mail, make sure you’ve listened to old messages and then press “1” to obtain your new messages.

2. When each new message is finished, press “7” to delete the message or “8” to store it in the archives. Press “2” to replay the message.

3. To review your saved messages, press “9.” To end the call, press “#.”

Correct: 1. To access your voice mail, press “1” to obtain your new messages. 2. When each new message is finished, press “7” to delete the message or

“8” to store it in the archives. Press “2” to replay the message. 3. To review your saved messages, press “9.” 4. To end the call, press “#.”

3. Group closely related activities into one step. Sometimes closely related actions do belong in one step to help the reader coordinate activities and to em- phasize their being done at the same time, in the same place, or with the same equipment.

Don’t divide an action into two steps if it has to be done in one. For example, instructions showing how to light a gas furnace would not list as two steps actions that must be performed simultaneously to avoid a possible explosion:

Incorrect: 1. Depress the lighting valve. 2. Hold a match to the pilot light.

Correct: 1. Depress the lighting valve while holding a match to the pilot light.

Similarly, do not separate two steps of a computer command that must be per- formed simultaneously.

Incorrect: 1. Press the control key. 2. Press the alt key.

Correct: 1. While holding down the control key, press the alt key.

FIGURE 12.8 List of Tools Needed for Instructions on How to Remove a Refrigerator Door

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Instructions on How to Remove a Refrigerator Door

Top Hinge Cover Front

Screw 3/8” Fixed

Wrench

Top Hinge Cover Rear

Screw

Top Hinge Screw

Adjustable Wrench

TOOLS NEEDED:

Phillips™ Head

The Six Parts of Instructions 497

4. Give the reader hints on how best to accomplish the procedure. Obviously, you cannot do that for every step, but if there is a chance that the reader might run into difficulties, provide some helpful advice to make the step easier to perform: “If there is blood on the transducer diaphragm, dip the transducer in blood solvent, such as hydrogen peroxide or Hemosol.” You can also tell readers if they have a choice of materials and techniques or how they might obtain the best results: “Sev- eral thin coats of paint will give a better finish than one heavy coat.”

5. State whether one step directly influences (or jeopardizes) the outcome of another. Because all steps in a set of instructions are interrelated, you do not have to tell readers how every step affects every other. But stating specific relationships is particularly helpful when dangerous or highly intricate operations are involved. You will save the reader time, and you will stress the need for care. Forewarned is forearmed. Here is an example:

Step 2: Tighten the fan belt. Failure to tighten the fan belt now will cause it to loosen and come off when the lever is turned on in Step 5.

Do not wait until Step 5 to tell readers that you hope they did a good job tightening the fan belt in Step 2. Information that comes after the fact is not helpful and could potentially be dangerous.

6. Where necessary, insert graphics to assist readers in carrying out the step. Almost every step in the set of long instructions in Figure 12.9 (pages 500–009) is illustrated with a drawing of the printer, an enlargement of a part, or a screenshot.

7. Your instructions might be translated into an international reader’s lan- guage, as you can see in the warning statements in the next section.

Warnings, Cautions, and Notes At appropriate places in the steps of your instructions, you may have to stop the reader to issue a warning, a caution, or a note. Warnings and cautions are mandatory texts that you must provide to protect the user of the equipment from injury, or to protect hardware or software from costly damage to your company. A note usually provides related information, such as an explanation, a tip, a comment, or other useful, but not life-threatening or equipment-damaging information. Study the fol- lowing examples as well as those in Figure 12.9, especially for Step 4, pages 504–505, “Install ink cartridges.”

Warnings A warning ensures a reader’s safety. It tells readers that a step, if not prepared for or performed properly, could seriously injure them, as the following warning does, or even endanger their lives.

WARNING: UNPLUG MACHINE BEFORE REMOVING PLATEN GLASS.

ADVERTENCIA: DESENCHUFE LA MAQUINA ANTES DE QUITAR EL VIDRIO.

Spanish translation

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498 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

Cautions A caution tells readers how to avoid a mistake that could damage equipment or cause the process to fail—for instance, “Do not force the plug.”

Caution: Formatting erases all data on the disk

Even diligent readers sometimes only skim or glance at a document. But some icons, like those below, universally convey “warning” or “caution” without requir- ing any text or explanation.

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Notes A note does not comment on the safety of the user or the equipment but does pro- vide clarification, options, or a helpful hint on how to do the step quicker or more efficiently.

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

–10 –20 –30

160 140 120 100

80 60 40 20

0 –20

F8 C8 At 20 degrees F, a battery uses about 68 percent of its power.

Eksi 7 derecede, bir pil enerjisinin yaklasik yuzde 68 ini kullanir.

Guidelines for Using Warnings, Cautions, and Notes

1. Do not regard warnings and cautions as optional. They are vital for legal and safety reasons to protect lives and property. In fact, you and your company can be sued if you fail to notify the users of your product or service of dangerous condi- tions that could result in injury or death.

2. Put warnings and cautions as close as possible to the step to which they per- tain. (The exact placement may vary depending on the context and nature of the warning.) If you insert a warning or caution statement too early, readers may forget it by the time they come to the step to which it applies. Putting the notification too late exposes the reader, and possibly equipment as well, to risk.

3. Graphically set warnings and cautions apart from the rest of the instruc- tions. Use icons such as those shown earlier. Print such statements in capital letters,

Chinese translation

Turkish translation

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Model of Full Set of Instructions 499

boldface, or different colors. Red is especially effective for warnings and cautions if your readers are native speakers of English. But remember that colors have differ- ent meanings in other countries (see “Guidelines for Using Visuals for International Artists,” pages 439–441). If you expect your product to be used globally, you might consider rendering cautions using a different (but distinct) color, such as in Fig- ure 12.9, where green is used to set cautions apart from the rest of the text.

4. Include relevant explanations to help readers know what to watch out for and what precautions to take. Do not just insert the word WARNING or CAUTION. Explain what the dangerous condition is and how to avoid it. Look at the examples of cautions in Figure 12.9.

5. Do not include a warning or a caution just to emphasize a point. Putting too many warnings or cautions in your instructions will decrease their impact on read- ers. Use them sparingly—only when absolutely necessary—so readers will not be tempted to ignore them.

6. Use notes only when the procedure calls for them and when they help readers. See how functional the notes are in Figure 12.9.

Conclusion Not every set of instructions requires a conclusion. For short instructions contain- ing only a few simple steps, such as those in Figures 12.1 through 12.6, no con- clusion is necessary. For longer, more involved jobs, a conclusion can provide a succinct wrap-up of what the reader has done, end with a single sentence of con- gratulations, or reassure readers. A conclusion might also tell readers what to expect once a job is finished, describe the results of a test, or explain how a piece of equip- ment is supposed to look or operate. Figure 12.9 ends with an “Any questions?” section that supplies a comprehensive list of ways readers can receive further help and guidance. Always supply contact information and hyperlinks, should a reader need further information.

troubleshooting Guide Instructions can also come with a section on troubleshooting to help readers when they encounter a problem. Often formatted as a table or chart, troubleshooting guides describe the problems that are most likely to occur and explain the easiest ways to correct them. Troubleshooting tips can also be found within various steps of a set of instructions, or online, as shown on the last page of Figure 12.9. Troubleshooting guides and tips help consumers avoid frustration and the expense of a service call.

model of full set of InstructIons Study Figure 12.9, which is a full set of instructions for setting up an Epson all-in- one printer. It includes most of the parts discussed in this chapter: an introduction; a list of materials; numbered steps; cautions and notes; and a conclusion.

500 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

FIGURE 12.9 Complete Set of Instructions with Visuals Showing Parts Included

Visuals show contents

Unpacking serves as an introduction to the product

Note reassures readers about use of different model names

Courtesy of Seiko Epson Corp.

Intended for a global audience, these instructions are a model of a user-friendly document. They are written and formatted for consumers to be easy to read and to perform. The language is clear and concise. Sentences are short and direct, yet the tone is free from any cultural bias.

Pay special attention to how these instructions coordinate words, visuals, and colors to assist readers. Each step is clearly numbered and accompanied by an ap- propriate visual (e.g., enlarged drawing) or visual device (arrows, icons, directional symbols). Screen shots are inserted to help readers understand various steps they need to perform instructions online. Finally, caution statements and notes are in- serted in the appropriate places to make sure readers install and set up their Epson all-in-one printer safely.

Model of Full Set of Instructions 501

FIGURE 12.9 (Continued)

Uses two-level numbering— large circled numbers for the major sections and smaller boldfaced numbers for each step in those sections

Enlarged drawing and contrasting colors assist readers to identify, connect, and move parts

Uses color to have note stand out

(Continued)Courtesy of Seiko Epson Corp.

Caution notice alerts readers to possible product damage

Colored arrows assist readers in unpacking contents

502 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

FIGURE 12.9 (Continued)

Uses symbols, screens, and keypads to visualize and reinforce each step

Specifies and explains options

Each step begins with imperative verb

Courtesy of Seiko Epson Corp.

Model of Full Set of Instructions 503

FIGURE 12.9 (Continued)

Courtesy of Seiko Epson Corp. (Continued)

Repeated use of red print alerts reader not to perform a step yet

Each step includes written directions and often an appropriate visual

Uses boldface for emphasis

Provides helpful tip on changing date and time settings

504 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

FIGURE 12.9 (Continued)

Gives important information before readers perform the steps

Directional arrows illustrate correct movement of parts

Specifies number of repetitions

Caution notice inserted in appropriate place with symbols showing wrong way to perform step

Courtesy of Seiko Epson Corp.

Model of Full Set of Instructions 505

FIGURE 12.9 (Continued)

Visual clues reinforce the right way to perform step

Helps reader know when step is carried out successfully

Uses concise language

Note and caution notices help readers use product more economically and efficiently

Courtesy of Seiko Epson Corp. (Continued)

506 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

FIGURE 12.9 (Continued)

Generous white space makes steps easier to distinguish and to follow

Groups related activities in one step

Supplies helpful information on best way to use product

Includes three visuals, two of them enlarged drawings, pinpointing exact places reader needs to recognize to perform the step

Courtesy of Seiko Epson Corp.

Model of Full Set of Instructions 507

FIGURE 12.9 (Continued)

Visuals show right and wrong ways to load paper

Instructions written in concise and clear language

Courtesy of Seiko Epson Corp. (Continued)

508 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

FIGURE 12.9 (Continued)

Instructions clearly indicate product options

Section 7 alerts readers that they can use different types of connections

Arrows point to where instructions for each type of connection can be found

Courtesy of Seiko Epson Corp.

Model of Full Set of Instructions 509

FIGURE 12.9 (Continued)

Courtesy of Seiko Epson Corp.

Provides information on how and where readers can receive further help

Color helps to identify options for readers

Indicates further support available online; supplies hyperlinks

Boilerplate information that appears with all Epson products

510 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

WrItIng Procedures for PolIcIes and regulatIons

Up to this point, we have concentrated primarily on instructions dealing with how to put things together; how to install, repair, or use equipment; and how to alert readers to mechanical or even personal danger.

But there is another type of writing that provides guidelines for getting things done in the world of work: procedures. These concern policies and regulations found in employee handbooks and other internal corporate communications, such as on websites, in memos, in email messages, or on a company’s intranet (a private computer network). Note, however, that some companies do not disseminate policy via email because it is perceived as less formal than hard copy and can accidentally be deleted. Figure 12.10 (pages 512–513) shows an example of a company’s flextime procedures written in a memo format.

Some Examples of procedures Procedures deal with a wide range of “how-to” activities within an organization, including the following:

●● accessing a company file or database

●● preparing for an audit, a transition, a merger

●● applying for family or medical leave

●● dressing professionally at work or at a job site

●● forwarding and routing information

●● reserving a company vehicle or facility

●● submitting a work-related grievance, e.g, bullying, discrimination

●● requesting travel expense reimbursement

●● fulfilling promotion requirements

●● requesting a transfer within the company

●● using company email

●● posting to one of the company’s social media websites

Writing Procedures for Policies and Regulations 511

Policy procedures have a major impact on a company and its workers. They affect schedules, payrolls, acceptable and unacceptable behaviors at work, and a range of protocols governing the way the organization does business inter- nally and externally. Procedures also help an organization run smoothly and consistently. Adhering to them, all employees follow the same regulations and standards.

Meeting the Needs of Your Marketplace As with instructions, you will have to plan carefully when you write a set of proce- dures. A mistake in business procedures can be as wide ranging and as costly as an error in a set of assembly instructions because poorly written procedures can land a company or its employees in significant financial and legal trouble.

To avoid such difficulties, spell out precisely what is expected of employees— how, when, where, and why they are to perform or adhere to a certain policy. Use the same strategies as for instructions discussed earlier in this chapter. Leave no chance for misunderstanding or ambiguity; be straightforward and clear-cut. De- termine what information employees need in order to comply with your company’s regulations.

Many times procedures involve a policy or a change in the work environment. Help readers by including, whenever necessary, definitions, headings, some prefa- tory explanations, and an offer to assist employees with any questions they may have. Always present the procedures to management to approve or to revise before sending them to employees via hard copy or as an e-document.

Writing Procedures at Work

Scheduling employees’ time is a major consideration in the world of work. Figure 12.10 shows a memo from Tequina Bowers, a human resources manager, notifying employees how they can take advantage of a new flextime schedule. Note how Bowers divides her procedures into an introduction explaining when flextime will go into effect and what choices employees have, a section that clearly defines flextime, and finally the specific guidelines. Her job is to make sure the procedures are clear, do not contradict current company policy, and explicitly identify actions that a company will not tolerate; for example, switching hours with another employee.

The various regulations about what employees cannot do in flextime might be seen as the equivalents of the warning and caution statements discussed earlier (see “Warnings, Cau- tions, and Notes,” pages 497–499). But note that Bowers’s memo does not veer off to discuss benefits to the employer or to examine where flextime has been used elsewhere. Finally, this example of procedural writing protects NewTech, Inc. legally by establishing the policies by which an employee’s scheduled work time is clearly defined, delineated, and assessed.

Case study

512 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

FIGURE 12.10 Memo Outlining Procedures to Follow Regarding a New Scheduling Policy

TO: All Employees FROM: Tequina Bowers Human Resources Schedule DATE: March 21, 2016 SUBJECT: Procedures for Opting for a Flextime Schedule

Effective 60 days from now, on May 20, 2016, employees will have the opportunity to switch to a �extime schedule or to remain on their current 8-hour �xed schedule. This memo explains the new �extime option and sets out the procedures you must follow if you choose this new schedule.

What is Flextime?

Flextime is based on a certain number of core hours and �exible hours. Our company will be open twelve hours, from 6:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. weekdays, to accommodate both �xed and �extime schedules. During this 12-hour period, all employees on �extime will be expected to work 8½ consecutive hours, which includes a half-hour for lunch.

Regardless of schedule options, all employees must work a common core time from 10:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m., but �extime employees will be free to choose their own starting and quitting times. For instance, they might elect to arrive at 8:00 a.m. and leave at 4:30 p.m., or they may want to start at 9:30 a.m. and leave at 6:00 p.m.

Flextime Guidelines and Rules

Employees are expected to understand their individual responsibilities and adjust their schedules accordingly. All �extime employees must adhere strictly to the following regulations and realize that the option of a �extime schedule will be revoked for violations.

NewTech, Inc. 4300 Ames Boulevard, Gunderson, CO 81230-0999 303.555.9721 www.newtechinc.com www.facebook.com/NewTechInc

Notifies readers of new policy and states purpose of the memo

Spells out precisely how company defines flextime—uses boldface for most important information

Provides helpful examples

Stresses employee responsibilities and consequences of violating rules

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Writing Procedures for Policies and Regulations 513

FIGURE 12.10 (Continued)

What Flextime Employees Must Do

(1) Be present during core time, but arriving and leaving the facility during their �exible work hours.

(2) Observe a minimum unpaid half-hour lunch break each working day. (3) Cooperate with their supervisors to make sure adequate coverage is provided

for their department from 6:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. (4) Notify supervisors at once if you know you will be absent. (5) Attend monthly corporate meetings even though such meetings may be outside

their chosen �extime schedules. (6) Adhere to company dress codes during any time they are at work, regardless of

their �extime schedule. (7) Agree to work on a �extime schedule for a minimum 6-month period.

What Flextime Employees Can’t Do

(1) Be tardy during core time. (2) Switch, bank, borrow, or trade �extime hours with other employees without

the written approval of an immediate supervisor. (3) File for overtime without a supervisor’s approval. (4) Self-schedule a vacation or leave by expanding �extime hours. (5) Alternate between �xed time and �extime.

How Do You Sign Up for Flextime?

If you opt for a �extime schedule, �rst you need to obtain and complete a transfer of hours form from your supervisor. Next, you must sign up on the Human Resources department website to participate of�cially in this program.

I will be happy to talk to you about this new work schedule and to answer any questions. Please call me at ext. 5121, email me at [email protected], or visit the Human Resources Dept in Admin. 201. Thank you for your cooperation.

page 2

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Numbered points make policy easier to understand, follow, and refer to in the future

Stipulates what new policy will not allow in clear and concise language

Explains steps to begin flextime

Encourages feedback and questions

Carefully outlines what is acceptable according to new policy

514 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

●■ Analyzed my intended audience’s background, especially why and how they will use my instructions.

●■ Tested my instructions to make sure they include all the necessary steps in their proper sequence.

●■ Ensured all measurements, distances, times, and relationships are precise and correct. ●■ Avoided technical terms if my audience is not a group of specialists in my field. ●■ Used the imperative mood for verbs and wrote clear, short sentences. ●■ Made my instructions easy to read and follow for an international audience. ●■ Chose effective visuals, labeled them, and placed them next to the step(s) to which

they apply. ●■ Included relevant hyperlinks in online instructions to provide readers with help

screens or further information. ●■ Made my introduction proportionate to the length and complexity of my instruc-

tions and suitable for my readers’ needs. ●■ Included necessary background, safety, and operational information in the

introduction. ●■ Provided a complete list of tools and materials my audience needs to carry out the

instructions. ●■ Put the instructions in easy-to-follow steps and in the correct chronological/

sequential order. ●■ Used numbers or bullets to label the steps and inserted connective words to

reinforce order. ●■ Inserted warnings, cautions, and notes where necessary and included culturally

appropriate icons and colors that make them easy to find and to understand. ●■ Supplied a conclusion that summarizes what readers should have done or reassures

them that they have completed the job satisfactorily. ●■ Provided troubleshooting guide to help readers identify a problem and take

appropriate steps to fix it. ●■ Clearly spelled out policies, protocols, responsibilities, restrictions, and

consequences of procedures for readers.

✓ R E v i s i o n C H E C k l i s T

some fInal adVIce Perhaps the most important piece of advice to leave you with is this: Do not take anything for granted when you have to write a set of instructions or procedures. It is wrong and sometimes dangerous to assume that your readers have performed the procedures before, that they will automatically supply missing or “obvious” in- formation, or that they will easily anticipate your next step or know what is ex- pected of them at work without being informed. No one ever complained that a set of instructions was too clear or too easy to follow. Similarly, make sure that the procedures you may be called upon to write are easy to understand and to follow.

Exercises 515

●■ Defined any terms readers may be unfamiliar with in procedures and, where helpful, provided an example.

●■ Submitted a copy of procedures to administrators for their approval before distributing to employees.

E x E R C i s E s

1. Find a set of instructions that does not contain any visuals but that you think should to make the directions clearer. Design those visuals yourself, and indicate where they should be inserted in the instructions.

2. In a technical manual in your field or in an owner’s manual, locate a set of instructions that you think is poorly written and illustrated. In a memo to your instructor, explain why the in- structions are unclear, confusing, or badly formatted. Then, revise the instructions to make them easier for the reader to carry out. Submit the original instructions with your revision.

3. Write a short set of instructions in numbered steps (or in paragraph format) on one of the following relatively simple activities.

a. tying a shoe b. using an ATM to withdraw money c. setting a DVR to record a television show d. sending a text message e. planting a tree or a shrub f. sewing a button on a shirt g. removing a stain from clothing h. pumping gas into a car i. creating a blog j. logging onto your college library’s server k. polishing a floor l. shifting gears in a car

m. taking a photograph with a mobile phone n. posting a video to your Facebook account

4. Write an appropriate introduction and conclusion for the set of instructions you wrote for Exercise 3.

5. Write a set of full instructions on one of the following more complex topics. Identify your audience. Include an appropriate introduction; a list of equipment and materials; num- bered steps with necessary warnings, cautions, and notes; a troubleshooting guide; and an effective conclusion. Also include whatever visuals you think will help your audience.

a. scanning a document b. accurately collecting a specimen or lab sample

516 ChaptEr 12 Writing Instructions and Procedures

c. testing chlorine in a swimming pool d. shaving a patient for surgery e. removing “red eye” from a digital photo f. surveying a parcel of land g. creating a slideshow of the digital photos you took on a job h. jumping a dead car battery i. using the Heimlich maneuver to help a choking individual j. testing a circuit k. setting up a video conference call using Skype l. taking someone’s blood pressure

m. editing digital video n. welding a V-joint o. recording a podcast p. establishing the right dpi/resolution for an image you are using in a set of

instructions q. backing up your computer files to an external hard drive r. building a backyard composting system s. decontaminating a doctor’s exam room after an infectious patient leaves

6. The following set of instructions is confusing, vague, and out of order. Rewrite the instructions to make them clear, easy to follow, and correct. Make sure that each step follows the guidelines outlined in this chapter.

Reupholstering a Piece of Furniture

(1) Although it might be difficult to match the worn material with the new material, you might as well try.

(2) If you cannot, remove the old material. (3) Take out the padding. (4) Take out all of the tacks before removing the old covering. You might want to save

the old covering. (5) Measure the new material with the old, if you are able to. (6) Check the frame, springs, webbing, and padding. (7) Put the new material over the old. (8) Check to see if it matches. (9) You must have the same size as before.

(10) Look at the padding inside. If it is lumpy, smooth it out. (11) You will need to tack all the sides down. Space your tacks a good distance apart. (12) When you spot wrinkles, remove the tacks. (13) Caution: in step 11, do not drive your tacks all the way through. Leave some room. (14) Work from the center to the edge in step 11. (15) Put the new material over the old furniture.

P.S. Use strong cords whenever there are tacks. Put the cords under the nails so that they hold.

Exercises 517

7. Write a set of procedures on “greening” a student union or an employee rest area. This exercise can be done collaboratively, with each member of the team taking a key area: lighting, heating/cooling, recycling, noise pollution, food services. Include a relevant visual with your procedure.

8. Write a set of procedures, similar to Figure 12.10, for one of the following policies or regulations:

a. offering quality customer service over the phone or via the Web b. filing a claim for a personal injury on the job c. decorating an employee’s personal space—what is and is not allowed? d. checking social media at work e. ensuring confidentiality at work f. enrolling in mandatory courses to maintain a license or certificate g. playing music in the workplace h. going through an orientation procedure before beginning a new job i. following an acceptable company dress code j. allowing tattoos and body piercings in the workplace k. registering a domain name for a sponsored group at work or school l. receiving reimbursement for carpooling, taking public transportation, or riding a

bicycle to work m. using a company vehicle n. going on a service call to a customer’s home o. changing filters, parts, etc., on a periodic basis at work p. representing your company/organization at a professional meeting q. greening an office space r. submitting documentation for a promotion s. traveling with a pet on an airplane or a train t. requesting a refund for inadequate service

518

Writing Winning Proposals

A proposal is a detailed plan of action submitted to a reader or group of readers for approval. The readers are usually in a position of authority— supervisors, managers, department heads, company buyers, elected officials, military or civic leaders—to endorse or reject the plan. Your proposal must convince these readers that your plan will help them im- prove their business, save them money, enhance their image on social media, improve customer satisfaction, make the environment safer, or all of these.

Proposals are written for many purposes and many different audi- ences. You can write an internal proposal, for example, to your boss, seeking authorization to hire staff, change a procedure, or purchase new equipment or software. Or you can write a sales proposal to potential customers, offering a product or a service (such as providing training with new, special firefighting gear or selling an office manager a line of ergonomically designed furniture).

Grant proposals, when writers apply for funding—to staff a com- munity center or run a rural clinic—must follow the detailed guidelines found in RFPs (see “Solicited Proposals and Requests for Proposals (RFPs),” pages 520–523) specified by the funding agency, which is often a government office or charitable foundation.

Depending on the job, proposals can vary greatly in size and in scope. A formal proposal can be a very long and complex document running into hundreds of pages. A proposal to your employer, however, about redesigning the company website could easily be conveyed in a few pages, the length of a short report. To propose doing a small job for a prospective client—for example, establishing an electronic record re- trieval system—a letter with information on costs, materials, and a time- table might suffice. The sales letter in Figure 6.3 (page 195) illustrates a short proposal in letter format. Proposals can be unsolicited—that is, they originate with you—or they can be solicited, requested by a com- pany or organization, as in Figure 13.6 (pages 537–539).

Chapter Outline

Proposals Are Persuasive Plans

Proposals Frequently Are Collaborative Efforts

Types of Proposals

Eight Guidelines for Writing a Successful Proposal

Internal Proposals

Sales Proposals

Proposals for Research Reports

A Final Reminder

C H A P T E R

13 Adam Mork/Architecture (RM)/Corbis

Proposals Are Persuasive Plans 519

prOpOsals are persuasive plans Proposals, whether large or small, must be highly persuasive to succeed. Without your audience’s approval, your plan will never go into effect, however accurate and impor- tant you think it is. Your enthusiasm is not enough; you have to supply hard evidence. Your proposals must convince readers that your plan is relevant, practical, based upon careful research, and designed to benefit the reader and his or her company.

Every proposal you write must exhibit a “can do” attitude, putting the reader and his or her company’s needs at the center of your work. Show readers how approving your plan will save them time and money, increase productivity, enhance corporate image, improve employee morale, or attract new business. The tone of your proposal should be “Here is what I can do for you.” Yates Engineering has won millions of dollars of business through its reader-centered proposals. Its slogan is “On time . . . within budget . . . to your satisfaction.” Time, budget, and your readers’ satisfaction and convenience are among the key ingredients of a winning proposal.

Customize your proposal by personalizing it. Use online surveys (see “ Online Survey Builders, page 319) and social media feedback to help you gauge your audience’s needs. Take into account also comments on review sites such as Yelp, TripAdvisor, and Angie’s List. Advertisements such as the ones in Figure 1.7 (page 24) often contain mini- proposals appealing to a customer’s need for a more economical and efficient way to do things. Notice how the advertisement in Fig- ure 13.1 encourages potential clients to purchase a security package based on a

Figure 13.1 An Example of a “Can Do” Attitude

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520 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

variety of available options from motion detection systems to video surveillance to well-trained officers.

prOpOsals Frequently are COllabOrative eFFOrts Like many other examples of business and technical writing, proposals often are the product of teamwork. Even a short in-house proposal, such as the one in Figure 13.5 (pages 530–534), is often researched and put together by more than one individual in the company or agency.

Many times, individual employees will pull together information from their separate areas (such as graphics and design, finance, marketing, technology, trans- portation, and even legal) and put it into a proposal that each member of the team then reads and revises until the team agrees that the document is ready to be released.

types OF prOpOsals Proposals are classified according to (1) how they originate and (2) where they are sent after they are written. Distinctions are made between solicited and unsolicited proposals based on how they originate and between internal and external proposals based on where they are sent. Depending on your audience and your purpose, you may write an internal solicited or unsolicited proposal, or you may write an external solicited or unsolicited proposal. Solicited proposals often involve requests for proposals. Figure 13.2 provides a visual representation of the various types of proposals.

Solicited proposals and requests for proposals (rFps) When a company has a particular problem to be solved or a job to be done, it will solicit, or invite, proposals. Accordingly, you do not have to spend time identifying the company’s problem. The company will notify you and other competitors by preparing a request for proposals (RFP), which is a set of instructions that speci- fies the exact type of work to be done, along with guidelines on how and when the company wants the work completed.

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Figure 13.2 Types of Proposals

Proposals

External

Solicited Unsolicited UnsolicitedSolicited

Internal

Types of Proposals 521

Some RFPs are long and full of legal requirements and conditions. Others, like the examples in Figures 13.3 and 13.4 (page 522), are more concise. RFPs are sent to firms with track records in the relevant field. RFPs are also printed in trade pub- lications, posted on a company’s website or a site such as rfpzone.com, or even posted on a social media site like Facebook to attract the highest number of quali- fied bidders for the job. The U.S. government publishes RFPs in the Federal Reg- ister (www.federalregister.gov) or Federal Business Opportunities (also known as FedBizOpps) (www.fbo.gov). No two RFPs are alike.

An RFP helps you understand what the customer wants. It is often extremely detailed and even tells you how the company wants the proposal prepared, for ex- ample, what information is to be included (on backgrounds, personnel, equipment, budgets), where it needs to appear, and how many copies of the proposal you have to submit.

Your proposal will be evaluated according to how well you fulfill the terms of the RFP. For that reason, follow the directions in the RFP exactly. Note that the solicited proposal in Figure 13.6 (pages 537–539) directly refers to the terms of the RFP. You should even use the language (specialized terms, specifically stated needs) of the RFP in your proposal to convince readers that you understand their

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Figure 13.3 A Sample RFP for a Smaller Project

REQUEST FOR PROPOSALS

Mesa Community College is soliciting proposals to construct and to install 50 individual study carrels in its Holmes Memorial Library. These carrels must be highly serviceable, include a 32-inch Internet-ready touch screen, be electronically wired for assistive technologies, and conform to all specification standards of the American Library Association (ALA) and the Americans with Disabilities Act. Proposals should include the precise measurements of the carrels to be installed, the specific acoustical and lighting benefits, and the types and amount of storage space offered, and an analysis of the annual environmental impact for each unit. Work on constructing and installing the carrels must be completed no later than the start of the Fall Semester, August 21, 2016. Proposals should include a schedule of when different phases of work will be completed and an itemized budget for labor, materials, equipment, and necessary tests to ensure high-quality acoustical performance. Contractors should detail their qualifications, including a description of similar recent work and a list of references. Proposals should be submitted in triplicate no later than March 2, 2016 to:

Dr. Barbara Feldstein Director of the Library Mesa Community College Mesa, CO 80932-0617 [email protected]

522 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

Figure 13.4 A Section of an RFP for a Larger Project

An RFP for the Fund for Rural America

The Fund for Rural America program supports competitively awarded research, extension, and education grants addressing key issues that contribute to the economic diversification and development of rural areas. The amount available for support of this program is approximately $9,500,000, from which approximately 15–20 awards will be made.

Program Description Preservation of the economic viability of rural communities is the chief focus of the Fund for Rural America. The program focuses attention on rural communities’ twin challenges of rural community innovation and demographic change. Challenges of an aging population, the arrival of new immigrant populations, . . . and workforce development all are critical issues that affect rural economies. Rural communities may propose research, education, and extension/outreach projects that will increase our understanding of these demographic forces and develop the capacity to turn these challenges into economic promise.

Rural Community Innovation This program solicits research, education, and extension proposals that will help rural Americans address existing and new problems in innovative ways. The goals of this program area are to generate relevant knowledge and transfer that knowledge to assist rural communities to diversify their economies, to develop and maintain profitable farms, firms, and businesses, to build community, to aid growth, to protect natural resources, and to increase family financial security.

Projects such as the following combine multiple strategies for innovation that Fund for Rural America encourages in order to: • help a community move to a more bio-based economy (carbon control

credits, promoting locally based bio-based industries, linking bio-based materials to a diverse agriculture and community);

• include using land that offers development options (farmland preservation, farming on the urban fringe, rural-urban land use issues);

• institute policies that increase profits of small and minority farmers; • use e-commerce applications for remote rural areas and minority

populations, develop community information networks to support e-commerce and e-communities, and adapt e-commerce strategies for planning and social capital development;

• expand network capabilities among producers, businesses, entrepreneurs, families, individuals, nonprofit groups, community institutions, local government, and state and federal agencies;

• develop a new generation of Internet-based planning tools (geospatial analysis, information stores, economic and land use blueprints) and the ability to apply and tailor them for place-sensitive development.

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Types of Proposals 523

requirements and to get them to accept your plan. If you have any questions, by all means call the agency or company so you do not waste your time or theirs by including irrelevant or unnecessary details in your proposal.

Unsolicited Proposals With an unsolicited proposal, you—not the reader—make the first move. Unlike a solicited proposal, in which the company to which you are submitting the proposal knows about the problem, your unsolicited proposal has to convince readers that (1) there is a problem, (2) it is important enough to be corrected, and (3) you and your firm are the ones to solve it.

Doing all this is not as difficult as it sounds. If your readers accept your iden- tification of the problem, you have greatly increased the chances of their accepting your plan to solve it. Just remember that you will have to prove that solving the problem carries major benefits for your readers.

Internal and External Proposals An internal proposal is written to one or several decision makers in your own orga- nization who have to sign off or approve your plan. As you will see in Figure 13.5 (pages 530–534), an internal proposal can deal with a variety of topics, including changing a policy or procedure, requesting additional personnel, or purchasing or updating equipment or software.

An external proposal is sent to a decision maker outside your company. It might go to a potential client you have never worked for (see Figure 13.6, pages 537–539) or to a previous or current client. An external proposal can also be submitted to a government funding agency, such as the Department of Agriculture, in response to its RFP (see Figure 13.4). External proposals tend to be more formal than internal ones.

TEch NoTE

Finding U.S. Government RFPs Online

The U.S. government, through its many departments and agencies, is an important source for RFPs. FedBizOpps (www.fbo.gov) claims that it offers “a comprehensive listing of government RFP’s.” In addition, the Federal Register (www.federalregister .gov), published daily by the U.S. government, issues hundreds of legal regulations as well as requests for proposals from various agencies.

Another site to search for government RFPs on the Internet is Commerce Business Daily (CBD), which “lists notices of proposed government procurement actions, contract awards, sales of government property and other procurement information. A new edi- tion of the CBD is issued every business day, and each edition contains approximately 500–1000 notices.” The CBD website (www.cbd-net.com) lists the government’s requests for, among other things, equipment, supplies, and a variety of services from assembling to maintaining equipment to dredging.

524 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

eight guidelines FOr Writing a suCCessFul prOpOsal The following guidelines will help you persuade your audience to approve your plan. Refer to these guidelines and Figures 13.5 and 13.6 both before and while you formulate your plan.

1. Approach writing a proposal as a problem-solving activity. Your purpose should reflect your ability to identify and solve problems. Convince your audience that you know what their needs are and that you will meet them, as Alissa Bond and Stacy Holton do in Figure 13.5, and as Neelow Singh and Jack Rosen do in Figure 13.6.

2. Regard your audience as skeptical. Even though you offer a plan that you think will benefit readers, do not be overconfident that they will automatically ac- cept it as the best and only way to proceed. Brainstorm, alone or with your collab- orative team, to anticipate and answer your readers’ questions and objections. Use social media and online surveys to find customer information you can incorporate in your proposal. To determine whether your proposal is feasible, readers will study it carefully. If your proposal contains errors or inconsistencies, omits information, or deviates from what they are looking for, your readers will reject it.

3. Research your proposal topic thoroughly. A winning proposal is not based on a few well-meaning, general suggestions. To provide the detailed information necessary and to convince readers, you will have to do your homework. Research your topic by studying the latest technology in the field (as Alissa Bond and Stacy Holton do in Figure 13.5), shopping for the best prices, comparing your prices and services with what the competition offers, verifying schedules, visiting cus- tomers, making site visits, and interviewing key individuals. Make sure that any technology or equipment you use or sell complies with all codes, specifications, and standards.

4. Scout out what your competitors are doing. Become familiar with your competitors’ products or services, have a fair idea about their market costs, and be able to show how your company’s work is better overall. Provide examples; offer a demonstration. Read competitors’ websites, social media posts on Face- book, Twitter, and Pinterest, and print publications very carefully. Let readers know you have done your homework on their behalf. See how the employees who wrote the internal proposal in Figure 13.5 researched the industry average for losses due to unsold inventory and inventory discounts. Note, too, how the writers in Figure 13.6 prove that their product and service are superior to those of their competitors.

5. Prove that your proposal is workable. The bottom-line question from your readers is “Will this plan work?” Your proposal should contain no statements that say, “Let’s see what happens if we do X or Y.” Analyze and test each part of your proposal to eliminate any quirks and to revise the proposal appropriately before readers evaluate it. What you propose should be consistent with the organiza- tion and capabilities of the company and should respect its corporate mission and

Eight Guidelines for Writing a Successful Proposal 525

tech Note

Document Design and Your Proposal

As we saw in Chapter 11, the overall design and layout of a document play a ma- jor role in its acceptance by an audience. This is especially true of a proposal—a key sales document for you and your company. Your proposal will be competing with many (perhaps 50 or 100) other proposals, and the first impression it makes should be attrac- tive, logically organized, and reader friendly. If it is designed professionally and pleas- ingly, it will remain in the running. If not, your proposal may be rejected before your audience reads your first sentence.

Here are some guidelines to help you prepare an attractive and carefully designed proposal.

●● Make sure you follow the RFP guidelines to the letter—in terms of spacing, title page, number of copies, appendixes, exhibits, and so on.

●● Double-check to make sure your proposal looks professional. If you have to submit a printed document, use good-quality paper and a sturdy binding. If you have to submit your proposal electronically, make sure you follow the instructions exactly.

culture. See how Alissa Bond and Stacy Holton argue how relevant, user friendly, and compatible Inventech is for their sporting goods company. For instance, rec- ommending that a small company of eighteen employees triple its workforce to implement your plan would be foolish and risky.

6. Be sure your proposal is financially realistic. “Is it worth the money?” is an- other bottom-line question you can expect from your readers. For example, recom- mending that your company spend $20,000 to solve a $2,000 problem is just not feasible. Note how Figure 13.5 details both the cost of inaction and the amount needed to correct the problem and how Figure 13.6 stresses that the costs are in line with what the customer wants to spend. Above all, make readers believe that the benefits are worth the costs.

7. Be ethical. Your proposal needs to follow all the guidelines for ethical conduct (see “Ethical Writing in the Workplace,” pages 26–37). You must be trustworthy and truthful about all the claims you make about products, services, and contracts and that you will be professional and respond to any questions or problems your readers voice. Later sections of this chapter discuss the ethical standards you must adhere to when writing either an internal proposal (pages 526–536) or a sales pro- posal (pages 536–541).

8. Package your proposal attractively. Make sure that your proposal is well pre- sented (professional looking, inviting, and easy to read) and that all visuals are clear and appropriately placed. The visual appearance of your proposal can contribute greatly to whether it is accepted.

(Continued)

526 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

internal prOpOsals The primary purpose of an internal proposal, such as the one shown in Figure 13.5 (pages 530–534), is to offer a realistic and constructive plan to help your company run its business more efficiently and economically.

On your job you may discover a better way of doing something or a more efficient way to correct a problem. You believe that your proposed change will save your employer time, money, or further trouble. (Note how Alissa Bond and Stacy Holton indentified and researched a more effective and efficient way for Challenger Sports to manage its inventory and to satisfy its customers in Figure 13.5.) Or your department head, manager, or supervisor may call your attention to a problem and ask you for specific ways to solve it.

Regardless of who identifies the problem, your proposal, generally speaking, will be an informal, in-house message. A brief (one- to three- or four-page) memo, as in Figure 13.5, or even a shorter email, should be appropriate.

Some common topics for Internal proposals An internal proposal can be written about a variety of topics, including the following:

●● Organize your proposal into sections that help readers identify and follow its various parts—for example, problem, solution, budget, timetable, personnel. If the RFP asks you to include certain sections, follow these instructions exactly. Otherwise your pro- posal could be rejected.

●● Use clearly marked, logically ordered, and consistent headings (or, if necessary, sub- headings) to separate sections of your proposal to help readers follow and understand your work easily, quickly, and clearly.

●● Insert extra spacing between sections of your proposal so they stand out and show readers your work is organized.

●● Use a professional-looking and easy-to-read font and type size. Do not try to cram more information in by resorting to an 8-point type.

●● Include easy-to-follow indented lists, each item preceded by a bullet or an asterisk. ●● Clearly label and insert all visuals in the most appropriate places in your proposal. See Figure 13.5, which does an especially effective job.

●● Put budgets in easy-to-read tables; do not bury numbers in a paragraph of prose. Make sure each item in a budget is identified and highlighted or relegated to a foot- note or an appendix.

●● Keep your paragraphs to five to six sentences. Heavy blocks of prose slow readers down and make them think your work is dense and hard to follow. Consider your readers’ comfort level.

●● Do not fail to include and label any supporting documents or materials that are not a part of your proposal proper, for example, schedules, surveys, or samples, as in Figure 13.6.

Internal Proposals 527

●● purchasing new or more advanced equipment to replace obsolete or ineffi- cient computers, appliances, vehicles, and the like, or upgrading equipment technology

●● obtaining new software and offering training sessions to show employees how to use it

●● recruiting new employees or retraining current ones on a new technique or process

●● eliminating a dangerous condition or reducing an environmental risk to pre- vent accidents—for employees, customers, or the community at large

●● cutting costs—for services, supplies, transportation, advertising, etc. ●● improving technology/communication within or between departments of a

company or agency ●● expanding work space or making it greener, more private, ergonomically

comfortable and efficient for employees, or more inviting to customers ●● providing better safety and security, safeguarding a company’s records

As this bulleted list shows, internal proposals cover almost every activity or policy that can affect the day-to-day operations of a company or an agency.

Following the proper chain of command Writing an internal proposal requires you to be sensitive to office politics. It may be wise first to meet with your boss to see if she or he has already identified the prob- lem or has specific suggestions on how to solve it. If given the go-ahead, then you and your team need to provide your boss with a draft and ask for feedback.

But do not assume that your readers will automatically agree that there is a problem or that your plan is the only way to tackle it. Remember that your em- ployer will expect you to be very convincing about both the problem you say exists and the changes you are advocating in the workplace under his or her supervision. Don’t rock the corporate boat by going over your supervisor’s head, questioning his or her authority, or suggesting a plan that is too costly.

ethically anticipating and resolving corporate readers’ problems When you prepare an internal proposal, you need to be aware of the ethical obliga- tions you have and the ways to meet them. Here are some important guidelines:

1. Consider the company wide implications of your plan. The change you pro- pose (transfers, new budgets or technology, new hires) may have sweeping and po- tentially disruptive implications for another office or division in your company.

2. Do not discount the possible impact of your change on co-workers from cultural traditions other than your own. In addition to speaking to your em- ployer, consult your human resources or cultural diversity director.

3. Find out whether your proposed plan is within your company’s budget. How much can your department, branch, or office spend (e.g., on hardware,

528 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

Drafting an Internal Proposal to Create a Mobile App for a Health Food Store

Jaclyn Tan, an evening shift supervisor for a small chain of health food stores, realized from conversations with staff and customers, as well as from marketing surveys conducted through the company website and posts to blogs and Facebook, that her employer was missing many opportunities for sales by not having a free mobile app available for customers.

Tan sent a memo through email to her boss, district manager Arnold Maddox, identify- ing some of the benefits to the company in having its own app and requested permission to investigate more formally the options and costs involved in creating the app. After several discussions with Maddox, in person and online, Tan got approval to draft an internal proposal to create a customer app.

Brainstorming with her fellow employees, she identified the key functionalities needed for the app, such as allowing customers to

●● check the availability of favorite products ●● pre-order/pre-pay for items that were difficult to keep in stock ●● alert them to sales and new products ●● establish and maintain a charge account status

She also found that their customers would appreciate

●● information on relevant Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and United States Depart- ment of Agriculture (USDA) reports

●● special events, such as the store hosting speakers and sponsoring healthy cooking classes ●● community events where her company’s products might be promoted.

software, updates)? Check with your boss, and always monitor the price of your company’s stock orders to make sure any expenditures are likely to be approved.

4. Realize that your reader may feel threatened by your plan. Your plan may sound just right to you, but your boss may regard it as criticism leveled at him or her, your department, or even the company as a whole.

5. Take into account that your reader may have “pet projects” or predeter- mined ways of doing things. Address them respectfully. You may even find a way to build on or complement such projects or procedures.

6. Keep in mind that your boss may have to take your proposal farther up the organizational ladder for commentary and approval. You cannot disregard the chain of command at your company or organization.

7. Never rely on someone else to supply the specific details on how your pro- posal will work. For example, do not write an internal proposal that says the market- ing, technical support, or human resources department could supply the necessary details for your proposal to work. That unfairly pushes the responsibility onto others.

Case study

Internal Proposals 529

organization of an Internal proposal A short internal proposal follows a relatively straightforward plan of organization, from identifying the problem to solving it. Internal proposals usually contain four parts, as shown in Figure 13.5: purpose, problem, solution, and conclusion. Refer to the figure as you read the following discussion.

Purpose Begin your proposal with a brief statement as Alissa Bond and Stacy Holton do to their supervisor: “I propose that . . .” State right away why you think a specific change is necessary now. Then succinctly define the problem and emphasize that your plan, if approved by the reader, will solve that problem.

Problem In this section, prove that a problem exists. Document its importance for your boss and your company; as a matter of fact, the more you show, with concrete evidence, how the problem affects your boss’s work (and area of supervision), the more likely you are to persuade him or her to act.

Here are some guidelines for documenting a problem:

●● Avoid vague (and unsupported) generalizations such as these: “We’re losing money each day with this procedure.” “Costs continue to escalate.” “The trouble occurs frequently in a number of places.” “Numerous complaints have come in.” “If something isn’t done soon, more problems will result.” Figure 13.5 focuses on an inventory tracking system.

