BUSINESS MANAGEMENT A+ WORK, ON TIME, NO PLAGARIZING; ON TIME

MBA program enrolment as a catalyst for boundaryless career goals (part two)

Naser Muja and Steven H. Appelbaum

Dr Naser Muja is a Graduate

Student in the Master of

Business Administration

Program and Dr Steven H.

Appelbaum is a Professor of

Management, both are based

at Department of

Management, John Molson

School of Businesses,

Concordia University, Montreal,

Canada.

Abstract

Purpose – Further investigation of the thoughts and attitudes contributing to the voluntary pursuit of an

MBA degree and career change is necessary to better understand career motivations and to satisfy career

goals. The purpose of this two-part paper is to achieve this objective.

Design/methodology/approach – Factors contributing to the cognitive decision to enroll in an MBA

program and the subsequent impact of self-discovery gained upon program entry on career strategy were

explored using a 32-question survey based on empirical research findings.

Findings – Part-time and full-time MBA students exhibited differences in decision criteria applied for MBA

program entry. Following program enrollment, opportunities for career growth led to upward goal revision

and increasingly focussed goals.

Research limitations/implications – Participation was potentially limited by survey distribution during a

demanding academic period where many project reports and group presentations were due. A single MBA

program in the downtown Montreal area may not be representative all programs in the population.

Practical implications – Anchoring individual career identity and social identity has become increasingly

complex as employers in many industries undergo continuous transformational change.

Social implications – Integration within the work environment of identified career roles requires additional

attention to validate an individual’s strategic career efforts.

Originality/value – Surveying MBA candidates about career decisions and goal-revision allows for a

valuable “snapshot” of career evolution over time. By promoting increased self-awareness, applied

knowledge gained through MBA program activities acts as a catalyst for self-efficacy beliefs which results in

upward distal goal-revision or increased goal focus.

Keywords Self-efficacy, Social cognition, Career strategy, Cognitive decision making, MBA enrolment,

Voluntary career change

Paper type Research paper

Results

Part One of this two-part article presented relevant literature, the methodology and the

hypotheses that were tested with the results to be presented in this part two as well as

the conclusions and future directions. The survey sample (n¼ 61) represented 13.6 percent of

the total MBA student population at the John Molson School of Business which is comprised

of 172 part-time students and 275 full-time students. In total, 22 part-time students (36.1

percent of survey sample) and 39 full-time MBA students (63.9 percent of survey sample)

participated in the research survey (see table I in part one). While the majority of MBA students

were Canadian citizens, 40 percent of students were international and permanent residents

indicating that they have been present in Canada for less than three years; the duration of

physical presence required for citizenship consideration. In addition, 67.2 percent of survey

participants were less than 30 years of age, suggesting greater freedom of career mobility due

to fewer personal constraints. Therefore, MBA students experience complex socio-economic

conditions involving physical relocation, social and professional network disruption, and challenges

associated with integration in novel contexts (Feldman and Ng, 2007).

DOI 10.1108/ICT-02-2013-0012 VOL. 46 NO. 4 2014, pp. 201-208, C Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 0019-7858 j INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING j PAGE 201

The decision to enroll in graduate studies involves a complex array of objective and subjective

criteria which together contribute to the development of personal intentions that ultimately lead

to behavior. Compared to part-time MBA students, a significantly higher proportion of full-time

students were seeking a new employer (9.1 vs 53.8 percent; po0.05). To gain insight into

the decision criteria considered for the strategic career decision to enroll in the MBA program,

MBA students were asked to check all the indicated criteria that applied (see table II in part one).

Program reputation (75.4 percent) followed by tuition cost (67.2 percent) were most frequently

selected among the decision criteria indicated. Significant differences were present between the

proportion of part-time and full-time students who indicated convenience (72.7 vs 41.0 percent;

po0.05), length of program (22.7 vs 59.0 percent; po0.05), and post-MBA salary (9.1 vs 38.5

percent; po0.05) among the most important decision factors considered for MBA program

entry. Voluntary open-ended responses indicated the unique characteristics of the MBA

program (two of four responses) and career placement (two of four responses) as additional

decision criteria that were considered.

