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Examples

Article: The good man and the upright citizen in Aristotle’s ethics and politics.

Overview

This article explores Aristotle's subtle assessment of the concepts of the good man or inherent goodness, and the upright citizen or civic virtue as presented in Politics III.4. Aristotle distinguishes between these two types of goodness, arguing that the upright citizen's moral virtues are inherently tied to the specific political community to which they belong, meaning, therefore, their goodness is dependent on the situation. In contrast, the goodness of a good man is universal and independent of societal frameworks. These two types of goodness would only align only in an ideal city, a theoretical construct representing a perfectly just society. In non-ideal cities marked by injustice, they often diverge, leading to complex moral dilemmas. This analysis underscores the complexity of Aristotle's ethical and political thought, highlighting the relationship between individual morality and civic duty.

Leaders must understand and adapt their approach to the specific context in which they operate. Effective leadership involves recognizing the needs, values, and cultural nuances of the community or organization they lead. This adaptability can enhance a leader's ability to make decisions that resonate with their organization and followers. In addition, Leaders should embody moral integrity, demonstrating ethical behavior and decision-making that transcends situational constraints. A leader who prioritizes moral values can inspire trust and loyalty among followers, fostering an environment of respect and cooperation.

Application 

This perspective invites readers to explore how a good person in a non-ideal city or environment might navigate conflicting obligations. Several interpretations arise, including the possibility that Aristotle believed good people couldn't thrive in such environments, or that they could indeed fulfill civic duties while maintaining their moral integrity. Additionally, Aristotle might have viewed philosophy as less applicable to everyday situations, opening further discussion and exploration of ethical and political thought. According to Keyt, In Aristotle's view, the virtue of a full citizen of a non-ideal city is never the same as the virtue of a good man. Aristotle does not argue for this central idea directly, but it falls out of the argument (2007, p. 230).

However, this perspective highlights important aspects of leadership and its application. Leaders often face conflicting obligations between work duties and moral values in a non-ideal environment. Like good individuals, effective leaders must balance competing interests, frequently making tough choices that prioritize ethics over practicality. By fulfilling civic duties while maintaining their principles, they can inspire others to uphold their integrity. Ultimately, the struggles of a good person in a challenging setting serve as a metaphor for leadership challenges, emphasizing the need for integrity and purpose in navigating ethical dilemmas.

Critique

This article was very interesting and helped illuminate the contrast between the inherent values of people and leaders and what external political and environmental influences make up the person’s behavior. Kent analyzed Aristotle’s position, considering that he sidesteps these challenging views. At the same time, he acknowledges the existence of scenarios where the need for civic virtue conflicts with the priorities of personal morality. For instance, a good man may find himself compelled to act in ways that contradict what an upright citizen would consider virtuous given a situation and its parameters. This observation demonstrates Aristotle's belief in the importance of individual moral judgment and implies a critical stance on political obligation, suggesting that there are limits to the responsibilities imposed by one's civic role in the face of ethical considerations. However, in the current leadership, applying Aristotle's concepts is not as black and white in our current organizational environments. There are many situations that are nuanced and require to apply both areas without having to conflict with one another. According to Solomon, Aristotelian ethics is an ethics of virtue, an ethics in which personal and corporate integrity occupy the place of central concern and focus as virtue and integrity are not to be found in a vacuum (2004, p. 1025). As leaders, we must have a balance and underscore the importance of ethical integrity, contextual awareness, and a commitment to the greater good, guiding leaders in their pursuit of effective and just leadership.

References

Keyt, D. (2007). The good man and the upright citizen in Aristotle’s ethics and politics.  Social Philosophy & Policy, 24(2), 220–244. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0265052507070239

Northouse, P. G. (2021).  Leadership: Theory and Practice (9th ed.). Sage Publications.

Solomon, R. C. (2004).  Aristotle, ethics, and business organizations. Peripheral Vision. 25 (6): 1021-1043. Sage Publications.

Article:  Avolio, B., Pardo, E., & Prados-Peña, M. B. (2024). Factors that contribute to the underrepresentation of women academics worldwide: A literature review.  Social Psychology of Education,  27(1), 261-281.

