BUSINESS MANAGEMENT A+ WORK, ON TIME, NO PLAGARIZING

Freelance job search during times of uncertainty: protean career

orientation, career competencies and job search

Mostafa Ayoobzadeh John Molson School of Business, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada

Abstract

Purpose – Freelancers are a growing population of working adults with limited to no organizational support. Yet, their strategies to navigate job search, especially in turbulent times, are unknown. To address this gap, the author hypothesized and examined a sequential mediation model whereby freelancer protean career orientation (PCO) influences job search strategies through career competencies (i.e. knowing why, how and with whom to work) and job search self-efficacy (JSSE). Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected from a sample of 87 Canadian freelancers during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings – The results supported the sequential mediation from PCO to job search strategies through two of the career competencies (knowing why and how) and JSSE. The mediating role of knowing whom was not supported. Practical implications – Policy makers and learning institutions can provide freelancers with opportunities to develop transferable skills through massive open online courses (MOOCs). Employers of freelancers can design motivating jobs that provide freelancers with on-the-job learning and development opportunities. Social implications –The insignificant mediating role of knowing whom (i.e. professional networks) implies that large networks might not be necessarily beneficial in times of crisis. Thus, the role of networks might be more complex than the literature has proposed. Originality/value – This study brings into focus an overlooked population of workers: freelancers. It investigates a sequential mediation through which freelancer PCO impacts job search strategies. In addition, it compares the effectiveness of career competencies in unfolding the proposed sequential mediation.

Keywords Freelancers, Protean career orientation, Career competencies, COVID-19, Social cognitive

career theory, Job search self-efficacy, Job search strategy.

Paper type Research paper

Introduction As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, millions of people have lost their jobs and have experienced major career disruptions (Akkermans et al., 2020). Among them are freelancers, defined as “self-employed individuals who do assignments, either in series or in parallel, for a number of different organizations or clients, on a (typically short-term) commercial rather than employment contract basis” (Wood and Michaelides, 2016). Freelancers constitute a large portion of the global working population (e.g. 35% of working adults in the United States; Ozimek, 2019). Yet, our understanding of how freelancers navigate their uncertain and unpredictable careers without organizational support is limited (Hennekam and Bennett, 2017; Jacobs et al., 2019). Addressing this research gap is needed now more than ever, considering that navigating one’s career is even more challenging and unpredictable for freelancers in turbulent times, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the present study examines the mechanisms that impact freelancers’ strategies in searching for employment

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The author would like to thank Dr. John Fiset and the anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments on the earlier versions of this manuscript.

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:

https://www.emerald.com/insight/0048-3486.htm

Received 24 July 2020 Revised 16 November 2020 Accepted 28 December 2020

Personnel Review Vol. 51 No. 1, 2022 pp. 40-56 © Emerald Publishing Limited 0048-3486 DOI 10.1108/PR-07-2020-0563

opportunities during times of uncertainty. In doing so, I refer to social cognitive career theory, contemporary career models and the intelligent career framework, which show promise in studying the challenges of career development in the new era (Hirschi, 2018).

The present study investigates the antecedents of job search self-efficacy (JSSE) and job search strategies among freelancers. JSSE is the extent to which an individual is confident of performing job search tasks successfully (Ellis and Taylor, 1983). Job search strategy is the general behavioral path that one follows toward achieving one’s desired employment and includes where to concentrate search efforts and how to gather job-related information (Van Hooft et al., 2012). According to the social cognitive career theory’s (SCCT) career self- management model (Lent and Brown, 2013), many personal and social factors – such as personality, experience, skills, education and social support – influence individual’s job search behaviors and actions through JSSE (Kim et al., 2019).

In this study, I hypothesize a sequential mediation whereby self-directed protean career orientation (PCO) impacts job search strategy, through career competencies and JSSE. PCO refers to a career orientation in which the person, not the organization, is in charge of one’s career and aspires to be self-directed (Hall, 2004). Previous research has shown that PCO, as an agentic orientation toward career development, is extremely important in uncertain and unpredictable work contexts (Steiner et al., 2019). As one of themediators, career competencies reflectwhy, how andwith whompeoplework (Defillippi andArthur, 1994). These competencies are referred to as knowing why (individual’s motivation, values, and identity), knowing how (skills and expertise) and knowing whom (relationships and reputation).

The present study makes a number of notable contributions to the literature. First, it highlights freelancers, an understudied yet important population of workers, whose careers are more likely to be at risk in turbulent times, due to lack of organizational support (Hennekam and Bennett, 2017; Jacobs et al., 2019). Second, it brings into attention the occurring change that individuals are increasingly required to be flexible in their career development and to initiate self-directed career management over their entire life span (Hirschi, 2018). Third, the current study responds to previous calls to test the efficacy of SCCT’s self-management model in coping with negative career events (e.g. Brown and Lent, 2019). Fourth, it expands further career behavior antecedents, which are mainly limited to the existing social cognitive variables in the literature (Lent and Brown, 2013). Finally, it compares the role of career competencies (i.e. knowing why, how and whom) in job search during turbulent times. This finding will have theoretical and practical implications, as it will clarify which career competencies aremore influential in career development during crises. In the next section, I will review the literature and outline my hypotheses.