To explore the boundaryless career tendencies of MBA candidates, MBA students were

asked to indicate the reasons that best explained their strategic career decision to enroll in the

MBA program (see table III in part one). Work that “provides a strong sense of success and

accomplishment” was the most frequently indicated factor selected by MBA students (68.3

percent) followed by “skills required to gain employment in a different industry” (61.7 percent).

Significant differences were present between the proportion of part-time and full-time students

who indicated the identification of work that “Supports need for personal happiness” (36.4 vs

65.8 percent; po0.05) and the development of skills that “promote advancement within my

present company” (59.1 vs 10.5 percent; po0.05) as reasons for MBA enrollment. McNemar’s

non-parametric test for nominal responses did not reveal significant differences between

the response proportions for decision Factors 1, 3, 4, and 7 listed in this question; which are

each related to boundaryless career characteristics. Voluntary open-ended responses primarily

indicated MBA program entry as a means to obtain “a deeper understanding of business

management.”

The variables of interest in this study were the MBA students’ interest in career mobility, career

research, and the extent of work integration. Predictor variables included career growth

potential, social support, and goal revision. The means and standard deviations of these six

variables, and the inter-correlations are presented in Table IV in this part two. The internal

consistency of the scales was low to near acceptable (Cronbach’s a score40.7 being acceptable)

with Cronbach’s a ranging from 0.58 to 0.68 for the measures taken immediately at the end of the

Winter term. The correlation between career growth opportunity and career mobility (r¼�0.52,

po0.05) was significant. The correlations between career research and career mobility (r¼ 0.17,

po0.05), career research (r¼�0.58, po0.01), and work integration (r¼�0.50, po0.05) were

also significant. Finally, the correlation between goal revision and employer feedback was also

significant (r¼ 0.66, po0.05). There was no correlation between social support and career

mobility (r¼�0.03).

Of the 61 MBA candidates who participated in the survey, 14 (23 percent) indicated that they

have changed industries and five (8.2 percent) indicated that they are seeking advice related

to career change. Considering the transformational extent of such voluntary career change,

Table IV Descriptive statistics and inter-correlations among variables

Variable M SD a 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Career mobility 3.53 0.76 0.64 1 2. Career growth potential 2.93 1.14 0.65 �0.52* 1 3. Career research 3.69 0.54 0.58 0.17* 0.72 1 4. Social support 3.49 0.72 0.57 �0.03 0.61 �0.17 1 5. Goal revision 3.67 0.65 0.67 0.13 0.66* �0.02 0.11 1 6. Work integration 3.12 1.20 0.68 �0.35 0.15 �0.58** �0.27 �0.5* 1

Notes: *po0.05, **po 0.01; ANOVA, Scheffe post-hoc test

PAGE 202 j INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING j VOL. 46 NO. 4 2014

it was hypothesized that individuals may experience work integration challenges following this

decision. The majority of respondents (86 percent) did not self-report any regrets about their

decision to change industries. Indeed, many respondents took considerable time to develop

and implement the decision to change industries ranging from one to six months (50 percent) to

greater than six months (38.9 percent). Only two individuals surveyed (11.1 percent) arrived at

the decision to change career industry within a matter of days. Interestingly, although 60 percent

of individuals self-report that they are familiar with the requirements and responsibilities of the

new industry, career integration within the new industry was reduced (26.7 percent agreed and 0

percent strongly agreed). More than half (60 percent) of respondents continued to identify with

their previous career role and 53.3 percent remained engaged in activities within their previous

industry. Analysis of part-time and full-time responses showed that full-time students were more

likely to have disidentified and disengaged (50 percent full-time agree vs 12.5 percent part-time

agree) from their career role as part of MBA pursuits. However, due to a reduced sample size,

this finding was not found to be significant. Text analysis of 17 non-voluntary open-ended

responses regarding the primary contributing factors to the decision to change industries

revealed goal revision, protean/boundaryless career inclinations, and increased self-efficacy

(see Table V in this part two). These results are discussed in relation to the existing literature in the

following section in order to determine their congruency or lack of fit.

