Homeland Security

Diversity and Inclusion in Emergency Management and First Response: Accounting for Race and Gender in

Codes of Ethics in the United States

Bonnie Stabile , Katherine Simon, Tonya E. Thornton and Aubrey Grant

George Mason University

Disparities in outcomes are evident in emergency management interactions, in acute circumstan- ces, like hurricanes or natural disasters, or routine interactions involving first responders, such as traffic stops or patient transport. Women and people of color are disproportionately represented in experiencing adverse effects. In light of observed inequities, this analysis investigates whether codes of ethics articulate the value of equity as a guiding principle. After presenting background evidence on the manifestation of inequities, we reviewed literature on the general nature of codes of ethics and their context in Public Administration and Emergency Management, giving consid- eration to social vulnerability and cultural competence. The purpose of this inquiry was to exam- ine codes of ethics in various professions comprising the broad field of emergency management and first response within the United States—including that of the American Society for Public Administration—to determine whether they take race and gender into account. As disparities in outcomes are broadly observed, we hypothesized that the terms would be underrepresented. We found that only a small minority of codes make explicit mention of race or gender, and the majority do not mention equity. We also discovered a stronger emphasis on professionalism than on outcomes within the populations served.

Keywords: Codes of ethics, emergency management, equity, gender, race

INTRODUCTION

Disparities are evident in various emergency management (EM) scenarios. Members of the public may experience differential treatment and outcomes based on both systemic conditions and interactions with first responders. Discrepancies can occur in acute circumstances, like hurricanes or other natural disasters, and in more routine interactions, including stops and arrests or patient transport. We argue that women and people of color disproportionately experience adverse effects, as underscored by some notable focusing events: Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005, Hurricane Maria in 2017, and the death of George Floyd, an unarmed black man in police custody in May 2020. Focusing events can propel issues onto the policy agenda, especially when they “reinforce some preexisting perception of a problem”

Correspondence should be sent to Bonnie Stabile Schar School of Policy and Government, George Mason University, 3351 Fairfax Drive, MS 3B1, Arlington, VA, USA. E-mail: [email protected]

Public Integrity, 24: 82–101, 2022 # 2021 American Society for Public Administration ISSN: print/ online DOI: 10.1080/10999922.2020.1862540

such as unequal treatment (Kingdon, 1995, p. 98). In light of these perceived inequities we investigate whether and how public service codes of ethics (COEs), which are intended to guide practice and influence outcomes, actually articulate values of equity themselves.

Equity is a core value in the field of Public Administration, which includes EM and first response. The American Society for Public Administration (ASPA)’s own COE includes the commitment to “strengthen social equity” among its eight central principles (2014, par. 4). Social equity has been identified as the fourth pillar of public administration by the National Academy of Public Administration (NAPA), “along with economy, efficiency and effectiveness” (Wooldridge & Bilharz, 2017, p. 2). The concept of social equity encompasses “broad values of fairness and justice” (Wooldridge & Bilharz, 2017, p. 2). It has been defined by Johnson and Svara as an “active commitment” on the part of public administrators “to seek to prevent and reduce inequality and injustice based on significant social characteris- tics and to promote greater equality in access to services, procedural fairness, quality of serv- ices and social outcomes” (2011, p. 282). Thus, the term social equity can be understood to comprise concerns for equality and equal treatment, including equal protection, equal rights, equal distribution and quality of services for all regardless of personal characteristics (Gooden & Portillo, 2011).

In this analysis we investigated the existence of COEs for identified professions through oversight organizations in EM and first response. We then analyzed the identified codes to assess whether they explicitly articulate the value of equity in general and more specifically as it pertains to race and gender. We considered under which existing categories of concern race, gender, and equity might be taken into account, and identified relevant, predominant themes within the codes. Given the disparate observed outcomes corresponding to race and gender identities, we hypothesized that references to equity would be scant.