Literature review Freelance job search strategies Within the last century, research has defined work as mostly a full-time, fixed schedule and continuous employment with one organization (Spreitzer et al., 2017). However, more recently, work involves several jobs beyond firmboundaries, withmore flexibility in terms of schedule, location and relationships (Guan et al., 2019; Spreitzer et al., 2017). A new form of employees are freelancers (also referred to as nonstandard workers, portfolio workers and independent contractors; e.g. George and Ng, 2011; Lo Presti et al., 2018; Wood and Michaelides, 2016), including skilled workers who sell their skills directly to many clients and organizations (Osnowitz, 2010). Although this population is growing fast and is significantly different from traditional workers, it has been vastly understudied (Spreitzer et al., 2017). Job search is one aspect in which freelancers differ from traditional workers. This population of workers is pressured to be always available and prepared to accept new contracts and is constantly on the job market, as many of them look for contracts throughout their careers, on a yearly,

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monthly or daily basis (Spreitzer et al., 2017). To shed light on this gap, below, I elaborate further on freelancers’ job search strategies.

A job search strategy is a general behavioral path that one takes to achieve their job search goal (Van Hooft et al., 2012).While some job seekers have a clear idea of what specific job they want, somemight search for a broad range of jobs, might have a fuzzy idea of what theywant or might passively limit their job search to available opportunities (Van Hoye, 2014). This variation in goal clarity results in various strategies for job search. Previous research describes job search strategies as focused, exploratory and haphazard (Crossley and Highhouse, 2005).

A focused strategy refers to concentrating on a few potential employers and selectively screening them early in search process. Job seekers using this search strategy only apply for positions in cases where they are interested in a particular employer and for which they are qualified. An exploratory strategy refers to exploring several potential employment opportunities, collecting job-related information from many sources (e.g. friends, job centers, contacts and family) and remaining open to many employment opportunities as they appear. A haphazard strategy refers to passively collecting job-related information, using a hit-or-miss approach and switching between job search tactics without a clear reason (Crossley and Highhouse, 2005). While both focused and exploratory search strategies are associated with positive outcomes, a haphazard strategy is the least preferred and is negatively associated with many job search outcomes such as the number of offers, satisfaction with job search, and satisfaction with the new job (Crossley andHighhouse, 2005; Koen et al., 2010).

In the present study, exploratory and haphazard job search strategies are included as the behavioral outcomes for freelancers and not focused job search strategy. Many constructs and measurements that have been used widely in studying traditional careers become less relevant in the context of freelancing (Lo Presti et al., 2018). I do not examine focused job search strategy because it is less relevant in studying at least a large portion of freelancers. One of the main stressors for freelancers is to sustain a sufficient workload (Wood and Michaelides, 2016). Several freelancers search for employment opportunities and projects throughout their careers and through a wide range of sources, such as online meeting communities, networking events, contacts and former colleagues (Hennekam and Bennett, 2017; Schwartz, 2018). In addition, they have to broaden their areas of expertise and their skills to be shortlisted for hiring decisions (Schwartz, 2018). For instance, for several groups of freelancers – such as make-up artists, skin care consultants, software developers, tutors andmusicians – focusing on only a number of potential clients comes with the risk of missing several other clients. For this reason, freelancers broaden their search and work for tens of clients per year (e.g. Hennekam and Bennett, 2017; Totterdell et al., 2006; Wood and Michaelides, 2016). In addition, previous research has shown that career planning (i.e. future career orientation and plan fullness) is an important antecedent of a focused job search strategy (Koen et al., 2010). However, for several freelancers, planning for the next career steps is not feasible or is non-existent (Schwartz, 2018), especially in times of crisis (e.g. the COVID-19 pandemic). Below, I elaborate further on job search antecedents.

Protean career orientation (PCO) and job search strategies Many attributes predict job search strategies. Job search behaviors – including job search strategies – are the outcomes of a self-regulated process in which the identification of an employment goal is followed by job search behaviors that increase the likelihood of achieving those goals (Kanfer et al., 2001). During this search process, individuals use a combination of personal resources (e.g. effort, skills and social resources) and focus on a self-organized and self-managed approach (Kanfer et al., 2001). The antecedents of job search behaviors include

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employment motives and goals as well as personal tendencies (Kanfer et al., 2001; Kim et al., 2019). This argument on the driving forces of job search behavior indicates that PCO – as an attribute that motivates engagement in career-related behaviors (Briscoe et al., 2012) – is an important antecedent of job search strategies for freelancers.