Discussion of results

Academic programs offer the opportunity to observe individual careers in a state of flux. The

decision to enroll in an MBA program is a critical element of career strategies directed toward

either job promotion, change of employer, change of job industry, or opportunities for self-

employment. However, individual motives for incremental or transformational changes in career

path are often unclear due to a complex combination of objective and subjective factors which

vary across time (Bandura, 1977; Ajzen, 2002). More than 80 percent of the survey participants

undergoing industry change required a period of several months to fully develop their intent and

take action. While highly individualized socio-economic contexts and network resources

Table V Text analysis of open-ended responses to question no. 32: “Please indicate the

primary contributing factors to take action toward this career decision.”

Wanted to broaden work opportunities. Job opportunities were limited in my industry (PB, GR) New interests (PB, GR) Opportunity and ambition (PB, SE) Self-actualization (PB, SE) Low salary, my bachelor’s degree needed to be complemented by a master’s degree (GR, SE) Better rewards. Wanted a change. New challenges. Separation from the problems of the previous industry. (SE, PB, GR) Personal fulfilment and over-all career advancement (PB, GR) Job prospects, interest (GR, SE) Goals (GR) Although I enjoyed my job as a geo-marketing analyst, it does become monotone and I am looking for variety and above all, mobility. While I have yet to decide what exactly to do post-MBA, I have a better idea of my aptitudes (GR, SE, PB) It better suits my abilities and interests than the work I was previously doing. Knowing my personal strengths and weaknesses and to learn more about the job description (PB, GR, SE) Less excitement in my current career. Unfriendly management. Look for new challenges (PB, GR, SE) I have gained a deeper understanding of my level of expertise and therefore feel as though staying in my current position would not benefit me in utilizing these traits to their fullest (SE, GR) Frustration with previous employer: talents not recognized nor was I offered possibility for promotion. MBA studies have given me the platform to showcase talents I knew I had, and others I did not know I had (SE, PB) Learning, challenge, contribution (SE, GR) Self-fulfillment (SE, PB) Wanted to broaden work opportunities. Job opportunities were limited in my industry (GR, PB)

Notes: GR, goal revision; PB, protean/boundaryless; SE, self-efficacy

VOL. 46 NO. 4 2014 j INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING j PAGE 203

contribute to individual variations in career strategy there are nevertheless universal drives for

self-actualization and career satisfaction that result in common goal-seeking behaviors

(Feldman and Ng, 2007). For example, increased self-efficacy beliefs due to work experience

contribute to career goal revision and active reflections about career identity (Feldman and

Bolino, 1997). Yet, the capacity of employers to offer opportunities for career growth may be

limited which reduces satisfaction and increases job turnover (Chiaburu et al., 2006). Given the

dominant association between career identity and self-identity it is not surprising that individuals

are driven by personal growth, control, mobility, psychological success, and work satisfaction

which are characteristic of protean and boundaryless careers (Muja and Appelbaum, 2012). The

key question that arises is “How do individuals identify and engage in a new career role that

better satisfies their psychological needs?” As individuals identify meaningful careers and

become “embedded,” they experience greater career success and reduced mobility (Feldman

and Ng, 2007).

The H1 that opportunities for career growth will negatively correlate with interest in career

mobility offered by enrolling an MBA program was supported by survey analysis (r¼�0.52;

po0.05). Despite being committed to working with their recent employer (59 percent agree/

strongly agree) and overall satisfaction by the level of recognition they received for their work (62

percent very satisfied/somewhat satisfied), only 11.5 percent of MBA candidates surveyed are

currently seeking job promotion from their current employer. Greater than half of survey

respondents (52.5 percent) indicated that an MBA degree was not required for career

advancement at their most recent employer suggesting an upward revision in career goals and

limited growth opportunities. Consequently, compared to additional work experience, an MBA

degree was perceived as a more effective approach toward career advancement (Kelan and