In their investigation of social equity in EM planning, Gooden, Jones, Martin, and Boyd (2009) examined whether local governments consider vulnerable populations in their emer- gency operations plans (EOPs). This an analogous way to assess the codification of the expli- cit value of equity that we explored here through COEs. Vulnerability—which relates to how individuals are able to anticipate, survive and recover from emergencies—has been found to be exacerbated due to gender, race and ethnicity, among other factors, including age, social class and disability (Gooden, Jones, Martin, & Boyd, 2009). Gooden et al. (2009) found that most EOPs mentioned at least one of four identified vulnerable groups (disabled, elderly, low-income, and non-native English speaking), though in a cursory manner. They also found that fewer than one percent of EOPs addressed racial or ethnic issues, and none considered gender (Gooden et al., 2009). McCandless and Ronquillo (2020) similarly found that social equity values are mentioned infrequently in ethical codes, and that specific groups receiving different treatment are mentioned far less.

Equity is among the central criteria by which public service efforts are assessed (Bardach, 2015), competing with others, including efficiency, security and liberty (Stone, 2012). In the spirit of the management truism “what gets measured gets done,” we imagine that the pres- ence of equity among the explicitly stated criteria of organizational COEs could make its realization more achievable. In their 1992 book, Reinventing Government, Osborne & Gaebler advocated for a strong focus on accountability for outcomes over processes, as expressed in the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 (GPRA 1993), and

DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION IN EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AND FIRST RESPONSE 83

subsequent bipartisan management reform efforts, including the Program Assessment Rating Tool, and the GPRA Modernization Act of 2010. Programs cannot be considered successful without some measure of beneficial change in the target population in accord with identified goals and values (Rossi, Lipsey, & Henry, 2019). Yet it has been acknowledged that the field has not come far enough in identifying tools to advance and measure social equity outcomes (Sabharwal, Levine, & D’Agostino, 2018). Sabharwal et al. (2018) suggest that cultural com- petency as a professional development tool could be one mechanism employed to improve social equity.

For the analysis that follows, we first present evidence substantiating the existence of dis- parities among citizen populations during and after EM and first response. We then review the literature on the general nature of COEs and their ethical context in EM and public administration, and consider elements of social vulnerability and cultural competency. Next, we examine extant ethical codes guiding practice in the various professions and organizations comprising the broad field of EM and first response in the United States to determine whether and to what extent they take race, gender and equity into account. Using an approach informed by grounded theory, we identified related emergent terms and themes in the codes and considered their implications. Finally, we make some recommendations based on our findings.

BACKGROUND: EVIDENCE OF INEQUITABLE OUTCOMES ACROSS POPULATIONS

Victims of disasters exist along a spectrum of vulnerability, which depends in part on their identity with regard to age, class, disability status, race, and gender (Gooden et al., 2009). Disparities in outcomes were obvious in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, for instance, where poor minorities suffered disproportionately from the effects of the destruction (Doherty, 2015). More recently, federal disaster response to Hurricanes Harvey, Irma and Maria varied markedly across communities in Houston, Florida and Puerto Rico, respectively (Willison, Singer, Creary, & Greer, 2019). Disparities in out- comes are evident not only in acute episodes addressed by emergency response, but also in more routine interactions with first responders. This was thrown into sharper relief by the death of George Floyd, an unarmed black man, at the hands of Minneapolis police in May 2020, and the subsequent global protests (Daragahi, 2020), though there had long been evidence of disparate treatment and outcomes along racial lines prior to that incendiary incident.

An analysis of nearly 100 million traffic stops across the United States over the course of a decade found that police stop and search decisions exhibit persistent racial bias, with Black drivers more likely to be stopped and searched than White drivers (Pierson et al., 2020). These findings echo earlier research showing higher stop and arrest rates for Black, Native American and Hispanic individuals than for white non-Hispanics and Asians, with men being stopped at higher rates across all populations (Miller et al., 2017). When stops do occur, as demonstrated by one study of 1,440 interactions in Oakland, California, body camera footage of police interactions can show racial disparities in officer respect exhibited towards those

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detained (Voigt et al., 2017). More consequentially, the mortality rate for Hispanic and Black individuals in “legal intervention deaths” is almost two or three times higher, respect- ively, than that of White individuals (Buehler, 2017). Officers have been found to be more likely to shoot black suspects; despite their constituting only 15% of the popula- tion, Black people make up 40% of the suspects shot and killed by police (Scott, Ma, Sadler, & Correll, 2017). And, after the use of force by law enforcement, injuries to non-White persons are systematically underreported, and non-White persons who are exposed to high force are considerably less likely to be evaluated in a hospital (Lewis & Bueno de Mesquita, 2020).