Overview

The article examines the gender gap in higher education leadership, research, and teaching positions. It is a literature review that reviews 83 research articles published between 2005 and 2023. It discovered six categories of influence that contribute to the underrepresentation: personal, family, educational, social, organizational, and economic. It finds that socio-cultural barriers hinder women's ability to advance academically and in the workplace. Some of the key attributes that are highlighted include impostor syndrome, institutionalized gender biases, and familial obligations (like childcare) that are enforced through policy and economic disparity (Avoli & Prados-Peña, 2024).

Application

This article gives important insight into the reasons that gender disparities exist within higher education leadership positions. Understanding how people feel or perceive disparity can help those in leadership or hiring roles make better decisions or make roles more accessible to bigger audiences. For example, childcare is a highlighted barrier that could be solved by making subsidized or provided childcare an option for families. Systemic, social, and cultural barriers often prohibit women from attaining leadership roles, for example, people assume mothers are not capable of working at the same level as single women because they have to think about their kids and their work. However, that is not the case. Mothers are just as capable of working and caring for their children. This relates to Aristoles's differentiation between the good man and the upright citizen where there is an emphasis on virtue that depends on the political and social structures in which an individual operates (Keyt, 3007). An upright citizen may be able to justify not hiring a woman because she has children to take care of because it aligns with social/cultural beliefs. Aristotle also argues that true justice involves giving individuals what they deserve based on merit rather than arbitrary distinctions, such as gender (Wood, 2011).  

Critique

The study lacks a deeper examination of how workplace culture and leadership philosophy influence these barriers (Avoli & Prados-Peña, 2024). This lays the groundwork for future studies that can look into how workplace policies can be structured to foster genuine inclusivity, ensuring that talent and leadership potential are recognized regardless of gender. Furthermore, it looks into the subjective view of those who are not in leadership roles. It would be interesting to look at women in leadership and what their barriers are. Additionally, just as Machiavelli argues that leaders must sometimes act in ways that are not traditionally “good” to maintain power, women in leadership often face the challenge of navigating male-dominated power structures, where traditional ethical expectations might work against them (Cosans & Reina, 2017). 

Works Cited

Avolio, B., Pardo, E., & Prados-Peña, M. B. (2024). Factors that contribute to the underrepresentation of women academics worldwide: A literature review.  Social Psychology of Education,  27(1), 261-281.

Cosans, C. E., & Reina, C. S. (2017). The leadership ethics of Machiavelli’s  Prince.  Business Ethics Quarterly, 27(3), 317-342.  https://doi.org/10.1017/beq.2017.13Links to an external site.

Keyt, D. (2007).  The good man and the upright citizen in Aristotle’s ethics and politics. Social Philosophy & Policy Foundation. 

Wood, J. L. (2011).  Contemplating the beautiful: The practical importance of theoretical excellence in Aristotle’s ethics.  Journal of the History of Philosophy, 49(4), 391-412.

Wallick, K. N. (2018). Underrepresentation of Women in Sports Leadership: Stereotypes, Discrimination, and Race.  Gettysburg College Student Scholarship.  https://cupola.gettysburg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1764&context=student_scholarshipLinks to an external site.

Overview

This article examines the persistent underrepresentation of women, particularly women of color, in sports leadership positions. It explores contributing factors, including stereotypes, discrimination, and racial dynamics, that hinder women's advancement in coaching and administrative roles within sports. The study highlights the decline in the percentage of women holding coaching positions despite increased female participation in sports since Title IX. The author identifies gender stereotypes, systemic biases, and the lack of role models as key barriers preventing women from attaining leadership positions in athletics.

Application

The findings from this article are crucial for understanding how gender and racial biases impact leadership opportunities in sports. Organizations can apply these insights by implementing more inclusive hiring practices and developing mentorship programs for women in athletics. Addressing these barriers requires proactive policies, like leadership training for women and bias reduction programs within sports organizations. The discussion can inform efforts in other professional fields where women face similar systemic challenges in leadership roles.

Critique

The article provides a comprehensive overview of the systemic issues contributing to the underrepresentation of women in sports leadership. Its focus on the intersectionality of race and gender offers valuable insights into the unique challenges faced by women of color. However, the study relies heavily on past research and lacks more recent data to capture current trends. While the article effectively identifies problems, it could benefit from a more extensive discussion on effective interventions and policy changes that have successfully increased female representation in leadership roles. Expanding on case studies or empirical evidence of successful diversity initiatives in sports leadership would strengthen its impact.