Jones, 2009). Therefore individuals may opt to minimize losses and reduce escalation of

commitment, by disengaging from their employer in order to pursue an MBA degree (Wrosch et

al., 2003). This decision may by facilitated by a reduction in satisfaction organizational

commitment by employees over time (Bentein et al., 2005; Boswell et al., 2005, 2009). In

addition, reduced employee “embeddedness” which consists of overall organizational “fit,”

“links” with colleagues, and the amount of “sacrifice” required to sever these links has been

proposed as a factor contributing to career mobility (Mitchell et al., 2001; Holtom and O’Neill,

2004). As indicated by the criteria considered for MBA enrollment, the decision to pursue an

MBA degree is related to boundaryless and protean career intentions, including the quest for

meaningful work (Wrzesniewski et al., 1997), greater career control and career mobility (Carless

and Bernath, 2007; Khapova et al., 2007), and overall personal happiness derived from career

identity and lifelong learning (Chiaburu et al., 2006).

Voluntary career change requires significant personal investment in money, time, and effort.

Although convenience, length of program, and post-MBA salary were important decision factors

(see table II in part one), personal/family relocation, absence from work, and time investment

were not significant contributors; indicating high mobility and a reduced demand to consider

external stakeholder needs. Also, survey responses indicated only a modest degree of research

and network consultation prior to the decision to submit an application for MBA program

enrollment suggesting that heuristics may have contributed significantly. Reduced employee

commitment has been shown for those having diverse social networks (Higgins, 2001). Similarly,

peer-to-peer and social forms of recognition have been reported as important factors career

consideration (Quigley and Tymon, 2006).

“y nearly two-thirds of students surveyed indicated that they entered the MBA program with a realistic career plan (64 percent), greater than half of survey participants also indicated that their career strategy changed due to knowledge gained upon entering the program (52 percent).”

PAGE 204 j INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING j VOL. 46 NO. 4 2014

The H2 that career research and social support will positively correlate with interest in career

mobility offered by MBA enrollment was partially supported. While career research was

correlated with career mobility (r¼ 0.17; po0.05), social support had a negligible impact on

career mobility (r¼�0.03). Although greater than 90 percent of survey participants indicated

strong social network support, social networks/social cognition had little influence or

contribution toward the decision to pursue an MBA degree. This finding suggests that career

change and the pursuit of an MBA degree are highly personal goals which are potentially

considered in relative isolation in order to maintain regulatory focus and reduce cognitive

dissonance (Higgins, 1998). Social network support may serve primarily to encourage or confirm

individual intentions and cognitive bias while bearing reduced weight in terms of strategic action.

Therefore, social networks may act to self-fulfil individual intentions and self-efficacy beliefs

(Dijksterhuis and Aarts, 2010). Such a high degree of “focalism” on the “to be” predicted

outcome may contribute to future forecasting error in terms of career goal (Wilson et al., 2000).

Alternatively, the quality of career information provided by social networks may require further

investigation as closely associated support members are not likely to disagree or resist with

expressed individual goals (Schoenfeld and Bruce, 2005; Leary, 2007; Ng et al., 2008). An

overall lack of diverse insight and unbiased constructive input from employers, family, and peers

may explain the reduced influence of social cognitive networks on the decision to enroll in an

MBA program.

Attending to novel stimuli and integrating relevant information into conscious thought is critical

for shifts in job attitudes and the development of realistic goals (Oettingen et al., 2001; Judge

et al., 2005). While nearly two-thirds of students surveyed indicated that they entered the MBA

program with a realistic career plan (64 percent), greater than half of survey participants also

indicated that their career strategy changed due to knowledge gained upon entering the

program (52 percent). Students reported that their career goals were either revised upward (50.9

percent) or increasingly focussed/unchanged (31.6 percent) with the remaining individuals

indicating that they completely changed goals or that they “did not know.”

The significant positive correlation between career growth potential and goal revision (H3,

r¼ 0.66; po0.05) indicates that further analysis regarding the quality of information received

prior to MBA program entry is necessary. Feedback and recognition received prior to MBA

enrollment is most likely employer or industry specific, and is therefore insufficient to provide an

accurate impression of other business industries. Alternatively, MBA candidates enter the

program with realistic expectations and goals which are then revised by increased self-efficacy

beliefs (Latham and Brown, 2006). Indeed, 82.4 percent of survey participants indicated that

they gained novel insights about their personal abilities upon entering the program.