Discrepancies in emergency medical services (EMS) treatment relating to gender and ethnic identity have also been demonstrated. Using data drawn from the National Emergency Medical Services Information System (NEMSIS) database, it was revealed that women who called for chest pain were less likely to be given aspirin, or transported using lights and sirens, compared to men, and women were significantly less likely to be resuscitated in the event of an out of hospital cardiac arrest (Lewis et al., 2019). A study of over 25,000 encounters with EMS in Oregon found that Hispanic and Asian patients with traumatic injuries were less likely to have their pain assessed than White patients, and all non-Whites were less likely to be treated with pain medications (Kennel, Withers, Parsons, & Woo, 2019).

In the wake of natural disasters, minority groups face greater negative outcomes, including traumatic mental health impacts, than their non-minority peers (Prost, Appel, & Ai, 2018). In the year following Hurricane Katrina, the adult population experienced a significant decline in health and increased disability, especially among young and middle aged Black women, who were more likely to report mental health disorders and stress (Laditka, Murray, & Laditka, 2010; Sastry & Gregory, 2013; Sastry & VanLandingham, 2009). Poor social sup- port among pregnant women living through disaster recovery was associated with increased depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and anxiety (Giarratano, Barcelona, Savage, & Harville, 2019).

In the category of environment and public works, disparities are evident after acute events, such as hurricanes and floods, and in more routine exposure to environmental hazards or infrastructural access to clean water. People over 65 years of age, and Black and Hispanic people, are less likely to have completely recovered after a hurricane one year later (Mitsova, Escaleras, Sapat, Esnard, & Lamadrid, 2019). Both hazardous and non-hazardous waste land- fills are more likely to be found in counties with higher percentages of people of color, and counties with more single female-headed households across the United States have greater odds of having a landfill (Cannon, 2020).

Important intersectional factors are often at play in inequitable outcomes, and poverty exacerbates outcomes for all groups (Rufat, Tate, Burton, & Maroof, 2015). Professor Kimberl�e Crenshaw’s 1989 groundbreaking article pointed out the problematic consequences of treating race and gender as mutually exclusive categories, especially for Black women (Crenshaw, 1989). Since then, multiple, overlapping identities—particularly race and gender, but also age, disability and socioeconomic status—have been acknowledged as making peo- ple subject to discrimination for one or the other, or some combination, of these identities (Coaston, 2019).

DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION IN EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AND FIRST RESPONSE 85

LITERATURE REVIEW

Codes of Ethics

COEs serve as foundational documents that can provide a framework for public servants in carrying out their public duties, offering a mechanism to ensure professionalism (Gilman, 2005) and clarifying values (Cooper, 2012). Their development occurred in tandem with the rise of professional associations in the twentieth century, as some such organizations, includ- ing ASPA, wondered whether they could even be considered a profession without an enforceable COE (Svara, 2014).

COEs have been found to modestly influence employee behavior, strongly mediated by an organization’s ethical culture (Park & Blenkinsopp, 2013.) Organizational culture has in turn been shown to be informed by its COE, and COEs have been positively correlated with pub- lic service employees’ organizational commitment (Kumasey, Bawole, & Hossain, 2017). Racial prejudice can be a factor of organizational culture along with other systemic, institu- tional or psychological influences, underscoring the importance of developing or refining eth- ical codes as a means of self-reflection on the part of organizations (Jennings, 2020).

Studies assessing the effectiveness or value of ethics programs in public organizations seem to focus on intra-organizational or employee-focused indicators, rather than on ethical outcomes in populations served. Beeri, Dayan, Vigoda-Gadot, and Werner (2013) consider how ethics resources, including COEs, influence the ethical climate of organizations, and the organizational commitment, citizenship and quality of work life for employees. A much-cited study from the 1990s found that the adoption of ethical codes by organizations does increase employees’ ethical beliefs and decision-making (Cooper, 2012; Ford & Richardson, 1994). Another concludes that when codes include aspirational goals as well as operational guide- lines and enforcement mechanisms, they are more likely to contribute to ethical competency in the public sector (Meine & Dunn, 2013). To the limited extent that such studies are con- cerned with public outcomes, they give nod to the idea that unethical behavior can undermine public trust in government and be corrosive to the foundations of democracy (Beeri et al., 2013).