●● Provide quantifiable details about the problem, such as the amount of money or time a company is actually losing per day, week, or month. Document

Armed with this information, she contacted several mobile app consultants to investigate the time and costs involved in creating an app to meet her customer’s needs and respect her company’s history and mission.

Working with the consultants via Skype and email, Tan was able to estimate the following:

Estimated hours of work 150 needed to create the app, test it, and link it to the store’s website

IT consultants cost x $75/hr. (on average)

TOTAL COST $11,250

Having gathered relevant technical and financial information, she shared her findings with her co-workers. She was then ready to write an internal proposal that respected her employer’s chain of command and that would better promote her company’s products and services.

530 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

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Clearly states why proposal is being sent

Acknowledges company’s stated goals and projects outcome of adopting their recommen dation

Identifies problem by giving reader essential background information based on primary research

Table provides quick synopsis of current staffing situation

Divides the problem into parts: financial and customer service

Bulleted list of succinct examples of basis for the inventory problem

Figure 13.5 An Internal Unsolicited Proposal to Purchase Updated Inventory Software

Date: October 1, 2015 To: Michael Sapientia, Owner From: Alissa Bond and Stacy Holton RE: A proposal to purchase and implement new inventory-tracking software within the next 30 days

Purpose

We propose a cost-effective solution for a growing problem at our stores: the lack of an accurate, easy-to-use inventory tracking system. We propose that you approve the purchase and installation, within the next month, of the Inventech software program as well as the necessary hardware to make the system operable. Our company will beneƒt from an up-to-date inventory system that serves customers better and regains lost revenue because of inadequate inventory procedures.

The Problem with Current Inventory Systems

Since we expanded last year from just our Waveland store to two additional locations, our inventory ordering methods have not accurately re†ected customer demand. Up until now, we have relied on our employees to gauge ordering needs, but because of our recent expansion, the salesforce we had last year at our Waveland store is now divided among all three Challenger stores. To staff these new locations, we hired 15 part-time employees (most of whom are new to the retail sporting goods business). Table 1 below shows our current stafƒng situation compared to last year.

Table 1

Last Year This Year Waveland (6 full-time, 3 part-time) Waveland (2 full-time, 6 part-time) Addison (2 full-time, 6 part-time) Turnersville (2 full-time, 6 part-time)

Because we had to spread our experienced full-time staff among three stores we have not been able to gauge our inventory needs as accurately as before our expansion. The problem of effectively tracking and ordering adequate inventory was compounded by assuming that the two new stores would mirror the purchasing decisions of customers at the Waveland site. Instead, our records show that customer demands have differed greatly from store to store, and often by a disturbingly large amount. For example:

www.challengersports.com www.facebook.com

@challengersports

www.pinterest.com/challengersp

Waveland 591-727-6079 Addison 591-650-2362 Turnersville 591-936-2290

The Addison store sells three times the number of football-related jerseys and gear than Waveland does. The Turnersville store sells almost four times as many ƒshing-related items as either the Waveland or Addison stores do. The Waveland store sells almost double the amount of golf-related items as the Addison and Turnersville stores do combined.

Internal Proposals 531

Figure 13.5 (Continued)

Page 2

By stocking the Addison and Turnersville locations with the same inventory as Waveland, we fell short of meeting customer demand during the key Fall and Christmas selling seasons. Moreover, even when employees referred customers to one of our other two stores, we often lost business to competitors, as only 35 percent of our same-store referrals would up purchasing an item from us. We also saw a surge in negative tweets and posts on Facebook. Research shows that when consumers have a negative buying experience the €rst time they try a new business, more than half of them will not give this business "a second chance to make a €rst impression" (Maynard et al., 2014).*

But having too much inventory is as unpro€table as stocking too little. A surplus of merchandise takes up costly warehouse and showroom space, while stocking too few items can drive our customers elsewhere. But whatever the case, we are losing business and revenue because of the dated and inef€cient ways we purchase and stock merchandise.

Table 2 below, based on a detailed internal audit (made on September 14th in preparation for the 2015 tax year), breaks down the losses we have incurred since January 2015 due to overstocking in all three stores.

Note that in the table,

Sport

Golf $17,835

$16,545

$8,355

$9,650

$8,625

$5,225

$4,010

$7,110

$5,135

$7,715

$4,455

$11,390

$3,850

$3,570

$3,730

$4,715

$890

$2,680

$25,550

$21,000

$19,745

$13,500

$12,195

$8,955

$8,725

$8,000

$7,815

$125,485$42,995$82,490TOTAL

Fishing

Football

Soccer

Cycling

Baseball

Basketball

Swimming

Hockey

Revenue Loss from Discounting

Revenue Loss from Unsold Inventory

Total Loss

Revenue Loss from Discounting represents the loss we actually experienced when we sold these items at a deep and necessary discount as opposed to their full retail prices. Revenue Loss from Unsold Inventory documents the revenue forfeited when the inventoried items did not sell at all.

Table 2

Cites important research

Provides sourcing and background information for the table that follows

Accumulates important financial information in easytoread table

(Continued)

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*To save space the references section has been omitted.

532 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

Figure 13.5 (Continued)

Lost revenue comes from discounting plus unsold inventory. Our total losses amount to 12.6% of our expected revenue from all these items, or $125,485 across the three stores. In our city-wide sales area, competing sporting goods stores lost only 6.6% of expected revenue, as opposed to our 12.6%, because of unsold inventory or deep discounting.

The explanation for such losses is our not having a comprehensive inventory tracking system, compounded by our opening two new stores. This not only hurts the Challenger brand in the marketplace; it cumulatively means greater losses this coming ƒscal year. Deep discounting undermines our marketing strategy of being a premiere sporting goods store that gives customers a one-stop-shopping experience. It also jeopardizes our long-term goal to expand our customer base effectively through the two new stores in Addison and Turnersville.

A Solution to the Problem

Purchasing and installing a comprehensive inventory tracking system will allow Challenger to reclaim a sizable percentage of the revenue we have lost by upgrading our inventory procedures and considerably reducing discounting and carrying unsold inventory. A relevant study of small businesses by Lapka and Harper (2014) found that when businesses began using a tracking system, they were able to reclaim almost 33% of revenue losses due to inventory issues in the ƒrst year.

We believe that by switching to an updated, comprehensive inventory tracking system our company will beneƒt in several ways:

Based on the study above (Lapka and Harper, 2014), we could conservatively reclaim 28% of the revenue lost this year due to inventory problems

We could recoup maximum use of display room and warehouse space. Eliminating a large percentage of surplus stock, we would reduce a

lower proƒt margin from discount sales. We would provide better possibilities for each store to specialize

based on sales/customer needs. We would be better positioned to expand and maintain our customer

base at all three locations. Our rating on social review sites like Yelp would improve as customer

complaints about lack of products decreased.

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Feasibility of Installing New Inventory Tracking Software

We researched several tracking software programs and believe that Inventech Inventory Tracking (www.inventech.com/inventory) offers the best and most cost-effective software for Challenger’s inventory problems. Inventech will allow us to track, record, and calculate our merchandise efƒciently and be in a better position to project orders in ƒscal year 2016.

Emphasizes possible future problems

Problem is clearly stated before giving reader supporting evidence

Relates solution to both parts of the inventory problem

Bulleted list makes benefits and recommen dations easy to follow

Diplomatically identifies cause of the problem without assigning blame

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Internal Proposals 533

Figure 13.5 (Continued)

Training

Training for all employees can begin as soon as the software is purchased, the necessary hardware and network upgrades are implemented, and the software installed. Another bene�t of going with Inventech is that they offer on-site, 6-hour training programs at a cost of $520 per employee; these programs can be scheduled at our convenience with 2 week's notice—in plenty of time for holiday shopping. Given Inventech’s solid reputation for training (veri�ed by checking their references, as well as posts to blogs and Facebook and reviews on Yelp), the system can be fully in-place within the next 30 days.

Costs

The costs of implementing our proposal are as follows:

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Site license and IT Service Plan for Inventech (Version 7.1)

6-hour training for all staff (24 employees)

New external hard drives for each store to run software and keep secure inventory records

Installation of software and increasing the capacity of the computer network for the company

TOTAL

$5,757.00 ($1,919.00 per year per store 3 3 stores)

$12,480.00 ($520 each 3 24 employees)

$10,788.00 ($899 each 3 12 registers)

$11,200

$40,225

Generate daily recommended transfers of items from high-inventory locations to low-inventory ones, again based on historical sales data and current inventory levels.

Assist us through customized software to grow and expand as we increase our stores in the future.

Track inventory for each item from each store at the end of every business day.

Project required inventory levels for the next 7 days based on historical sales data and current inventory levels.

Automatically place orders for items that we are low on with suppliers who can promise delivery with only a 2-day lead.

A further bene�t is that Inventech allows us to retain historical sales data and to perform many inventory audits that we are currently unable to perform such as:

Provides an overview of the steps required to implement the proposal, and a timeline for carrying it out

Itemizes costs

Shows problem can be solved and how

(Continued)

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534 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

the financial trouble so that you can show in the next section how your plan offers an efficient and workable solution. See Table 2 in Figure 13.5.

●● Indicate how many employees (or work-hours) are involved or how many customers are inconvenienced or endangered by a procedure or condition. The writers in Figure 13.5 researched industry standards for losses related to inventory and used this information to document the importance of the problem.

●● Verify how widespread a problem is or how frequently it occurs by citing specific times it occurs. (See the bulleted list at the bottom of page 1 of Figure 13.5.)

●● Relate the problem to an organization’s image, corporate reputation, or in- fluence (where appropriate). Pinpoint exactly how and where the problem lessens your company’s effectiveness or hurts its standing in the market or on social media. Indicate who is affected and how the problem affects your company’s business, as the writers do in the problem statement in Figure 13.5.

Figure 13.5 (Continued)

for the new Inventech system is signi�cantly smaller and well worth our investment. Using the Inventech software will allow us to recoup 28% of the revenue lost due to inventory problems, which means that purchasing the Inventech system will also bring in additional revenue of at least $35,136 for 2016.

Conclusion

Purchasing the Inventech software is necessary, feasible, and cost effective for Challenger. By approving our proposal, the company can realistically expect to generate at least $35,136 in additional revenue annually, increase customer satisfaction and patronage at all three stores. We will be happy to discuss this proposal with you at your convenience, and look forward to answering any questions. Thank you.

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There are other �nancial advantages in purchasing the new Inventech software. We would also be able to amortize, for tax purposes, the cost of the installation of the inventory tracking software ($40,225) over 5 years. Our annual expenses would, therefore, actually be:

$34,468 ($12,480 for training 1 $10,788 for hard drives 1 $11,200 for network upgrades) 4 5 years 5 $6,893.60 1 $5,757.00 (annual site license) $12,650.60 per year Compared with the $125,485 we lost in revenue last year because of insuf�cient inventory procedures, the amount of annual depreciated costs Proves change

is cost effective; provides specific financial evidence

Succinctly recaps all major benefits of buying the updated software

Thanks reader

Interprets costs for the reader

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Internal Proposals 535

Solution or Plan In this section, describe the change you propose and want approved. Tie your solu- tion (the change) directly to the problem you have just documented. Each part of your plan should help eliminate the problem or should help increase the productiv- ity, efficiency, or safety you think is possible.

Your reader will again expect to find factual evidence. Be specific. Do not give merely an outline of your plan or say that details can be worked out later. Supply evidence that answers the following questions: (1) Is the plan workable? and (2) Is it cost-effective? See how the writers of the proposal in Figure 13.5 do that.

To get the reader to say “Yes” to both questions, supply the facts you have gath- ered as a result of your research. For example, if you propose that your firm buy new software or equipment, do the necessary homework to find the most efficient and cost-effective model available, as the proposal writers in Figure 13.5 do.

●● Supply the vendors’ names, the costs, major conditions of service and train- ing contracts, and warranties.

●● Describe how your firm could use the equipment or technology to obtain better or quicker results.

●● Document specific tasks the new equipment can perform more efficiently at a lower cost than the equipment now in use.

A proposal to change or establish new procedures must address the following questions:

●● How does the new (or revised) procedure work? ●● How many employees or customers will be affected by it? ●● When can it go into operation? ●● How much will it cost the employer to change procedures? ●● What delays or losses in business might be expected while the company

switches from one procedure to another? ●● What employees, equipment, technology, or locations are already available to

accomplish the change?

Beyond a doubt, costs will be of utmost importance to your decision-maker reader. Make sure you supply a careful and accurate budget. Moreover, make the costs at- tractive by emphasizing how inexpensive they are compared with the cost of not making the change, as Bond and Holton do persuasively in the section labeled “Costs” in Figure 13.5. Link costs to savings and other benefits. And always be sure to double-check your math.

It is also wise to raise alternative solutions before the reader does—and to dis- cuss their disadvantages.

Conclusion Your conclusion should be short—a paragraph or two at the most. Remind readers that (1) the problem is ongoing and serious, (2) the reason for change is justified and beneficial to your organization, and (3) action needs to be taken. Reemphasize the most important benefits in the conclusion, as in Figure 13.5. Also, indicate that

536 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

you are willing to discuss your plan with the reader and want his or her feedback, a necessity in arguing for a corporate change at any level.

sales prOpOsals A sales proposal is the most common external proposal. Its purpose is to sell your company’s brand, its products or services for a set fee. Whether short or long, a sales proposal is a marketing tool that includes a detailed description of the work you propose to do. Figure 13.6 on pages 537–539 is an example of a sales proposal.

Knowing Your audience and Meeting Its Needs Your audience will usually be one or more executives who have the power to ap- prove or reject a proposal. This audience may be even more skeptical than readers of an internal proposal, because they may not know you or your work. To increase your chances of success, follow the company you’re sending your proposal to on social media to get a better sense of its customers’ views and its needs. Try to antici- pate an audience’s questions, such as:

●● Does the writer’s firm understand our problem? ●● Can the writer’s firm deliver what it promises? ●● Can the job be completed on time? ●● Is the budget reasonable and realistic? ●● Will the job be done exactly as we proposed? ●● Has the writer demonstrated his or her qualifications and trustworthiness?

Answer each of these questions by demonstrating how your product or service is tailored to the customer’s needs.

Be sure, too, that your proposal has a competitive edge. Your proposal has to convince readers that the product or service your company offers is more reliable, economical, efficient, and up-to-date than another company’s. Whenever relevant, stress that your company offers state-of-the-art technology, exemplary service, and after-the-sale assistance and warranty. Here is where your homework will pay off. See how Neelow Singh and Jack Rosen emphasize the range of advantages their flooring offers a prospective customer in Figure 13.6.

Being ethical and Legal In addition to the guidelines in Chapter 1 (see “Some Guidelines to Help You Reach Ethical Decisions,” pages 32–34), here are some ways to make sure your sales pro- posal follows the highest ethical standards:

●● View your proposal as a contract. If you omit information, misrepresent claims, or minimize risks, you can be taken to court and sued for damages.

●● Submit a complete, accurate, and fair budget. Break down all costs in your budget. Indicate if your fees are by the job, weekly, or hourly. Always alert readers to any possible additional charges (e.g., the fees for permits, an increase in the price of materials).

Sales Proposals 537

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Proposal sent as a PDF attachment to an email in accordance for the request for bid

Begins with a reference to company’s request for bids

Letterhead advertises company’s presence on social networking sites

Acknowledges site visit

Identifies best solution

Describes product features that will benefit reader

Distinguishes product from competitors’

(Continued)

January 18, 2016

Mr. Floyd Tompkins, Manager General Appliances 140 Kilmer Road Edison, NJ 08817-7639

Dear Mr. Tompkins:

In response to your request for bid #GA01012012 posted on your website for an appropriate floor covering at your new showroom, Reynolds Interiors is pleased to submit the following proposal to meet your specific needs. We appreciated the opportunity to visit your showroom on January 15 in order to gather information to prepare this proposal.

After carefully reviewing your requirements for a floor covering and inspecting your new facility, we believe that Armstrong Classic Corlon 900 is the most suitable choice. Traffic tests conducted by the independent Contemporary Flooring Institute have repeatedly proved the superiority of Corlon’s construction and resistance. Please go to the Institute’s website (www.cfi.org) for a streaming video demonstration of how beautiful, durable, and versatile Classic Corlon flooring is.

Corlon’s Advantages

Guaranteed against defects for a full three years, Corlon is one of the finest and most durable floor coverings manufactured by Armstrong. It is a heavy-duty commercial floor 0.085-inch thick for protection and durability. Twenty-five percent of the material consists of interface backing; the other 75 percent is an inlaid wear layer that offers exceptionally high resistance to the heavy, everyday traffic your showroom will see.

Another important feature of Corlon is the size of its rolls. Unlike other leading brands of commercial flooring—Remington or Treadmaster—Corlon comes in 12-foot-wide rather than 6-foot-wide rolls. This extra width will significantly reduce the number of seams on your floor, thus increasing its attractiveness and eliminating the dangers of splitting or bulging.

Reynolds Interiors

250 Commence Avenue Edison, NJ 08837-2129 www.reynolds.com 732-777-8733 Fax: 732-777-8833

RI FOLLOW US ON FACEBOOK

AND TWITTER (@reynoldsinteriors)

(www.facebook.com/reynoldsinteriors)

Cites an independent source to corroborate the benefits of the product

538 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

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Figure 13.6 (Continued)

Installation Procedures

The Classic Corlon 900 requires an inlaid seaming process, a technical procedure requiring the skill of a highly trained �oor mechanic. Herman Goshen, our certi�ed chief �oor mechanic, has more than eighteen years of experience working with the inlaid seam process. His professional work and keen sense of layout and design have been consistently praised by our many customers on Google+ Local and Angie's List, and I am proud of our 5-star rating on Yelp (www.yelp.com/biz/reynolds-interiors). To see a video demonstration of the installation process, please visit our website: www.reynolds.com/inlaid_installation.

Installation Schedule

We can install the Classic Corlon 900 on your showroom �oor during the �rst week of March, which �ts the timetable speci�ed in your request. The material will take 3½ days for my 4-person crew to install, but will be ready to walk on immediately. Be assured that your �oor will be installed no later than March 7th. We recommend, though, that you do not move heavy equipment onto the �oor for 24 hours after installation.

Costs

The following costs include the Classic Corlon �oor, labor, and taxes:

750 sq. yards of Classic Corlon at $31.25/sq. yd. $ 23,437.50 Labor (4 people 3 28 hrs. @ $20.00/hr.) $ 2,240.00 Sealing �uid (10 gals. @ $20.00/gal.) $ 200.00 Subtotal $ 25,877.50

Sales tax (7 percent) $ 1, 811.43 GRAND TOTAL $ 27,688.93

Our costs are more than $1,300.00 below those speci�ed in your bid.

Reynolds’ Quali�cations

Reynolds Interiors has been in business for more than 28 years. In that time, we have installed more than 2,500 commercial �oors in Trenton and its suburbs. In the last year alone, we have served more than 60 satis�ed customers, including the new multipurpose Tech Mart facility in downtown New Brunswick. Our designs have also been included in several commercial properties that have won awards from the

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Cites a video embedded on their website

Explains how job is done professionally

Gives realistic timetable

Itemizes all costs based on market conditions and reader’s bid

Establishes history of service and provides documented evidence of quality work

Points out proposal comes in under budget— always a major consideration for buyers

Sales Proposals 539

●● Estimate a realistic timeframe to do the work. It would be unethical to say a job takes more time than necessary so you can then charge more.

●● Stipulate precisely what your product can (or cannot) do and what a ser- vice contract includes and excludes. Don’t make false claims. Always iden- tify exceptions, limitations, and restrictions.

organization of a Sales proposal Most sales proposals include the following elements: introduction, description of the proposed product or service, timetable, costs, qualifications of your company, and conclusion.

Introduction The introduction to a sales proposal can be a single paragraph in a brief pro- posal or several pages in a more complex one. Basically, your introduction should

Sincerely yours,

Neelow Singh Sales Consultant

Jack Rosen Installation Supervisor

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Architectural Review Board and have been showcased in such publications as New Jersey Homes and Best Housing Plans, 2015–2016. Reynolds has also repeatedly received high commendations from our customers on our Facebook page. We would be happy to furnish you with a list of our references.

Thank you for the opportunity to submit this proposal to General Appliances. We are con�dent that you will be pleased with the appear- ance and durability of the Armstrong Classic Corlon 900 �oor and our installation process. If we can provide you with further information about our service or Corlon �ooring, or if you have any questions, please call us at 732-777-8733 or visit us at our website (www.reynolds.com) or on Facebook (www.facebook.com/reynoldsinteriors).

Figure 13.6 (Continued)

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540 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

persuasively prepare readers for everything that follows in your proposal. The introduction itself may contain the following sections, which sometimes may be combined.

1. Statement of purpose and subject of proposal. Tell readers why you are writing, and identify the specific subject of your work. Refer to the request for proposals or bids the reader has issued, as the writers in Figure 13.6 do. Briefly define the solution you propose. Tell readers exactly what you propose to do for them. Be clear about what your plan covers and, if there could be any doubt, what it does not.

2. Background of the problem you propose to solve. Show readers that you are fa- miliar with their problem and why it is important. In a solicited proposal like the one in Figure 13.6, this section is usually unnecessary because the potential client has already identified the problem and wants to know how you would address it. In that case, just point out how your company would solve the problem, mentioning your superiority over your competitors (see the section “Corlon’s Advantages” in Figure 13.6).

In an unsolicited proposal, you need to describe the problem in convincing de- tail, identifying the specific trouble areas. Depending on the type of proposal you submit, you may want to focus briefly on the dimensions of the problem—when it was first observed, who/what it most acutely affects, and the specific organizational/ community/environmental context in which the problem is most troubling.

Description of the Proposed Product or Service This section is the heart of your proposal. Before spending their money, customers will demand hard, factual evidence of what you claim can and should be done. Here are some points that your proposal should cover.

1. Carefully show potential customers that your product or service is right for them. Stress particular benefits of your product or service most relevant to your reader. Blend sales talk with descriptions of hardware. Where possible, utilize the Internet to convey information that isn’t possible in a written proposal. Note how the proposal in Figure 13.6 references the online results of an independent testing agency to stress the benefits of the product it sells, and it also points the reader to a streaming video on the company’s website that demonstrates the installation pro- cess that will be used.

2. Describe your work in appropriate detail. Specify what the product looks like; what it does; and how consistently and well it will perform in the readers’ of- fice, plant, hospital, or agency. You might include a brochure, picture, diagram, or, as the writers of the proposal in Figure 13.6 do, a few samples of your product for customers to study.

3. Stress any special features, maintenance advantages, installation or war- ranty benefits. Convince readers that your product is the most up-to-date and efficient one they could select. Highlight features that show the quality, consistency, or security of your work. See how Neelow Singh and Jack Rosen in Figure 13.6 demonstrate why and how Corlon is the best choice for the heavy traffic of the General Appliances showroom. For a service, emphasize the procedures you use, the terms of the service, the quality assurance tests you run, and especially any state-of-the-art equipment.

Sales Proposals 541

Timetable A carefully planned timetable assures readers that you know your job and that you can accomplish it in the deadline set forth in the call for proposals or bids. Your dates should match any listed in a company’s proposal request. Provide specific dates to indicate

●● when the work will begin ●● how the work will be divided into phases or stages ●● when you will be finished ●● whether any follow-up visits or services are involved

For proposals offering a service, specify how many times—an hour, a week, a month—customers can expect to receive your help; for example, spraying three times a month if your company offers exterminating services, or 24-hour-a-day monitoring of social media sites to provide off-hours feedback for customer com- plaints. The proposal writers in Figure 13.6 assure their reader that installation will be done by a specified date.

Costs Make your budget accurate, complete, and convincing. But give customers more than merely the bottom-line cost. Show exactly what readers are getting for their money so that they can determine if everything they need is included. Itemize costs for

●● specific services ●● equipment and materials ●● labor (by the hour or by the job) ●● transportation/travel ●● training

To further persuade readers to accept their proposal, the writers in Figure 13.5 stress how customers’ positive reviews on review sites like Yelp and Angie’s List are crucial to growing their business. In Figure 13.6, the authors point out how their work comes in under the specified budget.

If something is not included or is considered optional, say so—additional hours of training, replacement of parts, upgrades, and the like. If you anticipate a price increase, let the customer know how long current prices will stay in effect. That information may spur them to act favorably now.

Qualifications of Your Company Emphasize your company’s accomplishments and expertise in providing similar services and/or equipment. Mention the names of a few local firms for whom you have worked that would be able to recommend you and cite any awards or com- mendations, as the writers do in Figure 13.6, e.g., the Tech Mart facility.

Conclusion This is the “call to action” section of your sales proposal. Encourage your reader to approve your plan by stressing its major benefits. Offer to answer any questions the reader may have. And take the opportunity to refer the reader to any samples, visuals, or sites on social media.

542 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

prOpOsals FOr researCh repOrts You may also be required to write a proposal to your boss seeking her or his authorization to do research, or to your instructor to get a paper or report topic approved, as in Figure 13.7.

The principles guiding internal and sales proposals also apply to research pro- posals. As with internal and sales proposals, you will be writing to convince the reader—your boss or instructor—to approve a major piece of work. Your boss will read your proposal to make sure you write the best possible report to solve a com- pany problem and to increase company profits. Your instructor will look at your report to make sure it meets the course objectives. In drafting any research pro- posal, make sure of four things:

●● that you have chosen a significant topic ●● that you have sufficiently restricted the topic ●● that you will investigate important sources of information about that topic ●● that you can accomplish your work in the specified time

Your proposal will give your reader an opportunity to spot omissions or inconsis- tencies and to provide helpful suggestions.

To prepare an effective proposal for a research project, you have to do so pre- liminary research. You cannot just pick any topic that comes to mind or guess about procedures, sources, or conclusions. As other proposal readers will, your boss or in- structor will want convincing and specific evidence about why you are researching this topic and your approach to it. Be prepared to cite key facts to show that you are familiar with the subject and that you are prepared to write about it knowledgeably.

Be very clear about the research you will do and what resources you intend to use. For example, you need to do some preliminary research using the following sources before you write a research proposal:

●● Internet—list relevant websites, blogs, and social media sites you have consulted

●● Search engines or databases—for a working bibliography ●● Books and articles, online and print—but only those that bear directly on

your topic ●● Interviews—in person, email, over the telephone, and so on ●● Proposed visits to relevant sites—laboratories, salt marshes, health care facili-

ties, plants, offices, and so on

Review Chapter 8 on primary and secondary research methods.

organization of a proposal for a research report Your proposal for an in-house report or for a school research project can be a memo or an email divided into six sections, as illustrated in Figure 13.7: purpose (introduction), background of the problem (why it is important), questions to be investigated, methods of research, timetable, and request for approval. However, be ready to reorder or ex- pand these sections if your reader wants you to follow a different organizational plan.

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Concisely states purpose

Demonstrates importance of topic with statistics and quotation from mcommerce executive

Provides further details about scope and significance of problem to be investigated

To: Professor Marisol Vegas From: Anna Beth Rowe Date: February 6, 2015 Subject: Proposal to write a report on the ethical issues involved in

using apps in customer surveillance in m-commerce

Purpose To increase consumers’ awareness of the implications of using their smartphones and other mobile devices, I propose to research and write a background report on the ethical issues involved in customer surveillance in mobile marketing (or m-commerce).

Background of the Problem Smartphones and other mobile devices from Apple, Samsung, and other vendors have become a vital part of the shopping experience. The reason is clear. As Delores Pentoney claims, “More people around the globe use iPhones than computers” (par. 1). The trend will definitely continue. MasterCard’s CMO Raja Rajamannar predicts that by 2020 there will be “50-billion connected devices [in use]” (par. 1), and as Alvin Alvarez, executive vice president of National Commerce Corporation, observes, “By leveraging the convenience of a consumer’s mobile phone, merchants can drive loyalty, brand affinity, and simplify the transaction process through the new product capability” (par. 3).

But iPhones, iPads, and other mobile devices pose major ethical chal- lenges. Essential to m-commerce technology is what Sara Holes, an influential m-commerce security writer, refers to as “hotspots that trigger a message or ad delivered to your device if you walk or drive into a given area” (134). Each device includes a UDID, or unique device identity, that sends and time stamps data about the consumers’ whereabouts and online activities, visits, how much time they spend in a location, etc. Technology expert Rob Lever points out that “By tracking users’ smartphones and their identities, retailers can tell how often a customer visits” (par. 8). M-commerce retailers use a UDID to alert consumers to a sale or to a new product in a nearby store. Marketers can also text a consumer as he or she drives by a restaurant, a mall, an auto dealership, or even a yard sale. What is disturbing is that cellular service providers can track and store this data indefinitely.

Even more threatening, though, a UDID can be used for purposes other than promoting a particular brand or service. Security experts and members of Congress are concerned that m-commerce strategies violate

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References the research of a security expert

544 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

Convincingly shows widespread implications of problem

Formulates specific questions report will address

consumer privacy. Granted, consumers have to divulge their location to receive mobile sales alerts. But Taylor Sloane, whose research is often cited in the literature on m-commerce, still worries about the ethics of tracking an individual’s trips, locations, and driving habits, which allows cell phone service providers to predict where he or she goes and when. That information, Sloane contends, could be “collected and sold to unin- tended customers such as . . . divorce lawyers, debt collectors, or even industrial spies” (par. 5), not to mention hackers.

Understanding the ethical consequences consumers face in using their smartphones is vital for evaluating the terms of their service agreements and assessing the risks they run in using these devices. To ensure that con- sumers have the latest information, I request permission to do research for a background report on the privacy risks involved in m-commerce.

Questions to Be Investigated At this preliminary stage of my research, I think my report will need to address the following questions related to the ethics of apps in m-commerce:

1. What marketing strategies are unique to m-commerce? 2. What have providers done with the data they collect about con-

sumers’ driving and shopping habits? 3. What specific risks to privacy do consumers face in using their

smartphones? 4. What obligations do cellular service providers have to protect con-

sumers’ data and identity? 5. Can ethical m-commerce apps compete by clearly addressing a

consumer’s right to privacy? 6. What rights do consumers have to protect their identity and loca-

tion when using their smartphones or other mobile devices? 7. What specific changes need to be legislated to safeguard cell

phone alerts for legitimate reasons (e.g., warnings about natural disasters)?

I propose to divide the body of my paper according to three key issues of m-commerce: Mobile Surveillance, Consumer Security, and Proposed Changes for End-User License Agreements.

Methods of Research I intend to find and read recent literature dealing with m-commerce and ethics and interview one or two m-commerce experts and one or two branch managers of local smartphone service providers. Judging from

Identifies audience for whom report is intended

Outlines tentative organization of report

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Proposals for Research Reports 545

my initial research, there are a large number of entries found on privacy issues in the mobile marketplace through Google, Bing, Academic Search Premier, and Business Source Complete.

To restrict my topic, though, I have narrowed my keyword search to the most important issues of apps, tracking, consent, surveillance, privacy risks, M-consumer, and protection. From a preliminary check of docu- ments available at our college library and through its online databases, I believe the following book, articles, and blogs may be most helpful in my research.

Alvarez, Alvin. “Mobile Marketing Strategies Drive Sales.” m- merchants. blogger.com. 25 January 2015. Web. 2 Feb. 2015.

Chan, Felix T.S., and Alain Yee-Loong Zheng. “Analysis of the Determinants of Consumers’ M-commerce Usage Activities.” Online Information Review 37.3 (2013): 443–61. Web. 31 Jan. 2015.

Clifford, Stephanie, and Quentin Hardy. “Attention, Shoppers: Store Is Tracking Your Cell.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 14 July 2013. Web. 02 Feb. 2015.

Hofler, Drew. “Will 2015 Usher In a New Era for B2B Commerce?” Forbes. Forbes Magazine, 7 Jan. 2015. Web. 02 Feb. 2015.

Holes, Sara. “Watch for Hotspots when You Use Your Apps.” Springfield Herald. 8 Feb. 2015. 133+. Print.

Kao, Danny Tengti. “The Impact of Transaction Trust on Consumers’ Intentions to Adopt M-Commerce: A Cross-Cultural Investigation.” CyberPsychology & Behavior 12.2 (2009): 225–29. Web. 28 Jan. 2015.

Lever, Rob. “Retailers Smarten up with Smartphone Shoppers.” Phys.org. N.p., 1 Nov. 2013. Web. 3 Feb. 2015.

Marshall, Aarian. “NYC’s Smartphone-Tracking Phone Booths Do Not Mark the Data Privacy Apocalypse.” CityLab.com. The Atlantic, 6 Oct. 2014. Web. 02 Feb. 2015.

Pentoney, Delores. “Mobile Apps Sour.” Business World. Oct. 2014. Web. 2 Feb. 2015.

Porter, Patricia. Technology and Risk. Chicago: Watsin, 2013. Print. Rajamannar, Raja. “15 Mobile Trends to Watch in 2015.” Mashable. N.p.,

2 Jan. 2015. Web. 02 Feb. 2015. Shin, Dong-Hee. “Towards an Understanding of the Consumer

Acceptance of Mobile Wallet.” Computers in Human Behavior 25.6 (2009): 1343–354. Web. 3 Feb. 2015.

Sloane, Taylor. “iPhone Applications and Consumer Privacy.” iTech World. 30 Sept. 2014. Web. 20 Jan. 2015.

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Gives detailed lists of primary and secondary sources to be consulted, with rationale

Demonstrates how and why topic is restricted

Uses proper MLA style for documentation

Cites only most relevant and current sources

Includes both print and Web based research

546 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

Identifies need for additional interviews

Specifies schedule and how to meet it

Politely requests approval and feedback

“10 Things You May Have Missed.” Stores Magazine 94.12 (2012): 15. Business Source Complete. Web. 2 Feb. 2015.

Thompson, Betty. “The M-Commerce Blogger.” blogspot365.com. 13 January 2015. Web. 25 Jan. 2015.

Watkins, María. “Comment.” Facebook. Facebook, 21 Aug. 2014. Web. 31 Jan. 2015.

I also plan to interview at least two marketing experts in the Springfield area to learn how they assess ethical issues involving mobile apps. My first choice is Katarina Kuhn at M-Trade, who has prepared several webinars on M-security and ethics in the past year. If she is unavailable, I will try to interview HR directors with credentials in the field such as Paul Goya at Consumer Advocacy Rights and Jen Holka at Tech Consultants, Inc. Further, I have a list of four or five branch managers at Apple, Samsung, and other providers and intend to email or visit them to get their views on m-security and privacy.

Timetable I hope to complete my research by March 13 and my interviews by March 20. Then I will spend the following two weeks working on a draft, which I will turn in, as you asked, by April 3. After receiving your comments on my draft, I will work on revising the final copy of my background report and submit it by May 1, the date you specified. I will also send to you two progress reports—one when I finish my research and another when I decide on the final organization of my report

Request for Approval Thank you for approving my plan for this background report. I welcome any further suggestions on how you think I might best proceed.

Figure 13.7 (Continued)

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Purpose (Introduction) Keep your introduction short—a paragraph, maybe two, pinpointing the subject and purpose of your work.

I propose to research and write a report about the “hot knife” laser used in treating portwine stains and other birthmarks.

I intend to investigate the relationship that exists between office space and our employ- ees’ need for “psychological space.”

Then briefly indicate why the topic or the problem you propose to study is significant—why you have chosen that topic and why research on it is relevant or

Proposals for Research Reports 547

worthwhile for a specific audience or objective. Study how Anna Beth Rowe in Fig- ure 13.7 states how and why her background report will be useful for consumers.

Supply your boss with a few background details about your topic—for exam- ple, the importance of using a laser as opposed to conventional ways of treating birthmarks. Prove that you have thought carefully about selecting a significant, rel- evant topic.

Background of the Problem In this second section, give your reader information about why the problem is im- portant. Cite evidence from your preliminary research and explain key terms or ideas. Show how you propose to break the topic into meaningful units. Tell your reader what specific issues, points, or areas you hope to explore.

Questions to Be Investigated In this section, formulate a list of questions you intend your research report to answer. The topics included in such questions might later become major sections of the report. Make sure your issues or questions do not overlap and that each relates directly to and supports your restricted topic. See how in Figure 13.7, Rowe proposes to divide her report on m-commerce into three distinct yet related areas.

Methods of Research In the fourth section of your proposal inform your boss how you expect to find the answers to the questions you raised in the previous section or how you intend to lo- cate information about your list of subtopics. It’s not enough to write, “I will gather appropriate information and analyze it.” Specify what data you hope to include, where they are located, and how you intend to retrieve them.

In researching information about the problem, and any proposed solutions, you can expect to use both primary and secondary research methods and tools. Review relevant sections of Chapter 8. Certainly, you will gather data from the Web and from literature published in print sources. (In fact, research reports can be based exclusively on literature searches.) The literature can include

●● websites, blogs, webfolios ●● social media sites (such as Twitter and Facebook) ●● books ●● encyclopedias or other reference materials, such as statistical data found in

manuals or almanacs, online and in print ●● articles in professional journals and trade publications, online and in print ●● newspapers and magazines, online and in print ●● personal interviews ●● company gray literature ●● reviews

Inform your reader what indexes, abstracts, or Internet searches you intend to use as part of your research (review “Internet Searches,” pages 329–330). To document your preliminary work, provide your reader with a list of appropriate titles on

548 chapter 13 Writing Winning Proposals

your topic, and follow the style of documentation used for an MLA Works Cited page (discussed in “Preparing MLA Works Cited and APA References List,” on page 340) or in another style preferred by your supervisor or employer.

In addition to these online and print materials, you might also collect informa- tion from primary research, including lab experiments, field tests, interviews with experts, surveys, or a combination of any of those sources.

Timetable Indicate when and in what order you expect to complete the different phases of your project. Your boss or instructor needs that information to keep track of your progress and to make sure you will complete your work on time. Specify tentative dates for completing your research, draft(s), revisions, and final copy.

You may have to submit progress reports (see “Progess Reports,” pages 567–571) at regular intervals. If you are asked to do that, indicate when you will submit the progress reports, as Rowe does in Figure 13.7.

Request for Approval End your proposal with a request for approval of your topic and a plan of action. You might also invite suggestions from your employer or instructor on how to re- strict, research, or organize your topic.

a Final reminder This chapter has given you some basic information and specific strategies for writing winning proposals. Keep in mind that a proposal presents a plan to decision makers for their approval. To win that approval, your proposal must be (1) realistic, (2) carefully researched, (3) highly persuasive, (4) ethical, and (5) visually appeal- ing and easy to follow. Those essential characteristics apply to internal proposals in memo format written to your employer, more formal sales proposals submitted online to a potential customer, and research proposals submitted to your instructor through email.

General Guidelines ●■ Established and distinguished the roles of the collaborative team members in-

volved in the preparation of the proposal. ●■ Researched appropriate sources for RFPs, and followed their instructions. ●■ Identified a realistic problem in my proposal—one that is restricted and relevant to

my audience’s needs.

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A Final Reminder 549

●■ Effectively convinced audience that the problem exists and that it needs to be solved.

●■ Incorporated the scope and importance of the problem. ●■ Persuasively emphasized benefits of solving the problem according to the proposal,

and incorporated the “you attitude” throughout. ●■ Offered a solution that can be realistically implemented—that is, it is both appro-

priate and feasible, economically and strategically, for the audience. ●■ Wrote clearly so the audience can understand how and why my proposal would

work. ●■ Researched the background of the problem. ●■ Used specific figures about costs, personnel, technology, and concrete details to

show how the proposal saves time and money. ●■ Double-checked the proposal to catch errors, omissions, and inconsistencies. ●■ Avoided exaggerations and underbidding. ●■ Presented information ethically. ●■ Organized the proposal with appropriate headings for clarity and ease of reading. ●■ Used white space, lists, graphics, and a professional-looking font to make my pro-

posal visually attractive and reader friendly.

For internal Proposals ●■ Demonstrated how the proposal benefits my company and my supervisor. ●■ Took into account office politics in describing the problem and offering a solution. ●■ Discussed the proposal with co-workers or supervisors who may be affected.

For Sales Proposals ●■ Related my product or service to the prospective customer’s needs and showed a

clear understanding of those needs. ●■ Prepared a comprehensive, realistic, and ethical budget; accounted for all expenses;

and itemized costs of products and services. ●■ Linked costs to benefits. ●■ Provided a timetable with exact dates for implementing the proposal. ●■ Cited other successful jobs, satisfied clients, and positive reviews on social media

to show my company’s track record. ●■ Concluded the proposal with a summary of the main benefits to readers and a call

to action.

For Research Papers/Reports ●■ Proved to my supervisor or instructor that I researched the problem by supplying

a list of possible references and sources, including ones from the Internet, personal interviews, and social media posts.

●■ Selected a major problem to investigate in my report. ●■ Supplied relevant and restricted questions my report will answer.

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1. In two or three paragraphs, identify and document a problem (in services, safety, ecology, communication, traffic, scheduling) that you see in your office or your community. Make sure you give your reader—a civic official or an employer—specific evidence that a prob- lem does exist and that it needs to be corrected.

2. Write a short internal proposal, modeled after Figure 13.5, based on the problem you identified in Exercise 1.

3. As a collaborative group project, prepare a short internal proposal, similar to that in Fig- ure 13.5 (pages 530–534), recommending to a company or a college a specific change in procedure, technology, training, transportation, safety, personnel, or policy. Make sure your team provides an appropriate audience (college administrator, department man- ager, or section chief) with specific evidence about the existence of the problem and your solution of it. Possible topics include these:

a. providing more and safer parking or lighting b. instituting job sharing for mothers c. converting existing clients over to using new smart chip credit cards d. purchasing new office or laboratory equipment or software e. hiring more faculty, student workers, or office help f. allowing employees to telecommute g. changing the lighting or furniture in a student or company lounge or kitchen to

make it more eco-friendly h. installing wireless routers and signal enhancers to boost the range of the company’s

wireless network i. increasing the number of weekend, night, or online classes in your major j. adding more health-conscious offerings to the school or company cafeteria menu k. develop an app that lets customers order goods and services remotely

4. Write a sales proposal as a collaborative group, similar to the one in Figure 13.6 (pages 537–539), on one of the following services or products or on a topic your instructor approves:

a. providing exterminating or trash removal service to a store or restaurant b. supplying a hospital with rental tablet devices for patients’ rooms c. designing websites or blogs d. obtaining temporary office help or nursing care e. supplying landscaping and lawn care work f. testing for noise, air, or water pollution in your community or neighborhood g. furnishing transportation for students, employees, or members of a community

group h. offering technical consulting service to save a company money i. digging a well for a small apartment complex j. supplying insurance coverage to a small firm (five to ten employees) k. cleaning the parking lot and outside walkways at a shopping center

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l. making a work area safer or greener m. preparing an IT seminar or training program for employees n. increasing donations to a community or charitable fund o. offering discounted memberships at a fitness center

5. Write a solicited proposal for one of the topics listed in Exercise 4 or for a topic that your instructor approves. Do this exercise as a collaborative project. Review Figure 13.6.

6. Write an appropriate proposal—internal, solicited sales, or unsolicited sales—based on the information contained in one of the following two articles. Assume that your or your prospective customer’s company or community faces a problem similar to one discussed in one of these articles. Use as much of the information in the article as you need, and add any details of your own that you think are necessary. This exercise can be done as an individual or a collaborative assignment

a. Multiuse Campuses: A Plan That Works

Gaylord Community School in Gaylord, Michigan, is a bustling center of activity from the first light of dawn to well after dusk. People of all ages come and go until late into the eve- ning for a multitude of activities that include attending classes and meetings, catching up with friends, getting a flu shot, and seeing a play. That’s because in addition to a high school, the campus also includes senior and day-care centers, classrooms for adult education, an audi- torium for the performing arts, a community health care site, and even a space that can be booked for weddings and other special occasions.

In Big Lake, Minnesota, elementary, middle, and high school buildings are all situated on one centrally located campus that makes up the entire Big Lake School District. Also in- cluded in this innovative layout are a state-of-the-art theater, a community resource center, and a multipurpose athletic arena, all of which are used extensively by the entire community.

Both the Gaylord and Big Lake schools are models of a growing movement toward mul- tiuse community campuses that serve as “anchor[s] in the civic life of our nation,” according to U.S. Secretary of Education Richard W. Riley. I recently had the pleasure of visiting Secre- tary Riley in his office. Also present were AARP President Joe Perkins and National Retired Teachers Association Director Annette Norsman, both of whom are involved in many facets of education and lifelong learning.

We discussed many things, including our concerns about the current increase in the number of students caused by the Baby Boom echo (children of the Boomers) and how that population is going to further stress the already crumbling infrastructure of Ameri- can schools. We also talked about the need for resources—to employ more teachers, bring technology into the classroom, strengthen educational curriculum and opportunities for all ages—and the pressing need to build and renovate schools. That led to a discussion about the necessity and benefit of involving the whole community in the design and use of new school facilities.

I always thought that it was a shame that the majority of schools are used only a third of the day, three fourths of the year, by only a fifth of the population. Considering that there will be more school construction over the next decade than at any time since the 1950s, it just makes sense to consider the intergenerational and community benefits of multiuse spaces,

Source: Horace B. Deets, “Multiuse Campuses: A Plan That Works,” Modern Maturity (July–August 1999): 72. Reprinted with permission from Modern Maturity. Copyright © 1999 by American Association of Retired Persons.

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benefits that include everything from establishing better learning environments to getting more bang for the tax buck.