The H4 that career research and goal revision upon entry in the MBA program each correlate

negatively with work integration (r¼�0.58; po0.01 and r¼�0.50; po0.05, respectively) was

supported; indicating conditions of flux for MBA students intending to change industries.

Challenges associated with integration within a novel career role or industry will likely vary

between part-time and full-time MBA students. Part-time MBA students continuing to work

appear are less likely to have disengaged and disidentified with their career role which may

reduce flexibility for change (remain with employer vs accept external job offer) and increase

cognitive dissonance (increased admiration for their present work vs initial perceived need for

career change). In contrast, full-time students may be able to experiment more frequently with

novel career roles due to reduced employer commitments.

Conclusion

MBA programs serve as a catalyst for career change by offering a stimulating environment where

individuals can discover and develop their skills and abilities while practising roles associated

“y82.4 percent of survey participants indicated that they gained novel insights about their personal abilities upon entering the program.”

VOL. 46 NO. 4 2014 j INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING j PAGE 205

with various business careers (Baruch and Peiperl, 2000; Baruch and Leeming, 2001). Large

volumes of social cognitive information are available to develop the decision to pursue an MBA

degree. However, the quality of social cognitive information may be impaired by the tendency of

individuals attend to what they “like to hear” rather than what they “need to hear” regarding their

career decision. Similarly, it appears that individual intents are difficult to modify, by social

cognition or otherwise, once they have been developed. The majority of those intending to

change industries took from two to six months to more than six months to consider this decision;

suggesting a readiness to undertake the challenges associated with career change. Once

enrolled in an MBA program, individuals appear to reduce their level of bias and revise their

strategic career decisions more willingly; suggesting access to a greater diversity of objective

information and the ability to test individual career “hypotheses” by experimentation in the MBA

program setting.

Matching intent with behavioral outcome requires significant foresight and resource

allocation to pursue goals and maintain self-regulation of learning (Locke, 1996; Carver and

Scheier, 1998). Over the course of their MBA studies, graduate students progressively

refine their analytical skill sets, newly acquired competencies, personal goals, and career

identity in preparation for businesses workforce (re)integration via self-regulatory feedback

loops (Lord et al., 2010). Throughout this rigorous process, individuals regularly consider

the extent to which employment opportunities correspond to their personal identity, life

purpose, and sense of accomplishment. As a result, meanings associated with major

business professions have shifted from expertise in the execution of specific tasks to the

lasting qualities of the work delivered. In effect, an affective component has emerged as

dominant part of career decision strategy such that individuals increasingly seek and prioritize

happiness, control over career direction, and feelings of success above salary, job tasks,

and promotion.

Self-effective individuals are highly self-aware which implies an elevated degree of emotional

intelligence; whereupon emotions are cognitively monitored. Thus, affective elements, such as

personal meaning and purpose, are juxtaposed with fundamental business career tasks to

influence individual career decisions and career strategy during self-regulation of learning. The

term boundaryless has been used to describe the environment in which career mobility takes

place as well as actual employee trajectories (Sullivan and Arthur, 2006). Similarly, career mobility

may be measured either objectively (e.g. the frequency of job/career change) or subjectively (e.g.

according to employees’ perceptions of the desirability or practical utility of mobility). Unlike the

uncertainty and lack of definition implied by the use of the words protean or boundaryless to

describe careers, self-effective individuals have clear career intentions and they are committed

toward attaining personal and professional satisfaction. As part of business strategy, employers

must anticipate, listen critically, interpret, decide, deliver, and learn about these generational

differences in employment and identify leaders (Briscoe et al., 2010). There is a need for

improved communication between employers and MBA students to provide realistic work

previews and facilitate effective work integration to ensure a lifetime of meaningful work and

long-term satisfaction with career identity.