PCO revolves around the notion of career actors, as opposed to organizations, taking control of their careers (Hall, 2002). Previous research has treated PCO as either a global construct (e.g. Baruch, 2014) or a construct with two dimensions (e.g. Briscoe et al., 2006). The two dimensions are self-directed PCO (i.e. being independent in taking control of one’s career) and values-driven PCO (i.e. relying on one’s own values, rather than organizational values, in managing one’s career) (Briscoe et al., 2006). While self-directed PCO has received substantial evidence on its validity, values-driven PCO is not consistently valid and reliable in all samples (e.g. Chan et al., 2012; Hall et al., 2018; Lo Presti et al., 2018) or was removed in some studies depending on the context (e.g. Briscoe et al., 2012). As the present study is about freelancers, who often work for multiple clients and/or organizations (Spreitzer et al., 2017), I use only the self-directed dimension of PCO, which will be simply referred to as PCO in the remaining.

I propose that freelancer PCO is associated positively with an exploratory job search strategy and negatively with a haphazard job search strategy. Research suggests that high PCO individuals perceive themselves as employable (Baruch et al., 2019). They aremore likely to rely on themselves in looking for employment opportunities and to engage proactively in exploration and job search activities (e.g. networking events, attending information sessions and being in touch with their contacts) (Waters et al., 2014). Therefore, their job search strategy is more likely to involve exploring many employment options (e.g. looking for potential clients), gathering job-related information from various sources and developing a professional network (i.e. exploratory strategy). In addition, as individuals with a proactive orientation, those with high PCO are less likely to rely on external resources such as employment agencies and career counselors (Waters et al., 2014). Thus, high PCO freelancers are less likely to be passive in collecting career-related information, developing contacts and searching for opportunities (i.e. haphazard strategy).

The sequential mediation from PCO to job search strategies Social cognitive career theory (SCCT; Lent et al., 1994) postulates that individual and social factors impact self-efficacy, goals and behaviors. This theory has been applied tomany career development contexts, including job search (Lent and Brown, 2013). Accordingly, individuals’ resources – such as predispositions, beliefs, skills, experience and social support – influence their self-belief about their ability to achieve success in their job search (i.e. JSSE). In turn, their JSSE impacts many job search behaviors, including the amount of time and effort they devote to job search, their persistence when facing unsatisfactory results and their job search performance (Kim et al., 2019; Lent and Brown, 2013).

Relying on SCCT, I argue that high PCO freelancers possess higher career competencies, which result in higher JSSE. In turn, they are more likely to adopt an exploratory job search strategy, rather than a haphazard job search strategy. Specifically, I propose a sequential mediation model whereby the relationship between PCO and job search strategies (i.e. the behavioral component of SCCT) is mediated by career competencies and JSSE. Figure 1 exhibits this sequential mediation model. In the remaining of the literature review, I argue (1) the mediating role of career competencies in the relationship between PCO and JSSE and (2) the mediating role of JSSE in the relationship between career competencies and job search strategies.

PCO to JSSE, mediated by career competencies. Many studies have investigated the predictors of self-efficacy. However, most of them focused on the four social cognitive antecedents (e.g. Lent et al., 2017; Sheu et al., 2018), namely, mastery experience (i.e. previous

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successes and failures), verbal persuasion (i.e. encouragement by others), vicarious learning (i.e. observation of others’ behaviors) and affective states (i.e. positive and negative emotions) (Bandura, 1997). Research often overlooks a broader range of antecedents, such as environmental and social support, personality variables and personal goals (Lent and Brown, 2013). Moreover, researchers are encouraged to study the process aspects of career development using SCCT and to focus on broader topics such as self-directed career management (Lent and Brown, 2013). Therefore, below, I introduce protean career orientation and career competencies as the antecedents of JSSE.

Research has shown that PCO enables career attitudes and competencies such as self- efficacy and adaptability (Hirschi et al., 2017). Characterized as being flexible and learning- oriented, high PCO individuals are in charge of their own career development (Hall et al., 2018) and can adapt to the current work environment, which is known to be dynamic and self- reliant (Hirschi et al., 2017). In addition, PCO motivates individuals to clarify their career- related skills, preferences and interests over their life span (Hirschi et al., 2017). Consequently, PCO is considered a beneficial orientation to achieve career success (Hirschi et al., 2017).

PCO is associated with JSSE. Research shows that many characteristics of high PCO individuals – such as being good at career planning, directing one’s career development and getting access to career opportunities – are associatedwith JSSE (Guan et al., 2013). Moreover, high PCO individuals are more likely to be reemployed over time, as they possess many characteristics that are appealing to employers, such as high internal energy, proactivity, optimism and adaptability (Waters et al., 2014). Reemployment can boost their self-efficacy even further. Therefore, they are more likely to gain JSSE in their job search process, especially freelancers who are constantly on the job market.