COEs are not legally binding documents, but express the central values of professional organizations leading their fields. Svara and Brunet argue that public administrators must uphold legal requirements while also committing to advance equity through consideration of changes to laws and policies that may conflict with it (2020). With the of inclusion affirma- tive action into the 2013 revision to the ASPA Code of Ethics, they note, public administra- tors are admonished to promote “initiatives to reduce unfairness, injustice, and inequality in society” (American Society for Public Administration, 2014, par. 4) and advance “proactive behaviors intended to correct or prevent disparities in outcomes” (ASPA, 2015, p. 14).

The utility of ethical codes is sometimes called into question, as they can be perceived as offering only vague, lofty language, where practical specificity is needed, and they may lack formal mechanisms to ensure compliance (Cooper, 2012). According to Svara (2014, p. 561), “establishing clear and meaningful standards to guide behavior has been difficult for the practitioners and scholars” of public administration. Yet the articulation of shared principles that such codes provide is embraced across professions, from medicine and academia, to

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evaluation and public administration. Equity, as a principle of justice, pertains to the out- comes, practices and processes of public policy (Jennings, 2020) and the rhetoric articulating the value of equity is of persisting importance in policy (Stabile, 2020) and the COEs that guide its practice.

Ethical Context in Public Administration and Emergency Management

Emergency managers and first responders operate primarily in the public service arena and can reasonably be considered public administrators. According to ASPA’s COE, originally written in 1984, revised in 2013 and published in 2014, members must commit to (1) Advance the public interest; (2) Uphold the Constitution and the Law; (3) Promote demo- cratic participation; (4) Strengthen social equity; (5) Fully inform and advise; (6) Demonstrate personal integrity; (7) Promote ethical organizations, and; (8) Advance Professional Excellence (ASPA, 2014). The fourth of ASPA’s eight core principles, to strengthen social equity, is arguably the most germane to concerns for race and gen- der justice.

Scholars in the field have urged more focus on social equity in the theoretical literature, more clearly demonstrating the importance of equity in the wider consideration of ethics in public administration education and practice (Spina, 2013). Representation and equity came to be reflected more significantly following Frederickson’s renouncement of the idea that managers are neutral with regard to values, and the assertion that social equity comprises equitable management, distribution, and implementation of public policy and services (Spina, 2013).

The term “social equity” has been identified as one of the normative foundations of public administration, entering the literature and practice explicitly during the 1960s as part of the lexicon of New Public Management (Frederickson, 2005; Gooden et al. 2009; McCandless & Ronquillo, 2020). Since then, governments have been understood to be responsible for pro- moting social equity to ensure the fair treatment of citizens (Gooden et al., 2009). Frederickson (2005) has argued that this duty warrants further emphasis in the face of grow- ing inequalities. One way to underscore the importance of equity to practicing public admin- istrators is through its clear articulation in COEs.

Social Vulnerability in Disaster Research

Social vulnerability is a multidimensional construct that “identifies sensitive populations that may be less likely to respond to, cope with, and recover from a natural disaster” (Cutter & Finch, 2008, p. 2301). Vulnerable populations share common characteristics that account for almost half of social vulnerability observed across US counties, according to a study cover- ing the forty year period beginning in 1960, and these principally include “Race/ethnicity, socioeconomic class, and gender” (Cutter & Finch, 2008, p. 2301).

“Social vulnerability is born from inequality” (Cutter & Finch, 2008, p. 2305). It is cre- ated by “structures, policies and practices” that can lead to disproportionate adverse out- comes, such as infection and death in both natural and human made disasters such as the

DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION IN EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AND FIRST RESPONSE 87

Covid-19 pandemic (Gaynor & Wilson, 2020, p. 832). A study of flood events in Texas between 1997 and 2001 found that “communities with socially vulnerable populations experi- ence more casualties” in the course of such events, revealing “an important disadvantage of low income and minority populations” (Zahran, Brody, Peacock, Vedlitz, & Grover, 2008, p. 555). A study considering procedural equity in the distribution of disaster aid across the US found that Federal Emergency Management Agency’s Public Assistance Program delivers less support for socially vulnerable counties (Domingue & Erich, 2019, p. 908). These find- ings are in keeping with earlier inequality research linking race and gender, among other fac- tors, with disparities in recovery (Bullard & Wright, 2012; Thomas et al., 2013).