There are many additional bonuses for multiuse educational complexes: They create an exciting community hub, bring life and culture to a central area, and revitalize and nourish the neighborhood in which they are located.

It’s a win-win situation for everyone involved.

b. Self-illuminating Exit Signs

The Marine Corps Development and Education Center (MCDEC), Quantico, Virginia, sub- mitted a project recently, to replace incandescent illumination exit signs with self- illuminating exit signs for a cost of $97,238. The first-year savings were anticipated to be about $37,171 with an anticipated payback time of 2.6 years—making this an excellent way to save money.

The primary benefit of these self-illuminating exit signs is that virtually all operation and maintenance expense is eliminated for the life of the device, normally from 10 to 12 years. Power failures or other disturbances will not cause them to go out. In new construction, expensive electrical circuits can be totally eliminated. In retrofits, the release of a dedicated circuit for other use may be of considerable benefit. Initial total cost of installing circuits and conventional devices approximately equals the cost of the self-illuminating signs. Installation labor and expense for the self-illuminating signs is about that of hanging a picture.

The amount of electricity saved varies and depends on whether your existing fixtures are fluorescent (13 to 26 watts) or incandescent (50 to 100 watts). Multiply the number of fixtures × wattage/fixture × hours operated/day × days/year = kWh/year savings. For example, assume:

400 incandescent fixtures

$0.10/kWh

0.04 kW/fixture

24 hours/day, 365 days/year operation

400 × 0.04 × 24 × 365 = 140,160 kWh/year 140,160 × $0.10 = $14,016/year for electricity

Now add in savings achieved from reducing labor to change bulbs; avoiding bulb material, stocking, and storage costs; avoiding transportation costs involved in bulb changes; and reus- ing existing bulbs.

The above savings can be significant. For the MCDEC Quantico project, estimates of bulb change interval and savings were 700 hours (29 days) and $13,512/ year when all factors were considered.

The cost of a self-illuminating sign depends on whether one or two faces are illumi- nated primarily and varies between different suppliers. Single-face prices will likely be $200 to $250 while double-face prices may be $450 to $500. The contractor at Quantico found bet- ter prices than these ranges indicate. The labor cost should be about $10 per sign.

If you can use an exit-sign system with high dependability, no maintenance, and zero operations cost in your retrofit or new construction projects, try a self-illuminating exit-sign system in your economic analysis today. “Isolite” signs, by Safety Light Corp., are listed as FSC (Fire Safety Code) Group 99, Part IV, Section A, Class 9905 signs and are available through GSA contract. Contact Gerald Harnett, Safety Light Corp., P.O. Box 266, Green- belt, MD 20070 for more information.

Exercises 553

7. Write a research proposal on which the report on recruiting and retaining multinational workers in Figure 15.3 (pages 607–621) could have been based.

8. Write a research proposal, similar to the one in Figure 13.7 (pages 543–546), to your in- structor seeking approval for a research-based long report. Do the necessary preliminary research to show that you have selected a suitable topic, narrowed it, and identified the sources of information you have to consult. List at least six relevant and recent articles, two recent books (since 2014), several websites, and two or three professional blogs per- tinent to your topic.

9. Write a proposal in letter format (similar to Figure 5.7 on page 170) for a business you manage to attract new international clients. As part of your letter, stress any new equip- ment or services you offer and provide any background/history about your business that might appeal to a particular group’s international customers.

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C H A P T E R

14 Writing Effective Short Reports

This chapter shows you how to write short reports, which are among the most important and frequent types of business communications you may be called upon to prepare. Short, informal reports give up-to-date information (and sometimes what it means and what should be done about it) to help a company or organization run smoothly, efficiently, and profitably. These reports, which cover a wide range of topics, can help a company fulfill its obligations and plan for its future. Short re- ports are crucial to day-to-day operations of any company or organiza- tion, and are designed for an audience of busy decision makers.

Why Short reportS Are ImportAnt A short report can be defined as an organized presentation of relevant data on any topic—money, travel, time, technology, personnel, service equipment, weather, the environment—that a company or agency tracks in its ongoing operations. Short reports are practical and to the point. They show that work is being done, and they also show your boss that you are alert, professional, and reliable. Short reports are written to co- workers, employers, vendors, and clients. When they are intended for individuals within your organization, these reports can be sent as either hard copy memos, as attachments to emails, or simply sent in the body of an email. For clients, you will usually send your reports out as letters (or as a PDF letter attached to an email).

Businesses cannot function without short written reports. Reports tell whether

●● work is being completed ●● schedules are being met ●● costs have been contained ●● sales projections are being met ●● trips or conferences/trade shows have been successful ●● meetings with customers are profitable

ChApter outlIne

Why Short Reports Are Important

Types of Short Reports

Eight Guidelines for Writing Short Reports

Periodic Reports

Sales Reports

Progress Reports

Employee Activity/ Performance Reports

Trip/Travel Reports

Test Reports

Incident Reports

Short Reports: Some Final Thoughts

Adam Mork/Architecture (RM)/Corbis

Eight Guidelines for Writing Short Reports 555

●● locations have been selected ●● problems have been solved

You may write an occasional report for a special purpose, in response to a specific question, or you may be required to write a daily, weekly, or monthly report about routine activities. For example, a short report can update your manager or client about the status of a project, provide feedback about a customer survey, prove you followed the regulations of a state or federal agency, or assess your own or someone else’s accomplishments at work.

typeS of Short reportS To give you a sense of some of the topics you may be required to write about, here is a list of various types of short reports common in the business world.

appraisal report audit report budget report compliance report construction report design report employee activity/ performance report environmental assessment evaluation report experiment report feasibility report

incident report inventory report investigative report laboratory report management trainee report manager’s report marketing report medicine/treatment error report operations report periodic report production report

progress/activity report recommendation report research report sales report site inspection report status report survey report test report travel report

This chapter concentrates on seven of the most common types of reports you are likely to encounter on your job.

1. periodic reports 2. sales reports 3. progress reports 4. employee activity/performance reports 5. trip/travel reports 6. test reports 7. incident reports

Although there are many kinds of short reports, they all are written for readers who need factual information so that they can get a job accomplished. Never think of the reports you write as a series of casual notes jotted down for your convenience.

eIght guIdelIneS for WrItIng Short reportS Although there are many short reports, the following eight guidelines will help you write any type of short report successfully.

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1. anticipate how an audience Will Use Your report Knowing who will read your report and why is crucial to your success as a writer. Readers will want to know what the reason for the report is and how you found your information. Consider how much your audience knows about your project and what types of information they need most. A co-worker or someone else in your field may be familiar with technical information. But managers, who will constitute the largest audience for your report, may not always understand or be interested in such technical information. Instead, they will want bottom-line details about costs,

Creating Templates for Short Reports

You can use your word processor’s template function to create professional-looking reports. Templates are predesigned formats for page layouts that specify style elements of a document. They allow you to automate designs for periodic, sales, progress, inci- dent, and other types of reports. An existing template will format information to create a professional-looking report. Using templates, you reduce the risk of errors, omissions, and inconsistencies and ensure that you follow your company’s style and format.

To create a specific report template, simply set the format options (such as font, mar- gins, and line spacing) for a new document, type place markers for your text (including headers, footers, and titles), import custom visuals (such as a company logo), and save the document as a template. When you need to create a new report using the template, simply open it, insert the content of your report, and save the document under a new file name. You can customize the formatting of any or all of the following elements:

●● Headers, footers for a company address, titles, and dates ●● List formatting, such as bullet-point style and numbered lists ●● Line spacing and text justification ●● Font style, size, and color ●● Standard graphics, e.g., a flowchart, organizational charts, or infographs ●● Margin size, paragraph indentation, and columns ●● Standard visual elements such as tables, which can also be filled with the data appropriate to your report

●● Automatic table of contents based on the titles used in your report

But when using templates keep the following precautions in mind:

●● Be sure to follow your company’s style when creating templates, particularly those including a company logo.

●● Double-check everything in the template to be sure it is appropriate for the kind of report you’re writing. Differences between reports may require visual adjustments, to margins, headers, footers, line spacing, list formatting, etc.

●● When creating a template with place markers to indicate the position of certain textual elements, insert them in boldface for emphasis. Using brackets (for example, [type title here] or [body of text here]) will highlight and thus emphasize these place holders.

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Eight Guidelines for Writing Short Reports 557

personnel, and schedules, for example. Similarly, audiences outside of your company (clients, media, community agencies, etc.) will likely not be interested in technical information. Rather, they want information that helps them understand your com- pany, how it works or serves customers, and how to interact with it.

All audiences, however, want clear and concise information about the topics these readers need to know. For more information on how to make your reports concise and easy to follow, see “Write Clearly and Concisely,” page 560.

2. Do the Necessary research An effective short report needs the same careful research that goes into other on- the-job writing. Your research may be as simple as messaging, tweeting, emailing, or leaving a voicemail for a colleague or checking a piece of equipment. Or you may have to test or inspect a product or service or assess the relative merits of one plan over another. Some frequent types of research you can expect to do on the job include:

●● verifying data in reference manuals or code books ●● searching online archives and databases for recent discussions of a problem

or procedure ●● comparing and contrasting competitor’s products or services on social media

and other sources ●● reading background information in professional and trade journals ●● pricing equipment ●● preparing a budget ●● reviewing and updating a client’s file ●● testing equipment ●● performing an experiment or procedure ●● conferring with or interviewing colleagues, managers, vendors, or clients ●● visiting and describing a site ●● attending a conference, trade show, or workshop

Never trust your memory to keep track of all the details that go into making a successful short report. Take notes, either by hand or on your mobile device. Col- lect all the relevant data you will need—names, model numbers, costs, places, tech- nology, etc.—and organize this information carefully into an outline, which will help you interpret these facts for your readers. (Review Chapter 8 for the variety of research methods used in the world of work.)

3. Be objective and ethical Your readers will expect you to report the facts objectively and impartially— locations, costs, sales, weather conditions, eyewitness accounts, observations, statis- tics, test measurements, and descriptions. Your reports should be truthful, accurate, and complete. Here are some guidelines to follow:

●● Omit irrelevant information. ●● Make sure it is up-to-date.

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●● Avoid guesswork. If you don’t know or have not yet found out, say so and indicate how, where, and when you’ll try to find out.

●● Do not substitute impressions or unsupported personal opinions for careful research. Your report should be unbiased and based on hard, factual evidence.

●● Be ethical. Don’t use biased, skewed, or incomplete data. Provide a balanced, straightforward, and honest account; don’t exaggerate or minimize. Don’t omit key facts. If a project is over budget or late, state so but indicate why and what might be done to correct the problem.

●● Make sure your report is relevant, accurate, and reliable. Double-check your details against other sources, and make sure you have sufficient information to reach your conclusions or provide recommendations.

Review “Ethical Writing in the Workplace” in Chapter 1 (pages 26–37).

4. organize carefully Organizing a short report effectively means including the right amount of informa- tion in the most appropriate places for your audience. You cannot just jot down some random ideas and details and submit those as your report. Make your report easy to read and to follow. Many times a simple chronological or sequential organization

Using the Web to Do Research for Short Reports

Many government agencies provide the statistical raw data that go into various types of short reports — employment figures, population data, environmental statistics, and so on. Incorporating information from these and other relevant sites give readers the necessary documentation they need to accept a conclusion or recommendation.

Other businesses also post information that may be relevant to your report for your company. Large corporations such as General Motors or IBM help you see the progress of stocks and mutual funds or obtain other industry-wide information on their websites. Finally, ConsumerReports.org (www.consumerreports.org) evaluates different brands of products so that you don’t have to do testing yourself.

Here are some sites that publish appropriate information for short reports:

●● BizStats, www.bizstats.com ●● U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, www.bls.gov ●● U.S. Bureau of Transportation, www.bts.gov ●● Federal Reserve, www.federalreserve.gov ●● National Center for Educational Statistics, http://nces.ed.gov ●● National Center for Health Statistics, www.cdc.gov/nchs ●● New York Stock Exchange, www.nyse.com ●● UNESCO Institute for Statistics, www.uis.unesco.org ●● United Nations Statistics Division, http://unstats.un.org/unsd ●● U.S. Census Bureau, www.census.gov

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Eight Guidelines for Writing Short Reports 559

is best. But, regardless of how you organized your report, readers will expect your report to contain information on such topics as purpose, findings, conclusions, and, in many reports, recommendations, as described in the following sections.

Purpose Always begin by telling readers why you are writing (your purpose) and by alerting them to what you will discuss and why it is significant. You may have to refer to their giving you authorization to do the report, as in Figures 14.5 or 14.8. Give your readers a summary of key events and details at the beginning to help them follow the remainder of the report quickly. Essential background information alerts read- ers to the importance of your report. When you establish the scope (or limits) of your report, you help readers zero in on specific times, costs, places, or problems.

Findings This should be the longest part of your report and contain the data (the results) you have collected—facts about prices, personnel, equipment, events, locations, in- cidents, or tests. Gather the data from your research, site visits, interviews, or dis- cussions with co-workers, employers, or clients. Use statistical sources, as in “Tech Note: Using the Web to Do Research for Short Reports.” (See also “Two Types of Research: Primary and Secondary,” pages 306–307.) Again, choose only those de- tails that have the greatest importance and relevance to your reader. Separate major points from minor ones.

Conclusion Your conclusion tells readers what your data mean. It can summarize what has hap- pened; review what actions were taken; or explain the outcome or results of a test, a visit, or a program. Be aware, though, that readers are skeptical and may ask why you didn’t reach a different conclusion. Anticipate possible objections and explain why other conclusions are unworkable.

Recommendations A recommendation informs readers what specific actions you think your company or client should take, for example, market a new product, hire more staff, institute safety measures, update software, select among alternative plans or procedures, and so on. Recommendations must be based on the data you collected, the resources (budget) and schedule that your company or department follows, and the con- clusions you have reached. They need to show persuasively how all the pieces fit together.

Note how the periodic report in Figure 14.1 (page 562) fails to help readers see and understand the organization and importance of the information. But the revised version of the report, Figure 14.2 (page 563–564), clearly illustrates effective report writing.

Note that because of the deadlines executives face, some companies prefer that recommendations come at the beginning of the report (as in Figure 14.8), followed by supporting documentation.

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5. Write clearly and concisely Writing clearly and concisely is essential in all business reports. Ask your boss or experienced co-workers about the appropriate style your company prefers. Also look at previous, similar reports to get a sense of your company’s style and tone.

Here are a few guidelines to help you write clearly and concisely.

●● Use an informative title or subject line that gets to the point right away. “Software Options” is not as clear as “Most Economical Options for Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software.”

●● Write in plain English. Make every word count, avoid jargon, and keep your writing simple, yet precise and straightforward. Prune business clichés such as “at the end of the day” or “let’s circle back.”

●● For global readers, make sure you use international English. Keep your sentences short, and write in the active voice. Do not use U.S. idioms, slang, or abbreviations. (See “Ten Guidelines for Communicating with Interna- tional Readers,” in Chapter 5, pages 169–173.)

●● Adopt a professional yet personal tone. Avoid being overly formal or too casual—strike a balance between these two extremes. Don’t sound arrogant by adopting a tone that suggests you alone have the final authority.

●● Keep your report as concise as possible to give readers essential informa- tion. Don’t burden them with lengthy project histories when all they ask for is a quick update on a project, and don’t pad the report with unnecessary details to sound important. A short report is usually no longer than one to three pages.

6. create a reader-centered Design The appearance of your report will influence how your readers will respond to it and to you. Here are some useful guidelines. (You may also want to review Chapters 10 and 11 on visuals and document design.)

●● Help readers locate and digest information quickly. Use headings, sub- headings, bullets, and numbered lists to guide readers through your report. Doing this, you break large portions of text into easy-to-read parts. Your headings and subheadings give readers the big picture at a glance. Many re- ports in this chapter demonstrate how headings and bulleted or numbered lists assist readers. For instance, see Figures 14.2, 14.3, and 14.5.

●● If you are submitting your report as an electronic document, use hyperlinks where appropriate to help readers find information quickly.

●● Make your report look professional, readable, and easy to follow. Don’t flood your report with color. (See “Tech Note: Creating Templates for Short Reports” on page 556.) Avoid using flashy color or fancy fonts that are hard to read. Also, don’t try to squeeze too much text onto the page. Always leave comfortable margins.

●● Be consistent in your design and format. Use the same font throughout the text of your report and choose a consistent typeface for headings and subheadings.

Sales Reports 561

7. Include visuals/graphics/tables only when they are needed. Visuals can help readers see trends, explain a process, assimilate factual/ statistical data, etc. Here are a few guidelines for how to appropriately and successfully include visuals in your short reports:

●● Include only the most essential visuals. Don’t go overboard. Use visuals only if they make the reader’s job easier, reinforcing or summarizing key data quickly, as the table in Figure 14.2 and the map in Figure 14.8 do. Keep visu- als simple and relevant, e.g., a picture or drawing to illustrate a major point.

●● Never include a visual without explaining why it is there, what it con- tains, and how it is useful.

●● Make sure that you place your visual as close as possible to the text it will help to explain or illustrate.

8. choose the Most appropriate Format Depending on your company’s or organization’s policies, you can send your short report as an email (as in Figure 14.6), a memo, a PDF attachment (as in Figure 14.4), or a letter. For routine reports to your boss or others inside your company, you will likely use a memo format, as in Figures 14.2, 14.3, and 14.8. Note that with a memo format your readers will not expect you to include an inside address or formal salu- tation and complimentary close. Incident reports, however, are often submitted as hard-copy memos for legal reasons; but they can also be written as a memo, as in Fig- ure 14.11, or by completing a special form. Some incident reports, to save the reader’s time, are scanned and sent as an email attachment. When writing to clients and other readers outside your company or organization, it is best to send your report as a for- mal letter (including a salutation and complimentary close, as in Figure 14.5).

perIodIC reportS Periodic reports, as their name signifies, provide readers with information at regu- larly scheduled intervals—daily, weekly, bimonthly (twice a month), monthly, or quarterly. They help a company or an agency monitor the quantity and quality of the services it provides and the amount and types of work done by employees. In- formation in periodic reports helps managers plan schedules; hire, train, assign, and reassign staff; budget funds; determine needs and goals; and fulfill a corporate mis- sion. The following case study (pages 562–565) shows a poor draft of a periodic report (Figure 14.1) and a successful revision (Figure 14.2).

SAleS reportS Sales reports provide businesses with a necessary and ongoing record of accounts, online and mail purchases, losses, and profits over a specified period of time. They help businesses assess past performance and plan for the future. As a financial re- cord, sales reports list costs per unit, discounts or special reductions, and subtotals and totals. Sales reports also show gains and losses. They may also provide statistics for comparing two quarters’ sales.

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A Poor and an Effective Short Report

Sergeants Daniel Huxley, Jennifer Chavez, and Ivor Paz of the Springdale Police Department were responsible for writing a monthly periodic report for the second quarter of 2016 for Captain J.T. Martin, their boss. Confronted with a mass of data about various crimes and mis- demeanors, they had to organize, compare, and contrast this data as well as draw conclusions and make recommendations. Figure 14.1, an early draft of their report, does not follow the guidelines in “Eight Guidelines for Writing Short Reports,” pages 555–561. But Figure 14.2, a revised version of Figure 14.1, does. Read through both reports, keeping in mind the following differences:

●● Research. Although Figure 14.1 includes statistics, it does not explain or provide recom- mendations based on them. Figure 14.2, however, provides explanations, supplies more detail, and gives concrete recommendations.

●● Audience analysis. Figure 14.1 simply throws facts at the reader. Figure 14.2, however, consistently takes the reader’s needs into account by focusing on how Captain Martin will use the statistical information about the crime rate during the second quarter of the year. To help Captain Martin, Figure 14.2 presents the most important information first, then explains and analyzes the numbers for her and provides realistic and direct recommendations.

●● Objectivity/ethics. In Figure 14.1, details have not been checked against any other sources, so the report is incomplete and possibly inaccurate. Figure 14.2, however, elimi- nates the guesswork and, more ethically, offers solutions, careful analysis, and a variety of relevant sources.

●● Organization. Figure 14.1 makes no attempt to organize the report so it is reader- friendly. It contains three dense and disorganized paragraphs and does not summarize the facts. But Figure 14.2 supplies a clear purpose statement, organizes and summarizes the facts concisely, and helpfully groups recommendations.

●● Writing style and tone. Figure 14.1 is just an accumulation of numbers, making it hard for Capt. Martin to access or understand their importance. The tone is smug and arrogant. Figure 14.2, on the other hand, is easy to follow and to understand. It uses helpful con- nective words and phrases (“compared to last quarter,” ”overall”) and includes important contexts (“were less than last quarter”).

●● Format and visuals. Figure 14.1 lacks headers, bullets, visuals, or consistent paragraph indentation, and uses italics and boldface unnecessarily. Figure 14.2 instead supplies clear heads, breaks the text into easy-to-digest subheads, places numerical data in visual form (Table 1), and uses bulleted lists.

Case study

Sales Reports 563

Figure 14.1 An Example of a Poorly Written, Poorly Organized, and Poorly Formatted Periodic Report

Vague subject line

Throws facts out without any sense of reader’s needs

Includes irrelevant detail

Hard-to-follow comparisons and contrasts

Conclusion provides no summary or recomm- endations

No analysis or commentary

Gives undigested numbers

Poor, inconsistent format

Inconsistent and confusing use of boldface and italic

Introduction doesn’t give overall picture

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To Serve and Protec t

TO: Captain J. T. Martin FROM: Sergeants Daniel Huxley, Jennifer Chavez,

and Ivor Paz SUBJECT: Crimes DATE: July 11, 2016

This report will let you know what happened this quarter as opposed to what happened last quarter as far as crimes are concerned in Springdale. This report is based on statistics the department has given us over the quarter.

Here we’ll let the facts speak for themselves. From Jan.–Mar. we saw 132 robberies while from Apr.–June we had 158. Home burglaries for this period: 43; last period: 36. 33 cars were stolen in the period before this one; now we have 40. Interestingly enough, last year at this time we had only 27 thefts. Four of them involved heirlooms.

Homicides were 4 this time versus 5 last quarter; assault and battery charges were 92 this time, 77 last time. Carrying a concealed weapon, 11 (10 last quarter). We had 47 arrests (55 last quarter) for charges of possession of a controlled substance. Rape charges were 8, 1 less than last quarter. 360 citations this time for moving violations: speeding 197/165, and failing to observe the signals 118/102 last quarter. DUIs this quarter—only 45, or 23 fewer than last quarter.

Misdemeanors this quarter: disturbing the peace 53; vagrancy/public drunkenness 88; violating leash laws 32; violating city codes 39, including dumping trash. Last quarter the figures were 48, 59, 21, 43.

We believe this report is complete and up-to-date. We further hope that this report has given you all the facts you will need.

Emergency 555-1000 Administration 555-1001 Traffic 555-1002

www.springdalepd.gov

564 chapter 14 Writing Effective Short Reports

Figure 14.2 A Well-Prepared Report, Revised from Figure 14.1

Precise subject line

Begins with concise overview of report

Organizes crimes into categories

Supplies easy- to-follow visual

Table is boxed, making it easier to read

Uses clear headings to show organiza tion of report

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TO: Captain J. T. Martin FROM: Sergeants Daniel Huxley, Jennifer Chavez, and Ivor Paz SUBJECT: Crime rate for the second quarter of 2016 DATE: July 11, 2016

From April 1 to June 30, 852 crimes were reported in Springdale, representing a 5 percent increase over the 815 crimes recorded during the previous quarter.

TYPES OF CRIMES The following report, based on the table below, discusses the speci�c types of crimes, organized into four categories: robberies and theft, felonies, traf�c, and misdemeanors.

Table 1 Comparison of the 1st and 2nd Quarter Crime Rates in Springdale

Quarter2ndQuarter1stCategory

ROBBERIES AND THEFT

FELONIES

TRAFFIC

MISDEMEANORS

7563Commercial 4336Domestic 4033Auto

45Homicide Assault and battery 77 92 Carrying a concealed weapon 10 11 Possession of a controlled substance 55 47

89Rape

197165Speeding Failure to observe signals 102 118

4578IUD

Disturbing the peace Vagrancy Public drunkenness Leash law violations Dumping trash

Other

48 53 4840

19 40 21 32 43 39

128

Robberies and Theft The greatest increase in crime was in robberies, 20 percent more than last quarter. Downtown merchants reported 75 burglaries, exceeding $985,000. The biggest theft

Emergency 555-1000 Administration 555-1001 Traffic 555-1002

www.springdalepd.gov To Serve and Protec

Sales Reports 565

Figure 14.2 (Continued)

Provides essential background and statistical information and comparative analyses

Includes only data reader needs

Summarizes findings of report

Offers specific actions/ changes based on conclusion of report in bulleted lists

Recommenda- tions are realistic and valid

Easy-to-read sentences

Draws logical conclusion

Documents effective actions

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occurred on May 21 at Paterson’s Jewelers, when three armed robbers stole more than $217,000 in merchandise. (Suspects were apprehended two days later.) Home burglaries accounted for 43 crimes, though the thefts were not confined to any one residential area. We also had 40 car thefts reported and investigated.

Felonies Homicides decreased slightly from last quarter—from 5 to 4. Charges for battery, however, increased—15 more than we had last quarter. Arrests for carrying a concealed weapon were nearly identical this quarter to last quarter’s total. But the 47 arrests for possession of a controlled substance were appreciably down from the first quarter. Arrests for rape for this quarter also were less than last quarter’s.Three of those rapes happened within one week (May 6–12) and have been attributed to the same suspect, now in custody.

Traffic Traffic violations were higher (4 percent) than those last quarter—360 as opposed to 345. Most of the citations were issued for speeding (197) or for failing to observe signals (118). Officers issued 45 citations to motorists for DUIs, a significant decrease from the 78 DUIs issued last quarter.The new state penalty of withholding a driver’s license for six months of anyone convicted of driving while under the influence appears to have been an effective deterrent.

Misdemeanors The largest number of arrests in this category were for disturbing the peace—53. Compared to last quarter, this is an increase of 10 percent.There were 88 arrests for vagrancy and public drunkenness, an increase from the 59 charges made last quarter. We issued 32 citations for violations of leash laws, which represents a sizable increase over last quarter’s 21 citations.Thirty-nine citations were issued for dumping trash at the Mason Reservoir.

CONCLUSION Overall, while the crime rate has decreased for traffic violations (especially DUIs) and possession of controlled substances this quarter, we have seen a marked increase in arrests for robberies and battery.

RECOMMENDATIONS To help deter robberies in the downtown area, we recommend the following:

increasing surveillance units to 15 rather than the 10 now in the area offering businesses our workshop on safety and security precautions, as we did during the first quarter

Historically, battery arrests have risen during the second quarter. Our recommendations to counter this trend include:

continuing to work closely with the Springdale Anti-Crime League providing more foot and bicycle patrols in the neighborhoods with the highest incidence of battery complaints

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Sales reports are also a managerial tool because they help businesses make both short- and long-range plans. The restaurant manager’s sales report illustrated in Figure 14.3 guides the owners to decide which popular entrées to highlight and

Figure 14.3 A Sales Report

Dayton, OH 43210 (813) 555-4000 (813) 555-4100 fax

www.theoaks.com www.facebook.com/theoaks

TO: Gina Smeltzer DATE: June 20, 2016 Alfonso Zapatta, Owners FROM: Sam Jelinek SUBJECT: Analysis of entrée sales, Manager June 6–10 and 13–17

As we agreed at our monthly meeting on June 3, here is my analysis of entrée sales for two weeks to assist us in our menu planning. Below is a record of entrée sales for the weeks of June 6–10 and 13–17 that I compiled and put in the table for easier comparisons.

Portion June 6–10 June 13–17 Both Weeks Size Amount Percentage Amount Percentage Amount Percentage

Cornish Hen 6 oz. 238 17 307 17 545 17 Stuffed Young Turkey 8 oz. 112 8 182 10 294 9 Broiled Salmon Steak 8 oz. 154 11 217 12 371 12 Brook Trout 12 oz. 182 13 252 14 434 13 Prime Rib 10 oz. 168 12 198 11 366 11 Lobster Tails 2–4 oz. 147 10 161 9 308 10 Delmonico Steak 10 oz. 56 4 70 4 126 4 Moroccan Chicken 6 oz. 343 25 413 23 756 24

001 002,3 001 008,1 001 004,1

Recommendations Based on the figures in the table above, I recommend that we do the following:

1. Order at least 100 more pounds of prime rib each two-week period to be eligible for further quantity discounts from the Northern Meat Company.

2. Remove the Delmonico Steak entrée because of its low acceptance.

3. Introduce a new chicken or fish entrée to take the place of the Delmonico Steak; I would suggest grilled lemon chicken to accommodate those patrons interested in a tasty, low-fat, lower-cholesterol, reduced sodium entrée.

Please give me your responses within the next week. It shouldn’t take more than a few days to implement these changes. Thank you.

Offers precise and relevant recommenda- tions

Requests authorization to implement recommenda- tions

Organizes findings of the report in helpful table

Boldfaces totals

Restricted subject line

Begins with purpose and scope of report

Eye-catching logo

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Progress Reports 567

which unpopular ones to modify or delete. Note how the recommendations follow logically from the figures manager Sam Jelinek gives to Gina Smeltzer and Alfonso Zapatta, the owners of The Oaks. Because readers are familiar with the subject of the report, Jelinek did not have to supply background information on the entire offerings.

progreSS reportS A progress report, such as those in Figures 14.4 (page 569) and 14.5 (page 570), informs readers about the status of an ongoing project. It lets them know how much and what type of work has been done by a particular date, by whom, how well, and how close the entire job is to being completed. A progress report reveals whether you are

●● specifying what work has been done ●● keeping on your schedule ●● staying within your budget ●● using the proper technology or equipment ●● making the right assignments ●● identifying an unexpected problem ●● providing adjustments in schedules, personnel, and so on ●● indicating what work remains to be done ●● completing the job efficiently, correctly, and according to codes

Almost any kind of ongoing work can be described in a progress report— research for a paper, construction of an apartment complex, preparation of a web- site, documentation of a patient’s rehabilitation. Progress reports are often prepared at key phases, or milestones, in a project.

audience for progress reports A progress report is intended for people who generally are not working along- side you but who need a record of your activities to coordinate them with other individuals’ efforts and to learn about problems or changes in plans. For example, supervisors who do not work in a field or branch office (and non-native speakers of English who manage overseas offices) will rely on your progress reports for much of their information. Customers, such as a contractor’s clients, expect reports on how carefully their money is being spent, if schedules are being met, and whether there is a risk of going over the budget.

The length of a progress report will depend on your audience and on the complexity of the project. A short email to a supervisor about organizing a time management workshop might be all that is necessary. A report to an instructor about the progress a student is making on a research report easily could be handled in a memo, such as Anna Beth Rowe’s progress report in Figure 14.4 (page 569) on the research report described in her proposal in Chapter 13 (Figure 13.7, pages 543–546). Dale Brandt’s assessment of the progress his construction company is making in ren- ovating Dr. Burke’s office is given in a letter in Figure 14.5 (page 570).

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Frequency of progress reports Progress reports can be written at any regular interval, even annually. Your spe- cific job and your employer’s needs will dictate how often you have to keep others informed of your progress. Anna Beth Rowe was asked to submit two progress reports, the first of which is found in Figure 14.4. Contractor Dale Brandt deter- mined that three reports, spaced four to six weeks apart, would be necessary to keep Dr. Burke posted; Figure 14.5 (page 570) is the second of those reports.

parts of a progress report Progress reports should contain information on (1) the work you have done, (2) the work you are currently doing, and (3) the work you will do.

How to Begin a Progress Report In a brief introduction,

●● indicate why you are writing the report ●● provide any necessary project titles or codes and specify dates ●● help readers recall the job you are doing for them

If you are writing an initial progress report, supply brief background informa- tion in the opening. Anna Beth Rowe states the purpose and scope of her work in the first paragraph in Figure 14.4.

If you are submitting a subsequent progress report, inform your reader about where your previous report left off and where the current one begins. Make sure you clearly specify the period covered by each report. Note how Dale Brandt’s first paragraph in Figure 14.5 calls attention to the continuity of his work.

How to Write the Body of a Progress Report The body of the report should provide significant details about costs, materials, personnel, and times for the major stages of the project.

●● Emphasize completed tasks, not false starts. If you report that the carpentry work or painting is finished, readers do not need an explanation of paint vis- cosity or geometrical patterns.

●● Omit routine or well-known details (“I had to use the library when I wanted to read the back issues of Safety News that were not archived on the Web”).

●● Describe in the body of your report any snags you encountered that may affect the work in progress. See Anna Beth Rowe’s explanation of replacing a planned interview subject, or Dale Brandt’s section on electrical problems in Figure 14.5. Ethically, the reader needs to know about trouble early in the project, so appropriate changes or corrections can be made.

How to End a Progress Report The conclusion should give a timetable for the completion of duties or the submis- sion of the next progress report. Give the date by which you expect work to be completed. Be realistic; do not promise to have a job done in less time than you

Progress Reports 569

Figure 14.4 A Progress Report for a Student’s Research Report Sent as a PDF

Clearly states purpose of report

Provides updates by citing individual references and actions taken

Gives detailed descriptions of steps in the research process

Anticipates problem

Concludes with next steps

Details results of primary research

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TO: Professor Marisol Vega FROM: Anna Beth Rowe DATE: March 21, 2015 SUBJECT: First Progress Report on Research Report

This is the first of two progress reports that you asked me to submit about my background report on the ethical issues involved in using apps in m-commerce.

From February 6 until March 20, I gathered information from library holdings, the Internet, and one interview. Of the sixteen references listed in my proposal, I’ve so far found only thirteen. The text by Patricia Porter (Technology and Risk) and the article by Sara Holes (“Watch for Hotspots when You Use Your Apps”) are not available at our campus library, and I’m working with Document Delivery to receive these texts as soon as possible. One of my Internet sources, blogspot365.com, has been down for the past several days, but according to their webmaster, service should be restored in the next 4–5 days.

On March 18, I had an extended interview (1½ hours) with Katrina Kuhn, a marketing specialist and M-security consultant. She gave me some helpful handouts from her m-commerce seminars, as well as a copy of a webinar presentation she’d recently delivered on how consumers can better safe- guard their privacy when using mobile apps — which I hope to include in the research for my report.

Because of an extended trip to Denver, Paul Goya could not meet with me. At his suggestion, though, I am trying to schedule an interview with Robert Sims, the manager at Mobile General here in Springfield. Sims has made numerous sales presentations and in-house briefings on the mobile apps his company developed to improve customer service and provide bet- ter monitoring. Even if Mr. Goya cannot meet with me, Ms. Kuhn gave me a great deal of information about the legal and ethical foundations of m-commerce. Also, there is a chance I might interview Jen Holka at Tech Consultants in early May when her schedule clears. Not currently having the secondary sources listed above may temporarily slow, but not stop, my work.

Starting tomorrow, I will begin my report and will submit my final copy May 1. As you requested, you will receive a second progress report and a draft of my research report on April 3.

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Figure 14.5 The Second of Three Progress Reports from a Contractor to a Customer

Professional- looking letterhead emphasizing ecology

Begins with key information: project status

Recaps activities for background

Summarizes current accomplish- ments

Atten tion to greening the building

Identifies problems, how they were solved

Specifies work remaining

Projects successful completion

Promises to keep reader informed

Brandt Construction Company Halsted at Roosevelt, Chicago, Illinois 60608-0999 312-555-3700 Fax: 312-555-1731 www.brandtcon.com www.facebook.com/brandtconstruction/

April 29, 2016

Dr. Pamela Burke 1439 Grand Avenue Mount Prospect, IL 60045-1003

Dear Dr. Burke:

Here is my second progress report you asked me to submit about the renovation work being done at your new clinic at Hacienda and Donohue. I am pleased to report that work proceeded satisfactorily in April according to the plans you had approved in March.

Review of Work Completed in March As I informed you in my first progress report on March 31, we tore down the walls, pulled the old wiring, and removed existing plumbing lines. All the gutting work was finished in March.

Work Completed During April By April 4, we had laid the new pipes and connected them to the main septic line. We also installed the two commodes, four standard sinks, and a utility basin. The heating and air-conditioning ducts were installed by April 8. From April 11–15, we erected soundproof walls in the four examination rooms, the reception area, your office, and the laboratory. Throughout your clinic we used environmentally safe (green) materials. To further conserve energy, we installed solar panels on the roof, as you requested.

Problems with the Electrical System We had difficulty with the electrical work, however. The outlets and the generator for the laboratory equipment required extra-duty power lines that Con Edison and Cook County inspectors had to approve, which slowed us down by three days. Also, Midtown Electric failed to deliver the recessed lighting fixtures by April 22. Those fixtures and the generator are now installed. Nevertheless, the cost of those fixtures increased the material budget by $5,288.00. But the overall cost for labor remains as we had projected—$94,550.

Work Remaining The finishing work is scheduled for May. By May 13, the floors in the examination rooms, laboratory, washrooms, and hallways should be tiled and the reception area and your office carpeted. By May 16, the reception area and your office should be paneled and painted. If everything stays on schedule, touch-up work is planned for May 16–20. You should be able to move into your new clinic by May 23.

You will receive a third and final progress report by May 16. Thank you again for the confidence you have placed in our company.

Sincerely yours,

Dale Brandt

“Building a Greener Tomorrow”

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Employee Activity/Performance Reports 571

know it will take. Readers will not expect miracles, only informed estimates. Even so, any conclusion must be tentative. Note that the good news Dale Brandt gives Dr. Burke about moving into her new clinic is qualified by the words “If everything stays on schedule.” He also employs the “you attitude” by thanking Dr. Burke again for her business.

employee ACtIvIty/performAnCe reportS An employee activity/performance report informs your boss about what you did during a specified period (weekly, monthly, quarterly). He/she will expect you to explain how you managed your time and fulfilled the requirements of your job. Ac- countability is a major objective in the world of work and, as we saw in Chapter 1 (see “Ethical Requirements on the Job,” pages 27–29), employers closely monitor employees, even online. An activity report is a vital indication of an employee’s per- formance. Your supervisor or manager will want to know about the specific tasks you accomplished, how many of them, when, and why, as well as any ongoing proj- ects in which you are involved. Activity reports will play a role in assessing your job performance and determining whether you should be promoted.

Figure 14.6 (page 572) shows an employee activity report written by Carey Lewis, an administrative assistant, for his supervisor, Beth-Anne Prohaska. Note how he classifies his accomplishments into four major categories and provides an honest, objective, and concise explanation of what he has done and why. Each of Lewis’s accomplishments squares with his job responsibility.

Guidelines for Writing an activity report To write a reliable and efficient activity report, you need to document what you have done. Keep track of your accomplishments by using an electronic or hard copy log, recording and saving job-related duties and correlating the hours you spent on a project with your timesheets. Here are some guidelines to follow when you write an activity/performance report:

●● Use the format that your employer or agency dictates. This might be a special form, a memo, an email, or an email with an attachment, such as an annotated day-to-day calendar.

●● Make sure you are honest, objective, and accurate. It is unethical to mis- represent what you did—for example, saying a job took longer than it did or exaggerating the number of tasks you actually performed. Do not claim credit for tasks you did not accomplish or finish. But do give credit to co- workers with whom you collaborated, as Carey Lewis does in Figure 14.6.

●● Describe your major accomplishments. Quantify and give dates, if neces- sary. But be careful that you do not dwell on smaller duties (“I answered the phone every day”) at the expense of omitting tasks that demonstrate your writing, organizational, and collaborative skills at work.

●● Be sure that each of your accomplishments squares with your job descrip- tion. Indicate how your performance meets the goals your employer set for

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Figure 14.6 An Employee Activity Report Sent as an Email with Attachments

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Includes attachment

Gives background and briefly summarizes purpose of report

Uses boldfaced headings to group activities

Uses strong verbs to convey type of work

Provides key dates

Describes job duties clearly

References attachment

Specifies length and topic of presentation

Acknowledges collaboration

Promises continuity and politely requests feedback

Carey Lewis ([email protected])

Beth-Anne Prohaska ([email protected])

Gloria Arrelo ([email protected])

Monthly Activity Report for August

Dear Ms. Prohaska:

During the past pay cycle (August 1–August 31), I worked on several projects that I believe helped to ensure, and even increase, the ef�ciency of our department. Below I have categorized my activities (all of which are speci�ed in my job description), included completion dates for major tasks, and attached relevant documentation.

Oversaw Day-to-Day Management of Of ce Maintained adequate of�ce supplies (see attachment: “Purchase Orders”) Researched costs and features of new all-in-one printer and priced models for purchase Submitted recommendation for all-in-one printer (August 5) Trained two new interns (Loretta Bauer, Scott Chu)

Prepared and Delivered Documents Edited and posted the monthly newsletter to the company’s website (August 17) Compiled, printed, and distributed monthly sales report (August 24) Updated, archived, and retrieved records

Planned Schedules Managed of�ce calendar of events and meetings and posted it to the website Arranged travel plans for 4 staff on sales visits; two of these were overseas trips Coordinated work�ow charts (see attachment: “Work�ow”) Logged staff timesheets in master �le

Organized Meetings Presented short report (15 minutes) at HR meeting on August 5 about our department’s successes in marketing new products on our Facebook and Pinterest sites Created—with assistant manager Richard Fleming—and distributed agenda for monthly staff meeting (August 26) Took minutes for monthly meeting and shared them on company intranet (August 30)

For the coming month I will continue to ful�ll my ongoing responsibilities as well as meet our department’s goals for any new assignments. I look forward to any comments you may have about my past or current performance.

Respectfully,

Carey Lewis Administrative Assistant

WorkflowPurchase Orders

you. Specify how your tasks assist, improve, or contribute to your depart- ment or division. Emphasize how your achievements benefit your employer.

●● Include training sessions or workshops you attended, licensure/ certification updates, committee memberships, and presentations you

Trip/Travel Reports 573

made. List and describe any meetings, classes, continuing education sessions that help you to do your job more efficiently, accurately, or promptly.

●● Stress how your job accomplishments benefited the company, your department, or your community. Link what you have done to the goals your company or department hopes to meet, such as sharing minutes in Figures 14.6.

●● Be prepared to verify your activities with copies of relevant documents, emails, and even messages. Maintain a folder of all these documents so you can compile them for yearly evaluations.

trIp/trAvel reportS Reporting on the trips you take is an important professional responsibility in the world of work. Basically, you are on a fact-finding mission. In documenting what you did and saw, trip reports (also called travel reports) keep readers informed about your efforts and how they affect ongoing or future business, as Figure 14.8 shows. More- over, such reports help you better understand your job and develop your networking skills. Trip reports also should be written immediately after you attend a convention or sales meeting or call on customers when your memory of events is fresh.

Questions Your trip/travel report Needs to answer Specifically, a trip report should answer the following questions for your readers:

●● Where did you go? ●● Whom did you see? ●● When did you go? ●● What did they tell you? ●● Why did you go? ●● What did you do about it? ●● What did you see? ●● Any problems or setbacks encountered? ●● How did your trip financially ●● Do you have any recommendations?

● benefit your company?

For a business trip, you are also likely to have to inform readers how much it cost and to supply them with receipts for all of your business expenses.

common types of trip/travel reports Trip reports can cover a wide range of activities and are called by different names to characterize those activities. Most likely, you will encounter the following four types of trip reports.

1. Field trip reports. These reports, often assigned in a course, are written after a visit to a laboratory, hospital, detention center, or other location to show what you have learned about the operation of a facility. You will be expected to describe how an institution is organized, the technical procedures and/or equipment used, pertinent ecological conditions, or the ratio of one group to another. The empha- sis in such reports is on the educational value of the trip, as nursing student Mark Tourneur’s report in Figure 14.7 (page 574–575) demonstrates.

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Figure 14.7 A Field Trip Report

Summarizes what he observed, whom he met, and the various units of the facility

Usefully provides subheads to organize his report

Documents conferences with staff

Explains purpose of trip

Describes the mission and organization of the facility

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TO: Katherine Holmes, RN, MSN Director, RN Program FROM: Mark Tourneur RN Student DATE: November 12, 2015 SUBJECT: Field Trip to Water Valley Extended Care Center

On Monday, November 9, I visited the Water Valley Extended Care Center, 1400 Medford Boulevard, as part of my preparation for my internship in an extended care facility next semester.

Philosophy and Organization Before my tour started, the director, Sue LaFrance, explained the holistic philosophy of health care at Water Valley and emphasized the diverse kinds of nursing practiced there. She stressed that the agency is not restricted to geriatric clients but admits anyone requiring extended care. She pointed out that Water Valley is a medium-sized facility (150 beds) and contains three wings: (1) the Infirmary, (2) the General Nursing Unit, and (3) the Ambulatory Unit.

Primary Client Services My tour began with the Infirmary, staffed by one RN and two LPNs, where I observed a number of life-support systems in operation:

• IVs • oxygen setups • feeding tubes • cardiac monitors

Then I was shown the General Nursing Unit (40 beds), staffed by three LPNs and four aides. Clients can have private or semiprivate rooms; bathrooms have wide doors and lowered sinks for patients using wheelchairs or walkers. The Ambulatory Unit serves 90 clients who can provide their own daily care.

Additional Client Services Dietetics Before lunch in the main dining room, I was introduced to Jack Isoke, the dietitian, who explained the different menus he coordinates. The most common are low-sodium and ADA (American Diabetic Association) restricted-calorie. Staff members eat with the clients, reinforcing the holistic focus of the agency.