PCO is also associatedwith career competencies. First introduced byDefillippi andArthur (1994), intelligent career theory postulates that individuals invest in their careers through accumulating three “ways of knowing” or career competencies: their motivation to work and their identity (knowing why), their skills and expertise (knowing how), and their work-related relationships (knowing whom). Previous research suggests that PCO leads to the development of career competencies. Thanks to their learning orientation, high PCO individuals develop their identity throughout their lives and are motivated to engage in certain opportunities that

Self-directed

protean career

orientation

Motivation

(Knowing why)

Career-related skills

(Knowing how)

Professional networks

(Knowing whom)

Job search

self-efficacy

Exploratory job

search strategy

Social cognitive antecedents of job search

self-efficacy and job search strategy

Career competencies

Haphazard job

search strategy

_

+

Figure 1. Conceptual framework

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help them direct their own careers (i.e. knowing why; Briscoe et al., 2012; Hall, 2004). In addition, PCO predicts developing certain skills such as job-related skills, proactivity, adaptability, and active coping in times of uncertainty (i.e. knowing how; Briscoe et al., 2012; Hall, 2004; Sultana and Malik, 2019). Finally, PCO is shown to predict professional networks, relationships and networking behaviors (i.e. knowing whom; Davis et al., 2020; Sultana and Malik, 2019).

I propose that career competencies mediate the relationship between PCO and JSSE. Previous research suggests that career competencies – such as motivational drives, freelance skills and professional networks – are associated with freelancers’ career success (Van den Born and Van Witteloostuijn, 2013). It also asserts that career competencies mediate the relationship between PCO and many career related outcomes, such as performance, career success, job search intensity andwell-being (e.g. Briscoe et al., 2012; Sultana andMalik, 2019). In their framework of protean career theory, Hall et al. (2018) suggest that PCO influences career outcomes through three protean career processes that are aligned with the three career competencies: (1) strong internal motive and compass for self-guidance, self-regulation, and self-development (i.e. knowing why), (2) ability to take necessary actions to adapt with situational changes and to cope with obstacles (i.e. knowing how) and (3) personal agency characterized by proactive career behaviors such as expanding one’s network (i.e. knowing whom). Below, I argue the mediating role of each career competency in more details.

Autonomous motivation to freelance is the “knowing why” variable that mediates the relationship between PCO and JSSE. According to self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985), individuals with autonomous motivation engage in activities because those activities bring them joy or are aligned with their self-identity and values. Autonomous motivation is associated with perseverance in dealing with challenging tasks (Gagn�e and Deci, 2005). In the context of this study, freelancers who look for job opportunities or projects in turbulent times need autonomous motivation to be able to successfully and confidently manage their job search, which is a self-regulatory process (Kanfer et al., 2001). For them, this internal drive manifests in perseverance and acts as a mechanism through which PCO leads to outcomes such as self-regulation, self-efficacy and hope for positive outcomes (Hall et al., 2018).

Career-related skills are the “knowing how” variable that mediates the relationship between PCO and JSSE. This competency emphasizes on developing transferable skills that can be used across organizations and in different contexts (Defillippi and Arthur, 1994). These skills are shown to be vital specifically for freelancers (Hennekam and Bennett, 2017). Ability to constantly advance one’s skills and to improve one’s adaptability to a changing environment is one of the mechanisms through which PCO influences career-related outcomes (Hall et al., 2018). Accordingly, self-directed orientation boosts freelancers’ skills throughout their careers. In turn, they gain confidence in their abilities and in selling them throughout job search.

Finally, professional network is the “knowing whom” variable that mediates the relationship between PCO and JSSE. This competency refers to professional networks and personal contacts from inside and outside one’s organization (Parker et al., 2009). PCO is associated with connections and having networking abilities (Sultana and Malik, 2019). Professional networks provide individuals with access to information, resources, assistance and opportunities (Davis et al., 2020; Seibert et al., 2001). In job search, specifically, PCO leads to a larger network, which provides the job seeker with relevant information about potential job opportunities. In addition, professional contacts have been shown to mediate the relationship between PCO and job search benefits such as receiving recommendations (Davis et al., 2020), which can improve applicants’ confidence in, and expectation for, achieving employment.

Career competencies to job search strategies, mediated by JSSE. When applied to the job search process, the SCCT’s career self-management model posits that many social cognitive

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factors increase individuals’ job search goals, behaviors and outcomes (Lent and Brown, 2013). JSSE plays a central role in the relationship between job search antecedents and outcomes (Kim et al., 2019; Petruzziello et al., 2020). Many antecedents – such as personality, proactivity, education, past experience, skills and social support – influence JSSE, which in turn increases search behaviors such as search intensity and effort, which boost the likelihood of achieving positive outcomes (Kim et al., 2019).

