Business Discussion
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Newstrom14e_PPT_Ch05.pptChapter Five Motivation
Organizational
Behavior
John W. Newstrom
Human Behavior at
Work
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14e
Learning Objectives
The motivational process
The motivational drives
Need category systems
Behavior modification and reinforcement
Goal setting and its effects
The expectancy model of motivation
Equity comparisons
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Motivation
Indicators of employee motivation
Engagement and commitment
Satisfaction and turnover
Work motivation: Result of a set of internal and external forces that cause an employee to:
Choose an appropriate course of action
Engage in certain behaviors
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Motivation
Work motivation elements that interest employers
Direction and focus of the behavior
Level of the effort and persistence of the behavior
4
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Factors that Demotivate Employees
Tolerating poor performance
Leveling unjustified criticism at employees
Not providing clear expectations
Making false promises of incentives
Showing favoritism
Hours spent in unproductive meetings
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Figure 5.1 - A Model of Motivation
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A Model Of Motivation
Potential performance (PP) is a product of ability (A) and motivation (M)
PP = A x M
High-energy workers: Employees who are alert, spirited, and enthusiastic
Feel vitalized and are eager to act
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A Model Of Motivation
Fatigued workers: Employees who act tired, sluggish, and feel emotionally depleted
Personal strategies for energy management
Learning and relationship development
Finding meaning at work
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Motivational Drives
Drives: Strong desires for something
Product of the cultural environment
Affect people’s:
Perspectives of their jobs
Approach to life
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Achievement Motivation
Drive to accomplish objectives and get ahead
Achievers work hard when:
They receive personal credit for their effort
Risk of failure is only moderate
They receive feedback about past performances
Characteristics of achievers
Take responsibility for their actions and results
Control their destiny
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Affiliation Motivation
Seek regular feedback
Enjoy winning individually or as a team
Drive to relate to people on a social basis
Affiliation-oriented managers have difficulty:
Assigning challenging tasks
Directing work activities
Monitoring work effectiveness
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Difference between Achievement-motivated Employees and Affiliation-motivated Employees
Achievement-motivated employees
Work better when supervisors provide detailed evaluations
Choose technically capable assistants
Affiliation-motivated employees
Work better when they receive recognition
Surround themselves with friends and likable people
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Power Motivation
Drive to influence people, take control, and change situations
Can be constructive or destructive in nature
Institutional power - Need to influence others’ behavior for the good of the whole organization
Personal power - Need to influence others’ behavior for personal gains
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Managerial Application of the Drives
Observe employees’ behavior to determine what they will respond to
Identify their strongest motivational drive
Communicate to each particular employee’s needs
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Human Needs
Primary needs: Basic physical needs
Universal
Vary in intensity from person to person
Conditioned by social practice
Secondary needs: Social and psychological needs
Develop as people mature
Get affected by manager’s plans
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Key Conclusions about Secondary Needs
Strongly conditioned by experience
Vary in type and intensity
Subject to change across time
Work in combination and influence each other
Are hidden from conscious recognition
Are vague feelings
Influence behavior in powerful ways
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Human needs arranged according to their importance
Lower-order needs: First and second level needs
First-level needs - Basic survival and physiological needs for food, air, water, and sleep
Second-level needs - Bodily safety and economic security needs
Higher-order needs: Top three needs
Love, belonging, and social involvement at work
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Esteem and status needs
Self-actualization: Ongoing process of becoming all that one is capable of becoming
Interpretations
People have a variety of needs they wish to satisfy
All need levels are often partially satisfied
Gratified needs are not as strongly motivating as unmet needs
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Managers must:
Identify and accept employee needs
Realize that needs may differ among employees
Limitations
Difficult to study and not fully verified
Providing opportunities for self-actualization to all employees is difficult
The five need levels have not been established as unique
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model
Two separate sets of factors influence motivation
Hygiene factors: Potent dissatisfiers or maintenance factors
Are not strongly motivating
Required to build a foundation on which to create motivation
Motivational factors: Are primarily motivators
Absence does not cause strong dissatisfaction
Job content: Motivators that are job-centered
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model
Job context: Environment surrounding a job
Intrinsic motivators: Internal rewards that a person feels when performing a job
Extrinsic motivators: External rewards that occur apart from the nature of work
Interpretations
Provides distinction between maintenance and motivational factors
Shows the importance of intrinsic rewards
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model
Limitations
Not universally applicable
Reduces the motivational importance of pay, status, and relations with others
Model outlines only general tendencies
Maintenance factors may be motivators to some people
Motivators may be maintenance factors to others
Is method bound
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Alderfer’s E-R-G Model
Modified need hierarchy model with:
Existence needs: Physiological and security factors