Pharmacy After lunch, Kendra Tishner, the pharmacist, discussed the agency’s procedures for ordering and delivering medications. She also described the client teaching she does and the in-service workshops she conducts.

Trip/Travel Reports 575

Figure 14.7 (Continued)

Describes the function of various locations in the facility

Concludes with the advantages of the trip

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2. Site inspection reports. These reports inform managers about conditions at a branch office or plant, a customer’s business, or the advisability of relocating an office or other facility. After visiting the site, you will determine whether it meets your employer’s (or customer’s) needs. Site inspection reports can provide informa- tion about the physical plant, the environment (air, soil, water, vegetation), safety, IT, or financial operations.

Figure 14.8 (page 576–577), which begins with a recommendation, is a report writ- ten to a district manager interested in acquiring a new site for a fast-food restaurant.

3. Home health or social work visit reports. Nurses, social workers, and proba- tion officers, for instance, report routinely on their visits to patients, clients, and parolees. Their reports describe clients’ lifestyles, assess needs, and make recom- mendations based on a variety of sources—clients, health care professionals, chari- table organizations, and the like. These reports are often divided into Purpose of the Visit, Description of the Visit, and Action Taken as a Result of the Visit.

4. Sales/customer visit reports. Visiting current or prospective customers at their place of business or at trade shows can result in further business opportunities for you and your company. Your supervisor will need to know the following about your sales call:

(a) What are the customer’s needs and history of transactions with your company? (b) Which products or services that your company provides best meet those

needs?

Katherine Holmes November 12, 2015

Page 2

Physical/Spiritual Therapy I then observed clients in both recreational and physical therapy. Water Valley’s full-time physical therapist, Tracy Cook, works with stroke and arthritic clients and helps those with broken bones regain the use of their limbs. In addition to a weight room, Water Valley has a small sauna that most of the clients use at least twice a week.

The clients’ spiritual needs are not neglected, either. A small interdenominational chapel is located just south of the Ambulatory Unit.

Benefits for My Internship From my visit to Water Valley, I learned a great deal about the health care delivery system at an extended care facility. I was especially pleased to have been given so much information on emergency procedures, medication orders, and physical therapy programs. My forthcoming internship should be even more productive, as I now have firsthand knowledge about these various services.

576 chapter 14 Writing Effective Short Reports

Figure 14.8 A Site Inspection Repost Using a Map

Begins with most important details about the writer’s recommenda- tion

Gives essential contact information

Provides necessary background details

Includes map and traffic flow information essential for reader’s purpose

Clearly transitions to another advantage

TO: Pretha Bandi DATE: March 28, 2016 FROM: Beth Armando-Ruiz SUBJECT: New Site for Vail’s #7 Development Department

Recommendation To follow up on our discussions earlier this month, as you requested, I think the best location for the new Vail’s Chicken House is the vacant Dairy World restaurant at the northeast corner of Smith and Fairfax Avenues—1701 Fairfax. I inspected this property on March 21 and 22 and also talked to Kim Shao, the broker at Crescent Realty ([email protected]), representing the Dairy World Company. The location, parking facilities, and building at the Dairy World site all present the best opportunity for future growth and increased sales for Vail's.

The Location Please refer to the map below. Located at the intersection of the two busiest streets on the southeast side of the city, the property will allow us to take advantage of the traffic flow to attract customers. Being only one block west of the Cloverleaf Mall should also help increase our business.

Another benefit is that customers will have easy access to our location. They can enter or exit the Dairy World site from either Smith or Fairfax Avenues. Left turns onto Smith are prohibited from 7 a.m. to 9 a.m., but since most of our business is done after 11 a.m., the restriction poses few problems.

@vailschicken www.facebook.com/vailschicken/

Zanwood Av.

Fairfax Av.

Geary St.

Sm ith

A v.

Pa ci

fic S

Noah’s

M cG

on ag

le s

Dairy World

Cloverleaf Mall

G ra

nt A

So ut

h Ki

ld ar

CHICKEN HOUSE “CHICKEN WITH STYLE”

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Trip/Travel Reports 577

Figure 14.8 (Continued)

Pretha Bandi March 28, 2016

Page 2

Area Competition Only two other fast food establishments are within a one-mile vicinity. McGonagles, 1534 South Kildare, specializes in hamburgers; and Noah’s, 703 Grant Ave., serves primarily seafood entrées. Their offerings will not directly compete with ours. The closest fast food restaurant serving chicken is Johnson’s, 1.8 miles away.

Parking Facilities The parking lot has space for 18 cars, and the area at the south end of the property (70 feet 3 54 feet) could accommodate 14–15 more vehicles. The driveways and parking lot were paved with asphalt last July and appear to be in excellent condition. We will also be able to use the drive-up window on the north side of the building.

The Building The building has 3,993 square feet of heated and cooled space. The four Fujitsu air-conditioning units and heating units were installed within the last fifteen months and seem to be in good working order; nine more months of transferable warranty remain on all these units.

The only major changes we must make are in the kitchen. To prepare items on the Vail’s menu, we must add at least three more exhaust fans (there is only one now) and to expand the grill and cooking areas by 80 square feet. The kitchen also has three relatively new sinks and offers ample storage space in the 16 cabinets.

The restaurant has a seating capacity of up to 34 persons; 10 booths are covered with red vinyl and are comfortably padded. A color-coordinated serving counter could seat 8 to 10 patrons. The floor does not need to be retiled, but the walls will have to be painted to match Vail’s decor.

Assesses the location, in light of the competition

Gives only the most essential facts audience needs on parking, seating capacity, and alterations

Writer has done research on equipment

Paragraphs are easy to follow with precise topic sentences

Does not overwhelm reader with petty details

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578 chapter 14 Writing Effective Short Reports

(d) What questions or reservations does the customer have about your prod- ucts or services?

(e) Who are your company’s chief competitors and how do their products and services stack up against your firm’s?

(f) How does your firm stand in terms of landing a contract? (g) What kinds of follow-up visits, calls, or information might be necessary to

clinch the deal? (h) What business/market trends have you observed?

Make sure you spell out precisely how you successfully represented your com- pany and its products or services.

How to Gather Information for a Trip/Travel Report Regardless of the kind of trip report you have to write, your assignment will be easier and your report better organized if you follow these suggestions.

1. Before you leave on the site inspection, field trip, or other business trip, make sure you have your employer’s authorization to travel, use a company vehicle, and submit expenses. Be sure you are prepared: a. Obtain all necessary names; street, email, and website addresses; and rel-

evant telephone and cell numbers, as well as any necessary URLs and social media site information.

b. Check files for previous correspondence, case studies, warranties, or con- tracts or agreements.

c. Download or obtain hard copies of any work orders, instructions, or other documents pertinent to your visit.

d. Bring a laptop, tablet, or other mobile device with you. Keep a journal of what you saw and heard.

e. Locate a map of the area and get the directions you’ll need beforehand. (Both maps and directions can be obtained easily at www.mapquest.com, maps.yahoo.com, and maps.google.com).

f. Keep a record of appointment times and locations as well as the names and job titles of the people whom you expect to meet.

g. Save all receipts. h. Bring a videorecorder, camera, audio recorder, smartphone, laptop, or tab-

let, if necessary, to record important data. You may be asked to post pho- tographs from your trip on your company’s website.

2. When you return from your trip, keep the following hints in mind as you compile your report: a. Write your report promptly; otherwise you may forget important details. b. When a trip takes you to two or more widely separated places, note in your

report when you arrived at each place and how long you stayed. c. Exclude irrelevant details, such as whether the trip was enjoyable, what

you ate, or how delighted you were to meet people. Concentrate on the

Test Reports 579

information your reader needs to make a decision, meet a goal, or receive a timely update.

d. Be objective about what you saw and heard. Indicate when you quote someone as part of an interview.

e. Offer to answer any questions your reader may have about the trip and its outcomes.

f. Include any relevant financial information from your trip: expenses incurred, budget information or impact, etc.

teSt reportS Much physical research (the discovery and documentation of facts) is communi- cated through short reports variously called experiment, investigation, labora- tory, or operations reports. They all record the results of tests, whether the tests were conducted in a forest, computer center, laboratory, shopping mall, or soybean field. You may be asked to test an existing or a new product or procedure or verify certain physical or environmental conditions for a class or an employer. Figures 14.9 and 14.10 contain two test reports.

Two Sample Test Reports

Figure 14.9 (page 580) is a relatively simple and short test report in memo format regarding sanitary conditions at a hospital psychiatric unit. The report follows a direct and useful pattern of organization:

●● statement of purpose — why? ●● findings — what happened? ●● recommendations — what next?

Submitted by an infection control officer, the report does not provide elaborate details about the particular laboratory procedures used to determine whether bacteria were present, nor does it describe the pathogenic (disease-causing) properties of the bacteria. Such descriptions are unnecessary for the audience (the housekeeping department) to do its job.

A more complex short test report can be found in Figure 14.10 (pages 581–583), which studies the effects of four light periods on the growth of paulownia seedlings (a flowering tree cultivated in China). The report, published in a scientific journal, is addressed to specialists in forestry and agronomy. Such a test report follows a different, more detailed pattern of orga- nization than the report in Figure 14.9 and includes an informative abstract (see “Abstracts,” pages 387–389), an introduction, a materials and methods section, a results and discussion section, and a conclusion.

To meet the needs of an expert audience, the writers of the report in Figure 14.10 had to in- clude much more information than did Janeen Cufaude, the infection control officer who wrote the report in Figure 14.9, about the way the test was conducted and the types of scientific data the audience expects and needs. The researchers did not have to define technical terms for their audience, and they could confidently use scientific symbols and formulas as well.

Case study

580 chapter 14 Writing Effective Short Reports580 chapter 14 Writing Effective Short Reports

Figure 14.9 A Short, Informal Test Report

Charleston, WV 25324-0114 / (304) 555-1800 / www.charlestongeneral.com

TO: James Dill, Supervisor FROM: Janeen Cufaude Housekeeping Infection Control Officer

DATE: December 14, 2015 SUBJECT: Routine sanitation inspection, December 11, 2015

As part of the monthly check of the psychiatric unit (11A) on December 11, five areas were swabbed and tested for bacterial growth. The results of the lab tests of these samples are as follows:

AREA FINDINGS 1. cabinet in patients’ kitchen 1. positive for 2 colonies of strep germs 2. rug in eating area 2. positive for food particles and yeasts and molds 3. baseboard in dayroom 3. positive for particles of dust 4. medicine counter in 4. negative for bacteria—no nurses’ station growth after 48 hours 5. corridor by south elevator 5. positive for 4 colonies of staph germs isolated

ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN AT ONCE 1. Clean the kitchen cabinets with K-504 liquid daily, 3:1 dilution. 2. Shampoo rug areas bimonthly with heavy-duty shampoo, and clean visibly

soiled areas with Safetec Sanizide Plus as often as needed. 3. Wipe all baseboards weekly with K-12 spray cleanser. 4. Mop heavily traveled corridors and access areas with K-504 cleanser daily,

1:1 dilution.

H O S P I T A L Charleston General

States why tests were performed and how

Gives results of tests conducted in different locations

Provides detailed directions based on results

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Test Reports 581 Test Reports 581

Figure 14.10 A Test Report Published in a Scientific Journal

Paulownia Seedlings Respond to Increased Daylength M. J. Immel, E. M. Tackett, and S. B. Carpenter

Abstract Paulownia seedlings grown under four photoperiods were evaluated after a growing period of 97 days. Height growth and total dry weight production were both significantly increased in the 16- and 24-hour photoperiods.

Introduction Paulownia (Paulownia tomentosa [Thunb.] Steud.), a native of China, is a little known species in the United States. Recently, however, there has been increased interest in this species for surface mine reclamation (1).* Paulownia seems to be especially well adapted to harsh micro-climates of surface mines; it grows very rapidly and appears to be drought-resistant. In Kentucky and surrounding states, paulownia wood is actively sought by Japanese buyers and has brought prices comparable to black walnut (2). This increased interest in paulownia has resulted in several attempts to direct seed it on surface mines, but little success has been achieved. The high light requirements and the extremely small size of paulownia seed (approximately 6,000 per gram) may be the limiting factors. Planting paulownia seedlings is preferred; but, because of their succulent nature, seedlings are usually produced and outplanted as container stock rather than bareroot seedlings. Daylength is an important factor in the production of vigorous container plants (5). Our study compares the effects that four photoperiods—8, 12, 16, and 24 hours—had on the early growth of container-grown paulownia seedlings over a period of 97 days.

Materials and Methods Seeds used in this study were stratified in a 1:1 mixture of peat moss and sand at 4˚C for 2 years. Following cold storage, seeds were placed on a 1:1 potting soil–sand mix and mulched with cheesecloth. They were then placed under continuous light until germination occurred. Germination percentages were high, indicating paulownia seeds can survive long periods of storage with little loss of viability (3). Thirty days after germination, 3- to 4-centimeter seedlings were transplanted into 8-quart plastic pots filled with an equal mixture of potting soil, sand, and peat moss. Seventy-five seedlings were randomly assigned to each of the four treatments. Treatments were for 4 photoperiods—8, 12, 16, and 24 hours—and were replicated three times in 12 light chambers. Each chamber was 1.2- by 1.2-meters with an artificial light source 71 centimeters above the chamber floor. The light source consisted of eight fluorescent lights: four 40-watt plant growth lamps alternated with four 40-watt cool white lamps. Light intensity averaged 550 foot-candles (1340µ einsteins/m2/s) at the top of each pot and the temperature averaged 550 foot- candles (1340 einsteins/m2/s) at the top of each pot and the temperature averaged 23˚C (+2˚C). Seedlings were watered and fertilized after transplanting with a 6-gram 14-4-6 agriform container tablet. Beginning 1 month after transplanting, two seedlings were randomly selected and harvested from each chamber for a total of 24 trees.

Begins with informative abstract

Gives background, purpose, and scope of study

Describes steps taken: procedures, conditions, and equipment used

Uses technical terms and symbols audience expects

*To save space, the references have been omitted. (Continued)

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Includes a visual to summarize results and then explains what happened

Cites related studies

Provides accurate measurements in a clear, objective tone

Figure 14.10 (Continued)

Height, root collar diameter, length of longest root, and oven-dry weight (at 65˚C) were determined for each seedling. Harvests continued every week for 5 additional weeks.

Results and Discussion Results indicate that early growth of paulownia is influenced by photoperiod, as shown in Table 1 below:

Expanding the photoperiod from 8 to either 16 or 24 hours increased height growth by 100 percent. Height growth in the 12-hour treatment also increased, but did not differ significantly from the 8-hour treatment. Heights under photoperiods of 8, 12, 16, and 24 hours were 13.1, 17.8, 27.3, and 29.2 centimeters, respectively. Previous studies have also shown that photoperiod affects the growth of paulownia seedlings (4, 6). Sanderson (6), for example, found that paulownia seedlings grown under continuous light averaged 27.2 centimeters in height after 101 days compared with 29.2 centimeters for our 24-hour seedlings. Other corresponding photoperiods were equally comparable. Downs and Borthwick (4) also concluded that height growth of paulownia was affected by extending the photoperiod. The great treatment differences were shown in total dry weight production. Refer again to Table 1. The mean weight of 1.65 grams for seedlings in the 8-hour treatment was significantly less than that of any of the other photoperiods. The 16- and 24-hour treatments did not differ significantly. In fact, they more than doubled the average weight for seedlings in the 12-hour treatment. Root-to-shoot ratio (R/S) indicates the relative proportion of growth allocated to roots versus shoots for the seedlings in each photoperiod. In this study, shoots were developing at nearly three times the rate of the roots for seedlings in the 12-, 16-, and 24-hour treatments. The 0.18 R/S ratio for seedlings in the 8-hour treatment was much lower, indicating that relative growth of the shoot is approximately five times that of the root. The shorter photoperiod, therefore, decreased root development relative to shoot development as well as significantly reduced total dry weight production. Although root collar diameter and root length did not significantly differ under the different photoperiods after 97 days, there was a trend for greater diameter and root growth when exposed to longer photoperiods.

Test Reports 583 Test Reports 583

Objectivity and accuracy are essential ingredients in a test report. Readers want to know about your empirical research (the facts), not about your feelings. Record your observations without bias or guesswork in a laboratory journal, log book, or electronically and always document the results with precise measurements using the standard symbols and abbreviations of your profession.

Questions Your test report Needs to answer Readers will expect your test report to supply the following information:

●● why you performed the test—an explanation of the reasons, your goals, and who authorized you to perform the test

●● how you performed the test—under what circumstances or controls you conducted the test, what procedures and equipment you used, etc.

●● what the outcomes were—your conclusions ●● what implications or recommendations follow from your test—what you

learned, discovered, confirmed, or disproved or rejected

When you sign the final copy of your report, you certify that things happened exactly when, how, and why you say they did.

Figure 14.10 (Continued)

Conclusions Results indicate that the growth of paulownia seedlings is affected by changes in the photoperiod. Increasing the photoperiod signi�cantly increased height growth and total dry matter production. The distribution of dry matter (R/S ratio) was altered by increasing the photoperiod; as a consequence, the ratio was larger in the longer photoperiods. In contrast to earlier studies (4), we found paulownia seedlings subjected to extended photoperiods were still growing after 97 days.

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Adapted from M. J. Immel, E. M. Tackett, and S. B. Carpenter, “Paulownia Seedlings Respond to Increased Daylength,” Tree Planters’ Notes 31(1): 3–5. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.

Interprets the significance of the results

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InCIdent reportS The short reports discussed thus far in this chapter have dealt with routine work. They have described events that were anticipated or supervised. But every busi- ness or agency runs into unexpected trouble that delays routine work, damages equipment or property, or may result in personal injury. These circumstances need to be documented in an incident (or accident) report. The audience for an inci- dent report can be within your organization or outside it, or both. Employers use incident reports to make changes so that the problem does not occur again or so that a job can be done more effectively and safely. On some occasions, government inspectors, insurance agents, and attorneys must be informed about those events that have interfered with or threatened normal, safe operations.

When to Submit an Incident report An incident report is submitted when there is, for example,

●● an accident—fire, automobile, ●● a machine breakdown ● physical injury ●● a delivery delay

●● a law enforcement offense ●● a cost overrun ●● an environmental danger ●● a production slowdown ●● a computer virus

Figure 14.11 is an incident report about a train derailment submitted by the engineer on duty. This report is in memo format, but some companies or agencies require you to fill out a special form. While many organizations require a hard copy of an incident report to be sent or filed, others ask you to include it as an attachment to an email. Always check with your supervisor about your company’s preferred method.

parts of an Incident report Include the following information in your incident report. Note how Figure 14.11 includes precise and accurate information for each of these parts.

1. Identification details. Specify who and what was involved, and gather all rel- evant data—names, contact information, model/serial numbers, and so on. Record titles, department, and employment identification numbers. Indicate if you or your fellow employees were working alone. For customers or victims, record home addresses, home and cell phone numbers, email addresses, and places of employ- ment. Insurance companies will also require policy numbers.

2. Type of incident. Briefly identify the incident—personal injury, fire, burglary, equipment failure. Identify any part(s) of the body precisely. “Eye injury” is not enough; “injury to the right eye, causing bleeding” is better. “Dislocated right shoulder” or “punctured left forearm” is descriptive and exact. A report on dam- aged equipment should list make and model numbers.

3. Time and location of the incident. Include precise date (not “Thursday”) and time (a.m. or p.m.).

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Figure 14.11 An Incident Report in Memo Format

Signs report to verify account of incident

Begins with most important details

Gives precise time, location

Describes what happened

Explains what was done

Determines likely cause

Supplies easy- to-follow exploded visual

Type of Incident Two grain cars went off the track while I was driving Engine 457 of Train 26 on October 5, 2015. There were no injuries to the crew.

Description of Incident At 7:20 a.m., I was traveling north at a speed of 30 miles an hour on the single main line track four miles east of Ridgeville, Illinois. Weather conditions and visibility were excellent. Suddenly, the last two grain cars, 3022 and 3053, jumped the track. The train automatically went into emergency braking and came to a stop. But it did not stop before both grain cars turned at a 45° angle. After checking these cars, I found that half the contents of their loads had spilled. The train was not carrying any hazardous chemicals or other environmentally damaging shipments.

I notified Supervisor Bill Purvis at 7:40 a.m., and within 45 minutes he and a section crew arrived at the scene with rerailing equipment. The crew removed the two grain cars from the track, put in new ties, and made the main line track passable by 11:25 a.m. At 1:25 p.m. a vacuum car arrived with Engine 372 from Hazlehurst, Illinois, and its crew proceeded with the clean-up operation. By 3:25 p.m. all the spilled grain was loaded onto the cars brought by the Hazlehurst train. Bill Purvis notified Barnwell Granary that their shipment would be at least eight hours late.

Causes of Incident Supervisor Purvis and I checked the stretch of train track where the cars derailed and found it to be heavily worn. We believe that a fisher joint slipped when the grain cars hit it, and the track broke. You can see the location of the cracked fisher joint in the graphic below.

TO: Angela O’Brien, District Manager James Hwang, Safety Inspector FROM: Nick Roane, Engineer DATE: October 6, 2015 SUBJECT: Derailment of Train 26 on October 5, 2015

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4. Description of what happened. This section is the longest part of the report. Let readers know exactly what took place and why, how it occurred, and what led up to the incident.

5. What was done after the incident. Describe the action you took to correct conditions, how things got back to normal, and what was done to treat the injured, make the environment safer, speed a delivery, or repair damaged equipment.

6. What caused the incident. Make sure your explanation is consistent with your description of what happened. Pinpoint the trouble. In Figure 14.11, for example, the defective fisher joint is listed under the heading “Causes of Incident.”

7. Actions taken. Specify any actions taken to prevent the problem from re- curring. They may involve repairing any broken parts, as in Figure 14.11, calling a special safety meeting, asking for further training, adapting existing equipment, doing emergency planning, or modifying schedules.

protecting Yourself Legally An incident report can be admitted as legal evidence, and it then becomes part of a permanent legal record that can be used by law enforcement and attorneys in court to establish negligence and liability on your and your company’s part. It can also be used by an employer to determine employee responsibility. An incident report frequently concerns the two topics over which powerful legal battles are waged— health and property. You could lose a case in court if your report is not written competently, clearly, accurately, and completely.

You have to be very careful about collecting and recording details. Make sure your report is not sketchy, confusing, or incomplete. To avoid these errors, you may have to interview employees or bystanders; travel to the incident site; check manuals, code books, or other guides; consult safety experts; collect and describe evidence; or research records/archives.

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Angela O’Brien James Hwang

October 6, 2015 Page 2

Actions Taken We performed the following procedures after the accident:

1. Checked the section of track for 8 miles on either side of Ridgeville for any signs of defective fisher joints.

2. Repaired at once any defective joints we saw. 3. Instructed all engineers to slow down to 5 to 10 mph over this section of the track

until the rail check is completed for 20 miles on either side of the accident site.

Records precise steps taken

Short Reports: Some Final Thoughts 587

To ensure that what you write is legally proper, follow these guidelines:

1. Submit your report promptly, and sign or initial it. Any delay might be seen as a cover-up. Send your report to the appropriate parties immediately after you have gathered the necessary information and had it reviewed by your supervisor. You may have to post photographs as well.

2. Double-check your spelling (individuals’ names, pieces of equipment, etc.), your math, and your punctuation. An error here calls the accuracy and validity of your whole report into question.

3. Be accurate, objective, and complete. Give readers sufficient information to know exactly what happened and the order in which it occurred. Never omit or distort facts; the information may surface later, and you could be accused of a cover-up. Do not simply write “I do not know” for an answer. If you are not sure, state why. Also be careful that there are no discrepancies or inconsistencies in your report.

4. Give facts, not opinions. Provide a factual account of what actually happened, not a biased interpretation of events or one based on speculation or hearsay. Vague responses such as “I guess,” “I wonder,” “apparently,” “perhaps,” or “possibly” weaken your objectivity. Indicate who discovered, reported, or witnessed the in- cident. But stick to details you witnessed or that were seen by eyewitnesses. Iden- tify witnesses or victims by giving complete names, contact information, places of employment, and so on. Keep in mind that stating what someone else saw is re- garded as hearsay and therefore is not admissible in a court of law. State only what you saw or heard. When you describe what happened, avoid drawing uncalled-for conclusions. Consider the following statements of opinion versus fact:

Opinion: The patient seemed confused and caught himself in his IV tubing. Fact: The patient caught himself in his IV tubing.

Opinion: The equipment was defective. Fact: The bolt was cracked.

Be careful, too, about blaming someone. Statements such as “Baxter was incompetent” or “The company knew of the problem but did nothing about it” are libelous remarks.

5. Do not exceed your professional responsibilities. Answer only those ques- tions you are qualified to answer. Do not presume to speak as a first responder, a detective, an inspector, a physician, a supervisor, or a judge. Do not represent your- self as an attorney or a claims adjuster in writing the report. And don’t take sides.

Short reportS: Some fInAl thoughtS To prepare successful short reports, keep in mind the rules of short report writing discussed in this chapter. Always take into account your readers’ needs and expec- tations at every stage of your writing, take accurate and complete notes, document carefully what you write about, write objectively and ethically, present complicated

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data clearly and concisely, provide background and context where necessary, and provide specific recommendations, where called for, based upon the facts. Remem- bering these basic rules will earn you praise and possibly promotions at work.

●■ Understood why short reports are important for my company or organization. ●■ Made sure reader understood reason for report. ●■ Recognized the type of report (e.g., periodic, progress, employee activity, etc.) I

need to write. ●■ Chose the report format that is most appropriate for my audience (memos or

emails for supervisor or co-workers; letters for clients). ●■ Put all the information in the right section. ●■ Did appropriate research to give my readers enough information to help them

make careful decisions. ●■ Provided significant information about costs, materials, personnel, locations,

environmental conditions, and times, so readers will know that my work consists of facts, not impressions.

●■ Double-checked all data—names, costs, figures, dates, places, and equipment models and numbers.

●■ Made sure all my comments and recommendations were ethical. ●■ Followed all organization guidelines. ●■ Adhered to all legal requirements. ●■ Eliminated unnecessary details or those too technical for my audience. ●■ Kept report concise, to the point, readable, and easy to read. ●■ Used headings whenever feasible to organize and categorize information. ●■ Supplied relevant visuals to help readers understand my message and crunch any

numbers. ●■ Employed underlining, boldface, or italics to set headings apart or to emphasize

key ideas. ●■ Began report with a statement of purpose that clearly described the scope and

significance of my work. ●■ Incorporated tables, maps, graphs, and other pertinent visuals to dislplay data whenever

appropriate. ●■ Explained clearly what the data meant in a conclusion section. ●■ Determined that recommendations logically follow from the data and that they are

relevant and realistic.

Periodic/Sales Reports ●■ Submitted my report at scheduled intervals. ●■ Provided accurate data on quantities sold or services provided.

✓ R E v i S i O n C H E C k l i S T

Short Reports: Some Final Thoughts 589

●■ Documented, organized, described, and explained the importance of the data, including sales figures.

●■ Verified necessary statistics and trends so that my report is thorough and accurate.

Progress Reports ●■ Reported at key stages of the project. ●■ Gave readers bottom-line information on costs, equipment, personnel, and

schedules. ●■ Described the work or projects to be completed. ●■ Alerted readers about any problems—delays or cost overruns.

Employee Activity/Performance Reports ●■ Accounted for how I spent my time at work for a given period. ●■ Categorized types of projects and tasks accomplished. ●■ Indicated when a job was a collaborative effort—with whom I worked

and when. ●■ Identified projects and tasks that continue into the next scheduled evaluation

period (monthly, quarterly, etc.).

Trip/Travel Reports ●■ Explained the purpose of the trip—where and when I went and whom I visited,

interviewed, made a presentation for, or saw at a conference. ●■ Recorded all names, places, dates, costs, etc., accurately. ●■ Supplied relevant visuals, such as photographs and charts. ●■ Included findings and recommendations. ●■ Indicated I am available for questions or clarifications.

Test Reports ●■ Recorded data accurately and objectively. ●■ Specified why the test was performed and which procedures and equipment were

used. ●■ Explained the significance of results and outcomes, emphasizing how the

information can be applied to meet my company’s needs.

incident Reports ●■ Identified the type of incident, time, place, victims and eyewitnesses, injuries, and

so on. ●■ Provided a factual, objective, and accurate account of the incident in a logical or

chronological order. ●■ Stated without bias what may have caused the incident; did not draw unjustified

conclusions. ●■ Explained what has been or can be done to correct the problem and prevent it

from recurring.

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E x E r c i s E s

1. Bring to class an example of a periodic report from your present or previous job or from any community, religious, or social organization to which you belong. In an accompany- ing memo to your instructor, indicate who the audience is and why such a report is nec- essary, stressing how it is organized, what kinds of factual data it contains, what visuals were used, and how it might be improved in content, organization, style, and design.

2. Assume that you are the manager of an apartment complex (300 units). Write a periodic report based on the following information: 26 units are vacant, 38 soon will be vacant, and 27 soon will be leased (by June 1). Also add a section of recommendations to your supervisor (the head of the management company for which you work) on how vacant apartments might be leased more quickly and perhaps at increased rents. Consider such important information as decorating, advertising, installing a new security system, pro- viding Wi-Fi access, and amenities such as a pool, fitness center, or clubhouse, and first- month discounts.

3. Assume you work for a household appliance store. Prepare a sales report based on the information contained in the following table. Include a section on recommendations for your manager.

Number sold

Product October November

Kitchen Appliances

Refrigerators 72 103

Dishwashers 27 14

Freezers 10 36

Electric ranges 26 26

Gas ranges 10 3

Microwaves 31 46

Laundry Appliances

Washers 50 75

Dryers 24 36

Air Treatments

Room air conditioners 41 69

Dehumidifiers 7 2

4. Write a progress report on the wins and losses (and, if applicable, ties) of your favorite sports team for the past season. Address the report to the director of publicity for the

Exercises 591

team and stress how the director might use those facts for future publicity. As part of your report, indicate what might be an effective lead for a press release about the team’s efforts.

5. Submit a progress report to your writing instructor on what you have learned in his or her course so far this term, specifying which formatting and writing skills you want to de- velop in greater detail, and how you propose doing so. Mention specific memos, emails, letters, instructions, reports, summaries, websites, social media posts, blogs, or proposals you have written or will soon write.

6. Prepare a site inspection report on any part of the college campus or plant, hospital, of- fice, store, or other facility in which you work that might need remodeling, expansion, rewiring, or new or additional air-conditioning, plumbing, and/or heating work.

7. You and your collaborative team have been asked to write a short preliminary inspection report on the condition of a historic building for your state historical society. Inspecting the building, the home of a famous late-nineteenth-century governor, you discover the problems listed below. Include all these details in your report. Also supply recommenda- tions for your readers: a director of the state historical society, a state architect, and four representatives of the subcommittee on finance from your state legislature. Design two appropriate visuals to include in your report.

●● The eight front columns are all in need of repair; two of them may have to be replaced.

●● The area below each bottom window casement needs to be excavated for waterproofing.

●● The slate tile on the roof has deteriorated and needs immediate replacement. ●● The front stairs show signs of mortar leaching and require attention at once. ●● Sections of gutter on the northwest and northeast sides of the house must be

changed; other gutters are in fair shape. ●● Wood shutters need to be repainted; four of the twelve may even need to be

replaced. ●● All trees around the house need pruning; an old elm in the backyard shows signs of

decay. ●● The siding is in desperate need of preparation and painting. ●● The brick near the front entrance is dirty and moss-covered.

8. Write a report to an instructor in your major or to an employer about a trip you have taken recently—to a museum, laboratory, health care agency, correctional facility, radio or television station, plant or factory, or office. Indicate why you took the trip, name the individuals (with their job titles) you met on the trip, and stress what you learned and how that information will help you in course work or on your job. Include a relevant visual as part of your report.

9. Write an employee activity/performance report on what you accomplished at your job, full or part time, during the last month. In your introduction, indicate how the work you did helps your employer meet his or her goals. In your conclusion, forecast how the work you expect to do next month illustrates your dedication to doing an effective job.

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10. Submit a test report on the purpose, procedures, results, conclusions, and recommenda- tions of an experiment you conducted on one of the following topics:

a. soil b. Wi-Fi access in an airport or bus station c. water d. automobiles e. textiles/clothing f. animals g. recreational facilities h. mobile device hardware or software i. forests j. food k. air quality l. hybrid electric fuel cell vehicles

m. blood n. noise levels

11. Write an incident report about a problem you encountered in your work or at home in the last year. Document the problem and provide a solution. Use the memo format shown in Figure 14.11.

12. Write an incident report about one of the following problems. Assume that it has hap- pened to you. Supply relevant details and visuals in your report. Identify the audience for whom you are writing and the agency you are representing or trying to reach.

a. After hydroplaning, your company car hits a tree and has a damaged front fender. b. You have been the victim of an electrical shock because an electrical tool was not

grounded. c. You twist your back lifting a bulky package in the office or plant. d. A virus has infected your company’s intranet, and it will have to be shut down for

12 hours to debug it. e. The crane (or other piece of equipment) you are operating breaks down, and you

lose a half-day’s work. f. The vendor has been unable to repair the corrupted software on your computer, and

you cannot complete a job without buying a more expensive software package. g. An electrical storm knocked out your computer; you lost 1,000 mailing label

addresses and will have to hire additional help to complete a mandatory mailing by the end of the week.

h. A scammer has stolen some sensitive files (documents) about a new product your company hoped to launch next month.

i. An irate customer threatens one of your sales staff, but there was no physical vio- lence, though the daily routine of your business was disrupted and several other customers walked out.

j. After attending a trade show for your company, you find out that you have been a victim of identity theft, and that your company-issued credit card has been compromised.

Exercises 593

13. Choose one of the following descriptions of an incident, and write a report based on it. The descriptions contain unnecessary details, vague words, insufficient information, unclear cause-and-effect relationships, or a combination of those errors. In writing your report, correct the errors by adding or deleting whatever information you believe is nec- essary. You may also want to rearrange the order in which information is listed. Use a memo format, like that in Figure 14.11, to write the report.

a. After sliding across the slippery road late at night, my car ran into another ve- hicle, one of those fancy imported cars. The driver of that car must have been asleep at the wheel. The paint and glass chips were all over. I was driving back from our regional meeting and wanted to report to the home office the next day. The accident will slow me down.

b. Whoever packed the glass mugs did not know what he or she was doing. The tape was not the right type, nor was it sealed correctly. The carton was too flimsy as well. It could have been better packed to hold all those mugs. Moreover, since the bus had to travel across some pretty hilly country, the package would have bro- ken anyhow. The best way to ship these kinds of goods is in specially marked and packed boxes. The value of the box contents was listed at $575.

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15 Writing Careful Long Reports

This chapter introduces you to long reports—how and why they are written and organized. It is appropriate to discuss long reports in one of the last chapters of Successful Writing at Work because they require you to use and combine many of the writing skills and research strategies you have already learned. In the world of global business, a long report is the culmination of many weeks or months of hard work on an impor- tant company project.

The following skills will be most helpful to you as you study long reports; appropriate page numbers appear for the topics that have already been discussed:

●● functioning as a member of a collaborative writing team (see “Collaboration is Crucial to the Writing Process,” pages 75–76)

●● respecting corporate image and mission and adhering to corpo- rate guidelines on preparing and routing reports (see “Ethical Requirements on the Job,” pages 27–29)

●● assessing and meeting your audience’s multiple needs (see “Identifying Your Audience,” pages 11–13)

●● gathering and summarizing information from print and online sources, and conducting interviews (see Chapter 8, pages 304–337)

●● generating, drafting, revising, and editing your ideas and those of your team (see Chapter 2, pages 44–70)

●● reporting the results of your research accurately and concisely (see “Characteristics of Effective Workplace Research,” page 305)

●● creating and introducing visuals and designing documents (see Chapter 11, pages 448–464)

●● using appropriate documentation (see “Documenting Sources,” pages 337–347)

●● preparing an informative abstract (see “Abstracts,” pages 387–389)

Having developed these skills, you should be ready to write a successful long report. The collaborative team of writers of the model long report

Chapter Outline

Characteristics of a Long Report

The Process of Writing a Long Report

Parts of a Long Report

A Model Long Report

Final Words of Advice About Long Reports

Adam Mork/Architecture (RM)/Corbis

Characteristics of a Long Report 595

in Figure 15.3 (pages 607–621) uses all of the above skills in their work for RPM Technologies.

CharaCteristiCs Of a lOng repOrt The following sections explain some of the key elements in a long report. You will find a model long report (Figure 15.3) at the end of the chapter (pages 607-621).

Scope A long report is a major study that provides an in-depth view of a key problem or idea. It might be eight to twenty pages long or even much longer, depending on the scope of the subject. The implications of a long report are wide-ranging for a business or organization—relocating a plant, adding a new network, changing a programming operation, or adapting the workplace for multinational employees, as in Figure 15.3.

Unlike a short report, a long report may discuss not just one or two current events but, rather, a major problem in detail, the continuing history of a problem, or an idea (and the background information necessary to understand it in perspective).

The titles of some typical long reports suggest their extensive (and in some cases exhaustive) coverage:

●● The Transportation Problems in Kingford, Oregon, and the Use of Rapid Transit

●● Promoting More Effective E-Commerce and E-Tailing at TechWorld Inc. ●● Virtual Reality Attractions in Theme Parks in Jersey City, New Jersey ●● Expanding Health Care Delivery Systems in Tate County ●● Internet Medicine in Providing Health Care in Rural Areas: Ways to Serve

Southern Montana

Research A long, comprehensive report requires much more extensive research than a short report does. Information can be gathered over time from primary and secondary research—Internet searches, listservs, books, articles, blogs, social media, govern- ment documents, laboratory experiments, on-site visits and tests, conferences with your boss and co-workers, interviews, and the writer’s own observations. For a long report, you will have to do a great deal of research and possibly interview- ing to track down relevant background information and to discover what experts have said about the subject and what they propose should be suggested or have even done. Make sure all your sources are accurate, current, and relevant. Note how much research went into the business report in Figure 8.10 (pages 349–363) and the long report in Figure 15.3.

For a report for class, you will be asked to identify a major problem or topic, while in the business world the topic and even your approach to it will more than

596 chapteR 15 Writing Careful Long Reports

likely be dictated to you by your boss and company policy, as the cover letter (see Figure 15.2, page 606) to the long report in Figure 15.3 indicates.

Format A long report is too detailed and complex to be adequately organized in a memo or letter format. And while long reports are often presented in hard copy form, they may also be requested as an e-document (such as a PDF file posted to a com- pany’s intranet). The product of thorough research and analysis, the long report gives readers detailed discussions and interpretations of large quantities of data. To present the information in a logical and orderly fashion, the long report contains various parts, sections, headings, subheadings, documentation, and supplements (appendices) that would never be included in a short report. Look at the sections of a report in the Table of Contents (page 608) for the long report in Figure 15.3. Also, note how this long report gives readers a variety of visuals, including charts, a graph, and even a multicultural calendar.

timetable A long report is generally commissioned by a company or an agency to explore with extensive documentation a subject involving personnel, locations, technology, costs, safety, or the environment. Many times a long report is required by law— for example, investigating the feasibility of a project that will affect the ecosystem. When you prepare a long report for a class project, select a topic that really interests you and/or your collaborative group, because you will spend a good portion of the term working on it. Here is a possible timeline for a long report to give you a sense of the process of preparing one.

Do Research and Conduct

Interviews

4 weeks 3 weeks 1 week 3 weeks 1 week Due Date

Outline and Draft

Conferences for Revisions and Further

Research

Revise and

Prepare Figures

Proof- read and

Polish

Submit Long

Report

audience The audience for a long report usually consists of individuals in the top levels of management—presidents, vice presidents, superintendents, directors, heads of departments—who make executive, financial, and organizational decisions. These individuals are responsible for long-range planning, or seeing the big picture, so to speak. A long report written about a campus issue or problem may at first be read by your instructor and then sent to an appropriate decision maker, such as a dean of students, a business manager, a director of athletics, or the head of campus security.

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Characteristics of a Long Report 597

collaborative effort Like many short reports, the long report in the world of business may be a col- laborative effort, the product of a committee or team whose work is reviewed by a main editor to make sure that the final text is consistently and accurately written. Individuals in many departments within a company—IT, document design, engi- neering, sales, transportation, legal affairs, public relations, safety—may cooperate in planning, researching, drafting, revising, and editing a long report.

The team should estimate a realistic timeframe necessary to complete the vari- ous stages of their work—when drafts are due and when editing must be concluded, for example. A project schedule based on that estimate should then guide a writ- ing team’s work. But remember: Projects almost always take longer than initially planned. Prepare for a possible delay at any one stage. The team may have to submit written progress reports (see “Progress Reports,” pages 567–571) to its members, as well as to management.

Using Government-Sponsored Research

The U.S. government conducts or sponsors a great deal of research that you might find relevant for your reports. The following is a short list of some major government and other relevant websites.

●● www.epa.gov will lead you to press releases, test guidelines, and information about grants, contracts, and job opportunities at the Environmental Protection Agency.

●● www.osha.gov, the website for the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, supplies information about OSHA standards, news releases and fact sheets, publica- tions, technical information, and safety links.

●● www.sba.gov leads to the Small Business Administration’s website, where you’ll find guides on beginning a small business, the opportunity to include your business in the national register, and contact information for local SBA offices.

●● www.bls.gov is sponsored by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. This organization com- piles and maintains financial information on inflation, growth or decline in the num- ber of businesses, and wage increases.

●● www.gpo.gov/fdsys is the Government Printing Office’s Federal Digital System. It provides free electronic access to a variety of federal documents, including legislative, judicial, and executive resources.

●● www.ars.usda.gov is the portal to the Agricultural Research Service (ARS), the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s chief scientific research agency. ARS conducts research to ensure high-quality, safe food; assess the nutritional needs of Americans; sustain a competitive agricultural economy; and enhance the environment.

tech Note

598 chapteR 15 Writing Careful Long Reports

To be successful, a collaborative writing team (such as Teri Smith Ruckel’s team in Figure 15.3) should observe the guidelines and procedures for collabora- tive writing in Chapter 3 (see “Collaborative Writing and the Writing Process,” pages 77–79).

the prOCess Of Writing a lOng repOrt Because work on a long report will be spread over many weeks, you need to see it not as a series of static or isolated tasks but as an evolving project. Before you embark on that project, review the information on the writing process in Chapter 2 (see “The Writing Process,” page 45). The following guidelines will also help you plan and write a long report.

1. Identify a significant topic. While you won’t usually get to choose the topic of your long report, when you write one for a class, make sure you select a topic that is important and worth exploring in detail. Choose a topic/problem that is rel- evant for your audience, whether it is a group of college administrators or com- munity leaders, and something that will help them better understand or even solve a problem.

2. Conduct research. You’ll have to do some preliminary research—widespread reading, online searching, conferring with and interviewing experts, and possibly making site visits–to get an overview of key ideas and individuals involved, and the implications for your company and/or community. Note the kinds of research Terri Smith Ruckel and her collaborative team did for their long report (see Figure 15.3, pages 607–621).

3. Expect to confer regularly with your supervisor and team members. In these meetings, be prepared to ask pertinent and researched questions to pin down exactly what your boss wants and how your writing team can accomplish this goal. Your supervisor may want you to submit an outline before you draft the report and may expect several more drafts for approval before you write the final version.

4. Revise your work often. Be prepared to work on several outlines and drafts. Your revisions may sometimes be extensive, depending on what your boss or col- laborative team recommends or what your research uncovers. You may have to consult new sources or delete older ones.

5. Keep the order flexible at first. A long report is not written in “final” order— abstract to recommendations. Instead, expect to write in “loose” order to reflect the process whereby you gathered information and organized it into categories. Usu- ally, the body of the report is written before the introduction so the authors can make sure they have not left anything out. Recommendations can be made only after you prepare your conclusion. And abstracts are always written last.

6. Prepare both a day-to-day calendar and a checklist. Keep both posted where you do your work—above your desk or computer, or use your operating

Parts of a Long Report 599

system’s calendar program—so that you can track your progress. The calendar should mark milestones—that is, dates by which each stage of your work must be completed.

parts Of a lOng repOrt A long report may include some or all of the following 12 parts, which form three categories: front matter (letter of transmittal, title page, abstract, table of contents, list of illustrations), report text (introduction, body, conclusion, recommenda- tions), and back matter (glossary, references cited, any appendices).

Numbering the pages of a Long Report You will use two sets of numbers for the pages of your long report, one for the front matter and another for the text and back matter of your report. See Fig- ure 15.3 for an example of proper pagination in a long report. Use lowercase Roman numerals (e.g., i, ii, iii, iv) for the front matter. The title page counts as page i, but do not number it. Instead, start with the table of contents as page ii. Then number the list of illustrations as page iii and the abstract, if it appears on a separate page as in Figure 15.3, as page iv. Format all front matter page numbers as footers.

For the text and back matter of your report, use consecutive Arabic numer- als in the headers, that is, in the upper right-hand side of each page. Keep in mind, though, that your instructor or employer may prefer you to use APA (American Psychological Association) or MLA (Modern Language Association) style, or for you to use a different placement for the page numbers—for example, putting all report page numbers in footers or in headers.

Front Matter As the name implies, the front matter of a long report consists of everything that precedes the actual text of the report. Such elements introduce, explain, and sum- marize to help the reader locate various parts of the report.