As individual resources, career competencies are aligned with many of the social cognitive antecedents of JSSE and job search strategies. Autonomous motivation is associated with proactive personality and conscientiousness (e.g. Gagn�e et al., 2015); career-related skills are associated with work experience, education and on-the-job learning (e.g. Parker et al., 2009); and professional networks are associated with receiving social support (e.g. Cotton et al., 2011). Therefore, career competencies provide job seekers with social cognitive resources that boost their JSSE, which increases the likelihood of engagement in a proactive job search strategy (i.e. exploratory job search) and decreases the likelihood of engagement in a passive job search strategy (i.e. haphazard job search).

H1. The positive relationship between PCO and exploratory job search strategy (H1a), and the negative relationship between PCO and haphazard job search strategy (H1b) will be sequentially mediated by autonomous motivation to freelance and JSSE.

H2. The positive relationship between PCO and exploratory job search strategy (H2a), and the negative relationship between PCO and haphazard job search strategy (H2b) will be sequentially mediated by career-related skills and JSSE.

H3. The positive relationship between PCO and exploratory job search strategy (H3a), and the negative relationship between PCO and haphazard job search strategy (H3b) will be sequentially mediated by professional networks and JSSE.

Method Context, procedure and participants The data were collected in Spring 2020, a period during which millions of people all around the world did, or expected to, lose their jobs due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Akkermans et al., 2020). In Canada, for instance, just from February to April 2020, 5.5 million Canadian workers were negatively affected by the COVID-19 economic shutdown and the unemployment rate raised from 5.6% to 13.7% (Statistics Canada, 2020).

Freelancers in Canada were invited to participate in this study through various methods, such as word of mouth (e.g. contacts and students) and via social media (e.g. Canadian university alumni pages on Facebook and Linkedin). I received 87 completed surveys. The participants were 51% (N5 44) women and were 28.62 (SD5 7.10) years of age on average. The participants had 2.84 (SD5 2.91) and 7.69 (SD5 5.65) years of freelance and total work experience, respectively, and worked as freelancers in various industries, including cosmetics, information technology, sales, education, health care, research, pharmaceutical and arts.

Measures The measurements are described below. All items were measured using a seven-point Likert scale (1 5 strongly disagree; 7 5 strongly agree) unless stated otherwise.

Self-directed protean career orientation. Self-directed protean career orientation was measured using Briscoe et al.’s (2006) eight-item scale. A sample item is “Ultimately, I depend upon myself to move my career forward.”

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Career competencies. To measure the knowing why competency, I used the six-item autonomousmotivation subscale fromGagn�e et al. (2015) workmotivation scale. Participants were asked to rate many items as to why they put effort into their freelance job. They rated each item from 1 (not at all) to 7 (completely). Sample itemwas “Because putting efforts in this job has personal significance to me.” To measure the knowing how competency (career/job- related skills), I used Eby et al.’s (2003) five-item scale. A sample item was “I seek out opportunities for continuous learning in my career.” Finally, to measure the knowing whom competency, I used Eby et al.’s (2003) four-item scale for the breadth of networks inside one’s freelance industry. A sample itemwas “I have extensive contactswithin the industry inwhich I work.”

Job search self-efficacy (JSSE). Respondents were asked to rate the extent to which they were confident about doing a good job in many job search tasks using a ten-item scale by Wanberg et al. (2010) (e.g. Identifying the skills you have to offer an employer). The participants rated each item from 1 (not at all confident) to 7 (completely confident).

Job search strategy. To measure the extent to which respondents engaged in an exploratory and a haphazard job search strategy, I used Crossley and Highhouse’s (2005) scale. This measure includes six items for exploratory (e.g. I follow up on every lead to make sure I do not miss any golden opportunities) and four items for haphazard job search strategy (e.g. My approach to gathering job-related information can be described as random).

Control variables. I controlled for the impact of many variables that, based on previous research, correlate with job search behaviors (e.g. Kanfer et al., 2001). These variables included gender (15 female, 05male), age, education (from 05 some high school education to 9 5 doctoral degree), freelance and total work experience and marital status (0 5 single, never married, widowed, divorced; 15married or domestic relationship). As data were self- reported, to account for the potential influence of common source bias, I followed previous research recommendations (Bernerth andAguinis, 2016) and controlled for respondent social desirability using a ten-item scale (V�esteinsd�ottir et al., 2017). To account for the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on respondents’ job search, I asked the participants to rate the extent to which their careers had been influenced by the pandemic on a seven-point scale from 1 (extremely positive) to 7 (extremely negative).

Notably, I followed previous research recommendations and kept only significant control variables in the final analysis (Bernerth andAguinis, 2016). Significant control variableswere age (β5 0.14, p < 0.01), gender (β5 0.40, p < 0.01), education (β5�0.23, p < 0.01), freelance experience (β5�0.13, p < 0.01) and total experience (β5�0.14, p < 0.01) when exploratory job search strategy was the outcome variable, and gender (β5�0.78, p< 0.01), the impact of COVID-19 pandemic (β 5 0.45, p < 0.01) and social desirability (β 5 0.32, p < 0.05) when haphazard job search strategy was the outcome variable. As such, only significant control variables were included in subsequent analyses.