· What strategies do you guys think can be implemented to increase the representation of women, particularly women of color, in sports leadership positions?

 

References

Aly, E. R., & Breese, K. (2018). The Representation of Women in USA Sports, Sports Administrative, and Team Sports Leadership.  European Scientific Journal, ESJ,  14(5), 55. https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2018.v14n5p55

Evans, A. B., & Pfister, G. U. (2020). Women in sports leadership: A systematic narrative review.  International Review for the Sociology of Sport,  56(3), 101269022091184. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690220911842

Martínez-Rosales, E., Hernández-Martínez, A., Sola-Rodríguez, S., Esteban-Cornejo, I., & Soriano-Maldonado, A. (2021). Representation of women in sport sciences research, publications, and editorial leadership positions: are we moving forward?  Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport,  24(11). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2021.04.010

Wallick, K. (2018).  Underrepresentation of Women in Sports Leadership: Stereotypes, Discrimination, and Race. https://cupola.gettysburg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1764&context=student_scholarship

Overview

In "Carlyle, Freud, and the Great Man Theory More Fully Considered," Bert Alan Spector takes a deep dive into Thomas Carlyle's Great Man Theory and connects it to Sigmund Freud’s ideas about leadership and human psychology. Spector explores how these two influential thinkers contributed to the early understanding of leadership, focusing on the idea that great leaders are born with exceptional traits that set them apart. The main question Spector raises is whether these theories still hold up in today’s leadership landscape, which is increasingly about collaboration, shared responsibility, and adaptability. Spector argues that while these ideas were revolutionary in their time and helped establish leadership as a distinct area of study, they are less relevant now as we move toward more inclusive, collective models of leadership. He emphasizes that leadership today is more about the dynamics within teams and organizations rather than the spotlight on a singular “great” leader (Spector, 2016). This shift reflects broader changes in how we understand power, influence, and effectiveness in leadership roles in the 21st century.

Application

This article has real-world relevance because it challenges the traditional idea of leadership as being driven by a few exceptional individuals who dominate and direct others. Spector suggests that leadership today is much more about collaboration and collective decision-making. In today’s organizational environments, effective leadership is increasingly about working together as a group, adjusting to the context you're in, and being flexible enough to navigate the diverse needs of teams. Instead of focusing on one "great" leader who steers the ship, the emphasis is now on shared leadership and team dynamics, which have become especially important in diverse, complex workplaces. This reflects the ongoing shift toward more inclusive and collaborative models of leadership. These ideas tie into contemporary leadership models, such as transformational and servant leadership, where the leader is seen as a facilitator who empowers and supports others rather than a figure of solitary authority (Alvesson & Spicer, 2012; Northouse, 2021). Moreover, Mayer et al (2008)'s concept of emotional intelligence adds another layer to this discussion, highlighting how effective leadership today relies not just on individual traits, but also on the ability to connect, understand, and lead others with empathy and emotional awareness. 

Critique

While the article presents some thought-provoking ideas, it doesn’t provide much in the way of real-world data or empirical evidence to support its claims. It is primarily theoretical, which leaves us wondering how these ideas would actually play out in practical settings like organizations or teams. The absence of concrete examples or case studies makes it difficult to gauge how the shift from individual-centered leadership to collective leadership is happening in real time. While Spector makes a compelling case for moving away from the Great Man Theory, he doesn’t explore other modern leadership theories in depth that might help guide us forward. For instance, more discussion on contemporary models like distributed leadership, which focuses on leadership being spread across various individuals depending on the situation, or the role of emotional intelligence in leadership, could have added greater insight into how leadership is evolving today. Including studies or examples of organizations that have successfully transitioned to more inclusive, collective leadership practices would strengthen the argument and show how these shifts are happening in practice (Alvesson & Spicer, 2012).

References

Alvesson, M., & Spicer, A. Critical perspectives on leadership. 

Mayer, J. D., et al. (2008). Emotional intelligence: New ability or eclectic traits? American Psychologist, 63(6), 503–517. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.6.503

Northouse, P. G. (2021). Leadership: Theory and Practice, 9th Edition. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, Inc. 