Letter of Transmittal This three- or four-paragraph (usually only one-page) letter states the purpose, scope, and major recommendation(s) of the report. If written to an instructor, the letter should additionally note that the report was done as a course assignment. Figure 15.1 (page 600) shows a sample letter of transmittal for a business report highlighting the main points of the report that will most interest readers. The first paragraph indicates why the report is being sent and points out why it is im- portant. The second paragraph summarizes and justifies the recommendations in the report. The final paragraph thanks the reader for the opportunity to prepare the report and offers to answer any questions or discuss or clarify any parts of the document.

600 chapteR 15 Writing Careful Long Reports

Figure 15.1 A Letter of Transmittal for a Long Report

Indicates why report was done

Gives three key recommenda tions

Provides justification for recommenda tions

Encourages response and questions

ALPHA CONSULTANTS

www.alphaconsultants.com

1400 Ridge Evanston, California 97214-1005

August 14, 2015

Dr. K. G. Lowry, President Coastal College San Diego, CA 93219-2619

Dear Dr. Lowry:

We are happy to offer you the enclosed report, A Study to Determine New Directions in Women’s Athletics at Coastal College, which you commissioned. Our report contains our recommendations about strengthening existing sports programs and creating new ones at Coastal College.

We recommend that Coastal should engage in more aggressive recruitment to establish a more competitive women’s baseball team, should offer additional athletic activities in women’s track and field by August 2016, and should create a new interdisciplinary program between the Athletic Department and the Women’s Studies Program. Based on the findings in our report, we believe that these recommendations are cost-effective, timely, and consistent with the mission of Coastal College.

It has been an honor to prepare this report for you. We hope that you find it helpful in meeting students’ needs at Coastal College. If you have any questions or if you would like to discuss any of our recommendations, please call us.

Sincerely yours,

Barbara Gilchrist

Lee T. Sidell

Encl. Report

805-555-9200 www.facebook.com/alphaconsultants

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Parts of a Long Report 601

Title Page Since MLA and APA have different formats for title pages, find out what your employer prefers. Basically, though, your title page should contain the following:

●● the full title of your report. The title should tell readers what your topic is and how you have restricted it in time, space, or method. Avoid titles that are vague, too short, or too long.

Vague Title: A Report on the Internet: Some Findings Too Short: The Internet Too Long: A Report on the Internet: A Study of Social Media Companies

and Their Relationship with Consumer Preferences and Identity Protection Within the Past Five Years

●● the name of the company or agency preparing the report ●● the name(s) of the report writer(s) ●● the date the report was submitted ●● any agency, order, or grant number (if applicable) ●● the name of the person, firm, or organization for which the report was

prepared

Make sure that your title page looks professional. Center your title and graphically subordinate any subtitles. Do not use abbreviations (e.g., bldgs. for buildings, gov’t for government, bus. for business) or acronyms (e.g., AMS for Association of Mar- keting Students; PTAs for Physical Therapist Assistants).

Table of Contents The table of contents lists the major headings and subheadings of your report and tells readers on which pages they can be found (see Figure 15.3, pages 607–621). Make sure that your table of contents exactly matches the order and wording of your main headings and subheadings. It reveals the scope of your report and helps readers identify the parts of your report that are of most interest to them. Although the APA no longer recommends a table of contents or a list of illustrations, these pages are provided in Figure 15.3 as models for students whose instructors asked for these pages.

List of Illustrations A list of all the visuals indicates where they can be found in your report. Note the variety of visuals found in Figure 15.3—a circle chart, a bar chart, a graph, a calendar.

Abstract As discussed in Chapter 9 (see “Abstracts,” pages 387–389), an abstract summarizes the report, presenting a brief overview of the problem and conclusions. Abstracts may be placed at various points in long reports—on the title page, on a separate page preceding or following the table of contents, or as the first page of the report text (see page iv of Figure 15.3 for an example of an abstract).

602 chapteR 15 Writing Careful Long Reports

Begin your abstract with a sentence that identifies the subject, purpose, scope, and importance of your report. Then concentrate on the main points your report covers, briefly comment on the results and outcomes you reached, and clearly pin- point your recommendations. See how the abstract Terri Smith Ruckel and her team prepared for their readers in Figure 15.3 (page 609) succinctly lists the team’s conclusions, or findings.

Some information does not belong in an abstract. Do not give readers a detailed description of the methods you used or try to squeeze in every minor point. It is also unnecessary to repeat who commissioned the report and why. And never in- clude information in your abstract not found in your report.

When you write your abstract, use complete sentences with keywords. Appro- priate keywords make it easy for search engines to find your report if it is posted on the Web or if it will be archived on, say, a company intranet (see “How to Conduct Keyword Searches: Some Guidelines,” pages 330–331).

text of the Report The text of a long report consists of an introduction, the body, a conclusion, and sometimes recommendations.

Introduction The introduction may constitute as much as 20 percent of your report, but usu- ally it is not any longer. If it were, the introduction would be disproportionate to the rest of your work, especially the body. The introduction is essential because it tells readers why your report was written and thus helps them to understand and interpret everything that follows. See how Terri Smith Ruckel emphasizes the im- portance of research for her employer, RPM Technologies, in the introduction to Figure 15.3. But make sure you do not put your findings, conclusion, or recom- mendations in your introduction.

Do not regard the introduction as one undivided block of information. It in- cludes the following related parts, which should be labeled with subheadings. Keep in mind, though, that your employer may ask you to list these parts in a different order.

1. Background. To understand why your topic is significant and hence worthy of study, readers need to know about its history. This history may include information on such topics as who was originally involved, when, and where; how someone was affected by the issue; what opinions have been expressed on the issue; and what the implications of your study are. Note how the long report in Figure 15.3 provides useful background information on why multinational employees are a growing and important segment of the U.S. workforce.

2. Problem. Identify the problem or issue that led you to write the report. Keep in mind that your problem needs to be significant enough to warrant a long re- port. Because the problem or topic you investigated will determine everything in your report, you need to state it clearly and precisely. That statement may be restricted to a few sentences. Here is a problem statement from a report on how

Parts of a Long Report 603

earlier construction designs failed to account for the requirements of Americans with disabilities:

Every builder since the late 1990s has paid attention to codes on meeting needs of dis- abled residents. In the past, however, the building industry had not sufficiently met the needs for accessible workplaces and homes for all age and physical ability groups. The industry too often relied on expensive and specialized plans to modify existing struc- tures rather than creating universally designed spaces that were accessible to everyone.

3. Purpose statement. The purpose statement, crucial to the success of the report, tells readers why you wrote the report and what you hope to accomplish or prove. It expresses the goal of all your research. In explaining why you gathered informa- tion about a particular problem or topic, indicate how such information might be useful to a specific audience, company, or group. Like the problem statement, the purpose statement does not have to be long or complex. A sentence or two will suf- fice. You might begin simply by saying, “The purpose of this report is. . . .”

4. Scope. This section informs readers about the specific limits—number and type of issues, time, money, locations, personnel, and so forth—you have placed on your investigation. You need to inform readers about what they will find in your report or what they won’t through your statement about the scope of your work. The long report in Figure 15.3 concentrates on adapting the RPM workplace to meet the communication and cultural needs of a workforce of multinational employees, not on trends in the international employment market—two completely different topics.

Body Fifty to seventy-five percent of your long report will be devoted to the body or discussion. Everything in this and all the other sections of your report grows out of your purpose and how you have limited your scope.

What to Include in the Body of a Report The body of a report contains

●● statistical information ●● any relevant figures, charts, tables, or other visuals ●● details about the environment ●● physical descriptions ●● interpretations and comments of the authorities whose work you consulted

or the individuals whom you have interviewed as part of your research ●● a description of the range of options you surveyed and ones you feel are the

most appropriate

In Figure 15.3 (pages 607–621), the body of the report spells out precisely what spe- cific changes RPM must make to recruit and retain multinational employees—from offering cross-cultural training to making sure corporate documents are written in plain English.

604 chapteR 15 Writing Careful Long Reports

The body of your report should

●● be carefully organized to reveal a coherent and well-defined plan ●● separate material into meaningful parts to identify the major issues as well as

minor issues in your report ●● clearly relate the parts to one another ●● use headings to help your reader identify major sections more quickly

Headings Your organization is reflected in the different headings and sub headings included in your report. Use them to make your report easy to follow. Organiza- tional headings will also enable someone skimming the report to find specific infor- mation quickly. The headings, of course, will be included in the table of contents. (Note how Figure 15.3 is carefully organized into sections.)

Transitions In addition to headings, use transitions to reveal the organization of the body of your report. At the beginning of each major section of the body, tell read- ers what they will find in that section and why. Summary sentences at the end of a section will tell readers where they have been and prepare them for any subsequent discussions. The report in Figure 15.3 does an effective job of providing internal summaries, e.g., on pages 612 and 614.

Conclusion The conclusion should tie everything together for readers by presenting the find- ings of your report. Findings, of course, will vary depending on the type of research you do. For a report based on a study of sources located through various refer- ence searches (see Figure 8.10, pages 349–363), the conclusion should summarize the main viewpoints of the authorities whose works you have cited. For a report done for a business, you must spell out the implications for your readers in terms of costs, personnel, products, location, and so forth.

Regardless of the type of research you do, your conclusions should

●● be based on the information and documentation in the body of the report ●● corroborate the evidence/information you gave in the body of your report ●● grow out of the work you describe in the body of the report ●● stick to the areas that your report covers, and not stray into areas it does

not

Recommendations The recommendation(s) section tells readers what should be done about the find- ings recorded in the conclusion. Your recommendation(s) tells readers how to solve the problem your report has focused on. Readers will expect you to advise them on a specific course of action—what new technology to purchase, when and where to expand a market, how to improve and safeguard a web presence, or who to recruit, hire, train, and retain multinationals for your company, as in Figure 15.3.

A Model Long Report 605

Back Matter Included in the back matter of the report are all of the supporting data that, if included in the text of the report, would bog the reader down in details and cloud the main points the report makes.

Glossary The glossary is an alphabetical list of the specialized vocabulary used in a long re- port and the definitions. A glossary might be unnecessary if your report does not use a highly technical vocabulary, as in Figure 15.3, or if all members of your audi- ence are familiar with the specialized terms you do use.

Citations List Any sources cited in your report—websites, books, articles, television programs, in- terviews, reviews, blogs, social media posts, graphics, podcasts, webinars—are usu- ally listed in this section (see “Documenting Sources,” pages 337–347). Always ask your employer or instructor how he or she wants information to be documented, that is, what method of documentation to follow (see “Parenthetical Documenta- tion,” pages 339–340). Note that the long report in Figure 15.3 follows the APA system of documentation (the business report in Figure 8.10 follows MLA style).

Appendix An appendix contains supporting materials for the report—tables and charts too long to include in the discussion, sample questionnaires, budgets and cost estimates, correspondence about the preparation of the report, case histories, transcripts of telephone conversations, copies of relevant letters, documents upon which the report is based, and so forth.

a MOdel lOng repOrt The long report in Figure 15.3 (starting on page 607) was written by a senior train- ing specialist, Terri Smith Ruckel and her collaborative team, for the vice president of human resources who had commissioned it. Note that only Ruckel’s name ap- pears on the report, according to her company’s policy. The main task facing Ruckel and her team was to demonstrate what RPM Technologies had to do to meet the needs of multinational workers and thus promote diversity in the workplace. She gathered relevant data from both primary research (interviews, direct observations, site visits, and tests; see “Primary Research, pages 307–319) and secondary research (consulting and commenting at times on sources already available, such as books, websites, journal articles, reference works, government documents, and even RPM in-house publications; see “Secondary Research,” pages 319–333).

Figure 15.3 contains all the parts of a long report discussed in this chapter except a glossary and an appendix. Intended for a decision maker interested in learning more about the problems multinational workers face, the report does not contain the technical terms and data that would require a glossary or an appendix. Note how the cover let- ter (Figure 15.2, page 606) introduces the report and spells out its significance for RPM Technologies while the abstract succinctly identifies only the main points of the report.

606 chapteR 15 Writing Careful Long Reports

Begins with major recommenda tion of report

Presents findings of report

Alerts reader to major ways to solve problems

Offers to answer questions

Enclosure notation specifies report is attached

Figure 15.2 Transmittal Letter for a Long Report

May 6, 2016

Jesse Butler Vice President, Human Resources RPM Technologies

Dear Vice President Butler:

With this letter I am enclosing the report my team and I prepared on effective ways to recruit and retain a multinational workforce for RPM Technologies, which you requested we submit by early May. The report argues for the necessity of adapting the RPM workplace to meet the needs of multinational employees, including promoting cultural sensitivity and ensuring that our written communications are easily understood by this audience.

Multinational workers undoubtedly will continue to play a major role in U.S. businesses and at RPM as well. With their technical skills and homeland contacts, these employees can help RPM Technologies successfully compete in today’s global marketplace.

But businesses like RPM need to recruit qualified multinational workers more aggressively and then provide equal opportunities for them in the workplace. We must also be sensitive to the cultural diversity and communication demands of an international workforce. By including cross-cultural training—for native and non-native English-speaking employees alike—RPM can more effectively promote cultural sensitivity. Plain English or translated versions of key corporate documents can further improve the workplace environment for our multinational employees.

I hope you find this report helpful in recruiting and retaining additional multinational employees for RPM Technologies. If you have any questions or want to discuss our recommendations or research, please let me know at [email protected]. I look forward to receiving your input.

Sincerely yours,

Terri Smith Ruckel Senior Training Specialist

Enclosure: Report

4500 Florissant Drive

314.555.2121 www.rpmtech.com

St. Louis, MO 63174

RPMTechnologies

www.facebook.com/rpmtechnologies www.youtube.com/user/rpmtechnologies

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A Model Long Report 607

Figure 15.3 A Long Report

Title page is carefully formatted and uses boldface

Identifies writer and job title; Ruckel presents report from entire staff— writing for another’s signature

RPM executive who assigned the report

Date submitted

Title page is not numbered

Adapting the RPM Workplace for Multinational Employees

Terri Smith Ruckel

Senior Training Specialist RPM Technologies

Prepared for

Jesse Butler Vice President, Human Resources

May 6, 2016

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(Continued)

608 chapteR 15 Writing Careful Long Reports

Figure 15.3 (Continued)

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While APA does not include a table of contents, individual employers such as RPM may require one

Major divisions of report in all capital letters and boldface

Records key sections and subsections of report

Subheadings indicated by indentations and italics

Page numbers included for major sections of report

No subsections needed here

Lists references on separate pages

Uses Roman numeral for Table of Contents

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Providing Equal Workplace Opportunities for Multinational Employees . . . 3

Aggressive Recruitment of IT Professionals from Diverse Cultures . . . 3

Commitment to Ethnic Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Promoting and Incorporating Cultural Awareness Within the Company . . . 5

Cross-cultural Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Promotion of Cultural Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Making Business Communication More Understandable for

Multinational Employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Translation of Written Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Language Training Must Be Reciprocal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

A Model Long Report 609

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Abstract This report investigates how U.S. businesses such as RPM must gain a competitive advantage in today’s global marketplace by recruiting and retaining a multinational workforce. The recent wave of immigrants is in great demand for their technical skills and economic ties to their homeland. Yet many companies like ours still operate by policies designed for native speakers of English. Instead, we have to adapt RPM’s company policies and environment to meet the cultural, religious, social, and communication needs of these multinational workers. To do this, we must promote cultural sensitivity training, both for multinatioals and employees who are native speakers of English. Additionally, as other U.S. �rms have successfully done, RPM should adapt vacation sched- ules and daycare facilities for an expanding multicultural workforce. Equally important too, RPM has to ensure, either through translations or plain-English versions, that all company documents and signage can be easily understood by multinational workers.

List of Illustrations Figure 1 Major Ethnic Groups Immigrating to the United States (2005–2015). 1

Figure 2 Country of Origin for Silicon Valley Immigrants Employed in Technical Fields in 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Figure 3 Visions Bank of California: Growth in Percentage of Multinational Employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Figure 4 A Multicultural Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

iii

Identifies each figure by number, title, and page number

Provides a title for each visual

Concise, informative abstract that states purpose of report and why it is important for audience

Footer uses Roman numerals for front matter pages

Uses helpful transitional terms such as “additionally” and “equally important”

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(Continued)

610 chapteR 15 Writing Careful Long Reports

Figure 15.3 (Continued)

Introduction Background

The U.S. workforce has been undergoing a remarkable revolution. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics predicts that by 2022 our country's labor force will comprise 173.5 million workers who must �ll 177 million jobs (2015). The most dramatic effect of �lling this labor shortage will be in hiring greater numbers of highly skilled multinational employees, including those joining RPM. Currently, “one of every �ve IT specialists [and] one of every six persons in engineering or science occupations . . . is foreign born” (Keshevi & Foley, 2014, p. 210). In 2015, the number of international residents in the United States totaled 41.3 million, according to the U.S. Census Bureau (2015).This new wave of immigrants comprises 16.3 percent of the labor force (U.S. BLS, 2013), and is projected to go to nearly 30 percent by 2030 (Immigration Coalition, 2015, p. 8). As Alexa Quincy aptly put it, “The United States is becoming the most multicul- turally diverse country in the global economy” (2014, p. 5).

Unlike earlier generations, immigrants today actively maintain ties with their native countries. These new immigrants travel back and forth so regularly they have become global citizens, exercising an enormous in�uence on the success of a business like RPM. They provide business contacts with other markets, enhancing a company’s ability to trade and invest pro�tably abroad. Figure 1 below identi�es these major groups.

Figure 1

Hispanic 36%

East European 15%

Caribbean 5%

East Asian 34%

Indian 10%

Major Ethnic Groups Immigrating to the United States (2005–2015)

Source: Brown, P. (2014, February). History of U.S. immigration. Retrieved from http://immigration.ucn.edu

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Country of Origin for Silicon Valley Immigrants Employed in Technical Fields in 2015

Source: Joint Silicon Valley Regional Foundation. (2015). 2015 Silicon Valley Index. Retrieved from http://www.svrf.org/sites/publications/2015-silicon-valley-index.pdf

Undeniably, many immigrants today often possess advanced levels of technical expertise. A report by the Kaiser Foundation found that California’s Silicon Valley had signi�cantly bene�ted from the immigrants who have arrived with much needed technical training. Relocated Chinese, East Asian, and Indian scientists and engineers now hold more than 40 percent of the region’s technical positions (“Immigrants Find,” 2015, p. 37). Figure 2 below indicates the leading countries of origin for Silicon Valley’s immigrants employed in technical �elds in 2015, and records the percentage for each nationality (Joint Silicon Valley Regional Foundation, 2015, p. 12).

Problem

RPM, like other m-commerce companies, is experiencing a critical talent shortage of IT and other professionals, making the recruitment of a multinational workforce a vital priority for us. Meeting the cultural and communication demands of these workers, however, poses serious challenges for RPM. The traditional workplace needs to be transformed to respect the ways multinational employees communicate about business. Native English-speaking employees will also have to be better prepared to understand and to appreciate their international co-workers.

0 Other Other

Americas Other Asia

Vietnam Philippines ChinaIndiaOceania Africa Europe

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Unfortunately, many corporate policies and programs at RPM, and at other U.S. companies as well, have been created for native-born, English-speaking employees (Morales, 2015; Reynolds, 2014, para. 4). Rather than rewarding multinational workers, such policies unintentionally punish them.

Purpose The purpose of this report is to show that to increase multicultural technical employees in the workplace, RPM must further adapt its business environment to recruit and retain this essential and diverse labor force. This report spells out speci�c steps RPM must take to accommodate this new multinational workforce.

Scope This report explores cultural diversity in the current U.S. workplace and suggests ways for RPM to compete successfully in the global marketplace by providing equal employment opportunities for multinational workers. By doing this, we will foster cross-cultural literacy and improve training in intercultural communication at our �rm.

Discussion

Providing Equal Workplace Opportunities for Multinational Employees Aggressive Recruitment of IT Professionals from Diverse Cultures A multilingual workforce is vital if RPM wants to compete in a culturally diverse global market. But �rms such as ours must be prepared to adapt or modify hiring policies and procedures to attract these multinational employees, beginning with rethinking our recruitment and retention policies. Routine visits to U.S. campuses by company recruiters or “specialized international recruiters” can help us identify and hire highly quali�ed multinational job candidates (Hamilton, 2015, p. 36).

Moreover, RPM should visit universities abroad with distinguished IT programs to attract talented multinational employees. We need to encourage students and recent graduates from these universities to apply for a J-1 visa to learn more about RPM through an internship program. As Marissa Bolanos reported, “Tansen Electronics went to Russia for software engineers with the experience they couldn’t readily �nd among U.S. workers.” (2015, para. 3). These searches, along with articles on our website, posts to our Facebook page, tweets, and executive blogs, should emphasize RPM’s commitment to globaliza- tion and help attract international workers to RPM. Lobbying more actively to increase the number of H1-B visas for skilled workers will also help RPM. Capitalizing on a diverse workforce, RPM can more effectively increase our multicultural customer base worldwide. Logically, customers buy from individuals they can relate to culturally. RPM might take a lead from Visions Bank of California, a business serving a diverse population, especially its Asian and

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Growth in Percentage of Multinational Employees

2012201020082006

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Hispanics Vietnamese

Korean Indian

Source: Hamilton, B. E. (2015). Diversity is the answer for today’s work force. Journal of Business Diversity, 10(38), 35–37.

Hispanic customers. The bank has a successful recruitment history of hiring employees with language skills in Hindi, Vietnamese, Korean, and Spanish. In fact, Visions Bank ranked fourth as an employer of minorities (Visions Bank of California, 2014, para. 8). Figure 3 charts the increase in multinational employees hired by Visions Bank over an 8-year period.

Another highly competitive business, Auto-Drive, selected Hector Reyes, a Hispanic, to serve as its CEO. The nation's third-largest automotive parts retailer, with 2,627 locations nationwide, Auto-Drive under Reyes's leadership has hired more international employees—totaling more than 25 percent of its workforce—than it had in previous years. Many top Fortune 500 companies, such as Cisco and Intel, can also claim that 40% or more of their workforce is comprised of multinationals (“100 Best Companies,” 2016). Closer to RPM in St. Louis, Whitney Abernathy—manager of Netshop, Inc.—found that contracts from Indonesia increased by 17 percent after she hired Jakarta native Safja Jacoef (personal communication, April 2, 2016).

Commitment to Ethnic Representation Many companies have mission statements on diversity and multinational employees in the workplace. G.E., American Airlines, IBM, and Walmart promote multinationals as mentors and interpreters. Eastman Kodak has eight employee cultural network groups, including the Hispanic Organization for Leadership and Advocacy, or HOLA, which is “committed to foster excellence and leadership

Stresses other business precedents that encourage recruiting these employees

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among Hispanics by providing personal growth and development opportunities through informal mentoring, training, and interaction with management” (“Employee Networks,” 2015, para. 6).

Such a proactive program, which we might incorporate at RPM, recognizes the leadership abilities of multinational employees. Moreover, “glass ceilings,” which in the past have prevented women and ethnic employees from moving up the corporate ladder, are being shattered. Tesfaye Aklilu, Vice President at United Technologies, astutely observes:

RPM would also do well to follow the lead of one of our chief competitors, Ablex Polymers, that recently won an award from the International Business Foundation for hiring more Hispanic American women managers (“Ablex Wins Award,” 2016, para. 1).

Promoting and Incorporating Cultural Awareness Within the Company

Cross-cultural Training

Many of RPM’s competitors have created cultural awareness programs for international employees as well as native speakers. Committed to diversity, Aetna (2008) offers online courses on ethnicity (e.g.,“A Bridge to Asia”) to “promote an atmosphere of openness and trust” (p. 14) while Johnson & Johnson conducts Diversity University “to help employees . . . understand and value differences and the bene�ts of working collaboratively . . . to meet business goals” (2015, Diversity University section, para. 1). Employees �nd it easier to work with someone whose values and beliefs they understand, while employers bene�t from collaboration. Such a program could have prevented the problem RPM experienced when a non-native English-speaking employee was offended by a cultural misunderstand- ing (“RPM First Quarter,” 2016, p. 7). We would do well to model our programs after those at American Express, which has a workforce representing 40 nations, or those at Extel Communications with its large percentage of Hispanic and Vietnam- ese employees. United Parcel Service (UPS) pro�tably pairs a native English- speaking employee with an international employee to improve on-the-job problem solving and communication skills. For instance, Jamie Allen, a UPS employee since 2006, found her work with Lekha Nfara-Kahn to be one of the most rewarding experiences of her job (Johnson, 2015, p. 45).

Although they need to encourage cultural sensitivity training, U.S. �rms like RPM should also be cautious about severing international workers’ cultural

In a global business environment, diversity is an ... imperative. Diversity of cultures, ideas, perspectives, and values is the norm of today’s international companies. The exchange of ideas from different cultural perspectives gives a business additional, valuable information. Every employee can see his/her position from a global vantage point. (Aklilu, 2016, para. 1)

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ties—a delicate balance. When management actively promotes bonds among employees from similar cultures, workers are less fearful about losing their identity. Encouraging such contacts, Globe Citizens Bank has pro�tably mobilized culturally similar groups by asking workers of shared ethnic heritages to network with each other (Gordon & Rao, 2015, p. 39). Employees of Turkish ancestry from Globe’s main New York of�ce go to lunch twice a month with Turkish-born employees from the Newark branches. Globe hosts these luncheons and in return receives a bimonthly evaluation of the bank’s Turkish and Middle Eastern policies (Hamilton, 2015, p. 36).

Cultural education must go both ways, though. The U.S. business culture has conventions, too, and few international employees would want to ignore them, but they need to know what those conventions are (Johnson, 2015, p. 48). A frequent problem with U.S. corporations such as RPM is that we assume everyone knows how we do things and how we think—it never occurs to us to explain ourselves. For example, • native speakers of English are typically comfortable within a space of around 1 to 1.5 feet for general personal interactions in business. But workers from Taiwan or Japan, who prefer a greater conversational distance, feel uncomfortable if their desks are less than a few feet away from another employee’s workspace (Quincy, 2014; “Taiwanese Business Culture,” 2015). • Chinese use both hands when giving and receiving anything of value, including gifts and particularly business cards; you should do the same as this is one of the �rst points at which you will make an impression. (Canadian Trade Commis sioner Service, 2015, Attending and Conducting Meetings section, para. 11).

Corporate efforts to validate diverse cultures might also include the recognition of an ethnic group’s holidays. RPM has just begun to do this by hosting cultural events, including Cinco de Mayo and Chinese New Year celebrations, but we could add even more events, following the lead of other companies: • Many companies honor National Hispanic Heritage Month in September, coinciding with the independence celebrations of �ve Latin American countries (Workplace Diversity Commission, 2015, p. 37). • Wells Fargo has a long-standing relationship with the Chinese community and “has a long tradition of participating in Lunar New Year celebrations, including parades and the publication of special calendars, coin banks and red gift envelopes” (Mayer, 2015, para. 1). • GRT Systems sends New Year’s greetings at Waisak (the Buddhist Day of Enlightenment) to its employees who are Buddhist. (M. Saradayan, personal communication, February 28, 2016). • “Flexi-time is being offered to some Muslims undertaking a daily fast for the 30 consecutive days of Ramadan. Other companies allow Muslims to begin their working day later so they can catch up on sleep after waking up at 3 am to eat” (“Ramadan: when does it end,” 2014, para. 6).

Figure 4 (on page 7) provides a helpful multicultural calendar that RPM needs to adapt to establish our cultural sensitivity policies.

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Successful U.S. �rms have been sensitive to the needs of their English-speaking employees for decades. Flexible scheduling, telecommuting options, daycare, and preventive health programs have become part of corporate bene�t plans. Many of these options and bene�ts have been in place at RPM. But an international workforce presents additional cultural opportunities for RPM management. For example, our company cafeterias might easily accommodate the dietary restrictions of vegetarian workers or those who abstain from certain foods, such as dairy products. At GlobeTech, for example, soybean and �sh entrees are always available (Reynolds, 2014, para. 8). Adding ethnic items at RPM would reinforce our cultural awareness and respect for multinational employees.

Day care remains a key issue in hiring and retaining skilled employees, whether they are native or non-native speakers of English. RPM’s child care facilities at our of�ces in St. Louis and San Luis Obispo have brought us much positive publicity over the past eight years (“RPM Day Care Facilities,” 2015, para. 3). But by modifying child care that re�ects our workers’ culturally diverse needs, RPM can

Nov 2015 Jan 2016

Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat 51 32

Arba'een (Shia Muslim)

6 Feast of St. Nicholas (some European countries)

7 Hanukkah begins (Jewish) (ends Dec.14) Utpanna/Utpatti Ekadashi (Hindu)

98 Bodhi Day (Rohatsu- Buddhism)

10 11 12 Feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe (Catholic)

13 14 15 17 1816 Las Posadas begins (Hispanic) (ends Dec. 24)

27 28 29 3130

Source: Johnson, V.M. (2015). Growing multinational diversity in business sparks changes. Business Across the Nation, 23(7), 43–48.

21 Gita Jayanti (Hindu)

Winter Solstice

22 23 Mawlid an- Nabi (Muslim)

Christmas (Christian)

Kwanzaa begins (Interfaith) (ends Jan. 1)

24 Noche Buena (Hispanic) Dattatreya Jayanti (Hindu)

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New Year’s Eve (Western)

December 2015

Figure 4 A Multicultural Calendar

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give a multinational workforce greater peace of mind and better enable them to do their jobs. A pacesetter in this �eld is DEJ Mobile, which insists that at least two or three of its daycare workers must be �uent in Korean or Hindi (Parker, 2015, para. 2). One of our competitors, ITCorp, hires Hispanic and East Asian bilingual day care workers and tries to serve foods the children customarily eat at home (Gordon & Rao, 2015).

Making Business Communication More Understandable for Multinational Employees Translation of Written Communications

Among the essential documents causing trouble for multicultural readers are company handbooks, insurance and health care obligations, policy changes, and OSHA and EPA regulations (Hamilton, 2015). To ensure maximum understanding of these documents by a multinational workforce, RPM should provide a translation, or at least a plain English version, of them. To accomplish this, RPM could solicit the help of employees who are �uent in the non-native English speakers’ languages as well as contract with professional translators to prepare appropriate work-related documents.

Workplace signs in particular, especially safety messages, must consider the language needs of international workers. In the best interest of corporate safety, RPM could have these signs translated into the languages represented by multina- tionals in the workplace and/or post signs that use global symbols. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) declares “safety symbols can promote greater and more rapid communication of the safety message over text only signs” (Wunderling, 2014, p. 57). Unquestionably, we need to avoid signs that workers might �nd hard or even impossible to decipher. For example, a capital P for “Parking” or an H for “Hospital” might be unfamiliar to non-native speakers of English (Parker, 2015, para. 10).

Language Training Must Be Reciprocal

But language training has to be reciprocal—for native as well as non-native speakers—if communication is to succeed. A recent international survey of executive recruiters showed that being bilingual is critical to success in the international world of business (“Developing Foreign Language Skills,” 2016). Twenty percent of households in the United States speak a language other than English (Youngston, 2016). Unfortunately, this is the case with so many of RPM’s native-spreaking employees. However, many of the international workers RPM needs to recruit are bi- or even trilingual. In India, Israel, or South Africa, for example, the average worker speaks two or more languages every day to conduct business. We need to offer (and pay for) additional English instruction for our multinational workers if they need it. As Lindsay McMahon writes, when employees struggle with English in the workplace, companies lose “valuable time, potential new ideas and strategies, and teamwork between colleagues who have different points of view” (2013, para. 9).

Since RPM needs to recruit such workers, we have to learn more about the cultures and languages of these global employees. RPM management should consider contracting with one of the companies specializing in language instruction

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By implementing the following recommendations, based on the conclusions reached in this report, RPM Technologies can succeed in hiring and promoting the IT multinational professionals our company needs for future success in today’s global economy.

Recruit multinational workers more effectively through our website and social media, international hiring specialists, and visits to college and university campuses here and abroad. Work more closely with the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) to retain multinationals. Establish a mentoring program to identify and foster leadership abilities in multinational employees, resulting in retaining and promoting these workers. Promote cultural sensitivity and networking through groups compromis- ing multinationals and native English-speaking employees. Encourage a group’s cultural ties by actively supporting such work- related organizations such as the Hispanic Organization for Advocacy and Leadership (HOLA). Develop educational materials for employees who are native speakers of English about the cultural traditions of their multinational co-workers. Reassess and adapt RPM’s day care facilities to more effectively meet the needs of children of multinational employees. Supply relevant translations and plain-English versions of company hand-books, manuals, new regulations, insurance policies, safety codes, and other human resource documents. Support second-language training programs to enhance communication and collaboration between multinational and native speaker employees at RPM.

for businesspeople (www.selfgrowth.com/foreignlanguage.html). We also need to network with international employee groups to solicit their help and advice.

Conclusion To compete in the global marketplace, RPM must emphasize cultural diversity much more in its corporate mission and throughout the workplace. Through its policies and programs, RPM should aggressively recruit and retain an increasing number of technologically educated and experienced multinational workers. Such workers are in great demand today and will be even more so over the next ten to twenty years. They can help RPM increase our international customer base and advance the state of our technology. But the workplace must be sensitive to their cultural, religious, dietary, and communication needs. Providing equal opportunities, diversity training and networking, and easy-to- understand business documents will also keep RPM globally competitive in recruiting and retaining these essential employees

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100 best companies to work for, 2016. (2016, February 8). International Business Magazine. Retrieved from http://archive.ibm.com/magazines/best -companies/2016/minorities

Ablex wins award. (2016, February). Retrieved from http://www.ablexinter.org

Aetna, Inc. (2008, March). Diversity annual report: The strength of diversity. Retrieved from http://www.aetna.com/about/aetna/diversity/data/AetnaEnglish_2008.pdf

Aklilu, T. (2016). Diversity at UTC. Retrieved from http://www.utc.com/careers /diversity/index4.htm

Mayer, A. (2015, February 16). Red envelopes. [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://blogs.wellsfargo.com/guidedbyhistory/2015/02/red-envelopes/

Bolanos, M. (2015, June 18). U.S. Companies think globally to survive locally in today’s market. Global Marketplace Journal. Retrieved from http://www.globalmarketplacejournal/bolanos/1806_2015.htm

Brown, P. (2014, February). History of U.S. immigration. Retrieved from http://immigration.ucn.edu

Canadian Trade Commissioner Service. (2015, February 9). Business Etiquette in China. Retrieved from http://www.tradecommissioner.gc.ca/eng/document .jsp?did=107932&cid=512&oid=32

Developing foreign language skills is good business. (2016, February 3). Business World. Retrieved from http://www.businessworld.ca/article.cfm/newsID/7109.cfm

Employee Networks (Resource Groups). (2015, February). Retrieved from http://www.kodak.com/ek/US/en/Global_Sustainability/Stewardship/Global _Diversity/Employee_Networks.htm

Gordon, T., & Rao, P. (2015). Challenges ahead for American companies. National Economics Review, 11(3), 38–42, 56.

Hamilton, B. E. (2015). Diversity is the answer for today’s work force. Journal of Business Diversity, 10(38), 35–37.

Immigrants �nd the American dream in California’s Silicon Valley. (2015, March). Silicon Valley News, p. 37.

Immigration Coalition of the United States. (2015). Employment Projections, 2015–2030. Retrieved from http://immigrationcoalition.org /Employment_Projections_2015–2030.pdf

References

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Johnson & Johnson. (2015). Diversity and Inclusion Programs and Activities. Retrieved from http://http://www.jnj.com/about-jnj/diversity/programs

Johnson, V. M. (2015). Growing multinational diversity in business sparks changes. Business Across the Nation, 23(7), 43–48.

Joint Silicon Valley Regional Foundation. (2015). 2015 Silicon Valley Index. Retrieved from http://www.svrf.org/sites/publications/2015-silicon-valley -index.pdf

Keshevi, T. & Foley, B. (2014). The contributions of high-skilled immigrants. In B. Foley (Ed.), Immigration and U.S. technology (pp. 210–214). Washington, DC: International Policy Institute.

McMahon, L. (2013, January 16). How to get your company to pay for your English classes. [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://www.englishandculture.com/blog/bid/90314/How-to-Get-Your -Company-to-Pay-for-Your-English-Classes

Morales, J. [J_Morales112]. (2013, February 26). US Corporations create policies and programs and forget they have non-English-speaking employees. #RememberUs http://tinyurl.com/ ou9t94d [Tweet]. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/J_Morales112/status/306195345845664356

Parker, M. (2015, May 26). Multinational hires—advice and advocacy [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://parkeronimmigration.blogspot.com

/2015/05/26/multinational_hires-advice_and_advocacy.php Quincy, A. (2014). Multiculturalism makes for a good business. Workforce, Inc., 14(2), 5–8.

Ramadan: When does it end, and other questions. (2014, July 24). The Week. Retrieved from http://www.theweek.co.uk/religion/54029/ramadan-when -does-it-end-and-other-questions

Reynolds, P. (2014, February 3). Serving up culture [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://www.culture.org/2014/02/serving_up_culture

RPM day care facilities rated high. (2015, November 15). RPM News. Retrieved from http://www.rpm.com/rpmnews/11_15_2015/rpm_daycare_facilities_rated_high

RPM �rst quarter activity report. (2016). RPM Internal Reports. Retrieved from http://www.rpm.com/internalreports/2016_�rstquarter

Taiwanese business culture. (2015). Executive Planet. Retrieved from http://www.executiveplanet.com/business-culture-in/132438266669.html

References blog posts with proper APA citations

Gives full Web addresses for verification and to make source easy to find

Cites material available on company intranet

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U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2015, November 24). Foreign-Born Workers: Labor Force Characteristics-2013. [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/forbrn.pdf

U.S. Census Bureau. (2011–2015). 2011–2015 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates. Retreived from http://www.census.gov/acs/www/data_documentation/2015_release/

Visions Bank of California. (2014, June 23). Federation magazine ranks Visions Bank one of the best companies for minorities. Retrieved from http://www.vboc.com/about/main/0,3250,2485_11256_502261585,00.html

Workplace Diversity Commission, Hispanic Working Group. (2015). Report on the Hispanic workplace challenge in the United States. Retrieved from http://www.wdc/hwg/report/2015

Wunderling, A. (2014, December 10). Standards for workplace signs and symbols. Workplace Safety, 23(12), 56–57.

Youngston, Z. [@YoungstonZ] (2016, January 5). Twenty percent of households in the United States speak a language other than English. [Tweet]. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/YoungstonZ/status/597803705682263456

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final WOrds Of adviCe abOut lOng repOrts Perhaps no piece of writing you do on the job carries more weight than the long re- port. You can simplify your job and increase your chances for success by following these guidelines for scheduling, researching, and collaborating:

1. Plan and work early. Do not postpone work until a deadline draws near. 2. Confer often and carefully with others in your group. 3. Do a thorough search among Internet, print, and other resources. 4. Consult with specialists in other fields both in your company and in other or-

ganizations, including government officials. 5. Divide your workload into meaningful units. Reassure yourself that you do not

have to write the report or even an entire section of the report in one day 6. Set up mini-deadlines for each phase of your work, and then meet them.

622 chapteR 15 Writing Careful Long Reports

●■ Concentrated on a major problem—one with significant implications for my school, neighborhood, city, or employer.

●■ Identified, justified, and described the significance of the main problem. ●■ Did sufficient research—in the library, on the Internet, or through interviewing,

personal observation, or testing. ●■ Became familiar with key terms and major trends in the field. ●■ Anticipated how various managers and other decision makers will use and profit

from my report for their long-range planning. ●■ Made sure I understood what my readers are looking for. ●■ Adhered to all specified schedules for completing various stages of the long report. ●■ Divided and labeled the parts of the long report to make it easy for readers to fol-

low and to show a careful plan of organization. ●■ Supplied an informative abstract that leaves no doubt in readers’ minds about what

the report deals with and why. ●■ Designed an attractive title page that contains all the basic information—title, date,

for whom the report is written, my name. ●■ Gave my readers all the necessary introductory information about background,

problem, purpose of report, and scope. ●■ Included in the body of the report the weight of all my research—the facts, statis-

tics, interview comments, and descriptions—that my readers need. ●■ Included subheadings to reflect the major divisions into which I have organized

the research that forms the nucleus of the text. ●■ Wrapped up the report in a succinct conclusion. Told readers what the findings of

my research are and accurately interpreted all data. ●■ Supplied a recommendations section (if required) that tells readers concretely how

they can respond to the problem using the data. Offered recommendations that are realistic and practical and related directly to the research and topic.

●■ Included in the final copy of the report all the parts listed in the table of contents. ●■ Supplied a one-page transmittal letter informing readers why the report was writ-

ten and describing its scope and findings.

✓ R E v i s i o n C H E C k l i s T

1. Send an email to your instructor describing how one of the short reports in Chapter 14 could be useful to someone who has to write a long report.

2. Using the information contained in Figure 15.1, draft an introduction for the report “A Study to Determine New Directions in Women’s Athletics at Coastal College.” Add any details you think will be relevant.

E x E R C i s E s

Exercises 623

3. What kinds of research did Terri Smith Ruckel and her team need to do to write the long report in Figure 15.3? As part of your answer, include the titles of any specific reference works you think the writer may have consulted.

4. Study Figure 15.3 and answer the following questions based on it:

a. Why can the abstract be termed informative rather than descriptive? b. How have Ruckel and her team successfully limited the scope of the report? c. Where have Ruckel and her team used internal summaries especially well? d. Where and how have the writers adapted their technical information for their audi-

ence (a general reader)? e. What visual devices do the writers use to separate parts of the report? f. How do the writers introduce, summarize, and draw conclusions from the expert

opinions in order to substantiate the main points? g. How have the writers documented information? h. What functions does the conclusion serve for readers? i. How do the recommendations follow from the material presented in the report?

How are they both distinct and interrelated?

5. Come to class prepared to discuss a major community problem suitable for a long report (e.g., traffic, crime, air and water pollution, housing, transportation). Then write a letter to an appropriate agency or business requesting a study of the problem and a report.

6. Write a report outline for the problem you selected in Exercise 5. Use major headings. Include a cover letter with your outline.

7. Have your instructor approve the outline you prepared for Exercise 6. Then write a long report based on the outline, either on your own or as part of a collaborative writing team.

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Making Successful Presentations at Work

In today’s web-based world of information, presentations play a vital role. According to the U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Office of Training and Education, “retention of information three days after a meeting or other event is six times greater when [it] is presented by visual and oral means than when the information is presented by the spoken word alone.”1 Almost every job requires employees to have and to use carefully developed speaking skills. In fact, to get hired, you have to be a persuasive speaker at your job interview. And to advance up the corporate ladder, you must con- tinue to be a confident, well-prepared, and persuasive speaker.

The world of work receives and shares much of its information through informal briefings, collaborative discussions, PowerPoint or Prezi presentations, videoconfering, webinars, and formal presentations. Your employer will expect your oral communication skills in all these sit- uations to be as effective and professional as your writing skills. The goal of this chapter is to help you be a more successful speaker on the job.

Writing a Document Versus making a Presentation

Writing a document and delivering a report both require you to (1) research your topic, (2) plan your organization, and (3) choose your language and visuals carefully. There are, nevertheless, some fundamental differences be- tween these two ways of communicating in the world of work. When you make a presentation, you must focus on these additional items:

●● Your appearance—how you dress, stand, move, and gesture ●● Your delivery—whether you can be heard, your tone of voice,

whether you sound confident or nervous

chaPter outline

Writing a Document Versus Making a Presentation

Types of Presentations

Informal Briefings

Formal Presentations

C H A P T E R

1McKay, M. How do audio/visual aids help in business communication? Houston Chronicle. Retrieved from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/audio-visual-aids-business -communication-694.html

Adam Mork/Architecture (RM)/Corbis

Types of Presentations 625

●● The complexity of your subject—your talk must be informative yet con- cise and easily understood the first (and likely only) time the audience hears it

●● The amount of time you have been allotted ●● Your audience’s attention span—usually not more than fifteen or twenty

minutes ●● The layout of the room—lighting, capacity, acoustics, etc. ●● The equipment necessary for your presentation—screen, monitors, comput-

ers, whiteboards, Skype, microphones ●● Your visuals—they must be clear and easily seen, even from the back of

the room ●● Your interaction with the audience—questions, comments, and nonverbal

responses including laughs, frowns, puzzled looks

tyPes of Presentations You will make numerous presentations on the job that will vary in the amount of preparation they require, the time they last, and the audience and occasion for which they are intended. Here are some presentations you can expect to make fre- quently before different audiences in the world of work.

For Your Customers or Clients ●● sales appeals stressing how and why your company’s products or services

meet your listeners’ needs ●● scenarios about why your company is better than the competition ●● demonstrations of your products or services ●● a persuasive overview of your company’s contributions to the economy, the

community, the environment ●● tours of a company facility

For Your Boss ●● progress or status reports on how a project is going ●● an assessment of your job accomplishments ●● a justification of a budget, your own position, or your department or

division ●● a summary of a conference or meeting you attended

For Your Co-Workers ●● an end-of-shift report, such as those made by police officers and nurses ●● an explanation of a new or revised company policy ●● a training session on job safety, operating equipment, new software ●● a briefing on new job assignments and tasks

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For Community Leaders or Groups ●● appeals before elected officials ●● an explanation of your group’s decision or activity ●● an update on completing a public works project

informal Briefings If you have ever given a book report or explained laboratory results in front of a class, you have given an informal briefing. Such reports are a routine part of many jobs. They usually last between ten and fifteen minutes and are given to a small group of co-workers and possibly your boss. Other topics for such briefings often focus on training, motivating a workforce, reviewing sales activities, and so on.