Results Table 1 contains means, standard deviations, reliability coefficients and the correlations between the variables involved in this study.

Test of sequential mediation To test the hypotheses, I used Taylor et al. (2008) recommendations for testing three-path sequential mediation models with small samples. I used the bias-corrected bootstrap method, which has the highest statistical power (Taylor et al., 2008), and the PROCESS macro developed by Hayes (2013). The path coefficients for the outcome variables (i.e. exploratory and haphazard job search strategies), based on the sequential mediation analyses using

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p ar en th es es

on th e d ia g on al ar e th e C ro n b ac h ’s al p h a co ef fi ci en ts ;* p < 0. 05 ;* *p

< 0. 01

Table 1. Means, standard deviations, reliability coefficients, and correlations between variables

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10,000 bias-corrected bootstrapped samples (Hayes, 2013), are described below. Table 2 includes path coefficients for direct and indirect effects with exploratory and haphazard job search strategies as the outcome variables.

I posited that autonomous motivation (i.e. knowing why) and JSSE would sequentially mediate the relationship between PCOand exploratory job search strategy (H1a) and between PCO and haphazard strategy (H1b). As shown in Table 2, the confidence intervals for the sequential path from PCO to exploratory strategy (i.e. PCO → autonomous motivation →

JSSE → exploratory job search strategy) did not include zero (β 5 0.14, SE 5 0.05; CI95%5 0.062, 0.279). Similarly, the confidence intervals for the sequential path from PCO to haphazard strategy (i.e. PCO → autonomous motivation → JSSE → haphazard job search strategy) did not include zero (β5�0.25, SE5 0.09; CI95% 5 –0.486,�0.110). These results provided support for hypotheses 1a and 1b.

Hypothesis 2 stated that career-related skills (i.e. knowing how) and JSSE would sequentially mediate the relationship between PCO and exploratory job search strategy (H2a) and between PCO and haphazard strategy (H2b). As shown in Table 2, the confidence intervals for the sequential path from PCO to exploratory strategy (i.e. PCO→ career-related skills→ JSSE→ exploratory job search strategy) did not include zero (β 5 0.07, SE 5 0.03; CI95% 5 0.020, 0.146). Also, the confidence intervals for the sequential path from PCO to haphazard strategy (i.e. PCO → career-related skills → JSSE → haphazard job search strategy) did not include zero (β 5 �0.15, SE 5 0.06; CI95% 5 –0.307, �0.065). Therefore, Hypotheses 2a and 2b were supported.

Hypothesis 3 stated that professional networks (i.e. knowing whom) and JSSE would sequentially mediate the relationship between PCO and exploratory job search strategy (H3a)

Exploratory job search strategy Haphazard job search strategy β SE CI95% β SE CI95%

Knowing why (autonomous motivation) PCO → AM 0.69 0.11 0.466 0.910 0.70 0.11 0.473 0.916 AM → JSSE 0.43 0.08 0.270 0.595 0.43 0.08 0.262 0.588 JSSE → JSS 0.48 0.11 0.266 0.697 �0.85 0.24 �1.321 �0.381 PCO → AM → JSS �0.04 0.06 �0.157 0.084 0.15 0.16 �0.170 0.464 PCO → JSSE → JSS �0.08 0.05 �0.182 0.019 0.12 0.09 �0.020 0.365 PCO → AM → JSSE → JSS 0.14 0.05 0.062 0.279 �0.25 0.09 �0.486 �0.110

Knowing how (career-related skill development) PCO → CS 0.36 0.07 0.218 0.500 0.37 0.07 0.223 0.508 CS → JSSE 0.60 0.13 0.332 0.865 0.58 0.13 0.321 0.847 JSSE → JSS 0.32 0.10 0.122 0.517 �0.72 0.23 �1.176 �0.264 PCO → CS → JSS 0.13 0.06 0.036 0.265 �0.01 0.11 �0.249 0.201 PCO → JSSE → JSS �0.02 0.03 �0.107 0.031 0.05 0.07 �0.077 0.223 PCO → CS → JSSE → JSS 0.07 0.03 0.020 0.146 �0.15 0.06 �0.307 �0.065

Knowing whom (professional networks) PCO → PN �0.09 0.13 �0.353 0.174 �0.09 0.13 �0.353 0.174 PN → JSSE 0.10 0.08 �0.053 0.261 0.10 0.08 �0.053 0.261 JSSE → JSS 0.45 0.10 0.262 0.640 �0.74 0.21 �1.151 �0.330 PCO → PN → JSS �0.00 0.01 �0.032 0.020 �0.01 0.03 �0.126 0.026 PCO → JSSE → JSS 0.07 0.04 0.004 0.185 �0.12 0.07 �0.295 �0.013 PCO → PN → JSSE → JSS �0.01 0.01 �0.030 0.005 0.01 0.01 �0.009 0.059