Relatedness needs: Social factors, involve being understood and accepted by people
Growth needs: Desire for self-esteem and self-actualization
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Figure 5.3 - A Comparison of Maslow’s, Herzberg’s, and Alderfer’s Models
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Behavior Modification
Content theories - Relate to a person’s inner self and how his/her internal state of needs determines behavior
Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod): Application in organizations of the principles of behavior modification
Process theory of motivation - Provide perspectives on the dynamics by which employees can be motivated
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Law of Effect
A person repeats behavior that is accompanied by favorable consequences
For successful application of OB Mod:
Manager must identify, control, and administer powerful consequences
Employee must see the connection between behavior and consequences
OB Mod states that external consequences determine behavior
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Law of Effect
Advantage - Greater control and responsibility is given to managers
Social learning: People learn from observing others and modify their own behavior
Also known as vicarious learning
Not dependent on personal experiences
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Alternative Consequences
Provides a favorable consequence that encourages repetition of a behavior
Shaping: Systematic and progressive application of positive reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
Occurs when behavior is accompanied by removal of an unfavorable consequence
Negative reinforcement
Administration of an unfavorable consequence that discourages a certain behavior
Punishment
Withholding of significant positive consequences that were previously provided for a desirable behavior
Extinction
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Baseline - Derived from frequency of employee behavior and used as a scale for improvements
Types
Continuous: Occurs when reinforcement accompanies each correct behavior by an employee
Partial: Occurs when only some of the correct behaviors are reinforced
Learning is slower but is retained longer
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Interpreting Behavior Modification
Contributions
Makes managers more conscious motivators
Leads to improvement in specific areas
Limitations
Inconsistent with humanistic assumptions
Gives too much power to managers without appropriate controls
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Figure 5.6 - Guidelines for Applying Behavior Modification
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Goals
Targets and objectives for future performance
Help focus employees’ attention
Encourage better planning for the allocation of critical resources
Illustrate the value of persistent effort
Stimulate the preparation of action plans
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Goal Setting
Motivational process that creates a discrepancy between current and expected performance
Self-efficacy: Internal belief regarding one’s job-related capabilities and competencies
Judged on a specific task or across a variety of performance duties
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Figure 5.7 - Tips for Building Employee Self-efficacy
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Elements of Goal Setting
Obtained by allowing employees to participate in the goal-setting process
Goal acceptance
Specific goals provide focus and allow employees to measure their own progress
Specificity
Difficult yet achievable goals make employees work harder
Challenge
Performance monitoring: Observing behavior, inspecting output, or studying performance indicators
Performance feedback: Timely provision of data or judgment regarding task-related results
Performance monitoring and feedback
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Expectancy Model
Valence: Strength of a person’s preference for receiving a reward
Expectancy: Strength of belief that one’s work-related effort will result in completion of a task
Instrumentality: Employee’s belief that a reward will be received once the task is accomplished
Valence × Expectancy × Instrumentality = Motivation
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Figure 5.8 - Range of Valence, Expectancy, and Instrumentality
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Impact of Uncertainty
Addressed by:
Strengthening the actual value of the rewards offered and the formal connections between:
Effort and performance
Performance and rewards
Recognizing and accepting the legitimacy of an employee’s perception of the rewards
Managers must clarify employee perceptions
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Interpreting the Expectancy Model
Advantages
Helps managers think about the motivational mental processes
Reflects Theory Y assumptions about people
Encourages a motivational climate
Improves communication
Limitations
Multiplicative combination of the three elements needs further substantiation
Both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards need to be considered
Lacks reliable measures that can be used in actual work settings
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Equity Model
Equity theory: Employees judge fairness by:
Comparing the outcomes they receive with their relevant inputs
Comparing their ratios with the ratios of other people
Inputs: All the rich and diverse elements that employees bring or contribute to the job
Outcomes: Rewards employees perceive they get from their jobs and employers
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Figure 5.9 - Key Factors in Equity Assessment
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Figure 5.10 - Possible Reactions to Perceived Inequity
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Interpreting the Equity Model
Employees
Work within several social systems
Have multiple reference groups
Have shifting standards and personal egos
Have an upward orientation
Equity sensitivity: Individuals have different preferences for equity
Procedural justice: Focuses on interpersonal treatment and clarity of explanations
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Interpreting Motivational Models
All models have strengths and weaknesses
All models add to the understanding of the motivational process
New models are being developed
Cognitive models will dominate for some time
Model used must be adapted to the situation and blended with other models
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