Whatever the topic, informal briefings bring people up-to-date by supplying them with key information. Figure 16.1 contains an outline for an informal briefing to the staff at a bank.

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Figure 16.1 An Outline of Speaking Points for an Informal Briefing

Crime Alert Briefing: People’s National Bank, Millersville, May 8, 2015

Topic of briefing: Crime alert about the increasing number of counterfeit $20 and $50 bills in the Millersville area.

I. Introduction A. Area banks have been asked to be on the lookout for an increased number of counterfeit $20 and $50 bills in circulation B. Our customers trust in us to protect their �nancial security C. We have a responsibility as tellers/bank of�cers to identify counterfeit bills and to keep them out of circulation

II. Identifying Counterfeit Bills A. Be especially vigilant of $20’s and $50’s left in our night depository B. Make sure you compare any suspected fraudulent bills with real currency C. Here are some telltale signs to look for:

1. No watermark is visible when the bill is held up to the light 2. The paper stains black when a counterfeit detector pen is used

SHOW SLIDE 1 (enlarged photo of counterfeit $20 bill)

3. There are blurred lines and fuzzy scrolls along the border (edges) of each counterfeit bill

III. Conclusion A. Thank you for your help B. If you have any questions, call a bank officer C. Review bank policy on reporting counterfeit currency (distributed to staff via email)

Uses short outline of main points to stress at briefing

Clearly focused topic

Supplies bank policy to staff via e-distribution.

Gives precise directions

Includes a relevant slide to help tellers identify counterfeit currency

Motivates audience

Formal Presentations 627

When you have to make an informal briefing, follow these guidelines:

1. Prepare. Though your talk is short, never speak off-the-cuff. Do some re- search, e.g., speak with your boss and team members, review procedures, etc.

2. Decide on your main points. Write down a few key items you want to cover, and keep this list or outline before you as you speak. Highlight key names, terms, dates, or places.

3. Avoid information overload. Do not crowd too many points into one briefing. 4. Be highly focused. Include only relevant examples that your audience can eas-

ily apply to solve a particular problem or clarify a work-related issue. 5. Be concise. Your audience may be on a strict timetable and have obligations to

fulfill later in the day. 6. Stay positive. Even when you have unpleasant news to impart (e.g., a project

delay), resist blaming or lecturing your audience. Instead, concentrate on the positive steps needed to resolve the problem.

7. Don’t overwhelm your listeners with visuals. Target only two or three main points to illustrate.

8. End on time. Be sure to allow time at the end of your briefing for questions, comments, and suggestions. Thank listeners for their time and cooperation.

Note how the speaker’s outline and slide in Figure 16.1 identifies key points, illustrates them with examples, inserts appropriate visuals (slides) in the most effec- tive places, and makes sure the briefing is audience-focused and runs on schedule.

formal Presentations While an informal briefing is likely to be short, generally conversational, and in- tended for a limited number of people, a formal presentation is much longer, far less conversational, and perhaps intended for a wider audience.

A formal presentation involves much more preparation. You cannot just dash it off. Just as you did with an informal briefing you will have to do the following; only more extensively and over a longer period of time:

●● research the subject ●● interview key resource individuals ●● prepare, time, and sequence visuals ●● coordinate your talk with presentations by your co-workers or boss ●● rehearse your presentation

Many of us are uncomfortable in front of an audience because we feel frightened or embarrassed. Much of that anxiety can be eased if you know what to expect. The two areas you should investigate thoroughly before you begin to work on your presentation are (1) who will be in your audience and (2) why they are there.

analyzing Your audience The more you learn about your audience, the better prepared you will be to give your listeners what they need. Just as you do for your written work, for your oral presentation you will have to do some research about the audience, emphasizing

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the “you attitude” and establishing your own credibility. Put yourself in your audi- ence’s place. They will ask: what is your main point, why is it relevant, what ben- efits are in your talk for them and their company?

Guidelines for Analyzing Your Audience Here are seven key questions to ask when analyzing your audience.

1. How much do they know about your topic? Are they ●● consumers with little or no technical knowledge ●● technical individuals who understand terms, jargon, and background ●● business managers looking only for the bottom line

2. What unites them as a group? Are they

●● members of the same profession ●● customers using the same products ●● employees of the company you work for

3. What do they want to receive from your presentation? Do they want ●● a quick overview ●● bottom-line financial details ●● technical details on materials, methods, and conclusions (results)

4. What is their interest or stake in your topic? Are they ●● friendly and interested ●● neutral—waiting to be informed, entertained, or persuaded ●● uncooperative, antagonistic, or likely to challenge you

5. What do you want them to do after hearing your presentation? ●● buy a product or service ●● adopt a plan ●● change a schedule ●● learn more about your topic ●● sign a petition ●● follow a new policy (e.g., safety procedures)

6. What questions are they likely to raise? Will they be ●● about money, profits, expenses, salary ●● about personnel, hiring, training ●● about transfers, mergers, promotions ●● about new job responsibilities, accountability ●● about locations, new, remodeled, domestic, overseas ●● about schedules/timetables, effect on quotes, salary

7. What considerations should you give to a multinational audience? ●● use common, easily understood vocabulary ●● use simple sentences ●● don’t use unfamiliar abbreviations, acronyms, contractions, or metaphors ●● use appropriate, culturally sensitive visuals and images

Formal Presentations 629

the parts of Formal presentations As you read this section, refer to Marilyn Claire Ford’s PowerPoint presentation in Figure 16.2 (pages 630–633). Note how effectively she used the PowerPoint format to convince a potential client, GTP Systems, to purchase a service contract provided by World Tech, her employer. Her presentation consists of seven slides that contain relevant images and concise text.

The Introduction The most important part of a presentation is the introduction. You can capture your audience’s attention by answering these questions: (1) Who are you? (2) What are your qualifications? (3) What specific topic are you speaking about? and (4) How is the topic relevant to the audience?

Your first and most immediate goal is to establish rapport with your listeners, win their confidence, and elicit their cooperation. Because your listeners are prob- ably at their most attentive during the first few minutes of your presentation, they will pay close attention to everything about you and what you say. Seize the mo- ment and build momentum.

An effective introduction should be proportional to the length of the presen- tation. A ten-minute speech requires no more than a sixty-second introduction; a twenty-minute speech needs no more than a two- or three-minute introduction. Notice how in slides 1 and 2 of Figure 16.2, Ford introduces herself, her company, and its benefits for GTP.

How to Begin You can begin by introducing yourself, emphasizing your profes- sional qualifications and interests. (A self-introduction is unnecessary if someone else has introduced you or if you know everyone in the room.) Never apologize— for being nervous, unprepared, unqualified—or complain about the time or loca- tion for the presentation. Always ask if your audience can hear you.

Give Listeners a Road Map Indicate what your topic is and how you have orga- nized what you have to say about it, for instance,

My presentation today on greening the workplace will last about 20 minutes. I have divided it into three linked parts. First, I will outline our current greening initiatives. Second, I will give a detailed proposal for how we can green all the departments in our company. Third, I will show how our company can profitably implement those changes. At the end of my presentation, there will be time for your questions and comments.

The most informative presentations are the easiest to follow. Restrict your topic to ensure that you will be able to organize it carefully and sensibly—for example, a tasty diet under 1,000 calories a day or a course in learning Adobe InDesign or another software package.

Capture the Audience’s Attention Use any of the following strategies to get your audience to “bite the hook”:

●● Ask a question. “Did you know that every 15 minutes a foreign-owned busi- ness opens in China?” or “Do you know what’s in your bottled water be- sides water?”

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Figure 16.2 A Sample PowerPoint Presentation

Switching to Videoconferencing

A Wise Choice for

Marilyn Claire Ford Sales Consultant

World Tech

November 15, 2015

What We Offer

User-friendly videoconferencing Cutting-edge communication technology Flexible, low-cost networking Single network for data, voice, and video

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Introduces speaker, provides reason for presentation and date

Type size and font make slide easy to read

Uses short title for each slide

Succinctly lists benefits in short, easy-to- read bulleted points

Clear, persuasive title

Background color contrasts well with text

Includes relevant visual emphasizing networking

Slide 1

Slide 2

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(Continued)

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Figure 16.2 (Continued)

Cost Effective

Dramatically reduces costs for travel Upgrades current computer system for less than the cost of buying a new computer Cuts data-processing expenses by 60%

Easy to Use

With a simple phone call, you can

Arrange a meeting with colleagues at multiple sites Use your computer to access World Tech’s conferencing system See, hear, and talk with all participants

Slide 3

Slide 4

First of four slides that make up the body of the presentation

Relevant visual does not mask text

Develops first key sales feature

Second point gives only essential facts

Chooses verbs that emphasize cost savings

Does not overwhelm listeners with numbers

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632 Chapter 16 Making Successful Presentations at Work

Figure 16.2 (Continued)

Advantages in the Global Marketplace

Connects all locations to one virtual office Increases sales worldwide Strengthens global networking

Improves Staff Efficiency

Brings people together at the right time Enhances communication when employees see and hear each other SMART Board technology aids collaboration

Slide 5

Slide 6

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Third sales feature appropriately describes specific technology

Leaves generous margins

Explains how product can increase efficiency

Visual shows benefits of staff interacting

Stresses worldwide benefits

Visual reinforces global marketplace

Bulleted points all focus on single topic

Formal Presentations 633

●● Start with a quotation. “Winston Churchill said, ‘We get things to make a living but we give things to have a life.’” (Consult Bartlett’s Familiar Quota- tions online at www.bartleby.com/100)

●● Use a relevant and memorable statistic. “In 2014, two million heart attack victims will live to tell about it.” (Go to the Information Please Almanac at www.infoplease.com to find something relevant to your presentation topic.)

Be careful about using humor in a business talk. It could backfire; the audience may not get the point or could even be offended by it.

The Body The body is the longest part of your presentation, just as it is in a long report. It should constitute about 60 to 70 percent of your presentation. Make it persuasive and relevant to your audience by (1) explaining a process, (2) describing a condi- tion, (3) solving a problem, (4) arguing a case, or (5) doing all of these. See how the body of Marilyn Claire Ford’s presentation in Figure 16.2 is organized around the benefits of GTP’s switching to desktop videoconferencing. In slides 3 through 6 she outlines how easy, economical, and efficient such technology is to use in the global marketplace.

To get the right perspective, recall your own experiences as a member of an audience. How often did you feel bored or angry because a speaker tried to over- load you with details or could not stick to the point?

Slide 7

Figure 16.2 (Continued)

Conclusion

Recap technology benefits Please sign up today—it is easy Just log on to www.worldtech.com Thank you for considering World Tech Any questions?

[email protected] 1-800-271-5555

Title signals end of presentation

Summarizes key advantages

Issues a call to action

Makes contact easy through website, email, and telephone

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634 Chapter 16 Making Successful Presentations at Work

Ways to Organize the Body Here are a few helpful ways you can present and or- ganize information in the body of your presentation. When you write a report, you design your document to help readers visually, supplying headings, bullets, white space, and headers and footers (see “The ABCs of Print Document Design,” pages 449–459). In a presentation, you need to switch from those purely visual de- vices to aural ones, such as the following:

1. Give signals to show where you are going or where you have been. Enu- merate your points: first, second, third. Emphasize cause-and-effect relation- ships with subsequently, therefore, furthermore. When you tell a story, follow a chronological sequence and use signposts: before, following, next, then. (See Appendix: A Writer’s Brief Guide, Table A.1, page A-3.)

2. Comment on your own material. Tell the audience if some point is especially significant, memorable, or relevant. “This next fact is the most important one I’ll give you today.”

3. Provide internal summaries. Spending a few seconds to recap what you have just covered will reassure your audience that you want them to be clear about what you have covered thus far.

We have already discussed the difficulties in creating a secure app that our sales force can use. Now we will need to turn to the options we recommend, from the most basic to those more complex.

The Conclusion Plan your conclusion as carefully as you do your introduction. Stopping with a screeching halt is as bad as trailing off in a fading monotone. Never introduce a new subject or simply repeat your introduction. An effective conclusion should leave the audience feeling that you and they have come full circle and accomplished what you promised.

What to Put in a Conclusion Never introduce a new subject or simply repeat your introduction. A conclusion can contain the following:

●● a fresh restatement of your three or four main points ●● a call to action, just as in a sales letter—to buy, to note, to agree, to volunteer ●● a final emphasis on a key statistic (for example, “The installation of the stain-

less steel heating tanks has, as we have seen, saved our firm 32 percent in energy costs.

End your presentation, as Marilyn Claire Ford does in slide 7, with a concise summary of the main points, and urge listeners to buy your product or service.

Mean It When You Say, “Finally” When you tell your audience you are concluding, make sure you mean it. Saying, “In conclusion,” and then talking for another ten- minutes frustrates listeners and makes them less receptive to your message. When you finish, thank your audience for their time and, if the schedule allows, invite questions.

Formal Presentations 635

Always Leave Time for Questions Make sure you budget your time to give the au- dience an opportunity to ask questions, offer suggestions, or make comments.

presentation Software As Marilyn Claire Ford’s presentation in Figure 16.2 demonstrates, business presen- tations very frequently rely on PowerPoint or other software such as Corel Presen- tations, Apple’s Keynote, or the web-based Prezi (prezi.com). Knowing how to use these graphics packages is a crucial skill your employer will expect you to have. This software enables you to support and present your talk with concise text and care- fully chosen visuals. They allow you to plan, write, and add visuals to your slides.

Presentation Software Capabilities With PowerPoint, Prezi, Corel Presentation, and Keynote, you can

●● format and edit text ●● import visuals, photos, digital art, graphs, charts, pictograms, infographs ●● incorporate a variety of shapes and symbols—arrows, asterisks, bullets,

cylinders, pyramids, and flowcharts ●● offer animation, sound bites, video clips ●● insert icons, logos, and letterheads ●● reuse and revise your presentation anytime

With the web-based presentation software such as Prezi, you can do all of the things listed above, as well as

●● show a cohesive, complete presentation all at once, “zooming” into each key area as you make your presentation

●● format your presentation into a “mental map” that you explore “slide-by- slide” in an animated, dynamic way

●● help you work more easily with a group, using Prezi’s web-based platform

While web-based presentation software like Prezi has gained in popularity recently, the overwhelming preference in the world of work is to use PowerPoint.

Presentation software can also help you as a speaker. For instance, in Power- Point you can keyboard your notes so that they scroll at the bottom of your com- puter screen. These notes are not seen by the audience, but they are available if you need them. You also can print parts of your presentation or your entire program in color or gray scale (black and white) to reinforce your presentation with profes- sional-looking handouts.

Editing with presentation software allows you to customize any text or visual. You can copy, move, alter, and delete text, graphics, or sound bites. You can also change the color or texture of a background, saving you time and effort in re-creating a visual.

Organize the Presentation Map out your presentation before you actually create your slides. Prepare an out- line (see “Outlining,” pages 48–49) to help you discover and develop the ideas you

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want to discuss. Following this outline, you can organize your presentation care- fully, which is as important as the details you show your audience.

1. Identify the main points you want to cover, as Ford did in presenting informa- tion to save GTP time and money, increase staff efficiency, and help the com- pany compete in a global economy. Then you can organize your topics logically and persuasively.

2. Divide your presentation into major sections that best accomplish your objective, whether to inform, to persuade, or to document.

3. Include only those supporting details that relate directly to your topic and to your audience’s needs. These key points should help you determine the number of slides and visuals to use.

4. Don’t overload your audience with so much data on individual slides that you lose, bore, or turn them off. Note that Ford used only seven slides in Figure 16.2.

5. Choose your visuals carefully. Resist the temptation to dazzle your audience with electronic special effects. Your goal is not to create a glitzy show but to represent your company professionally.

Test the Technology Find and eliminate any bugs at the rehearsal stage. Call in advance to confirm the room and any equipment you may need. Save and preview your presentation in the format in which you will be giving it. Bring your own computer to the meeting, and set up the projector and your notebook in advance. Make sure your software is compatible with the equipment you will use. Be sure any web links you plan to use are relevant and functioning, not broken links. It is also wise to have an alternative plan if the technology you use fails unexpectedly. Both iOS and Android phones allow users to store presentations on them in a variety of ways. More modern pro- jectors and SMART boards allow for easy connection of technology via USB ports, allowing you to access your presentation via your smartphone if you run into any problems with your computer.

Prepare Handouts It’s always wise to have handouts with you in case you run into technical difficul- ties. Handouts of your slides (make sure you keep a copy for yourself) will allow you to continue with your presentation, and they will also help your audience fol- low your presentation and take notes about it while you speak. Make sure your handouts match your presentation exactly by providing your audience with a print- out of each slide.

Do not distribute any handouts ahead of time. Wait until you are ready to use them. Otherwise, they may divert your audience’s attention from your presentation.

Guidelines on Using Presentation Software Effectively Here are some tips to ensure the best design and organization of your presenta- tion, whether you use PowerPoint, Prezi, Keynote, or any other program. Refer to Figure 16.2 as you study these guidelines.

Formal Presentations 637

Readability

●● Make sure each slide is easy to read—clear, concise, and uncluttered. ●● Use a type size that is easy to see, even from a distance. For a small presenta-

tion on your notebook, use 24- to 28-point type or larger. Increase your type size for headings and titles to 32 point, as in Figure 16.2.

●● Keep your design consistent. Don’t switch from one font to another. ●● Avoid ornate and script fonts, and do not put everything in boldface, ital-

ics, or all capital letters. Marilyn Claire Ford used boldface (and white type against a blue background) for only the headings in Figure 16.2.

Text

●● Keep your text short and simple. Use easy-to-recall names, words, and phrases. Your audience will not have the time to read long, complex messages.

●● Use bulleted lists instead of unbroken paragraphs. But put no more than five bulleted lines on a slide, and limit each line to seven or eight words. Don’t squeeze words on a line. Include no more than forty words per slide.

●● Double-space between bulleted items, and leave generous margins on all sides. ●● Title each slide using a question, a statement, or a key name or phrase, as in

Figure 16.2.

Sequencing Slides

●● Keep your slides in the order in which you need to show them. ●● Retain the same transition (cover left or straight right) from slide to slide to

avoid visual confusion. ●● In general, spend about one to two minutes per slide, but don’t read each

slide verbatim. Summarize main ideas or concisely expand them while look- ing at your audience, not the slide.

●● Time your slides so your audience can read them. Never continue to show a slide after you have moved on to a new topic.

●● If you invite audience participation and interaction, build in extra time be- tween your slides. Leave time for questions and encourage returning to ear- lier slides if members of the audience have specific questions.

Background/Color

●● Find a pleasant contrasting background to make your text easy to read. Avoid extremely light or dark backgrounds that may obscure your text. Stay away from stark backgrounds, e.g., cold white images on a black screen.

●● Use the same background for each slide, as in Figure 16.2. ●● Avoid shadowing your text for “decorative” visual effect. ●● Use color sparingly, and make sure it is professionally appropriate. Don’t

turn each slide into a sizzling neon sign. Avoid hot red, pink, etc.

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Graphics

●● Keep graphics clear, simple, and positioned appropriately on the slide. ●● Make certain all graphics are at a high-enough resolution that they will not

seem “blurry” or “pixilated” when projected on a larger screen. ●● Be sure visuals do not cover or shadow text. ●● Show only those visuals that support your main points. Not every slide

requires a visual. For example, slide 7 in Figure 16.2 does not use a visual. ●● Include no more than one graphic per slide; otherwise, the slide will appear

cluttered and your text will be more difficult to read. ●● Include easy-to-follow graphs and charts instead of complicated tables, elab-

orate flow charts, or busy diagrams. ●● Stay away from clip art; it can make your product or services look unprofessional. ●● Incorporate animation, sound effects, or video clips only when they are per-

suasive, relevant, and professional. Otherwise they can distract your audience. ●● Don’t bother with borders; they do not make a slide clearer.

Quality Check

●● Be sure your spelling, grammar, names, dates, costs, and sources are correct. ●● Double-check all math, equations, and percentages.

Delivering the Presentation

●● Don’t just read the slides; your audience can do that. ●● Regard the slides as keywords in your outline of the presentation or speech.

As you present it, you will describe, explain, and elaborate with information not on the slides.

Noncomputerized presentations On the job you can expect to use a variety of visuals besides those included in PowerPoint presentations. There will be situations in which you may have to use a conventional chalkboard, a flip chart, or an overhead projector to make a presenta- tion instead of your notebook. You will almost surely be asked to prepare handouts that include text, visuals, or a combination to distribute before or during your talk.

Regardless of the medium you use, make sure your visuals are

●● easy to see ● relevant ●● easy to understand ● accurate ●● appropriately sized ● professional looking

Getting the Most from Your Noncomputerized Visuals The following practical suggestions will help you get the most from your visuals when time and space may prohibit using computer setups.

1. Do not set up your visuals before your talk. The audience will wonder how you are going to use the graphics and so may not give you their full attention. When you are finished with a visual, put it away.

Formal Presentations 639

2. Firmly anchor any maps or illustrations. Having a map roll up or a picture fall off an easel during a presentation is embarrassing.

3. Never obstruct the audience’s view by standing in front of your visuals. Use a pointer or a laser pointer to direct the audience’s attention to your visual.

4. Avoid crowding too many images onto one visual. Use no more than one visual per page.

5. Do not put much writing on a visual. Elaborate labels or wordy descrip- tions are hard to read. Enlarge any writing on a visual so your audience can read it quickly and easily.

rehearsing Your presentation All presentations require rehearsal. Don’t skip rehearsing your presentation think- ing it will save you time. Rehearsing will actually help you become more familiar with your topic and overall message, building your confidence. Rehearsing will also help you acquire more natural speech rhythms—pitch, pauses, and pacing. Here are some strategies to use as you rehearse your talk.

●● Know your topic and the various parts of your presentation. ●● If possible, practice in the room where you will make your presentation. ●● Speak in front of a full-length mirror or before a friend or colleague for at

least one rehearsal to see how an audience might view you. ●● Talk into an audio recorder to determine whether you sound friendly or

frantic, poised or pressured. You can also catch and correct yourself if you are speaking too quickly or too slowly. A normal conversation rate is about 120 to 140 words a minute, but for presentations it’s best to speak slightly slower (100 to 120 words a minute) so it is easy for audiences to follow you.

●● Time yourself so that you will not exceed your allotted time or fall far short of your audience’s expectations.

●● Practice with the presentation software, visuals, equipment, or projector that you intend to use in your speech for valuable hands-on experience.

●● Monitor the types of gestures (neither too many nor too few) you use for clarity and emphasis in your talk.

●● Check the room where you will make your presentation, if possible, to find out about acoustics, lighting, seating, and available equipment.

●● Video-capture your final rehearsal and show it to a colleague or instructor for feedback.

Delivering Your presentation A poor delivery can ruin a good presentation. First impressions are crucial. Re- search shows that people decide what they think of you in the first two or three minutes of your presentation. You will be evaluated not only on what you say but on the image you project: how you look, how you talk, and how you move (your body language). Do you mumble into your notes, never looking at the audience? Do you clutch the lectern as if to keep it in place? Do you shift nervously from

640 Chapter 16 Making Successful Presentations at Work

one foot to the other? Do you shuffle through your notes? All those actions betray your nervousness and detract from your presentation.

The following suggestions on how to deliver a presentation will help you be a well-prepared, poised speaker.

Settling Your Nerves Before You Speak Being nervous before your presentation is normal—a faster heartbeat, cold, sweaty palms, shaking. But don’t let your nerves stop you from delivering a highly success- ful talk.

Here are some ways you can calm yourself before you deliver your presentation:

●● Give yourself plenty of time to get there. The more you have to rush, the more anxious you will be.

●● Avoid caffeine for a few hours before your talk if it makes you jittery. ●● Take some deep breaths, and then hold your breath while you count to ten.

Exhale. This will slow your heart rate and lower your blood pressure. ●● Remind yourself that you have spent hours preparing. Think positive. Your

hard work will pull you through. ●● Try to chat with one or two members of the audience ahead of time to relax.

See your audience as friends—people who can help your career.

Guidelines for Making Your Presentation Everyone is nervous before a talk. Accept that fact and even allow a few seconds of “panic time.” Then put your nervous energy to work for you. Chances are, your audience will have no idea how anxious you are; they cannot see the butterflies in your stomach. Again, see your audience as friends, not enemies. Remember to do the following:

1. Establish eye contact with your listeners. Look at as many people in your audience as possible to establish a relationship with them. Never bury your head in your notes or keep your eyes fixed on a screen or keyboard. You will only signal your lack of interest in the audience or your fear of public speaking. Even during an informal presentation, try to establish rapport with each person in the room.

2. Repond to audience feedback. Watch your listeners’ reactions and respond ap- propriately to them—nodding to agree, pausing a moment, paraphrasing to clarify a confusing point. Know your material well so that if someone asks you a question or wants you to return to a point, you are not fumbling through your notes or trying feverishly to locate the right screen.

3. Speak in a friendly, confident tone. Let the audience know that you are happy they are there. Speak in a natural, pleasant voice, but avoid verbal tics (“you know,” “I mean”) and fillers (“um,” “ah,” “er”) repeated several times each minute. Such nervous habits will make your audience nervous and your speech less effective. Use pauses instead.

4. Vary the rate of your delivery. Vary your rate and inflection to help you em- phasize key points and make transitions. Talk slowly enough for your audience to

Formal Presentations 641

understand you, yet quickly enough so that you don’t sound as if you are belabor- ing or emphasizing each word.

5. Adjust your volume appropriately. Talking in a monotone, never raising or lowering your voice, will lull your audience to sleep or at least inattention. Talk loudly enough for everyone to hear, but be careful if you are using a microphone. Your voice will be amplified, so if you speak too loudly, you will boom rather than project. Every word with a b, p, or d will sound like an explosive in your listeners’ ears. Watch out for the other extreme—speaking so softly that only the first two rows can hear you.

6. Watch your posture. Don’t shift from one foot to another. But do not slouch or look wooden either. If you stand motionless, looking as if rigor mortis has set in, your speech will be judged cold and lifeless, no matter how lively your words are.

7. Use appropriate body language. Be natural and consistent. Do not startle an audience by suddenly pounding on a desk for emphasis. Avoid gestures that will distract or alienate your audience. For example, don’t fold your arms as you talk, a gesture that signals you are unreceptive (closed) to your audience’s reactions. Also, avoid nervous habits that can divert the audience’s attention: scratching your head, twirling your hair, pushing up your glasses, fumbling with your notes, or tapping your foot. Nor do you have to remain still or step with robotlike movements. The remote control for a PowerPoint or Prezi presentation allows you to casually walk around the room as you click and change screens.

8. Dress professionally. Do not wear clothes or clanking jewelry that call atten- tion to themselves. Follow your company’s dress code. Unless it specifies otherwise (e.g., “casual Fidays”), wear clothes that are the business norm for your profession.

Handling Interruptions Be diplomatic if someone interrupts your presentation with a question. Thank the individual by saying, “That’s a good question. I’ll be happy to answer it at the end of the presentation when there’ll be time for questions.” If someone is disruptive during your talk or a question-and-answer session and wants to debate with you, offer to meet with him or her after the session to discuss the point in question. Moreover, if you cannot answer a particular question, say you’ll be glad to get back to the person, and go on to other questions.

When You Have Finished Don’t just sit down, walk back to your place on the platform or in the audience, or, worse yet, march out of the room. Thank your listeners for their attention and stay at the lectern or at your laptop for audience applause or questions.

If a question-and-answer session is to follow your speech, anticipate questions your audience is likely to ask. But it’s a good idea to give your audience a time limit. For example, you might say, “I’ll be happy to answer your questions now before we break in ten minutes for lunch.” By setting limits, you reduce the chances of a

642 Chapter 16 Making Successful Presentations at Work

lengthy debate with members of the audience, and you can then politely leave after your time elapses.

evaluating presentations This chapter has given you information on how to construct and deliver both an informal and formal business presentation. As a way of reviewing that advice, study Figure 16.3 below—an evaluation form similar to those used by instructors in colleges and universities. Note that the form gives equal emphasis to the speak- er’s performance or delivery and to the organization, content, and sequence of the presentation.

Figure 16.3 An Evaluation Form for a Presentation

Name of Speaker: Date:

Title of Presentation: Length:

PART I: THE SPEAKER’S DELIVERY Circle the appropriate number using a 1 (lowest) to 5 (highest) scale.

1. Appearance 1 2 3 4 5 well-groomed unprofessional

2. Eye contact 1 2 3 4 5 effective poor

5 4 3 2 1 3. Tone of voice varied monotonous

4. Diction 1 2 3 4 5 clear slurred

5. Posture 1 2 3 4 5 natural poor

6. Gestures 1 2 3 4 5 appropriate distracting

7. Self-confidence 1 2 3 4 5

Interaction with

poised nervous

8. 1 2 3 4 5 engaging minimal

PART II: THE PRESENTATION ITSELF Circle the appropriate number: 1 = poor; 5 = superior.

4 3 2 11. Made sure topic was 5 relevant to audience

audience

01 5

Ce ng

ag e

Le ar

ni ng

Formal Presentations 643

2. Began with clear statement of purpose

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 53. Followed logical organization

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 55. Matched content to technical knowledge of audience

1 2 3 4 5

7. Did not digress 1 2 3 4 5

8. Concluded with a summary of main points

1 2 3 4 5

PART III: USE OF VISUALS (SLIDES OR OTHER GRAPHICS) Again, circle the appropriate number: = 1 poor; 5 = superior.

1. Used right number of visuals

1 2 3 4 5

2. Ensured all visuals were relevant

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 54. Made sure audience could see visuals clearly

1 2 3 4 5

4. Gave audience cues to look for transitions between sections

6. Provided convincing supporting evidence

9. Stayed within time limits

10. Allowed time for questions

3. Carefully timed the sequence of visuals

5. Selected visuals that clarified or simplified a point

6. Referred to visuals and indicated why they were important

7. Credited the source of visuals

Figure 16.3 (Continued)

01 5

Ce ng

ag e

Le ar

ni ng

644 Chapter 16 Making Successful Presentations at Work

●■ Anticipated my audience’s background, interest, and even potential resistance, as well as questions about the message of both informal and formal presentations.

●■ Organized an informal briefing to make it easy to understand and to incorporate it into the work routine.

●■ Prepared an outline and identified and corrected any weak or redundant areas. ●■ Drafted an introduction to provide a “road map” of the presentation and to arouse

audience interest. ●■ Started with interesting and relevant statistics, a question, an anecdote, or a similar

“hook” to capture audience attention. ●■ Limited the body of my presentation to the main points. ●■ Sequenced the main points logically and made connections among them. ●■ Used supporting examples and illustrations appropriate to my audience and

message. ●■ Made sure my conclusion contains a summary of the main points of my presenta-

tion and a specific call to action. ●■ Designed visuals that are clear, easy to read, and relevant for my audience. ●■ Experimented successfully with presentation software before using it for my

presentation. ●■ Used an appropriate number of slides and made sure they were readable. ●■ Showed slides in the correct, carefully timed sequence. ●■ Prepared handouts in case of equipment trouble. ●■ Rehearsed my presentation thoroughly to become familiar with its content, orga-

nization, and visuals. ●■ Monitored my volume, tone, and rate to vary my delivery and to emphasize my

major points. ●■ Rehearsed my gestures to make them relevant and nonintrusive. ●■ Timed my presentation, complete with visuals, to run close to the allotted time.

✓ R E v i S i o n C H E C k l i S T

E x E R C i S E S

1. Prepare a three- to five-minute presentation explaining how a piece of equipment that you use on your job works. If the equipment is small enough, bring it with you to class. If it is too large, prepare an appropriate visual or two for use in your talk. Submit an outline similar to that in Figure 16.1.

2. You have just been asked to talk about the students at your school or the employees where you work. Narrow the topic and submit an outline to your instructor, showing how you have limited the topic and gathered and organized evidence. Incorporate two or three appropriate visuals (photographs, maps, charts, icons, or even videos) in your PowerPoint presentation. Follow the format of the presentation in Figure 16.2.

Exercises 645

3. Prepare a ten-minute presentation on a controversial topic that you would present before a civic group — the PTA, the local chapter of an organization, a post of the Veterans of Foreign Wars, a synagogue, a mosque, or a church club.

4. Using the information contained in the internal unsolicited proposal in Chapter 13 (Figure 13.5, pages 530–534) or in the long report on multinational workers in Chapter 15 (Figure 15.3, pages 607–621), prepare a short presentation (five to seven minutes) for your class.

5. Deliver a formal presentation on one of the following topics. Restrict your topic, and divide it into four key issues, as in Figure 16.2. Use at least three visuals with your talk. Submit an outline to your instructor.

a. new equipment at work b. Using the Internet to provide interactive health care in rural areas c. a major change in housing or traffic control in your city d. a paper or report you wrote in school or on your job e. “greening” your school’s or company’s vistor’s center f. the budget or spending cuts planned for your department or your town’s school

district for a given year g. applying for and receiving financial aid

6. Using the evaluation form in Figure 16.3, evaluate a speaker — a speech class student, a local politician, or a co-worker delivering a report at work. Specify the time, place, and occasion of the speech. Pay special attention to any visuals the speaker uses.

A–1

Appendix

A Writer’s Brief Guide to Paragraphs, Sentences, and Words

To write successfully, you must know how to create effective paragraphs, write and punctuate clear sentences, and use words correctly. This guide succinctly explains some of the basic elements of clear and accurate writing.

ParagraPhs

Writing a Well-Developed Paragraph A paragraph is the basic building block for any piece of writing. It is (1) a group of related sentences (2) arranged in a logical order (3) supplying readers with detailed, appropriate information (4) on a single important topic.

A paragraph expresses one central idea, with each sentence contributing to the overall meaning of that idea. The paragraph does that by means of a topic sentence, which states the central idea, and supporting information, which explains the topic sentence.

Supply a Topic Sentence The topic sentence is the most important sentence in your paragraph. Carefully worded and restricted, it helps you generate and control your information. An effective topic sentence also helps readers grasp your main idea quickly. As you draft your paragraphs, pay close attention to the following three guidelines.

1. Make sure you provide a topic sentence. In their rush to supply readers with facts, some writers forget or neglect to include a topic sentence. The following para- graph, with no topic sentence, shows how fragmented such writing can be.

No topic sentence: Sensors found on each machine detect wind speed and direction and other important details such as ice loading and potential metal fatigue. The information is fed into a microprocessor in the nacelle (or engine housing). The microprocessor then auto- matically keeps the blades turned into the wind, starts and stops

Outline

Paragraphs

Sentences

Words

Proofreading Marks

A-2 APPenDix A Writer’s Brief Guide to Paragraphs, Sentences, and Words

the machine, and changes the pitch of the tips of the blades to increase power under varying wind conditions. Should any part of the wind turbine suffer damage or malfunction, the micropro- cessor will immediately shut the machine down.

Only when a suitable topic sentence is added—“The MOD-2 wind turbine features the latest technology”—can readers understand what the technical details have in common.

2. Put your topic sentence first. Place your topic sentence at the beginning of your paragraph because the first sentence occupies a commanding position. Burying the key idea in the middle or near the end of the paragraph makes it harder for readers to comprehend your purpose or act on your information.

3. Be sure your topic sentence is focused and discusses only one central idea. A broad or unrestricted topic sentence leads to a shaky, incomplete paragraph for two reasons:

●● The paragraph will not contain enough information to support the topic sentence.

●● A broad topic sentence will not summarize or forecast specific information in the paragraph.

The following example of a carefully constructed paragraph contains a clear topic sentence in an appropriate position (italicized) and adequate supporting details.

Fat is an important part of everyone’s diet. It is nutritionally present in the basic food groups we eat—meat and poultry, dairy products, and oils—to aid growth or develop- ment. The fats and fatty acids present in those foods ensure proper metabolism, thus helping to turn what we eat into the energy we need. Those same fats and fatty acids also act as carriers for important vitamins like A, D, E, and K. Another important role of fat is that it keeps us from feeling hungry by delaying digestion. Fat also enhances the flavor of the food we eat, making it more enjoyable.

Three Characteristics of an effective Paragraph Effective paragraphs have unity, coherence, and completeness.

Unity A unified paragraph sticks to one topic without wandering. Every sentence and ev- ery detail supports, explains, or proves the central idea. A unified paragraph in- cludes only relevant information and excludes unnecessary or irrelevant comments.

Coherence In a coherent paragraph, all sentences flow smoothly and logically to and from each other like the links of a chain. Use these three techniques to achieve coherence.

1. Use transitional words and phrases. Some useful transitional, or connective, words and phrases, grouped according to the relationships they express, are listed in Table A.1.

Paragraphs A-3

Table a.1 Transitional, or Connective, Words and Phrases

Addition additionally again along with also and as well as

besides first, second, third furthermore in addition many numerous

moreover next together with too what’s more

Cause/effect accordingly and so as a result because of

consequently due to hence if

on account of since therefore thus

Comparison/ contrast

but conversely equally however

in contrast in the same way likewise on the contrary

on the other hand similarly still yet

Conclusion all in all altogether as we saw at last finally

in brief in conclusion in short in summary last

on the whole to conclude to put into perspective to summarize to wrap up

Condition although depending even though

granted that if of course

provided that to be sure unless

Emphasis above all after all again as a matter of fact as I said

for emphasis indeed in fact in other words obviously

of course surely to repeat to stress unquestionably

Illustration for example for instance in effect

in other words in particular specifically

that is to demonstrate to illustrate

Place across from adjacent to alongside of at this point behind

below beyond here in front of next to

over there under where wherever

Time afterward at length at the same time at times beforehand currently during earlier

formerly hereafter later meanwhile next now once presently

previously soon simultaneously subsequently then until when while

en ga

ge L

ea rn

in g

Paragraph with Advertising a product on the radio has many advantages over connective words: using television. For one thing, radio rates are much cheaper. For

example, a one-time 60-second spot on local television can cost $5,000. For that money, advertisers can purchase nine 30- second spots on the

A-4 APPenDix A Writer’s Brief Guide to Paragraphs, Sentences, and Words

radio. Equally attractive are the low production costs for radio adver- tising. In contrast, television advertising often includes extra costs for actors and voice-overs. Another advantage radio offers advertisers is immediate scheduling. Often the ad appears during the same week a contract is signed. On the other hand, television stations are frequently booked up months in advance, so it may be a long time before an ad appears. Furthermore, radio gives advertisers a greater opportunity to reach potential buyers. After all, radio follows listeners everywhere— in their homes, at work, and in their cars. Although television is very popular, it cannot do that.

2. Use pronouns and demonstrative adjectives. Words like he, she, him, her, they, their, and so on, contribute to paragraph coherence and improve the flow of sentences.

Paragraph with Traffic studies are an important tool for store owners looking for a pronouns: new location. These studies are relatively inexpensive and highly accu-

rate. They can tell owners how much traffic passes by a particular location at a particular time and why. Moreover, they can help owners determine what particular characteristics the individuals have in com- mon. Because of their helpfulness, these studies can save owners time and money and possibly prevent financial ruin.

3. Use parallel (coordinated) grammatical structures. Parallelism means us- ing the same form of the word, phrase, clause, or sentence to express related concepts.

Orientation sessions accomplish four useful goals for trainees. First, they introduce trainees to key personnel in accounting, IT, maintenance, and security. Second, they give trainees experience logging into the database system, selecting appropriate menus, editing core documents, and getting off the system. Third, they explain to trainees the company policies affecting the way supplies are ordered, used, and stored. Fourth, they help trainees understand their ethical responsibilities in such sensitive areas as computer security and use.

Parallelism is at work on a number of levels in the preceding paragraph, among them these:

●● The four sentences about the four goals start in the same way grammatically (“. . . they introduce/give/explain/help . . .”) to help readers categorize the information.

●● Within individual sentences, the repetition of present participles (logging, selecting, editing, getting) and of past participles (ordered, used, stored) helps the writer coordinate information.

●● Transitional words—first, second, third, fourth—provide a clear-cut sequence.

Completeness A complete paragraph provides readers with sufficient information to clarify, analyze, support, defend, or prove the central idea expressed in the topic sentence. The reader feels satisfied that the writer has given necessary details.

Sentences A-5

Skimpy Farmers are turning their crops and farm wastes into cost-effective paragraph: fuels. Much that is grown on the farm is being converted to energy.

This energy can have many uses and save farmers a lot of money in operating expenses.

Fully developed Farm crops and wastes are being turned into fuels to save farmers paragraph: operating costs. Alcohol can be distilled from grain, sugar beets, and

corn. Converted to ethanol (90 percent gasoline, 10 percent ethanol), this fuel runs such farm equipment as irrigation pumps, feed grinders, and tractors. Similarly, through a biomass digestion system, farmers can produce methane from animal or crop wastes as a natural gas for heating and cooking. Finally, cellulose pellets, derived from plant mate- rials, become solid fuel that can save farmers money in heating barns.

sentences

Constructing and Punctuating Sentences The way you construct and punctuate your sentences can determine whether you succeed or fail in the world of work. Your sentences reveal a lot about you. They tell readers how clearly you can convey a message. And any message is only as ef- fective and as thoughtful as the sentences of which it is made.

What Makes a Sentence A sentence is a complete thought, expressed by a subject and a verb that can make sense standing alone.

subject verb

Websites sell products.

The Difference Between Phrases and Clauses The first step toward success in writing sentences is learning to recognize the dif- ference between phrases and clauses. A phrase is a group of words that does not contain a subject and a verb; phrases cannot make sense standing alone. Phrases cannot be sentences.

in the park No subject: Who is in the park? No verb: What was done in the park?

for every patient in intensive care No subject: Who did something for every patient? No verb: What was done for every patient?

A clause does contain a subject and a verb, but not every clause is a sentence. Only independent (or main) clauses can stand alone as sentences. Here is an example of an independent clause that is a complete sentence.

subject verb object

The president closed the college.

A dependent (or subordinate) clause also contains a subject and a verb, but it does not make complete sense and cannot stand alone. Why? A dependent clause contains

A-6 APPenDix A Writer’s Brief Guide to Paragraphs, Sentences, and Words

a subordinating conjunction—after, although, as, because, before, even though, if, since, unless, when, where, whereas, while—at the beginning of the clause. Such conjunctions subordinate the clause in which they appear and make the clause dependent for meaning and completion on an independent clause.

After Before Because the president closed the college Even though Unless

“After the president closed the college” is not a complete thought but a dependent clause that leaves us in suspense. It needs to be completed with an independent clause telling us what happened “after.”

dependent clause independent clause (not a sentence) subject verb phrase

After the president closed the college, we played in the snow.

Avoiding Sentence Fragments An incomplete sentence is called a fragment. Fragments can be phrases or dependent clauses. They either lack a verb or a subject or have broken away from an independent clause. A fragment is isolated: It needs an overhaul to supply missing parts to turn it into an independent clause or to glue it back to an independent clause to have it make sense.

To avoid writing fragments, follow these rules. Note that incorrect examples are preceded by a minus sign, correct revisions by a plus sign.

1. Do not use a subordinate clause as a sentence. Even though it contains a subject and a verb, a subordinate clause standing alone is still a fragment. To avoid this kind of sentence fragment, simply join the two clauses (the independent clause and the dependent clause containing a subordinating conjunction) with a comma— not a period or semicolon.

Bad: Unless we agreed to the plan. (What would happen?) Bad: Unless we agreed to the plan; the project manager would discontinue the opera-

tion. (A semicolon cannot set off the subordinate clause.) Good: Unless we agreed to the plan, the project manager would discontinue the

operation. Bad: Because safety precautions were taken. (What happened?) Good: Because safety precautions were taken, ten construction workers escaped injury.

Sometimes subordinate clauses appear at the end of a sentence. They may be introduced by a subordinate conjunction, an adverb, or a relative pronoun (that, which, who). Do not separate these clauses from the preceding independent clause with a period, thus turning them into fragments.

Bad: An all-volunteer fire department posed some problems. Especially for residents in the western part of town.

}

Sentences A-7

Good: An all-volunteer fire department posed some problems, especially for residents in the western part of town. (The word especially qualifies posed, referred to in the independent clause.)

2. Every sentence must have a subject telling the reader who does the action.

Bad: Being extra careful not to spill the solution. (Who?) Good: The technician was being extra careful not to spill the solution.

3. Every sentence must have a complete verb. Watch especially for verbs ending in -ing. They need another verb (some form of to be) to make them complete.

Bad: The machine running in the computer department. (Did what?)

You can change that fragment into a sentence by supplying the correct form of the verb.

Good: The machine is running in the computer department. Good: The machine runs in the computer department.

Or you can revise the entire sentence, adding a new thought.

Good: The machine running in the computer department processes all new accounts.

4. Do not detach prepositional phrases from independent clauses. Prepositional phrases (beginning with at, by, for, from, in, to, with, and so forth) are not complete thoughts and cannot stand alone. Correct the error by leaving the phrases attached to the sentence to which they belong.

Bad: By three o’clock the next day. (What was to happen?) Good: The supervisor wanted our reports by three o’clock the next day.

Correcting Comma Splices Fragments occur when you use only bits and pieces of complete sentences. Another common error that some writers commit involves just the reverse kind of action. They weakly and wrongly join two complete sentences (independent clauses) with a comma as if those two sentences were really only one sentence. Such an error is called a comma splice. Here is an example:

Bad: Gasoline prices have risen by 15 percent in the last month, we will drive the car less often.

Two independent clauses (complete sentences) exist:

Good: Gasoline prices have risen by 15 percent in the last month. Good: We will drive the car less often.