Note(s): N 5 87; Number of bootstrap samples is 10,000 PCO 5 Protean career orientation; AM 5 Autonomous motivation; CS 5 Career-related skills; PN 5 Professional networks; JSSE 5 Job search self-efficacy; JSS 5 Job search strategy

Table 2. Mediation models

including the direct and indirect effects

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and between PCO and haphazard strategy (H3b). As shown in Table 2, the confidence intervals for the sequential path from PCO to exploratory strategy (i.e. PCO → professional networks → JSSE → exploratory job search strategy) included zero (β 5 �0.01, SE 5 0.01; CI95% 5�0.030, 0.005). Similarly, the confidence intervals for the sequential path from PCO to haphazard strategy (i.e. PCO → professional networks → JSSE → haphazard job search strategy) included zero (β5 0.01, SE5 0.01; CI95%5�0.009, 0.059). Therefore, hypotheses 3a and 3b were not supported.

Discussion The purpose of this studywas to investigate the antecedents of freelance job search strategies in turbulent times. Specifically, I tested a sequential mediation model from freelancer protean career orientation (PCO) to job search strategies (exploratory and haphazard) through career competencies (i.e. knowing why, how and with whom to work) and job search self-efficacy (JSSE). As shown, PCO was positively associated with exploratory job search strategy through autonomous motivation to freelance (knowing why) and JSSE as well as through career-related skills (knowing how) and JSSE. Also, PCO was negatively related to haphazard job search strategy through autonomous motivation to freelance (knowing why) and JSSE as well as through career-related skills (knowing how) and JSSE. However, contrary to my expectations, the relationship between PCO and neither of the job search strategies was sequentially mediated by professional networks (knowing whom) and JSSE.

There is a potential reason for non-significant sequential relationship from PCO to job search strategies through professional networks and JSSE. Although networks are beneficial, having an extensive network can result in negative attitudes and emotions in times of crisis. Millions of people lost their jobs during the COVID-19 pandemic (Akkermans et al., 2020). Having a large professional network increases the possibility of receiving disheartening news about friends and colleagues losing their jobs and, consequently, developing negative thoughts about the job market. These negative thoughts reduce individuals’ hope for, and confidence in, receiving employment opportunities. Thus, freelancers with a large professional network might become less confident in exploring employment opportunities. This is aligned with previous research in which professional networks resulted in aversive outcomes or were negatively correlated with career-related attitudes (e.g. Bozionelos, 2014; Francis-Smythe et al., 2013).

The present study makes a number of important contributions to the literature. First, the current study set out to investigate the job search strategies of freelancers, an understudied and relatively less supported population of workers (Jacobs et al., 2019; Lo Presti et al., 2018), during a global health and economic crisis. Another contribution was examining the sequential mediations proposed in this study. Freelancer PCO boosts autonomousmotivation and career-related skills. In turn, freelancers gain JSSE and engage in exploratory, rather than haphazard, job search behaviors. The introduction of career competencies as an antecedent of job search attitudes and behaviors suggests that the intelligent career framework (Defillippi and Arthur, 1994) can be integrated with social cognitive career theory (Lent et al., 1994) to unfold the mechanisms that lead to career-related behaviors and outcomes.

In addition, this study compared the mediating role of three career competencies: autonomous motivation to freelance (knowing why), career-related skills (knowing how) and professional networks (knowing whom). The results confirmed that autonomous motivation and career-related skills (and not professional networks) play a central role in explaining the relationship between PCO and job search behaviors during a crisis. This result suggests that career competencies explain differentmechanisms and variables. Many recent studies tend to aggregate career competencies as a global construct, overlooking the complexities between different dimensions of career competencies and different outcomes. Thus, career scholars

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should refine existing research that has treated career competencies as a global construct and should investigate the nomological network of each career competency distinctively.

Practical implications This study has implications for practice. The results confirmed the mediating role of autonomous motivation and career-related skills in the relationship between PCO and job search attitudes and behaviors. As most freelancers do not benefit from organizational support (e.g. training; Burgess and Connell, 2006), governments and educational institutions can help them improve their job search skills and confidence. For instance, online education portals (e.g. Coursera), which deliver massive open online courses (MOOCs), can provide freelancers in various industries with specialized courses to develop their career-related skills. Similarly, governments can provide job seekers with educational resources (e.g. videos and articles) on topics such as leadership to assist them in their professional development, especially for those who are on the job market and apply for resources such as employment insurance. Such online educational programs not only provide freelancers with cost-efficient development opportunities but also provide them with so much freedom to learn, which satisfies their need for autonomy (Hall et al., 2018). In addition, such development opportunities can boost underprivileged individuals’ (e.g. freelancers) feeling of competence and employability (Beigi et al., 2015). Based on self-determination theory, satisfying needs for autonomy and competence improves individuals’ autonomous motivation (Van den Broeck et al., 2016). Therefore, providing freelancers with development opportunities in turbulent times could not only enhance their career-related skills but also increase their autonomous motivation.