Limitations and directions for future research

There is a need to replicate the findings to provide a more complete understanding of

management as a career choice among MBA students. Finally, greater attention to the evolution

of career goals over time is necessary. It will be important to survey MBA students about their

career goals and intentions prior to program entry and then perform a follow-up survey prior to

“MBA programs serve as a catalyst for career change by offering a stimulating environment where individuals can discover and develop their skills and abilities while practising roles associated with various business careers.”

PAGE 206 j INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING j VOL. 46 NO. 4 2014

graduation in order to better comprehend the factors that contribute to career goal revision

and integration. Future research should involve a larger number of MBA students from a wider

array of universities.

References

Ajzen, I. (2002), “Perceived behavioral control, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of planned

behavior”, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 32 No. 4, pp. 665-83.

Bandura, A. (1977), Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, Freeman, New York, NY.

Baruch, Y. and Leeming, A. (2001), “The added value of MBA studies – graduates perceptions”, Personnel

Review, Vol. 30 No. 5, pp. 589-601.

Baruch, Y. and Peiperl, M.A. (2000), “The impact of an MBA on graduates’ career”, Human Resource

Management Journal, Vol. 10 No. 2, pp. 69-90.

Bentein, K., Vandenberghe, C., Vandenberg, R. and Stinglhamber, F. (2005), “The role of change in the

relationship between commitment and turnover: a latent growth modeling approach”, Journal of Applied

Psychology, Vol. 90 No. 3, pp. 468-82.

Boswell, W.R., Boudreau, J.W. and Tichy, J. (2005), “The relationship between employee job change and job

satisfaction: the honeymoon-hangover effect”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 90 No. 5, pp. 882-92.

Boswell, W.R., Shipp, A.J., Payne, S.C. and Culbertson, S.S. (2009), “Changes in newcomer job satisfaction

over time: examining the pattern of honeymoons and hangovers”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 94

No. 4, pp. 844-58.

Briscoe, J.P., Hoobler, J.M. and Byle, K.M. (2010), “Do “protean” employees make better leaders? The

answer is in the eye of the beholder”, The Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 21 No. 5, pp. 783-95.

Carless, S.A. and Bernath, L. (2007), “Antecedents of intent to change careers among psychologists”,

Journal of Career Development, Vol. 33 No. 3, pp. 183-200.

Carver, C.S. and Scheier, M.F. (1998), On the Self-Regulation of Behavior, Cambridge Univ. Press,

New York, NY.

Chiaburu, D.S., Baker, V.L. and Pitariu, A.H. (2006), “Beyond being proactive: what (else) matters for career

self-management behaviors?”, Career Development International, Vol. 11 No. 7, pp. 619-32.

Dijksterhuis, A. and Aarts, A. (2010), “Goals, attention, and (un) consciousness”, Annual Review of Psychology,

Vol. 61, pp. 467-90.

Feldman, D.C. and Bolino, M.C. (1997), “Careers within careers: reconceptualizing the nature of career

anchors and their consequences”, Human Resource Management Review, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 89-112.

Feldman, D.C. and Ng, T.W.H. (2007), “Careers: Mobility, embeddedness, and success”, Journal of Applied

Psychology, Vol. 30 No. 3, pp. 350-80.

Higgins, M.C. (2001), “Changing careers: the effects of social context”, Journal of Organizational Behavior,

Vol. 22 No. 6, pp. 595-618.

Holtom, B.C. and O’Neill, B.S. (2004), “Job embeddedness: a theoretical foundation for developing a

comprehensive nurse retention plan”, Journal of Nursing Administration, Vol. 34 No. 5, pp. 216-27.

Judge, T.A., Bono, J.E., Erez, A. and Locke, E.A. (2005), “Core self-evaluations and job and life satisfaction:

the role of self-concordance and goal attainment”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 90 No. 2, pp. 257-68.

“There is a need for improved communication between employers and MBA students to provide realistic work previews and facilitate effective work integration to ensure a lifetime of meaningful work and long-term satisfaction with career identity.”

VOL. 46 NO. 4 2014 j INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING j PAGE 207

Kelan, E. and Jones, R.D. (2009), “Reinventing the MBA as a rite of passage for a boundaryless era”, Career

Development International, Vol. 14 No. 6, pp. 547-69.