A comma alone lacks the power to separate independent clauses. As the preceding example shows, many pronouns—I, he, she, it, we, they—are

used as the subjects of independent clauses. A comma splice will result if you place a comma instead of a semicolon or period between two independent clauses where the second clause opens with a pronoun.

A-8 APPenDix A Writer’s Brief Guide to Paragraphs, Sentences, and Words

Bad: Maria approved the plan, she liked its cost-effective approach. Good: Maria approved the plan; she liked its cost-effective approach.

However, relative pronouns (who, whom, which, that) are preceded by a comma, not a period or a semicolon, when they introduce subordinate clauses.

Bad: She approved the plan. Which had a cost-effective approach. Good: She approved the plan, which had a cost-effective approach.

Four Ways to Correct Comma Splices

1. Remove the comma separating two independent clauses and replace it with a period. Then capitalize the first letter of the first word of the new sentence.

Good: Gasoline prices have risen by 15 percent in the last month. We will drive the car less often.

2. Insert a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet) after the comma. Together, the conjunction and the comma properly separate the two independent clauses.

Good: Gasoline prices have risen by 15 percent in the last month, so we will drive the car less often.

3. Rewrite the sentence. If it makes sense to do so, turn the first independent clause into a dependent clause by adding a subordinate conjunction; then insert a comma and add the second independent clause.

Good: Because gasoline prices have risen by 10 percent in the last month, we will drive the car less often.

4. Delete the comma and insert a semicolon.

Good: Gasoline prices have risen by 15 percent in the last month; we will drive the car less often.

Of the four ways to correct the comma splice, sentences 3 and 4 are equally suitable, but sentence 3 reads more smoothly and so is the better choice.

The semicolon is an effective and forceful punctuation mark when two independent clauses are closely related—that is, when they announce contrasting or parallel views, as the two following examples reveal:

Good: The union favored the new legislation; the company opposed it. (contrasting views) Good: Night classes help the college and the community; students can take more credit

hours to advance their careers. (parallel views)

How Not to Correct Comma Splices Some writers mistakenly try to correct comma splices by inserting a conjunctive adverb (also, consequently, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, then, therefore) after the comma.

Bad: Gasoline prices have risen by 15 percent in the last month, consequently we will drive the car less often.

Sentences A-9

Because the conjunctive adverb (consequently) is not as powerful as the coordinat- ing conjunction (and, but, for), the error is not eliminated. If you use a conjunctive adverb—consequently, however, nevertheless—you still must insert a semicolon or a period before it, as the following examples show:

Good: Gasoline prices have risen by 15 percent in the last month; consequently, we will drive the car less often.

Good: Gasoline prices have risen by 15 percent in the last month. Consequently, we will drive the car less often.

Making Subjects and Verbs Agree in Your Sentences A subject and a verb must agree in number. A singular subject takes a singular verb, whereas a plural subject requires a plural verb.

Singular Subject Plural Subject

the engineer calculates engineers calculate a report analyzes reports analyze a policy changes policies change

You can avoid subject-verb agreement errors by following eight simple rules.

1. Disregard any words that come between the subject and its verb.

Faulty: The customer who ordered three parts want them shipped this afternoon. Correct: The customer who ordered three parts wants them shipped this afternoon.

2. A compound subject takes a plural verb. (A compound subject has two parts connected by and.)

Faulty: The engineering department and the safety committee prefers to develop new guidelines.

Correct: The engineering department and the safety committee prefer to develop new guidelines.

3. When a compound subject contains neither . . . nor or either . . . or, the verb agrees with the subject closer to it.

Faulty: Either the residents or the manager are going to file the complaint. Correct: Either the residents or the manager is going to file the complaint. Correct: Either the manager or the residents are going to file the complaint.

4. Use a singular verb after collective nouns when the group functions as a single unit. (Collective nouns are words like committee, crew, department, group, organization, staff, team.)

Correct: The crew was available to repair the machine. Correct: The committee asks that all recommendations be submitted by Friday.

However, in this situation:

Correct: The staff were unable to agree on the best model. (The staff acted as individu- als, not a unit, so a plural verb is required.)

A-10 APPenDix A Writer’s Brief Guide to Paragraphs, Sentences, and Words

5. Use a singular verb with indefinite pronouns. (Indefinite pronouns are words such as anybody, anyone, each, everyone, everything, no one, somebody, something.)

Each of the programmers has completed the seminar. Somebody usually volunteers for that duty.

Similarly, when all, most, more, or part is the subject, it requires a singular verb.

Most of the money is allocated. Part of the equipment was salvageable.

6. Words like scissors and pants are plural when they are the true subject.

Faulty: A pair of trousers were available in his size. (Pair is the true subject, and it is a singular noun.)

Correct: The trousers were on sale.

7. Some foreign plurals always take a plural verb. Examples include curricula, data, media, phenomena, strata, syllabi.

The data conclusively prove my point. The media are usually the first to point out a politician’s weak points.

8. Use a singular verb with fractions.

Three-fourths of her research proposal was finished.

Writing Sentences That Say What You Mean Your sentences should say exactly what you mean, without double talk, misplaced humor, or nonsense. Sentences are composed of words and word groups that influence each other.

Writing Logical Sentences Sentences should not contradict themselves or make outlandish claims. The following example contains an error in logic; note how easily the suggested revision solves the problem.

Illogical: Steel roll-away shutters make it possible for the sun to be shaded in the summer and to have it shine in the winter. (The sun is far too large to shade; the writer means that a room or a house could be shaded with the shutters.)

Revision: Steel roll-away shutters make it possible for owners to shade their living rooms in the summer and to admit sunshine during the winter.

Using Contextually Appropriate Words Sentences should use the combination of words most appropriate for the subject.

Inappropriate: The members of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission saw fear radi- ated on the faces of the residents. (The word radiated is obviously ill advised in this context; use a neutral term.)

Revision: The members of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission saw fear reflected on the faces of the residents.

Sentences A-11

Writing Sentences with Well-Placed Modifiers A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes, limits, or qualifies the meaning of another word or word group. A modifier can consist of one word (a blue car), a prepositional phrase (the man in the toll booth), a relative clause (the woman who won the marathon), or an -ing or -ed phrase (walking three miles a day, the student was in good shape; seated in the first row, we saw everything on stage).

A dangling modifier is one that cannot logically modify any word in the sentence.

Bad: When answering the question, his calculator fell off the table.

One way to correct the error is to insert the right subject after the -ing phrase.

Good: When answering the question, he knocked his calculator off the table.

You can also turn the phrase into a subordinate clause.

Good: When he answered the question, his calculator fell off the table. Good: His calculator fell off the table as he answered the question.

A misplaced modifier illogically modifies the wrong word or words in the sentence. The result is often comical.

Bad: Hiding in the corner, growling and snarling, our guide spotted the frightened cub. (Is the guide growling and snarling in the corner?)

Bad: All travel requests must be submitted by employees in red ink. (Are the employ- ees covered in red ink?)

The problem with both of those examples is word order. The modifiers are misplaced because they are attached to the wrong words in the sentence. Correct the error by moving the modifier to where it belongs.

Good: Hiding in the corner, growling and snarling, the frightened cub was spotted by our guide.

Good: All travel requests by employees must be submitted in red ink.

Misplacing a relative clause (introduced by relative pronouns like who, whom, that, which) can also lead to problems with modification.

Bad: The salesperson rang up the merchandise for the customer that the store had discounted. (The merchandise was discounted, not the customer.)

Bad: The salesperson rang up the merchandise that the store had discounted for the customer. (The salesperson rang up the discount for the customer; the store did not discount the customer.)

Good: The salesperson rang up for the customer the merchandise that the store had discounted.

Always place the relative clause immediately after the word it modifies.

A-12 APPenDix A Writer’s Brief Guide to Paragraphs, Sentences, and Words

Using Pronoun References Correctly Sentences will be vague if they contain a faulty use of pronouns. When you use a pronoun whose antecedent (the person, place, or object the pronoun refers to) is unclear, you risk confusing your reader.

Unclear: After the plants are clean, we separate the stems from the roots and place them in the sun to dry. (Is it the stems or the roots that lie in the sun?)

Revision: After the plants are clean, we separate the stems from the roots and place the stems in the sun to dry.

Unclear: The park ranger was pleased to see the workers planting new trees and installing new benches. This will attract more tourists. (The trees or the benches or both?)

Revision: The park ranger was pleased to see the workers planting new trees and installing new benches, because additional trees and benches will attract more tourists.

WOrds

Spelling Words Correctly A misspelled word may seem like a small matter, but on an employment application, an email, an incident report, a letter, a short or long report, or a PowerPoint slide, it can make you look careless or, even worse, uneducated. Readers will inevitably question your other skills if your spelling is incorrect.

The Benefits and Pitfalls of Spell-Checkers Do not rely exclusively on a spell-checker to solve all your spelling and word- choice problems. Spell-checkers recognize only those words that have been listed in them. A proper name or a new, infrequently used word may be flagged as an error even though the word is spelled correctly. Moreover, a spell-checker cannot differ- entiate between such homonyms as too and two or there and their. A spell-checker identifies only misspelled words, not misused words.

Consulting a Dictionary Always have a dictionary handy. Two useful online dictionaries to consult are Merriam-Webster OnLine (www.merriam-webster.com) and Dictionary.com (dictionary.reference.com).

Using Apostrophes Correctly Apostrophes cause some writers special problems. Basically, apostrophes are used for three reasons: (1) contractions, (2) possessives, and (3) plurals of some abbreviations and letters used as nouns. The following guidelines will help you sort out these uses.

1. In a contraction, the apostrophe takes the place of the missing letter or let- ters: I’ve = I have; doesn’t = does not; he’s = he is; it’s = it is. (Its is a pos- sessive pronoun—the dog and its bone—not a contraction. There is no such form as its’.)

Words A-13

2. To form a possessive, follow these rules.

a. If a singular or plural noun does not end in an -s, add ’s to show possession.

Mary’s locker the woman’s jacket children’s books the women’s jackets the staff’s dedication the company’s policy

b. If a singular noun ends in -s, add ’s to show possession.

the class’s project the boss’s schedule

c. If a plural noun ends in -s, add just the ’ to indicate possession.

employees’ benefits computers’ speed lawyers’ fees stores’ prices

d. If a proper name ends in -s, add ’s to form the possessive.

Jones’s account Keats’s poetry Jill Williams’s house James’s contract

e. If it is a compound noun, add an ’ or ’s to the end of the word.

my brother-in-law’s business Ms. Melek-Patel’s order

f. To indicate shared possession, add ’s to just the final name.

Rao and Kline’s website Juan and Anne’s major

g. To indicate separate possession, add ’s to each name.

Juan’s and Tia’s transcripts Shakespeare’s and Byron’s poetry

3. For abbreviations with periods and for lowercase letters used as nouns, form the plural by adding ’s.

his p’s and q’s Q and A’s Ph.D.’s

To form the plural of numbers and capital letters used as nouns, including abbreviations without periods, just add s. To avoid misreading some capital letters, however, you may need to add an apostrophe.

during the 1980s all perfect 10s their SATs several local YMCAs the 3 R’s straight A’s

inserting Hyphens Properly Use a hyphen (-, as opposed to a dash, —) for

●● compound words four-part lecture heavy-duty machine long-term prospects

●● most words beginning with self self-starting self-defense self-regulating self-governing

●● fractions used as adjectives at the three-quarter level two-thirds majority

A-14 APPenDix A Writer’s Brief Guide to Paragraphs, Sentences, and Words

Using ellipses Sometimes a sentence or passage is particularly useful, but you may not want to quote it fully. You may want to delete some words that are not really necessary for your purpose. An omission is indicated by using an ellipsis (three spaced dots within the sentence to indicate where words have been omitted). Here is an example:

Full Quotation: “Diet and nutrition, which researchers have studied extensively, significantly affect oral health.”

Quotation with Ellipsis: “Diet and nutrition . . . significantly affect oral health.”

Using numerals Versus Words Write out numbers as words rather than numerals in these situations:

●● to begin a sentence Nineteen ninety-nine was the first year of our recruitment drive.

●● to indicate the first number when two numbers are used together The company needed eleven 9-foot slabs.

But use numerals, not words, in these situations:

●● with abbreviations, percentages, symbols, units of measurement, dates 17 percent 11:30 a.m. 70 ml December 3, 2012 $250.00 50 K

●● for page references pp. 56–59

●● for large numbers 3,000,000 23,750 1,714

Use both numerals and words when you want to be as precise as possible in a contract or a proposal.

We agreed to pay the vendor an extra twenty-five dollars ($25.00) per hour to finish the job by May 18.

Matching the Right Word with the Right Meaning The words in the following list frequently are mistaken for one another. Some are true homonyms; others are just similar in spelling, pronunciation, or usage. The part of speech is given after each word. Make sure you use the right word in the right context.

accept (v) to receive, to acknowledge: We accept your proposal. except (prep) excluding, but: Everyone attended the meeting except Neelou.

advice (n) a recommendation: I should have taken Xi’s advice. advise (v) to counsel: Our lawyers advised us not to sign the contract.

affect (v) to change, to influence: Does the detour on Route 22 affect your travel plans?

Words A-15

effect (n) a result: What was the effect of the new procedure? effect (v) to bring about: We will try to effect a change in company policy.

allot (v) to distribute, to assign: The manager allotted the writing team two weeks to complete the report. a lot (n) a quantity: They bought a lot of supplies for the trip.

all ready (adj) two-word phrase all + ready; to be finished; to be prepared: We are all ready for the inspector’s visit. already (adv) previously, before a given time: Our webmaster had already updated the site.

altar (n) central place of worship: There were fresh flowers on the altar. alter (v) to change, to amend: The tailor altered the trousers.

ascent (n) upward movement: We watched the space shuttle’s ascent. assent (n) agreement: She won the teacher’s assent. assent (v) to agree: The committee asked the company to assent to the new terms.

attain (v) to achieve, to reach: We attained our sales goal this month. obtain (v) to get, to receive: You can obtain a job application on their website.

cite (v) to document: Please cite several examples to support your claim. site (n) place, location: They want to build a parking lot on the site of the old theater. sight (n) vision: His sight improved with bifocals.

coarse (adj) rough: The sandpaper felt coarse. course (n) subject of study: Sharonda took a course in calculus this fall.

complement (v) to add to, enhance: Her graphs and charts complemented my proposal. compliment (v) to praise: The customer complimented us on our courteous staff.

continually (adv) frequently and regularly: This answering machine continually disconnects the caller in the middle of the message. continuously (adv) constantly; without stopping: The air-conditioning is on continuously during the summer.

council (n) government body: The council voted to increase salaries for all city employees. counsel (n) advice: She gave the trainee pertinent counsel.

defer (v) To put off until later: His student loan was deferred while he finished his degree. differ (v) to disagree, to be different: The committee differed among its members about the bond issue.

discreet (adj) showing respect, being tactful: The manager was discreet in answering the complaint letter. discrete (adj) separate, distinct: Put those figures into discrete categories for processing.

A-16 APPenDix A Writer’s Brief Guide to Paragraphs, Sentences, and Words

dual (adj) double: That report serves a dual purpose. duel (n) a fight, a battle: The argument almost turned into a duel.

eminent (adj) prominent, highly esteemed: Dr. Felicia Rollins is the most eminent neurologist in our community. imminent (adj) about to happen: A hostile takeover of that company is imminent.

envelop (v) to surround: The major feared that fog would envelop the city. envelope (n) container for a letter: Always send letters in an envelope with our company logo on it.

fair (n) convention, exhibition: The technology fair featured a home theater with five satellite speakers. fair (adj) honest: Their price was fair. fare (n) cost for a trip: She was able to get a discount on a round-trip fare. fare (n) food: They ate East Asian fare.

foreword (n) preface to a book: The foreword outlined the author’s goals in her study of new global markets. forward (adv) toward a time or place; in advance: We moved the time of the visit forward on the calendar so we could meet the overseas manager. forward (v) to send ahead: We forwarded her email to her new server.

imply (v) to suggest: The supervisor implied that the mechanics had taken too long for their lunch break. infer (v) to draw a conclusion: We can infer from these sales figures that the new advertising campaign is working.

it’s (pronoun + verb) contraction of it and is: Do you think it’s too early to tell? its (adj) possessive form of it: That old printer is on its last legs.

knew (v) (past tense of know): She knew the new regulations. new (adj) never used before: The subwoofer was new.

lay/laid/laid (v) to put down: Lay aside that project for now. He laid aside the project. He had already laid aside the project twice before. lie/lay/lain (v) to recline: I think I’ll lie down for a while. He lay there for only a few minutes before the firefighter rescued him. She has lain out in the sun too often.

lean (adj) thin, skinny: She asked for a lean slice of roast. lean (v) to rest against: The shovel leaned against the fence. lien (n) a claim against: There was a lien against his property for back taxes.

lose (v) to misplace, to fail to win: Be careful not to lose my calculator. I hope I don’t lose my seat on the planning board. loose (adj) not tight: The printer ribbon was too loose.

miner (n) individual who works in a mine: His uncle was a miner in West Virginia. minor (n) someone under legal age: The law forbids the sale of tobacco to minors.

Words A-17

overdo (v) to exceed, to do in excess: The coach did not want her players to overdo their practice time. overdue (adj) past due: The quarterly bill was overdue by three weeks.

pare (v) to cut back: Sandoval pared the skin from the apple. pair (n) a couple: They offered a pair of resolutions. pear (n) a fruit: Alphonso ate a pear with lunch.

passed (v) went by (past tense of pass): He passed me in the hall without recogniz- ing me. past (n) time gone by: We’ve never used their services in the past.

peace (n) absence of war or conflict: Joaquin enjoyed the peace he found in his new job. piece (n) a fragment, portion: Each daycare child received a piece of Wanda’s birthday cake.

personal (adj) private: The manager closes the door when she discusses personal matters with one of her staff. personnel (n) staff of employees: All personnel must participate in the 401(k) retirement program.

perspective (n) viewpoint: From the customer’s perspective, we are an honest and courteous company. prospective (adj) expected, likely to happen or become: Email the prospective budget to district managers.

plain (adj) simple, not fancy: He ate plain food. plane (n) airplane: The plane for Dallas leaves in an hour. plane (v) to make smooth: The carpenter planed the wood.

precede (v) to go before: A presentation will precede the open discussion. proceed (v) to carry on, to go ahead: Proceed as if we had never received that letter.

principal (adj) main, chief: Sales of new software constitute their principal source of revenue. principal (n) the head of a school: She was a high school principal before she entered the business world. principal (n) money owed: The principal on that loan totaled $32,800. principle (n) a policy, a belief: Sales reps should operate on the principle that the cus- tomer is always right.

quiet (adj) silent, not loud: He liked to spend a quiet afternoon surfing the Net. quite (adv) to a degree: The officer was quite encouraged by the recruit’s performance.

stationary (adj) not moving: Miguel rides a stationary bicycle for an hour every morning. stationery (n) writing supplies, such as paper and envelopes: Please stop off at the stationery store and buy some more address labels.

A-18 APPenDix A Writer’s Brief Guide to Paragraphs, Sentences, and Words

than (conj) as opposed to (used in comparisons): He is a faster keyboarder than his predecessor. then (adv) at that time: First she called the vendor; then she summarized their conversation in an email to her boss.

their (adj) possessive form of they: All the lab technicians took their vacations during June and July. there (adv) in that place: Please put the printer in there. they’re (pronoun + verb) contraction of they and are: They’re our two best customer service representatives.

to (prep): They invited us to their new facility. too (adv) also, excessive: The painters put too much enamel on the railings. two (n) the number: Two new notebooks arrived today.

waiver (n) intentional relinquishment of a right, claim, or privilege: The company issued a waiver so that additional liability insurance would not have to be secured. waver (v) to shake, to move: Our company would not waver in its commitment to safety.

who’s (pronoun + verb) contraction of who and is: Who’s up next for a promotion? whose (adj) possessive form of who: Whose idea was that in the first place?

you’re (pronoun + verb) contraction of you and are: You’re going to like their decision. your (adj) possessive form of you: They agree with your ideas.

Proofreading Marks A-19

PrOOfreading Marks o

r /m / o t

or words

# #/

eq # tr tr tr

no //

run in

, ’

“ / ” ; : ?

(/) lc

caps ital

bf wf sp

x y

stet

Correct a typu. Correct a typo. Cornect nore than one typu. Correct more than one typo. Insert a leter. Insert a letter. Insert a word Insert a word or words. Make a a deletion. Make a deletion. Delette and close up space. Delete and close up space. Close up ex tra space. Close up extra space. Insertproper spacing. Insert proper spacing. Closeu p and insert space. Close up and insert space. Regularize proper spacing. Regularize proper spacing. Transpose letters inidcated. Transpose letters indicated. Transpose as words indicated. Transpose words as indicated. Reorder shown as words several. Reorder several words as shown. Move text to left. Move text to left. Move text to right. Move text to right. Indent for paragraph. Indent for paragraph. No paragraph indent. No paragraph indent. Align type vertically. Align type vertically. Run back turnover Run back turnover lines. lines. Break line when it runs far too long. Break line when it runs far too long. Insert period here Insert period here. Commas commas everywhere. Commas, commas everywhere. Its in need of an apostrophe. It’s in need of an apostrophe. Add quotation marks, he begged. “Add quotation marks,” he begged. Add a semicolon don’t hesitate. Add a semicolon; don’t hesitate. She advised “You need a colon.” She advised: “You need a colon.” How about a question mark How about a question mark? Add parentheses as they say . Add parentheses (as they say). Sometimes you want Lowercase. Sometimes you want lowercase. Sometimes you want upperCASE. Sometimes you want UPPERCASE. Add italics instantly. Add italics instantly. Add boldface if necessary. Add boldface if necessary. Fix a wrong font letter. Fix a wrong font letter. Spell out all 3 terms. Spell out all three terms. Change x to a subscript. Change x to a subscript. Change y to a superscript. Change y to a superscript. Let stand as is. Let stand as is. (To retract a change already marked.)

4 3 2 1

. . . . . .

I–1

Index

123rf, 472 1001freefonts.com, 460

abbreviations apostrophes and, A-13 in email, 122–123 in instructions, 486 international English, 10 international readers, 172,

486, 560 in long reports, 601 military, 269 numerals vs. words, A-13 in surveys, 315 on title pages, 601

abstracts, 350, 387–389, 598, 601–602, 609

academic libraries, 320–322 academic transcripts, 251 accessibility, on websites,

471–472 accomplishments

employee activity/performance reports, 571–573

in résumés, 255, 284 accountability, 96, 571 accuracy

in e-communications, 118 effective workplace

research, 305 employee activity/performance

reports, 571 incident reports, 587 of records, 29 in résumés, 255 survey results, 319 test reports, 583 website evaluation, 332

acronyms, 10, 172, 269, 486, 601

action, 194 action, request for, 198 action oriented, 20 action verbs, 256, 279 active listening, 105 active verbs, 61–62 active voice, 490 ADA (Americans with

Disabilities Act), 69, 471 adjectives, A-4 adjustment letters, 208–215

example of, 210, 211, 213, 214 no, telling the customer, 212 no letters, guidelines for,

212–215 yes, telling the customer, 209 yes letters, guidelines for,

209–212 Adobe Acrobat, 97 Adobe Buzzword, 99 Adobe Dreamweaver, 473 Adobe Photoshop, 427 advanced delimiters, 331 Advanced Search function in

online catalogs, 322 advertisements, 11–13, 519–520 After College, 240 age, and discrimination, 68 agendas, 105 Agricultural Research

Service, 597 alignment, 456 allbusiness.com, 330 all-in-one printer, 48, 49, 52–54,

500–509 allsearchengines.co.uk, 330 almanacs, 325 alternative text, 472 Amazon, 142, 143

ambiguity, 171 American Fact Finder, 326 American Heritage Dictionary of

the English Language, 325 American Management

Association, 26 American Psychological

Association (APA), 339 Americans with Disabilities Act

(ADA), 69, 471 ampersand, 441 analysis, of survey results,

318–319 Angie’s List, 145, 209 angle, and photos, 425, 428 animations, 638 annual reports, 121 antecedent, A-12 antivirus software, 124 AP (Associated Press), 5 APA (American Psychological

Association), 339 APA references lists

formats for specific sources, 340–347

introduction to, 339–340 vs. MLA works cited lists,

341–342 research reports, proposals

for, 548 APA style

long reports, 599, 601, 605 parenthetical documentation,

339–340 apostrophes, A-12–A-13 appeal, 194 appearance, 624 appendix, 605 Apple Keynote, 635, 636–638

I-2 Index

applicant tracking system (ATS), 272, 276, 279

application, 194 apps

development of, 528–529 legal and ethical guidelines, 118 social media, 139 text messages, 138 word processing, 56

Arial, 455, 460, 486 articles

documenting in MLA and APA style, 343–344

research methods, 547 research reports, proposals

for, 542 summaries of, 376–382

Associated Press (AP), 5 asterisks, 22, 331, 441, 526 atlases, 325–326 ATS (applicant tracking system),

272, 276, 279 attachments to email, 123,

154, 273 attention, reader’s, 194, 196 attention span, 625 attention-grabbing headline, 132 audience analysis. See also

international readers advertisements, 11–13 attention span, 625 blogs, 132 business letters, 192 case study, 15, 18–19, 488–489 diversity, 173–175, 177–180 document design, 463–464 example of, 11–13 formal presentations, 627–628 identification, 11–14 informal presentations,

625–626 instructions, 484–486 interactions with, 625 letters, 152 long reports, 596 progress reports, 567 proposals, 524 questions to ask about, 14, 16 sales proposals, 536

short reports, 556–557, 562 social media, 143 surveys, 318

author, documenting in MLA and APA style, 341

automobile vs. vanpool, 409 autoplay videos, 469

back matter, 599, 605 back up files, 8, 124 background, in long

reports, 602 background color, 459, 470,

472, 637 bad news message

case study, 200–202 direct vs. indirect, 199–200 news releases, 390 overview of, 198–199

Bagin, Don, 5 bar charts, 402, 403, 416–418,

434–436, 437 ethical use, 434, 436

Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations, 633

Becker, Kim, 8 bias, 472 biased questions, 315 Bible, 339 bibliographic citations, 323 bibliographic information, 334 Bing, 329, 330 BizStats, 558 Blackwell Encyclopedia of

Management, 325 blogs

business blogs, guidelines for, 129–133

case study, 133–135 documenting in MLA and

APA style, 342, 345 external, 129–131 examples of, 130–131 interactivity, 125–126 internal, 127, 128 as legal records, 117 sponsors, 127 targeting audience, 132 types of, 127–131

Bloomberg Businessweek, 289 body

in emails, 154 in formal presentations,

633–634 in a letter, 160 in long reports, 603–604 in memos, 224–226 in a news release, 390, 392 in a sales letter, 178

body language, 641 boldface, 21, 226, 455–456, 457,

487, 637 books

documenting in MLA and APA style, 340, 342–343

research methods, 547 research reports, proposals

for, 542 Boolean connectors, 330–331 borders, 638 boxes, 458 brainstorming, 46–48, 49, 486, 524 brake machines, cleaning, 225 Branch Out, 266 brand loyalty, 401 brochures, documenting in MLA

and APA style, 346 broken links, 470–471 budget

in proposals, 527–528, 535 in sales proposals, 536, 541

bullet lists, 22, 226, 487, 526, 560, 634, 637

bullet résumés, 265–266 bullying, 28, 30–31, 34 business databases, 324 business etiquette, 290 business letters, 187–228

collaboration, 188–189 cover letters, 191 customer relations letters,

198–219 inquiry letters, 189–191 message formulation, 187–189 sales letters, 192–198 special request letters, 191–192 summary of, 228 types of, 189

Index I-3

business research report, 347–363 long report, 349–363 transmittal letter, 348

business.com, 330 buyer’s protection plans, 196

campus placement office, 239 “can do” attitude, 519 capital letters, 457, 637 capitalization, 21 captions, 407, 458, 472 Career Builder, 240 career objectives, 260–261 Career One Stop, 240 career portfolios/webfolios,

252–254, 290 case study

audience identification, 15, 18–19, 488–489

bad news message, 200–202 collaborative writing, 78–79,

89–95, 100–101 company newsletter,

designing, 462 diverse audience, 173–175,

177–180 e-communications, 133–135 editing, 78–79 instructions, 488–489 internal proposals, 528–529 meeting audience’s needs,

488–489 print document organization

vs. website organization, 465–466

procedures, 511–513 résumé preparation, 276–278 revising, 57–59 short reports, 562–565,

579–583 summaries, 376–382 surveys, 315–318 test reports, 579–583 writing process, 57–59

cause-and-effect relationships, 634

cautions, warnings, and notes, 487, 497–499

centered text, 456

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 12, 13, 391, 469

central idea, A-2 chain of command, 28 change, announcing, 196 charts, 414–421

bar charts, 402, 403, 416–418, 437

ethical use, 434-436 flow charts, 403, 420–421 organizational charts, 403,

418–420 pie charts, 403, 414–416,

436, 438 checklists, 598–599 child care, 373 China, transfer to, 310 cholesterol screening, 450–453 chronological résumé

organization, 265, 271 CIO Magazine—Information

Technology Professional Research Center, 241

circle chart. See pie charts citations, 605 Citibank, 8–9 Citigroup, 9 city budget, 415 civilian workforce, transitioning

to. See military, transitioning to civilian workforce

classic literary works, citation and, 339

clauses, vs. phrases, A-5–A-6 cliches, 10 clients/customers, writing

persuasively to, 23–24 clip art, 404, 430–431, 432, 440,

463, 638 clustering, 46, 47, 486 clutter, in social media

content, 144 coherence, A-2–A-4 collaborative writing, 75–109

advantages of, 76–77 being a valuable team player,

80–81 business letters, 188–189

case study, 78–79, 89–95, 100–101

computer-supported, 95–103 conflict, 81–83 editing, 78–79 email, 96–97 example of, 85–86, 88–89 flexibility in, 80 guidelines for, 79–80 importance of, 75–76 long reports, 597–598 meetings, 103–109 models for, 83–89 research, 77 writing process and, 77

collection agency, 217 collection letters, 217–219 College Grad, 240 College Recruiter, 240 colors

accessibility and, 472 in company newsletter, 462 cultural significance of, 177 in graphs, 413 in heads and subheads, 457 for international readers,

440, 486 in pie charts, 416 for print documents, 459 warnings and cautions,

498–499 Columbia Encyclopedia, 324 columns, 410, 454 comma splices, A-7–A-9 Commerce Business Daily, 523 community involvement, 227 community leaders/groups,

presentations for, 626 community or civic service, 264 company letterhead, 221 company newsletters, 462 company profiles, 244 company protocol, in blogs,

129, 132 company research, 289 company-specific applications, 8 comparisons, 196 competence, and ethics, 27 competitors, research on, 524

I-4 Index

complaint letters effectiveness, 203–208 example of, 205, 206 tone, 203

complaints, responding to in social media, 145

completeness, A-4–A-5 complimentary close

in email, 123 for international readers, 173 in a letter, 160

compliments, 196 compound words, A-13 Computer Ethics Institute, 29 computer purchases, 402 computer skills, 264, 271 computer-supported

collaboration, 95–103 advantages of, 96 avoiding problems, 103 case study, 100–101 document tracking software,

97, 98 email, 96–97 groupware and face-to-face

meetings, 96 models for, 102–103 web-based collaboration

system, 97–99 concise phrases

in blogs, 133 in complaint letters, 207 editing unnecessary words,

62–63 in email, 123 in social media content, 144

conclusion in formal presentations,

634–635 in instructions, 499 in long reports, 604, 618 in memos, 224–226 in proposals, 535–536 in a sales letter, 178 in sales proposals, 541 in short reports, 559 in a summary, 374

concrete words, 194 conference expenditures, 438 confidentiality

in collaborative writing, 83 in e-communications, 118 in email, 121–122 ethical requirements on the

job, 27–28 in focus groups, 313 in letters, 154 in memos, 221

conflict, in group dynamics, 81–83

conjunctions, A-8–A-9 connective words and phrases,

491, A-3 constructive criticism, 81–82 ConsumerReports.org, 558 contact information, 260, 281 contact lists, 138 content

evaluation of, 386 revision of, 55 on social media, 144

continuing pages, 157 contractions, 172, A-12 contractor progress report, 570 contracts, sale proposals as, 536 convenience in instructions,

481–482 cooperative model, 84 coordinated grammatical

structures, A-4 coordinating conjunction,

A-8–A-9 copy notation, 162 copyright sign, 441 Corel Presentations, 635 corporate identity, 401 Corporate Information, 327 corporate libraries, 319–320 cost, and document

design, 464 costs

mentioning, 197 in proposals, 527–528, 535 in sales proposals, 536, 541

courtesy, 167–168 cover letters, 191 co-workers, presentations

for, 625 Craigslist, 240 creativecommons.org, 147

credentials, 261, 263–264 credibility

establishment of, 628 website evaluation, 332

credit, refusing, 216 crime alert, 626 crime reports, 562–565 critical care nursing services, 420 criticism, responding to in social

media, 145, 146 critiques, 385–387 cropping photos, 425 cross-hatch bar charts, 418 cross-hatch slices, 416 cultural diversity, 6–9, 83. See

also international readers culture-bound descriptions of

place, 172 current information, 305, 332 curriculum vitae (cv), 254. See

also résumés customer relations letters,

198–219 adjustment letters, 208–215 bad news messages, 199–202 collection letters, 217–219 complaint letters, 203–208 customers always write, 199 diplomacy and reader

psychology, 199 direct or indirect, 199–202 follow-up letters, 203 good news messages,

198, 199 positive or negative, 189 refusal-of-credit letters,

215–217 customer surveillance,

537–539, 569 customers/clients, presentations

for, 625 cutaway drawings, 404,

428–429, 431 cyberbullying, 28, 30–31

dangling modifiers, A-11 data sheet, 319 databases, 323–324, 542 date line, 159 dates, A-13

Index I-5

day-to-day calendar, 598–599 Deardorff’s Glossary of

International Economics, 325 decision making, and ethics,

32–34 dedicated videoconferencing,

104, 106 defective products, 205, 206, 210,

213, 214 delimiters, 331 delivery of presentations, 624 demonstrative adjectives, A-4 Denver Water, 485 dependent clause, A-5–A-6 dependent variable, 412 descriptive abstracts, 387, 389 design

considerations before choosing a design, 463–464

desktop publishing, 459–463 effective design, characteristics

of, 448 organizing information

visually, 449 print document design,

449–463 print document organization

vs. website organization, 465–466

for proposals, 525–526 for short reports, 560 websites, 464–473

design, print documents, 449–463

colors, 459 effective design, 451–453 example of, 450–453 graphics, 458–459 heads and subheads, 456–458 page layout, 449–454, 462 poor design, 450 print document organization

vs. website organization, 465–466

typography, 454–456 web vs. print readers,

465–467 vs. website organization,

465–466 white space, 449, 454, 457

designated writer/editor in functional model, 87

desktop publishing, 459–463 details, 17 dictionaries, 325, A-12 Dictionary.com, 60, A-12 digital cameras, 424 digital résumé, 271–280. See also

résumés applicant tracking systems and,

276, 279 creation of, 276–278 cyber security, 279 example of, 274, 275, 277–278 Facebook, link to, 260 HTML résumé, 276 scannable résumé, 273–276, 278 submission of, 272–276 testing, proofreading, and

sending, 279–280 diplomacy, 199, 212–215 direct customer relations letters,

199–200 direct observation, 307–308, 309 direct quotation, 335 directional signs and

shapes, 441 directories, 326–327 Directory of Libraries, 320 disabilities, and discrimination, 69 discussion. See body distance, taking photos, 425 distribution of documents, 464 diverse audience. See

international readers Diversity Employers, 240 document design

considerations before choosing a design, 463–464

desktop publishing, 459–463 effective design, characteristics

of, 448 organizing information

visually, 449 print document design,

449–463 print document organization

vs. website organization, 465–466

for proposals, 525–526

for résumés, 255, 273 for short reports, 560 websites, 464–473

document format, and accessibility, 472

document tracking software, 97, 98

documentation. See also APA references lists; MLA works cited lists

ethics, 28 purpose of, 337 of sources, 133 what not to cite, 338–339 what to cite, 338

Dogpile, 330 domain name, 468 dossiers, 251–252 dpi (dots per inch), 406 drafting

in collaborative writing, 77, 89–91

example of, 52–54 guidelines for, 50–54 instructions, 489 key questions, 50

drawing tools, 463 drawings, 428–429

ethical use, 436 exploded, 404, 429, 432,

485, 492 dreamstime, 472 dress, professional, 641 drinking water, 309 DuckDuckGo, 330 due diligence, 29

EBSCOhost, 323 e-communications, 116–147

blogs, 125–135 case study, 133–135 differences among, 117 email, 118–125 flow of information, 116–117 as legal records, 117–118 messages vs. emails, 136–137 messaging, 135–139 social media, 139–147

economy, in executive summaries, 383

I-6 Index

editing, 59–69. See also revising case study, 78–79 collaborative writing, 77,

78–79, 98 example of, 64, 65 lean, clear sentences, guidelines

for, 59–62 photos, 425, 427 sexist language, avoidance of,

66–68 sexist language, elimination of,

65–66 stereotypical language,

68–69, 176 unnecessary words, 62–65

education in letters of application,

284, 287 in résumés, 263

Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), 324

EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission), 68

efficiency, 383, 481 electric car, 431 electronic note-taking

software, 335 electronic version of a printed

book, documenting in MLA and APA style, 343

e-libraries, 322–323 ellipses, 336, 441, A-14, email

attachments, 123, 154 business vs. personal, 119–120 collaboration, 96–97 documenting in MLA and

APA style, 346 ease of reading, 122 employee activity/performance

reports, 572 examples of, 120–121, 125, 126 guidelines for using on the job,

120–124 importance of, 118–125-9 international readers, 123–124 as legal records, 117 memos, 221

vs. messages, 136–137 netiquette, 122–123 progress reports, 567 research reports, proposals

for, 542 short reports, 561 when not to use, 124–125

email addresses, 260 email attachments, 123, 154, 273 emoticons, 122–123 employee activity/performance

reports, 571–573 employee training, 384 employer hiring process, 236–237 employer-provided application

forms, 272 employment agencies, 242 employment process, 236–296

career portfolios/webfolios, 252–254

digital résumé, 271–280 dossiers and letters of

recommendation, 251–252 employer hiring process,

236–237 interviews, 288–294 job offer, accepting or

declining, 296 job search record, 294–295 job search resources, 239–242 job search, restriction of,

237–238 letters of application, 280–288 online social and professional

networking sites, 242–250 professional image,

enhancement of, 238 résumé preparation, 254–266 steps in, 237 strengths, analysis of, 237–238 transitioning into the civilian

workforce, 266–271 enclosure line, 162 Encyclopedia Britannica,

324–325, 340 Encyclopedia Britannica

Online, 325 Encyclopedia of Banking and

Finance, 325 encyclopedias, 324–325, 547

envelopes, 163 environment, and ethics, 31 Environmental Protection

Agency, 597 Equal Employment Opportunity

Commission (EEOC), 68 equipment, for presentations, 625 equipment and materials, in

writing instructions, 494, 496 Erdlen, John D., 239 ergonomics, 22 ERIC (Education Resources

Information Center), 324 essays, documenting in MLA and

APA style, 343 ethics

business letters, 194 charts, 434–436 confidentiality, 27–28 cyberbullying, 30–31 dilemmas, 34–35 drawings, 436 e-communications, 117–118 effective workplace

research, 305 email, 121–122 employers insist on and

monitor ethical behavior, 26–27

and the environment, 31 graphs, 434 guidelines for reaching ethical

decisions, 32–34 international readers, 31–32 m-commerce, 537–539, 569 online, 29–30 photographs, 436 pictographs, 436 proposals, 525 requirements on the job,

27–29 sales proposals, 536, 539 short reports, 557–558, 562 social media content, 144 source documentation, 337–339 summaries, 376, 383 Ten Commandments of

Computer Ethics, 29 using visuals, 433–436, 437–438 website design, 472

Index I-7

writing ethically on the job, 35–37

ethnic heritage. See also international readers

respect for, 176–177 and stereotypical language, 68

evaluation in executive summaries, 383 of formal presentations,

642–643 websites, 331–333

evaluative summaries, 385–387, 388

Evernote, 335 evidence, supplying, 197 Ex Libris Primo, 320 exaggeration, in hiring and

firing, 37 executive summaries, 383–385 expediency, in executive

summaries, 383 experience

in letters of application, 284, 287 in résumés, 263–264

experiment reports. See test reports

exploded drawings, 404, 429, 432, 485, 492

extended care facility, 574–575 extension cords, 492 external blogs, 129, 130–131,

134–135 external proposals, 520, 523.