Project-based organizations, as employers of temporary workers (Samimi and Sydow, 2020), can use the findings of this study. Improving motivation and skills is vital for freelancers to remain confident and proactive in their job search. Although they do not often recruit freelancers for long-term, project-based organizations can utilize human resource practices that are not costly yet effective in keeping freelancers motivated and in developing their skills. For instance, these organizations can design and offer interesting jobs that provide on-the-job learning and growth opportunities. Employers can include such opportunities in their recruitment advertisements to attract freelancers as a population with high need for flexibility (Stich, 2020). Nonetheless, current research is mainly focused on permanent workers and has overlooked as to how human resource practices can be adjusted for the needs of temporary workers (Samimi and Sydow, 2020). Future research can provide more insights into the recruitment and development of freelancers. For example, freelancers are consumed with work, lack sufficient time to develop their skills, and are uncertain about what investments they should make in their learning (Mallon and Walton, 2005). Consequently, scholars, policy makers and practitioners must think as to how they can devise programs to support freelancers and how they can encourage freelancers to develop their skills using available resources (e.g. MOOCs).

Limitations and future research directions One limitation of the present study was the cross-sectional and self-report nature of the data. Although the relationships between the variables were speculated based on social cognitive career theory, causal inferences cannot be concluded firmly due to the cross-sectional study design. Also, collecting data from one source might raise the concern of common source bias. To alleviate this concern, I followed previous research recommendations such as controlling for participant social desirability (Bernerth and Aguinis, 2016).

Two other limitations were the use of convenience sampling and the small sample size, which limit the generalizability of the findings and raise the concern of type II error. As the

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findings were mostly significant (except for the mediating effect of knowing whom) and as the statistical analysis used was recommended for small samples by previous research, type II error is not highly likely. Yet, I recommend caution when using the findings, especially when related to knowing whom. Notably, due to the use of convenience sampling, most of the participants had some level of higher education. Thus, the findings might not be necessarily generalizable to other samples, such as freelancers with high school diplomas or lower levels of education.

To reduce the survey length and the risk of low response rate, and to remove items that are less relevant to the context of this study, I excluded values-driven PCO and focused job search strategy from my model. Values-driven PCO pertains to individuals’ intrinsic values as opposed to organization’s values (Briscoe et al., 2006). As several freelancers do not work for one organization, the items of this dimension could have been confusing and irrelevant. Similarly, as discussed in the literature review and based on preliminary findings in previous research, focused job search strategy appears to be less relevant in the context of freelance job search. Yet, I invite future research to examine the job search strategies and behaviors of more recent forms of employment, including freelancers and contract workers.

In the present study, due to the lack of measurement for the three ways of knowing, I used well-established scales to measure autonomous motivation, career-related skills and professional networks, as the closest proxy measures for career competencies. My choice of measurement was based on the review of inductive research that examined the most common themes under career competencies. Yet, I invite future research to develop scales to operationalize the three ways of knowing based on the intelligent career theory.

As the population of freelancers is diverse, future research must be more specific about defining freelancers and how to assist freelancers in their career development. For instance, this population consists of individuals with various levels and areas of expertise, which are not equally supported orwanted by employers. Future research can investigate freelancers in greater details and compare different groups of freelancers with one another as well as with other nonstandard workers in their career navigations and job search strategies.

Given that the mediating role of professional networks (knowing whom) was not supported, future research can delve further into the role of this competency in navigating one’s career and job search. As mentioned earlier in the discussion section, future research can examine the potentially negative impacts of networks on well-being during crises, especially for freelancers. For instance, do freelancers lose their confidence and passion due to receiving discouraging news about the job market during turbulent times? In addition, the role of professional networks (as well as research findings) might depend on whether career actors possess mainly weak or strong ties within their networks (see Jack, 2005). As the measurement of knowing whom in the present study (i.e. the breadth of networks) oversees strong versus weak ties, future research could investigate further the impact of social ties on job search during crises, especially when using the intelligent career framework.

Another avenue for research is to investigate further the mechanisms through which, and the contexts in which, professional networks can benefit freelancers. As shown in previous research, freelancer networking behaviors influenced career satisfaction and future opportunities only through the mediating role of need for relatedness and employability competencies, and not directly (Jacobs et al., 2019). Therefore, the role of knowing whom in freelance career behaviors and outcomes might be more complex than anticipated.

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Corresponding author Mostafa Ayoobzadeh can be contacted at: [email protected]

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