Khapova, S.N., Arthur, M.B., Wilderom, C.P.M and Svensson, J.S. (2007), “Professional identity as the key to

career change intention”, Career Development International, Vol. 12 No. 7, pp. 584-95.

Latham, G.P. and Brown, T.C. (2006), “The effect of learning, distal, and proximal goals on MBA self-efficacy

and satisfaction”, Applied Psychology: An International Review, Vol. 55 No. 4, pp. 6060-123.

Leary, M.R. (2007), “Motivational and emotional aspects of the self”, Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 58,

pp. 2317-44.

Locke, E.A. (1996), “Motivation through conscious goal setting”, Applied and Preventive Psychology, Vol. 5

No. 2, pp. 117-24.

Lord, R.G., Diefendorff, J.M., Schmidt, A.M. and Hall, R.J. (2010), “Self-regulation at work”, Annual Review

of Psychology, Vol. 61, pp. 543-68.

Mitchell, T.R., Holtom, B.C., Lee, T.W., Sablynski, C.J. and Erez, M. (2001), “Why people stay: using

organizational embeddedness to predict voluntary turnover”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 44

No. 6, pp. 1102-21.

Muja, N. and Appelbaum, S.H. (2012), “Cognitive and affective processes underlying career change

decisions”, Career Development International, Vol. 17 No. 7, pp. 583-601.

Ng, E.S.W., Burke, R.J. and Fiksenbaum, L. (2008), “Career choice in management: findings from US MBA

students”, Career Development International, Vol. 13 No. 4, pp. 346-61.

Oettingen, G., Pak, H. and Schnetter, K. (2001), “Self-regulation of goal setting: turning free fantasies about

the future into binding goals”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 80 No. 5, pp. 736-53.

Quigley, N.R. and Tymon, W.G. (2006), “Toward and integrated model of intrinsic motivation and career

self-management”, Career Development International, Vol. 11 No. 6, pp. 522-43.

Schoenfeld, G. and Bruce, G. (2005), “School brand images and brand choices in MBA programs”,

Symposium for the Marketing of Higher Education, American Marketing Association, Chicago, IL, pp. 130-39.

Sullivan, S.E. and Arthur, M.B. (2006), “The evolution of the boundaryless career concept: examining

physical and psychological mobility”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 69 No. 1, pp. 19-29.

Wilson, T.D., Wheatley, T.P., Meyers, J.M., Gilbert, D.T. and Axsom, D. (2000), “Focalism: a source of durability

bias in affective forecasting”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 78 No. 5, pp. 821-36.

Wrosch, C., Scheier, M.F., Carver, C.S. and Schulz, R. (2003), “The importance of goal disengagement in

adaptive self-regulation: when giving up is beneficial”, Self and Identity, Vol. 2, pp. 1-20.

Wrzesniewski, A., McCauley, C., Rozin, P. and Schwartz, B. (1997), “Jobs, careers, and callings: people’s

relations to their work”, Journal of Research in Personality, Vol. 31 No. 1, pp. 21-33.

About the authors

Dr Naser Muja has more than 15 years of biomedical research experience in Neuroscience and

has published 27 articles the areas of neural plasticity, learning and memory, central nervous

system development, and diseases of the nervous system. As a Graduate Student in the MBA

program, he actively seeks to develop and provide solutions to business challenges including

workplace productivity, organizational effectiveness, and the advancement of mental and

physical health in society.

Dr Steven H. Appelbaum’s current research is centred mainly on downsizing, managing change,

and transformational behavioral management. He has published over 100þ articles in

prestigious academic journals. Awarded Most Outstanding Paper Award (May 2012) by Emerald

Literati Network 2012 Awards for Excellence for paper, “Globalization of Performance Appraisals:

Theory and Applications,” Management Decision, Vol. 49, No. 4, 2011. Dr Steven H. Appelbaum is

the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected]

Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints

PAGE 208 j INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING j VOL. 46 NO. 4 2014

Reproduced with permission of copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.