See also sales proposals extracurricular activities, 291 eye contact, 640

Facebook concise phrases, 144 connection to other social

media, 142 documenting in MLA and

APA style, 346 e-communications, 116–117 importance of, 139–140 job searching, 242–243 link to on résumés, 260 model post, 143 professional image, 238

professional networking, 243–244

as recruiting tools for focus groups, 313

tracking visitors, 143 visuals, 147

face-to-face networking, 239 facts vs. impressions, 20–21 Fast Company, 289 fax, 155 FB@Work, 97 FDA (Food and Drug

Administration), 127 feasibility of a proposal,

524–525 FedBizOpps, 521, 523 federal and state employment

offices, 239, 241 Federal Business Opportunities,

521 Federal Digital System, 597 Federal Register, 521, 523 Federal Reserve, 558 Federal Trade Commission, 328 FedsHireVets.com, 267 FedStats, 325, 328 feedback

blogs, 132 collaborative writing, 80 computer-supported

collaboration, 96 encouraging, 142, 143 presentations, 640 proposals, 519 websites, 472

fictitious benefits, 37 field trip reports, 573–575 figures, 412–433. See also

graphics; visuals charts, 402, 403, 414–421 clip art, 404, 430–431, 432, 440,

463, 638 definition of, 410 drawings, 428–429, 436 graphs, 412–414, 434, 458–459 infographics, 431–433 maps, 404, 423, 578, 639 photographs, 404, 424–428,

434, 439 pictographs, 404, 421–422, 436

files, copying, 484 films, documenting in MLA and

APA style, 347 financial aid, 467 findings, of short reports, 559 flaming, 121, 125 flash drives, 484 flexibility, in collaborative

writing, 80 flextime, 47, 511–513 Flickr, 140, 142 floor covering, 537–539 flow charts, 403, 420–421 focus groups, 308, 312–313 follow up

after focus groups, 313 and interviews, 312

follow-up letters, 203, 204, 294, 295

font size, 455 font styles, 455–456 fonts. See also typography

for desktop publishing, 460 international readers, 470 for letters, 162 in presentation

software, 637 print document design, 455 for proposals, 526 selection of, 486

fonts.com, 460 Food and Drug Administration

(FDA), 127 food costs, 406 footers, 634 footnotes, 411 Forbes, 289 formal presentations, 627–643

audience analysis, 627–628 delivering, 639–642 evaluation of, 642–643 noncomputerized

presentations, 638–639 organization of, 635–636 parts of, 629–635 presentation software,

635–638 rehearsing, 639 visuals, 638–639

formality, of letters, 153

ethics (continued )

I-8 Index

formats. See also document design collaborative writing, 77, 81,

84, 103 digital résumés, 270–281 email, 122–123 instructions, 482 letters, 154, 155–157, 162,

177, 181 long reports, 596 memos, 220–224 portfolios/webfolios, 252–254 sales letter, 177–178 short reports, 560 writing process, 44, 55, 59, 70

Fortune, 289 fractions used as adjectives, A-13 fragment, A-6–A-7 Free Online Surveys, 319 FreeMind, 46 freerangestock.com, 430 front matter, 599, 601–602 full-block format, 155, 156, 158 full-justified, 456 full-text databases, 323–324 functional heads, 458 functional model, 87 functional résumé organization,

265–266, 267–268, 271

gambling metaphors, 172 gas vs. electricity for

automobiles, 426 gender identity, and

discrimination, 69 gender neutral terms, 67 general audience, 490 General Electric, 6 gestures, 440, 639 gift offers, 196 GlaxoSmithKline, 324 global audiences. See

international readers global find and replace, 60 glossaries, 325, 605 Gmail, 119 GNP (gross national product), 6 good news message, 198, 199 Google, 329, 330 Google AdWords’ Keyword

Tool, 468

Google Docs case study, 100–101 in collaborative writing, 96–97,

100–101 online word-processing

system, 99 templates, 162

Google Earth, 326 Google Images, 330 Google Keep, 335 Google Maps, 423 Google News, 330 Google Translate, 14 Google Videos, 330 government documents, 326, 345 Government Printing Office, 597 government-sponsored

research, 597 grade point average, 263 grant proposals, 518 graphic icons, 463 graphics. See also figures; visuals

for desktop publishing, 460, 463 in instructions, 497 in presentation software, 638 print document design,

458–459 warnings and cautions,

498–499 graphics expert in functional

model, 87 graphs, 412–414, 458–459

ethical use, 434 gray literature, 328, 547 greening the workplace

community residents as audience, 15

contractor progress report, 570 formal presentations, 629 interview questions, 293 recycling, 89–95

gross national product (GNP), 6 group dynamics, 81–83 group emails, 119, 121 group organization, 80 group rules, 80 GroupMe, 138 groupware, 77, 95–96. See

also computer-supported collaboration

hand gestures, 440 handbooks and manuals, 327–328 handouts, 636 hashtags, 145 headers, 634 headings, 21, 159, 226, 526, 560,

601, 604 headlines, 132 heads, 456–458 Health Information for

International Travel, 391 Health Insurance Portability

and Accountability Act (HIPAA), 28

heavy equipment, 15 heparin, 18–19 highlighting, 459 home health visit reports, 575 home page, 467–468 honesty, 27, 255, 281–282, 571 honors/awards, 170, 252,

264, 271 Hoover.com, 327 Hoover’s Business Directory, 205 horizontal, 412 horizontal bar chart, 417 hospital parking expansion, 98 how-to statements, 196 HTML résumé, 276 human resource departments, 242 humor, 144, 633 hyperlinks, 470, 487, 494, 560 hypertext, 21 hyphens, A-13

icons, 463. See also clip art for a broad range of

readers, 487 internationally recognized, 439 in warnings and cautions,

498–499 in website design, 471

identification details in incident reports, 584

identity theft, 124 IDI Web Accessibility

Checker, 471 idiomatic expressions, 10,

171–172 illustrations, 639

Index I-9

illustrations, list of, 601, 609 iMindMap, 46 imperative verbs, 490, 491 inappropriate questions, 315 Inc. Magazine, 289 incident reports, 561, 584–587 inconvenience, describing, 207 Indeed, 240 independent clause, A-5–A-8 independent variable, 412 indirect customer relations

letters, 199–200 industrial extension cords, 492 infographics, 431–433 Infoplease, 325 informal briefings, 626–627 information, flow of, 116–117 information overload, 627, 636 Information Please Almanac, 633 informative abstracts, 387, 389 InfoTrac, 324 infusion pump, 495 in-house personnel, writing

persuasively to, 24–26 initial capital letters, 457 inquiry letters, 189–191 inside address, 159 Instagram, 140, 142, 147 instant messages, 135–136 instructions, 480–514

audience’s needs, assessing and meeting, 484–486

case study, 488–489 conclusion, 499 importance of, 480–482 introduction, 480, 493–494, 495 list of equipment and materials,

494, 496 model of full set of

instructions, 499–509 numbered lists, 484–485 process of writing, 487–490 six parts of, 493–499 steps for instructions, 494–497 style, 490–491 troubleshooting guide, 499 variety of, 482–484 with a visual for each written

step, 483 visuals, 491–493

warnings, cautions, and notes, 497–499

wordless instructions, 482 word-processing software,

486–487 integrated model, 87, 102 interactivity, of blogs, 125–126 internal blogs, 127–129 internal proposals, 526–536

case study, 528–529 chain of command, 527 common topics for, 526–527 ethically anticipating and

resolving corporate readers’ problems, 527–528

example of, 530–534 vs. external, 523 organization of, 529–536 vs. other types, 520

internal summaries, 634 international business,

competition for, 6 international business

correspondence, 169–180 international English, 10–11,

486, 560 international readers, 628

advertisements, 7, 9 blogs, 132 communication with, 6 email, 123–124 ethics, 31–32 gestures, 440 guidelines for communication

with, 169–173 icons, internationally

recognized, 439 instructions, 486, 497 introduction to, 6–7 letters, 154, 169–180 letters case study, 173–175,

177–180 misleading, 37 place of in world economy, 176 respect readers’ nationality and

heritage, 176–177 sample sales letter, 170 sentences for, 169, 171 short reports, 560 visuals for, 436, 439–441

website design, 470 websites, 472 white space for, 470

International Statistical Agencies, 325

Internet letters in the age of, 153–154 online job-posting sites,

239, 240 posting résumé on, 272–273

Internet Archive, 323 Internet Public Library, 322–323 Internet searches

keyword searches, 322, 323, 330–331

overview of, 329–330 research for short reports, 558 research methods, 547 research reports, proposals

for, 542 website evaluation, 331–333

InterNIC, 468 interpolation, 336 interruptions, 82, 105, 641 interviews, 308–312. See also job

interviews conducting, 311 documenting in MLA and

APA style, 342, 346 drafting questions, 311 follow-up, 312 for a long report, 595 preparation for, 311 research methods, 547 research reports, proposals

for, 542 setting up, 308

intranets, 321 introduction, 352

in formal presentations, 629, 633

in instructions, 493–494 in long reports, 602–603,

610–612 in memos, 224–226 in proposal for a research

report, 546–547 in sales proposals, 539–540

inventory tracking software, 529–534

I-10 Index

investigation reports. See test reports

iStockphoto, 472 italics, 21, 455–456, 457, 637

jargon, 10, 122–123, 279, 315, 374, 486

job interviews, 288–294 do’s and don’ts, 293–294 follow-up letters, 294 phone interviews, 288 preparation for, 288–290 questions interviewers cannot

ask, 293 questions to ask, 292–293 questions to expect, 290–292 salary discussions, 292 Skype interviews, 289

job search Facebook, 242–243 resources, 239–242 restriction of, 237–238

job shadowing, 238 job-related writing

accurate measurements, 22–23

characteristics of, 20–26 facts vs. impressions, 20–21 persuade and offer

recommendations, 23–26 practical information, 20 state responsibilities

precisely, 23 visuals, 21–22

jobs/employment process, 236–296

career portfolios/webfolios, 252–254

developing civilian résumés, 266, 269–271

digital résumé, 271–280 dossiers and letters of

recommendation, 251–252 employer hiring process,

236–237 interviews, 288–294 job offer, accepting or

declining, 296 job search record, 294–295 job search resources, 239–242

job search, restriction of, 237–238

letters of application, 280–288 LinkedIn and, 244–245,

246–249 online social and professional

networking sites, 242–250 professional image,

enhancement of, 238 résumé preparation, 254–266 social networks, 242–250 steps in, 237 strengths, analysis of, 237–238 transitioning into the civilian

workforce, 266–271 JSTOR, 324 justification, 456

keyboard access, 471 keyword nouns, 279 keyword searches, 322, 323,

330–331 keywords, in résumés, 256,

276, 279 knowledge oriented, 20 Koran, 339 Kwik Surveys, 319

labeling, 416, 429 laboratory reports. See test

reports languages, 271 large numbers, A-13 law enforcement training,

376–382 layout. See document design;

print document design lead, in a news release, 390, 392 leader in functional model, 87 leading questions, 315 leaky faucet, repairing, 485 lecture, documenting in MLA

and APA style, 347 left-justified, 456 legal issues/obligations

incident reports and, 586–587 in sales proposals, 536, 539

legal records, 117–118, 153 legalese, 168 letter of transmittal, 599–600, 606

letterhead, 458–459 letterhead stationery, 155 letters, 152–181

appearance of, 162–163 continuing pages, 157 envelopes, 163 essential advice, 152–153 example of, 158, 161 formats, 154, 155–157, 162,

177, 181 international business

correspondence, 169–180 in the of the Internet, 153–154 making a good impression,

164–168 organization of, 164 parts of, 158–162 summary of, 181 ways to send, 154–155

letters of application, 280–288 body, 282, 284, 287 closing, 287–288 education, 284, 287 example of, 283, 285, 286 experience, 284, 287 opening paragraph, 282 vs. résumés, 280 writing, 281–288

letters of recommendation, 251–252, 253

Lexis-Nexis Academic, 324 librarians, 322 libraries

corporate, 319–320 e-libraries, 322–323 online catalogs, 320, 322 public and academic libraries,

320–322 secondary research in, 319–323

Library of Congress, 326 Library of Congress Online

Catalog, 323 Library of Congress Virtual

Reference Shelf, 329 lighting, and photos, 425 line graph, 402, 403 line length, 454, 470 line spacing, 162, 487, 637 LinkedIn

honesty on, 27

Index I-11

job searching, 242, 244–245 link to on résumés, 260 and professional image, 238 profile example, 246–249 for veterans, 245, 266

links in online catalogs, 322 list of illustrations, 601, 609 lists, 458 loaded questions, 311 local taxes, 165–166 logo, 458–459 long reports, 594–621

back matter, 605 characteristics of, 595–598 government-sponsored

research, 597 introduction to, 594–595 model of, 605–621 pagination, 599 parts of, 596, 599–605 research for, 595–596, 598 sample report (APA style),

607–621 sample report (MLA style),

349–363 summary of, 373 text of, 602–604 writing process, 598–599

loyalty, 28

magazines, 547 mail merge, 194 main clause, A-5–A-7 Mamma, 330 manipulation of information or

context, 36–37 manuals and handbooks, 327–328 Mapquest, 326 maps, 347, 404, 423, 578, 639. See

also atlases margins, 162, 454 marketing plan, 348–363 masculine pronouns, 67 m-commerce, 537–539, 569 measurements, accuracy of, 22–23 media presentations, 252 media release, 390–392 medium, for survey delivery,

313–314

meetings agenda, 105 collaborative writing, 103–109 in computer-supported

collaboration, 96 courtesy in, 105 domination of, 82, 105 interruptions, 82, 105 minutes, 105–109 planning, 103–104 virtual meetings, 104

memorandum. See memos memos, 220–227

email vs. hard copy, 221 example, standard format, 223 example of, 225, 227 formats, 221 incident reports, 561, 585–586 organizational markers,

226–227 organizational strategies,

224–226 parts of, 221–222 policy procedures, 512–513 progress reports, 567 protocol and company politics,

220–221 questions to answer, 222–224 research reports, proposals

for, 542 short reports, 561 style and tone, 224 summary of, 228

Merriam-Webster dictionary, 60 Merriam-Webster Online, A-12 message formulation, 17, 187–189 messages, 133–135. See also text

messages e-communications, 135–136 vs. emails, 136–137 example of, 136 guidelines for using in the

workplace, 137–138 instant messages, 135–136

messaging, 135–139 metaphors, 172 metasearch engines, 329, 330 methods of research, 547–548 metropolitan area

populations, 417

Microsoft Excel, 407 Microsoft FrontPage, 473 Microsoft Office 365, 99, 119 Microsoft OneNote, 335 Microsoft Outlook, 119 Microsoft PowerPoint

career portfolios/webfolios, 252 example of, 629, 630–633 overview of, 635 remote control for, 641 using effectively, 636–638 visuals, 21

Microsoft Word, 95, 96–97, 162, 276, 407

milestones, 599 military, transitioning to civilian

workforce, 237, 266–271 balancing education and

experience, 257 Career One Stop, 240 chronological résumé

organization, 271 civilian résumé format,

language, and context, 269, 271

education, 263 functional résumé, 265, 266,

268, 271 honors/awards, 264, 271 letters of recommendation, 251 LinkedIn, 245, 266 sample résumé, 247,

262, 270 skill area résumé organization,

267, 268 web resources, 266, 269

Military.com, 266 mind mapping software, 46 minimization, in hiring and

firing, 37 Minority Business Development

Agency, 328 minutes of meetings, 105–109 misleading interpretations, and

visuals, 434–436 misplaced modifiers, A-11 misquoting, 36 mission statement, 252 MLA (Modern Language

Association), 339

LinkedIn (continued )

I-12 Index

MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 339

MLA style long reports, 599, 601, 605 parenthetical documentation,

339–340 MLA works cited lists

vs. APA references lists, 341–342

example of, 362–363 formats for specific sources,

340–347 introduction to, 339–340 research reports, proposals

for, 548 mobile health app, 528–529 models, for collaboration, 83–89 Modern Language Association

(MLA), 339. See also MLA style; MLA works cited lists

modified-block format, 155, 157 modifiers, 62, A-11 Monster, 240 Monster College, 240 Moody’s Manuals, 328 motion pictures, documenting in

MLA and APA style, 347 multinational corporations, 5–6 multinational workforce,

recruiting, 606–621 multiple choice questions,

314–315 multiple-bar chart, 418, 419 multiple-line graphs, 412, 414 My Next Move for Veterans,

241, 266

National Archives, 323 National Center for Educational

Statistics, 558 National Center for Health

Statistics, 558 National Commission on

Writing, 5 National Consumer League, 333 National Geographic Atlas, 326 National Geographic Map

Machine, 326 National Resource Directory,

241, 266

nationality. See also international readers

respect for, 176–177 stereotypical language, 68

navigation, 468–469 navigational cues, 466, 474 negative criticism, 82 negative letters, 189 nervousness, 640 Net Temps, 240 netiquette, 122–123 NetObjects Fusion, 473 networking, 238, 239, 242–250, 304 neutral letters, 189 Nevada Business, 8 New Jersey State Library, 320 New York Stock Exchange, 558 New York Times, 239, 289 news releases, 390–392 NewsBank, 324 newsletters, company, 462 newspapers, 239, 547 Newspapers.com, 330 noncomputerized presentations,

638–639 North Dakota State University,

328 no-smoking advertisements,

12–13 note taking, importance of,

333–337 notebook computer, 432 notes, warnings, and cautions,

487, 497–499 nouns

collective, A-9 for digital résumés, 273 possessive forms and A-13

numbered lists, 226, 484–485, 487, 560

numerals vs. words, A-14

objectively worded questions, 311 objectivity

employee activity/performance reports, 571

incident reports, 587 short reports, 557–558, 562 test reports, 583 website evaluation, 333

Occupational Outlook Handbook, 241, 292, 327

Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 597, 624

office collaboration software, 97 omitting key information, 36 online catalogs, 320, 322 online dictionaries, 60 online encyclopedia article,

documenting in MLA and APA style, 344

online encyclopedias, 325 online ethics, 29–30 online job-posting sites, 239, 240 online profiles, 250 online résumé. See digital résumé online survey builders, 319 online surveys, 314, 315–318,

519, 524 online word-processing

system, 99 onsite child care, 373 open letters, 154 open-ended questions, 311 opening, of a sales letter, 178 operations reports. See test

reports opinion, 374, 587 ordering products online, 421 organization

of formal presentations, 635–636

of functional résumé, 265–266, 267–268, 271

of internal proposals, 529–536 of letters, 164 of research reports, proposals

for, 542, 546–548 of résumé preparation,

265–266 of résumés, 255 revision of, 55–56 of sales proposals, 539–541 of short reports, 558–559, 562

organizational charts, 403, 418–420

organizational markers, 226–227 outlining, 48–49, 486, 626,

635–636 oxygen mask, 482

Index I-13

page layout, 449–454, 462 page layout software, 459–463 page numbers, 341, 599 page references, A-13 pagination of long reports, 599 paragraph length, 282 paragraphs

characteristics of, A-2–A-5 topic sentence, A-1–A-2

parallelism , grammatical, 457–458, A-4

paraphrasing, 334, 336–337 parenthetical documentation,

339–340 parts

of formal presentations, 629–635

of instructions, 493–499 of letters, 158–162 of long reports, 596, 599–605 of memos, 221–222 of progress reports, 568, 571 of a résumé, 260–265

parts included visual, 500 passwords, 30, 124 patchworking, 338 PDF files, 472

for long reports, 596 progress reports, 569 for résumés, 276–277 short reports, 561

pension funds, 422 Pep Boys, 141 percentages, A-13 performance reports, 571–573 periodic reports, 561 periodical databases, 323 permission, and photos, 425, 434 personal interviews, documenting

in MLA and APA style, 342, 346

personal networking, 239 persuasion

in advertisements, 12–13, 24 in blogs, 132–133 in email, 25 example of, 24, 25 in job-related writing, 23–26

phishing, 124 phone interviews, 288

photocopying/scanning, 333 photographs, 404, 424–428, 439

ethical use, 434 Photoshop, 427 phrases, vs. clauses, A-5–A-6 pictographs, 404, 421–422, 436

ethical use, 436 pie charts, 403, 414–416, 436, 438 Pinterest, 140, 142, 144, 147 plagiarism, 35–36, 305, 338, 472 planning, 46–49, 77 plans, in proposals, 535 Plunkett Research, 325 podcast, documenting in MLA

and APA style, 345 points, 455 policy procedures, 510–513 political imagery, 439 pompous vs. contemporary

words, 168 population of metropolitan

areas, 417 portfolios. See career portfolios/

webfolios positive letters, 189 possessive, A-13 posture, 641 pound sign, 441 practical information, 20 precautions, 494 precise terms, 490 preliminary research, 542 preparation, for job interviews,

288–290 prepositional phrases, 63–64, A-7 presentation software, 635–638 presentations, 624–643

example of, 630–633 formal presentations, 627–643 informal briefings, 626–627 types of, 625–626 visuals for, 625, 636 writing vs. making a

presentation, 624–625 press releases

documenting in MLA and APA style, 347

writing process, 390–392 Prezi

career portfolios/webfolios, 252

overview of, 635 remote control for, 641 using effectively, 636–638 visuals, 21

Price, Deborah, 4 primary research, 595

direct observation, site visits, and tests, 307–308, 309

focus groups, 308, 312–313 interviews, 308–312 vs. secondary research, 306–307 surveys, 313–318

print document design, 449–463 colors, 459 effective design, 451–453 example of, 450–453 graphics, 458–459 heads and subheads, 456–458 page layout, 449–454, 462 poor design, 450 print document organization

vs. website organization, 465–466

typography, 454–456 web vs. print readers, 465–467 vs. website organization,

465–466 white space, 449, 454, 457

Print Preview, 163 printer installation. See all-in-one

printer priority, and letters, 154 problem

in long reports, 602–603 in proposal for a research

report, 547 in proposals, 529, 534

problem-solving, approaching proposals as, 524

procedures, 510–513 professional association

memberships, 264 professional employment

agencies, 242 professional image, 238, 245,

249, 250 professional journals, 241 professional networking sites,

238, 242–250 professional titles, 66

I-14 Index

progress reports audience for, 567 example of, 569, 570 frequency of, 568 parts of, 568, 571

projectors, 636 prompt handling of complaints,

207–208 pronoun references, A-12 pronouns, 67, A-4, A-7–A-8 proofreading, 279–280 proofreading marks, A-19 proposals, 518–548

as collaborative efforts, 520 document design, 525–526 guidelines for, 524–526 internal proposals, 523,

526–536 introduction to, 518 as persuasive plans, 519–520 for research reports, 542–548 sales proposals, 536–541 types of, 520–523 visuals in, 526

proposed product or service, in sales proposals, 540

ProQuest, 324 protein sources, 411 public image, and letters, 153 public libraries, 320–322 publication, documenting in

MLA and APA style, 342 Publication Manual for the

American Psychological Association, 339

punctuation, 441 purpose

establishment of, 16–17 of executive summaries, 385 for letters, 152 in proposal for a research

report, 546–547 of proposals, 529 of short reports, 559 of a summary, 374

purpose statement, 603

qualifications, in sales proposals, 541

quality check, 638

Qualtrics, 319 question marks, 441 question-and-answer session,

641–642 questions

allowing time for, 635 asking, 196 bias in, 315 for focus groups, 312 for research interviews, 311 for surveys, 314

quotations marks, 331 quotes

direct quotation, 335 electronic note-taking

software, 334–335 ellipses, 336 incorporating, 334–335 paraphrasing, 336–337 recording, 333

racial heritage respect for, 176–177 stereotypical language, 68

radio, documenting in MLA and APA style, 345

ragged right justified, 456 ranking questions, 315 rapport, building, 629 rate of delivery, 640–641 readability, 637 reader psychology, 192, 199 reader-centered design, 560 reader’s interest, 401 recommendations

LinkedIn, 244 in long reports, 598, 604, 618 offering, 23–26 in short reports, 559 in a summary, 374

recruiting multinational workforce, 606–621

recycling, 89–95 red flag words, 123 Reference Center and General

Government Page, 326 reference materials

almanacs, 325 atlases, 325–326 dictionaries, 325, A-12

directories, 326–327 encyclopedias, 324–325, 547 government documents,

326, 345 gray literature, 328, 547 handbooks and manuals,

327–328 statistics, 328, 603

references in long reports, 619–621 in résumés, 252, 264–265

refrigerator door, removal, 496 refusal-of-credit letters, 215–217 regional magazine project, 88–89 Rehabilitation Act, 471 rehearsing, formal

presentations, 639 related skills and

achievements, 264 relative pronouns, A-8 relevance

clip art, 431 effective workplace

research, 305 visuals, 402 website evaluation, 332–333

religious symbols and images, 439

rent increase, 200–202 repetitious words and phrases, 63 repetitive strain injury (RSI), 195 report text, 599 reports. See long reports; short

reports reproduction of documents, 464 request for approval, 548 request for proposals (RFP), 518,

520–523 rereading material, 374–375 research, 304–363

business research report, 347–363

characteristics of, 305 in collaborative writing, 77 conclusion, 363 documentation of sources,

337–347 for long reports, 595–596, 598 note taking, importance of,

333–337

Index I-15

primary vs. secondary, 306–307 process of, 305–306 for proposals, 524 secondary research, 319–333 for short reports, 557, 558, 562 skills for, 304–305 in the writing process, 45–46

research materials, 320 research methods, 547–548 research reports, proposals for

example of, 543–546 organization of, 542, 546–548

researcher in functional model, 87

resolution, and photos, 425 respect, 28 responsibilities, 23, 80 restricted questions, 311 résumé database service, 242 résumés, 254–266. See also digital

résumé action verbs, 256, 279 case study, 276–278 developing civilian digital

résumé, 266–269, 271 education and experience,

balancing, 257 examples of, 258–259, 262,

267–268, 270 items to exclude, 260 HTML, 276 vs. letters of application, 280 multiple versions, 255–256 organization of, 265–266 parts of a résumé, 260–265 what employers like to see in,

254–256 white space in, 255 writing process, 257–260

reusableart.com, 430 review sites, 145 reviews, 547 revising, 54–59

allowing time for, 55 case study, 57–59 in collaborative writing, 77,

92–95 content, 55 instructions, writing, 490

key questions, 55–56 long reports, 598 organization, 55–56 tone, 56

RFP (request for proposals), 518, 520–523

rfpzone.com, 521 right-justified, 456 Riley Guide: Employment

Opportunities and Job Resources, 239

roman, 455–456 Roman numerals, 599 rule, 410 rules for effective design, 458

safety, and writing instructions, 481, 494

salary discussions, 292 sales figures, 414 sales letters

example of, 193, 195, 537–539 four A’s of, 194–198 mail merge, 194 as positive letters, 189 preliminary guidelines,

192–194 product’s appeal,

highlighting, 197 product’s or service’s

application, showing the customer, 197

reader’s attention, getting, 196 sales proposals, 536–541 sales reports, 561–567 sales/customer visit reports,

575, 578 salutations

in email, 123 for international readers, 173 in a letter, 159–160 sexist language, 67, 68

sans serif, 455 scale

in graphs, 413 in photos, 425

scannable résumé, 273–276, 278 scanning visuals, 407 scheduling employees, 511–513 schematic drawing, 428, 430

scope, 17, 595, 603 screen names, 137 search engines, 329, 330, 468, 542 Search.com, 330 searchenginecolossus.com, 330 secondary research, 595

databases, 323–324 Internet searches, 329–331 libraries, 319–323 vs. primary research, 306–307 reference materials, 324–328 website evaluation, 331–333

Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act, 471

security in e-communications, 118 of letters, 153, 154

security system, 161 segmented bar charts, 418, 419 selective misquoting, 36 self-introduction, 629 semi-block format, 155, 190 semicolon, A-8 seminar evaluation, 388 senses, appeal to reader’s, 194 sentence fragments, A-6–A-7 sentences

active verbs, 61–62 combining, 61, 62 comma splices, A-7–A-9 components of, A-5–A-6 constructing and punctuating,

A-5 contextually appropriate

words, A-10 for international readers, 169, 171 lean and clear, 59–62 length and complexity, 60–61 logical sentences, A-10 modifiers, 62, A-11 pronoun references, A-12 sentence fragments, A-6–A-7 subject-verb agreement,

A-9–A-10 subject-verb-object pattern, 61 synonyms, 62 well-placed modifiers, A-11

sequencing slides, 637 sequential model, 84, 102–103 serif, 455

research (continued )

I-16 Index

sexist language avoidance of, 66–68 elimination of, 65–66 salutations, 67, 68

sexual orientation, and discrimination, 69

shading, 459 shoptalk, 279 short reports, 554–588

anticipate audience use of, 556–557

case study, 562–565, 579–583 clear, concise writing, 560 conclusion, 587–588 employee activity/performance

reports, 571–573 ethics, 557–558, 562 example of, 572, 574–575,

576–577, 585–586 guidelines for, 555–561 importance of, 554–555 incident reports, 561, 584–587 most appropriate format, 561 objectivity, 557–558, 562 organization of, 558–559, 562 periodic reports, 561 progress reports, 567–571 reader-centered design, 560 research, 557, 558, 562 sales reports, 561–567 templates, 556 test reports, 579–583 trip/travel reports, 573–579 types of, 555 visuals, 561, 562

shortcuts, 331 Shutterstock, 147, 472 side conversations in meetings, 105 Sierra Club, 127 signature, 160, 173 signature block, 123 signposts, 491, 634 simple bar charts, 417 simple line graphs, 412, 413 Simply Hired, 240, 266 site inspection reports, 575,

576–577 site visits, 307–308, 309 size, of visuals, 405, 408 skewing numbers, 36

skill area résumé organization, 265–266, 267–268

skills gap, 433 Skype

interviews, 288, 289, 308 meetings, 103 for presentations, 625 videoconferencing, 106

Slack, 97 slang, 10 slash marks, 441 slug (headline), 390, 392 Small Business Administration,

328, 597 The Small Business Bible

(Strauss), 144 small caps, 455 SMART boards, 636 smartphones, 424, 636 Smithsonian Digital Library, 323 smoke detector locations, 430 Snagajob, 240 snowfall amounts, 413 social media. See also Facebook;

LinkedIn; Twitter audience, 143 complaints on, 209 content, 144 criticism, responding to,

145, 146 cyberbullying, 30 documenting in MLA and

APA style, 342 example of, 141 feedback from, 519, 524 introduction to, 139–140 as legal records, 117 preferred sites of teenagers, 418 research methods, 547 staying connected, 142–143 style, 144–145 uses of in business, 140 visuals, 145, 147

social networking sites, 242–250, 313

social work visit reports, 575 solar panels, 488–489 solicited proposals, 518, 520–523,

537–539, 540 solutions, in proposals, 535

sound effects, 638 source documentation

APA references lists, 340–347 ethics of, 337–339 importance of, 306 MLA works cited lists,

340–347 MLA works cited lists vs. APA

reference lists, 341–342 parenthetical documentation,

339–340 sources, evaluation of, 306 speaking slowly, 639 special request letters,

191–192, 193 specialized databases, 324 specialized dictionaries, 325 specialized search engines,

329, 330 specific audience, 490 speeches, documenting in MLA

and APA style, 347 spell-checker, 60, A-12 spelling, A-12 sports metaphors, 172 sports-related imagery or

symbols, 441 Squarespace, 473 Standard and Poor’s Corporate

Descriptions, 328 Starbucks, 31 statistics, 328, 603 steps for instructions, 494–497 stereotypes, in visuals, 406,

434, 439 stereotypical language,

68–69, 176 stock images, 147, 463, 472 stopfraud.gov, 27 storyboards, 473–474 Strauss, Steven D., 144 structure, of letters, 153 stub, 410, 411 study carrels, 521 style, 17–18

evaluation of, 386 instructions, writing, 490–491 in letters, 152 in memos, 224 in social media, 144–145

Index I-17

subheadings, 21, 526, 560, 601 subheads, 456–458 subject directories, 329 subjects, A-7 subject-verb agreement,

A-9–A-10 subordinate clause, A-5–A-6 subscription databases, 323–324 summaries

abstracts, 387–389 case study, 376–382 conclusion, 392 contents of, 373–374 ethics, 376, 383 evaluative summaries,

385–387, 388 executive summaries, 383–385 importance of, 373 in the information age, 372 news releases, 390–392 preparation of, 374–383 software for, 375

supervisor, presentations for, 625

supporting information, A-1 suppressed zero graph, 414 Survey Monkey, 319 surveys, 313–318, 346 Sweet, Donald H., 239 symbols, 21, 177, A-13 synonyms, 62

table of contents, 351, 601, 608 tables, 403, 410–411, 412, 526 tablets for employees, 64, 65 tact, in memos, 220 team players, 80–81 technical vocabulary, 171 teeth brushing, 483 teleconferencing, 104 telephone surveys, 314 television, documenting in MLA

and APA style, 345 templates

for desktop publishing, 459–460

examples of, 461 for letters, 162 for short reports, 556 for web design, 473

Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics, 29

test reports, 579–583 tests, 308, 309 text messages, 138–139

vs. business communications, 119

example of, 139 guidelines for, 138 during interviews, 293 as legal records, 117 during meetings, 105 overview of, 138 summaries, 372

textspeak, 137, 138, 145 textual harassment, 138 “theory of operation,” 493 thoroughness, 305 time, and writing process, 45 time zones, 288 timeframe, for writing long

reports, 597 Times New Roman, 455, 460, 486 timetables

in long reports, 596 in proposal for a research

report, 548 in sales proposals, 539, 541

title, documenting in MLA and APA style, 341

title page, 349, 601, 607 tone, 19–20

in business blogs, 129 in collection letters, 217 in complaint letters, 203 in letters, 152, 153 in memos, 224 revision of, 56 in short reports, 560, 562 in social media content, 145

topic for long reports, 598 topic sentence, A-1–A-2 Track Changes, 95, 96–97 trade journals, 241 training, 384 transitional words and phrases,

A-2, A-3 transitions, 604, 637 transmittal letter, 348, 606 travel expenditures, 419

travel reports. See trip/travel reports

trial run, 487 TripAdvisor, 145, 209 trip/travel reports

example of, 574–575 gathering information for,

578–579 questions to answer, 573 types of, 573, 575, 578–579

Tumblr, 140 TweetMyJobs, 240 Twitter

character limit, 144 documenting in MLA and

APA style, 346 e-communications, 116–117 job searching, 242 link to on résumés, 260 as a microblog, 144 and professional image, 238 as recruiting tools for focus

groups, 313 staying connected, 142 summaries, 372 tweets as legal records, 117 as used by business, 140 visuals, 147

type size, 455, 457, 526, 637 typeface, 407, 455. See also fonts typography, 454–456. See also

fonts

underlining, 226, 455–456, 487 UNESCO Institute for

Statistics, 558 United Nations Statistics

Division, 558 units of measure, 172, 486, A-13 unity, A-2 unjustified, 456 unnecessary words, 62–65 unsolicited proposals, 518, 520,

523, 530–534, 540 uploading visuals, 407 U.S. Bureau of Economic

Analysis, 328 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,

292, 327, 328, 558, 597 U.S. Bureau of Transportation, 558

I-18 Index

U.S. Census Bureau, 328, 558 U.S. Consumer Product Safety

Commission, 481 U.S. Data and Statistics, 328 U.S. Department of

Agriculture, 522 U.S. Department of

Education, 328 U.S. Department of Housing and

Urban Development, 328 U.S. government, and request for

proposals (RFP), 521, 523 USA Today, 289, 412 usability test, 489 USA.gov, 324, 326 USAJOBS, 241

vague questions, 311 verbs, 61–62, 490, 491, A-7 vertical, 412 vertical bar chart, 416 Vet Central, 266 Vet Jobs, 266 Veterans Job Bank, 266 Veterans Preference

Document, 269 video clips, 638 videoconferencing, 104, 106,

630–633 virtual meetings, 104 virtual reality, 376–382, 465–466 visuals, 400–441. See also list of

illustrations bar charts, 402, 403, 416–418,

434–436, 437 in blogs, 133 for a broad range of readers, 487 citations, 408 to clarify and condense

information, 21–22 clip art, 404, 430–431, 432, 440,

463, 638 in company newsletter, 462 in conjunction with written

work, 405, 408 to convey information, 22 crowded with too much

information, 406 distorted or slanted, 37 documentation of, 338

drawings, 428–429, 436 figures, 402, 403, 412–433 formal presentations, 638–639 generating, scanning, and

uploading, 407 graphs, 412–414, 434, 458–459 identifying, 407–408 ineffective visuals, 406 infographics, 431–433 for informal presentations, 627 inserting and writing about,

407–410 inserting appropriately,

408–409 for instructions, 491–493 for international readers, 436,

439–441, 486 interpretation of, 409–410 introducing, 409 line and bar chart, 402 maps, 347, 404, 423, 578, 639 in noncomputerized

presentations, 638–639 photographs, 404, 424–428,

434, 439 pictographs, 404, 421–422, 436 pie charts, 403, 414–416, 436, 438 placement of, 408–409 in presentation software, 638 for presentations, 625, 636 in proposals, 526 purpose of, 401–402 selection of, 402–406 in short reports, 561, 562 in social media, 145, 147 tables, 403, 410–411, 412, 526 types of and their functions,

402, 403–404 used with written work, 405 using ethically, 433–436 visual thinking in the global

workplace, 400–401 in website design, 471 white space, 408, 492, 506

vocabulary, for international readers, 169

voice volume, 641 volume, documenting in MLA

and APA style, 341 volunteer work, 238, 264

Wall Street Journal, 239, 289, 412 Walmart, 6 warehouse expansion, 100–101 warnings, cautions, and notes,

487, 497–499 warranty coverage, 211 Washington Post, 289 Washington Post Business

Glossary, 325 water filter plants and pumping

stations, 423 web conferencing, 104 Web Content Accessibility

Guidelines (WCAG), 471 web sources, documenting in

MLA and APA style, 342 web-based collaboration system,

97–99 web-based presentation

software, 635 WebCrawler, 330 webfolios, 242, 276. See also

career portfolios/webfolios Webopedia, 325 websites

accessibility, 471–472 for clip art, 430 design templates, 473 designing and writing for, 223,

468–473 documenting in MLA and

APA style, 342, 345 evaluation of, 330–331 example of well-designed home

page, 467 home page, 467–468 print document organization

vs. website organization, 465–466

rules for effective design, 475 storyboards, 473–474 visuals in, 471 web vs. print readers, 465–467 writing for and designing,

464–473 WH eComm, 315–318 white space

bullet lists and, 491 in company newsletter, 462 in instructions, 487

Index I-19

for international readers, 470 print document design, 449,

454, 457 purpose of, 162 in résumés, 255 in scannable résumés, 273 visuals, 408, 492, 506 on websites, 469

Whole Story, 130–131 Wide Door, 125, 126 Wikipedia, 99, 325 wikis, 99 Wix, 473 women in the workplace, 416 women’s athletics, 600 wordless instructions, 482 WordPress, 473 word-processing software, 375,

486–487 words

apostrophes, A-12–A-13 ellipses, 336, 441, A-14 hyphens, A-13 matching right word with right

meaning, A-14–A-18 numerals vs. words, A-14 spelling, A-12

wordy phrases, 62–63 workplace child care, 373 workplace technology, 8

works cited. See MLA works cited lists

World News Network, 330 WorldCat, 320 wpclipart.com, 430 writing

audience identification, 11–14, 16 clear sentences, A-11, A-12 effectiveness, keys to, 11–20 as an essential job skill, 4–5 for the global marketplace, 5–11 job-related writing,

characteristics of, 20–26 message formulation, 17 purpose, establishment of, 16–17 relation of to other skills, 4–5 sentences, A-5, A-12 style, 17–18 and successful employees, 38 tone, 19–20 well-developed paragraphs,

A-1–A-5 workplace ethics, 26–37

writing process, 44–70 case study, 57–59 collaborative writing, 77 drafting, 50–54, 77, 89–91, 489 editing, 59–69, 77–79, 176 long reports, 598–599 overview of, 44–45 planning, 46–49, 77

research, 45–46 résumé preparation, 257–260 revising, 54–59, 77, 92–95,

490, 598 of a summary, 374–376 summary of, 69–70

WWW Virtual Library, 329 www.ebenefits.va.gov/ebenefits/

jobs, 266

x-axis, 412 XMind, 46

Yahoo, 329, 330 Yahoo! Image Search, 330 Yahoo! News, 330 Yahoo! Video Search, 330 Yammer, 97 y-axis, 412 Yelp, 145, 209 yes or no questions, 311 “You attitude,” 164–168, 203,

281, 628 YouTube, 140, 142

Zacks, 327 Zagat’s, 209 Zoho Writer, 99 Zoo Search, 330

white space (continued )

Guide to Case Studies and Tech Notes

Case Studies • Writing to different audiences in a large corporation, p. 15 • Adapting a description of Heparin for two different

audiences, p. 18 • A “before” and “after” revision of a short report, p. 57 • Collaborative writing and editing, p. 78 • Evolution of a collaboratively written document, p. 89 • Using Google Docs as a collaboration tool, p. 100 • Writing a blog to keep customer goodwill, p. 133 • Writing to readers from a different culture, p. 173 • Writing to a client from a different culture, p. 177 • Two versions of a bad news message, p. 200 • Creating a digital résumé for a job search, p. 276 • Using an online survey, p. 315 • Summarizing an original article, p. 376 • NEW: Designing a company newsletter, p. 462 • NEW: Difference between print document organization

and website organization, p. 465 • Meeting your audience’s needs, p. 488 • Writing procedures at work, p. 511 • NEW: Drafting an internal proposal to create a mobile

app, p. 528 • A poor and an effective short report, p. 562 • Two sample test reports, p. 579

Tech Notes Chapter 1: Getting Started: Writing and Your Career • Know Your Computer at Work, p. 8

Chapter 2: The Writing Process at Work • Drafting on Your Computer, p. 51 • Revising on Your Computer, p. 56 • Editing on Your Computer, p. 60

Chapter 3: Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace • Virtual Meetings, p. 104 • Videoconferencing with Skype, p. 106

Chapter 6: Types of Business Letters and Memos • NEW: Mail Merge, p. 194

Chapter 7: How to Get a Job • Skype Interviews, p. 289

Chapter 8: Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace • Intranets, p. 321 • Gray Literature, p. 328 • Electronic Note-Taking Software, p. 335

Chapter 9: Summarizing Information at Work • Using Software to Summarize Documents, p. 375

Chapter 10: Designing Clear Visuals • NEW: Using Photoshop, p. 462

Chapter 11: Designing Successful Documents and Websites • NEW: Website Accessibility, p. 471 • NEW: Website Design Templates, p. 473

Chapter 13: Writing Winning Proposals • NEW: Finding U.S. Government RFPs Online, p. 523 • Document Design and Your Proposal, p. 525

Chapter 14: Writing Effective Short Reports • Creating Templates for Short Reports, p. 556 • Using the Web to Write Short Reports, p. 558

Chapter 15: Writing Careful Long Reports • Using Government-Sponsored Research, p. 597

67617_lastpage_se_ptg01_hires.indd 3 07/10/15 9:24 AM

Cover
Half Title
Title
Statement
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Part I: Backgrounds

Ch 1: Getting Started: Writing and Your Career

Ch 1: Chapter Outline
Writing—An Essential Job Skill
Writing for the Global Marketplace
Four Keys to Effective Writing
Characteristics of Job-Related Writing
Ethical Writing in the Workplace
Successful Employees Are Successful Writers
Ch 1: Exercises

Ch 2: The Writing Process at Work

Ch 2: Chapter Outline
Ch 2: Introduction
What Writing Is and Is Not
The Writing Process
Researching
Planning
Drafting
Revising
Editing
The Writing Process: Some Final Thoughts
Ch 2: Exercises

Ch 3: Collaborative Writing and Meetings in the Workplace

Ch 3: Chapter Outline
Ch 3: Introduction
Collaboration Is Crucial to the Writing Process
Advantages of Collaborative Writing
Collaborative Writing and the Writing Process
Some Guidelines for Successful Group Writing
Ten Proven Ways to Be a Valuable Team Player
Sources of Conflict in Group Dynamics and How to Solve Them
Models for Collaboration
Computer-Supported Collaboration
Meetings
Conclusion
Ch 3: Exercises

Part II: Correspondence

Ch 4: E-Communications at Work: Email, Blogs, Messaging, and Social Media

Ch 4: Chapter Outline
Ch 4: Introduction
The Flow of Information through E-Communications
Differences Among E-Communications
E-Communications Are Legal Records
Email: Its Importance in the Workplace
Blogs
Messaging
Writing for Social Media in the Workplace
Conclusion
Ch 4: Exercises

Ch 5: Writing Letters: Some Basics for Communicating with Audiences Worldwide

Ch 5: Chapter Outline
Ch 5: Introduction
Essential Advice on Writing Effective Letters
Letters in the Age of the Internet
Different Ways to Send Letters
Letter Formats
Parts of a Letter
The Appearance of Your Letter
Envelopes
Organizing a Standard Business Letter
Making a Good Impression on Your Reader
International Business Correspondence
Sending Professional-Quality Letters: Some Final Advice to Seal Your Success
Ch 5: Exercises

Ch 6: Types of Business Letters and Memos

Ch 6: Chapter Outline
Ch 6: Introduction
Formulating Your Message
The Five Most Common Types of Business Letters
Inquiry Letters
Cover Letters
Special Request Letters
Sales Letters
Customer Relations Letters
Memos
Writing Business Letters and Memos That Matter: A Summary
Ch 6: Exercises

Ch 7: How to Get a Job: Searches, Networking, Dossiers, Portfolios/Webfolios, Résumés, Transitioning to a Civilian Job, Letters, and Interviews

Ch 7: Chapter Outline
Ch 7: Introduction
Steps an Employer Takes When Hiring
Steps to Follow to Get Hired
Analyzing Your Strengths and Restricting Your Job Search
Enhancing Your Professional Image
Looking in the Right Places for a Job
Using Online Social and Professional Networking Sites in Your Job Search
Dossiers and Letters of Recommendation
Career Portfolios/Webfolios
Preparing a Résumé
Transitioning into the Civilian Workforce
The Digital Résumé
Letters of Application
Going to an Interview
Keep a Job Search Record
Accepting or Declining a Job Offer
Searching for the Right Job Pays
Ch 7: Exercises

Part III: Gathering and Summarizing Information

Ch 8: Doing Research, Evaluating Sources, and Preparing Documentation in the Workplace

Ch 8: Chapter Outline
Ch 8: Introduction
Skills Necessary to Do Research
Characteristics of Effective Workplace Research
The Research Process
Two Types of Research: Primary and Secondary
Primary Research
Secondary Research
The Importance of Note Taking
Documenting Sources
A Business Research Report
Conclusion
Ch 8: Exercises

Ch 9: Summarizing Information at Work

Ch 9: Chapter Outline
Ch 9: Introduction
Summaries in the Information Age
The Importance of Summaries in Business
Contents of a Summary
Preparing a Summary
Executive Summaries
Evaluative Summaries
Abstracts
Writing Successful News Releases
Conclusion
Ch 9: Exercises

Part IV: Preparing Documents and Visuals

Ch 10: Designing Clear Visuals

Ch 10: Chapter Outline
Ch 10: Introduction
Visual Thinking in the Global Workplace
The Purpose of Visuals
Types of Visuals and Their Functions
Choosing Effective Visuals
Generating, Scanning, and Uploading Visuals
Inserting and Writing About Visuals: Some Guidelines
Two Categories of Visuals: Tables and Figures
Tables
Figures
Using Visuals Ethically
Using Appropriate Visuals for International Audiences
Conclusion
Ch 10: Exercises

Ch 11: Designing Successful Documents and Websites

Ch 11: Chapter Outline
Ch 11: Introduction
Characteristics of Effective Design
Organizing Information Visually
The ABCs of Print Document Design
Desktop Publishing
Before Choosing a Design
Writing for and Designing Websites
Creating Storyboards for Websites and Other Documents
Four Rules of Effective Page Design: A Wrap-Up
Ch 11: Exercises

Ch 12: Writing Instructions and Procedures

Ch 12: Chapter Outline
Ch 12: Introduction
Instructions, Procedures, and Your Job
Why Instructions Are Important
The Variety of Instructions: A Brief Overview
Assessing and Meeting Your Audience’s Needs
Using Word-Processing Software to Help You Design Instructions
The Process of Writing Instructions
Using the Right Style
Using Visuals Effectively
The Six Parts of Instructions
Model of Full Set of Instructions
Writing Procedures for Policies and Regulations
Some Final Advice
Ch 12: Exercises

Ch 13: Writing Winning Proposals

Ch 13: Chapter Outline
Ch 13: Introduction
Proposals Are Persuasive Plans
Proposals Frequently Are Collaborative Efforts
Types of Proposals
Eight Guidelines for Writing a Successful Proposal
Internal Proposals
Sales Proposals
Proposals for Research Reports
A Final Reminder
Ch 13: Exercises

Ch 14: Writing Effective Short Reports

Ch 14: Chapter Outline
Ch 14: Introduction
Why Short Reports Are Important
Types of Short Reports
Eight Guidelines for Writing Short Reports
Periodic Reports
Sales Reports
Progress Reports
Employee Activity/Performance Reports
Trip/Travel Reports
Test Reports
Incident Reports
Short Reports: Some Final Thoughts
Ch 14: Exercises

Ch 15: Writing Careful Long Reports

Ch 15: Chapter Outline
Ch 15: Introduction
Characteristics of a Long Report
The Process of Writing a Long Report
Parts of a Long Report
A Model Long Report
Final Words of Advice About Long Reports
Ch 15: Exercises

Ch 16: Making Successful Presentations at Work

Ch 16: Chapter Outline
Ch 16: Introduction
Writing a Document Versus Making a Presentation
Types of Presentations
Informal Briefings
Formal Presentations
Ch 16: Exercises

Appendix: A Writer’s Brief Guide to Paragraphs, Sentences, and Words
Proofreading Marks
Index
Guide to Case Studies and Tech Notes

1. 2015-12-16T01:39:23+0000
2. Preflight Ticket Signature