Spector, B. A. (2016). Carlyle, Freud, and the Great Man Theory more fully considered. Leadership, 12(2), 250–260. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715015571392

Overview: 

This article examines the struggles that female Marines face in positions of leadership in the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC). The issue at hand is that female Marines have historically been treated differently than their male counterparts, impacting the capacity that female Marines can effectively lead in. The questions that researchers were most interested in knowing was what the female Marine experience was like. The goal of the study was to see how equivalency was perceived by female Marines in the USMC. Researchers conducted an exploratory study using qualitative measures to gain insight into the female Marine experience. The sample was 67 biologically female Marines that had joined the Corps between 1977 - 2003. The interviewers asked the participants open-ended questions and audio recorded the interviews. Using qualitative methods allowed researchers to get first hand experiences of female Marines. Conducting the research in an interview style format was helpful because it allowed researchers to pick up on similarities among the participants' responses and experiences, as noted below. If a quantitative method had been used, it could’ve become more difficult to establish trends based on nuanced responses to questions. What interviewers found is that the participants believed that they were as equally contributing members of the Marine Corps, but that concepts of femininity, sexual harassment, stereotypical female behavior, and growing up in the Marine Corps influenced the experiences that the individuals had as female Marines. These concepts have made it more difficult for female Marines to assert themselves as competent leaders who are just as deserving of respect as a male Marine. For example, if a female Marine is not as strong or loud as a male counterpart, she is looked at as weak and less of a Marine. It is important to note that this study places a heavy emphasis on the difference between equivalence and equality. The term equal implies that what is being examined is the exact same and has no differences. However, equivalence in this study refers to female Marines having the same value or capability as their male counterpart. The researchers acknowledge the biological and physiological differences between males and females. When female Marines had an understanding of equivalency between men and women in the Corps, they assumed the shared responsibility that comes with being a Marine. The foundation of leadership in the Marine Corp is ungendered, allowing both genders to have leadership potential. It was found that the female Marines who acknowledged the difference between males and females were more successful, and gained the respect of their peers and followers.

Application:

The conclusions of this article stated that equivalency and evolutionary psychology will aid in the success of female Marines who are facing challenges or seizing opportunities. We were able to see personal applications of a few of the participants navigating female leadership by themselves. However, improving the quality of female Marine leadership as a unit, and organization, and most importantly as a military is vital to the success of the USMC. Researchers concluded that gender relations as a study of research needs to be a more critical component of the military as a way to enhance the cohesion among males and females among all branches of the military. Conducting surveys, classes, and proper disciplinary actions when necessary are actions that can be implemented in order to bring structural change to the way women in the military are viewed. This can increase knowledge, respect, and effectiveness among our military service members. The most important contribution this article made to the field of leadership is the call to action to expand research in military dynamics through different lenses. 

Critique: 

The sample size of the study could have been larger, making the study more inclusive and applicable to female Marines. At the time, only 7% of Marines were females, making it difficult to conduct thorough research. Qualitative methods are based on the testimony of the participants, without having a way to confirm their experiences. Brownson did acknowledge the challenge of minimizing the interviews to capture the essence of these women's experiences. The article focuses on the importance of a new theoretical perspective that reflects the physical and social challenges that female Marines face, but does not assert what that framework looks like. Is the framework best examined through a biological, physiological, psychological, or sociological perspective? Does one discipline analyze the struggles of female Marine leaders better than another? A result I would have liked to see in this study is more suggestions or thoughts from the participants on how to combat the stigma against female Marines. 

Overall, this article provided useful insight into the lived experiences of female Marines, and ways to combat gendered challenges. I feel that these findings brought awareness to areas of military relations that need more study and attention for the betterment and readiness of our military. 

References: 

Archer, E. M. (2013). The Power of Gendered Stereotypes in the US Marine Corps.  Armed Forces & Society,  39(2), 359–391.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X12446924Links to an external site. 

Brownson, C. (2014). The Battle for Equivalency: Female US Marines Discuss Sexuality, Physical Fitness, and Military Leadership.  Armed Forces and Society,  40(4), 765–788.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X14523957Links to an external site.

Nepstad, S. E. (2005). The Continuing Relevance of Coser’s Theory of Conflict.  Sociological Forum (Randolph, N.J.),  20(2), 335–337.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11206-005-4103-5Links to an external site. 

West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing Gender.  Gender & Society,  1(2), 125–151.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243287001002002Links to an external site.