Further, the implications of disparities in outcomes associated with social vulnerabilities can be expected to become more acute as the risk of disasters increases due to “population growth, alongside economic development and urban expansion” resulting in “an increase in places prone to disasters” (Neaves, Wachhaus, & Royer, 2017). Vulnerability is this prone- ness of people to hazards and risk based on varying spatial, temporal, and demographic fac- tors. Social vulnerability can refer to the characteristics of a person or group, or to the resilience of communities when confronted by external strains and stresses on the collective human physical and economic health (Wisner, Blaikie, Cannon, & Davis, 2004).

Next Generation of Core Competencies

Disparities in outcomes based on identity and related social vulnerabilities suggest the need for more culturally competent practices. Haupt & Knox assert that improving cultural compe- tency can make professionals “less inclined to negatively apply biases, stereotypes, and pre- conceived notions” that can lead to adverse outcomes (2018, p. 538). They note that the critical need for cultural competency education and training exists both in communities of practice and in institutions of higher education (Knox & Haupt, 2020). Next Generation Core Competencies (NGCC) are professional guidelines for developing future emergency manag- ers that arose from a FEMA-sponsored focus group study (Feldmann-Jensen, Jensen, Smith, & Vigneaux, 2019). The 13 identified competencies are grouped in three main functional cat- egories intended to (1) Build the individual; (2) Build the practitioner; and (3) Build relation- ships (Feldmann-Jensen et al., 2019). Abiding by and championing professional ethics is identified as a core competency in the individual category, intended to serve as a foundation for action for future EM professionals (Feldmann-Jensen et al., 2019).

Practitioner competencies identified by the NGCC include “sociocultural literacy” and “systems literacy”; the former identifies the need for EM professionals to recognize the “social determinants of risk,” and the latter identifies the importance of understanding the “interdependent relationships that produce reactions, changes and adaptations over time” with an eye to enabling “the ability to thrive” (Feldmann-Jensen et al., 2019, p. 22). The final category of competencies outlined in the NGCC—building relationships—has the express purpose of communicating and facilitating “risk awareness, assessment, measurement and reduction across a broad spectrum of stakeholders” (Feldmann-Jensen et al., 2019, pp. 22–23).

Collectively these goals are aimed at preparing “future emergency managers to reduce dis- aster risk and build disaster resilience” (Feldmann-Jensen et al., 2019, p. 24). Ethics,

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sociocultural and systems literacy, and the ability to communicate with diverse stakeholders are highlighted as core competencies that could be construed as comprising concern for equity with regard to race and gender, though these latter terms are not expressly mentioned.

METHOD

To investigate COEs in EM and first response, we first identified the professions encompassed by these fields; second, we named related organizations and professional associations; and third, we conducted a search to find their existing COEs. We reviewed each identified code to deter- mine whether it explicitly articulates the terms race and gender, or the value of equity, as deter- mined by the inclusion of identified key words. Finally, we analyzed COEs to identify relevant emergent terms and themes.

How Organizations Were Selected for Inclusion

Organizations were selected in a twofold manner. First, our team of researchers generated a list of professions encompassed by the field, including public safety, public health, and crim- inal justice. From there, the team generated a secondary list of organizations associated with those professions, followed by the identification of relevant professional associations. The research team included two faculty members, a master’s student in Public Administration and a doctoral student in Public Policy.

How the Codes of Ethics Were Found

To identify the code of ethics for a given organization, first a Google search was undertaken. If no COE could be discovered, then team members searched the organization's website. In instances where a code of ethics could not be found on the website, organizations were con- tacted directly, either via a specific point of contact, such as the Director of Membership, or, as in most cases, via a more general email such as [email protected].

Key word Search

All identified COEs were searched for identified key words pertinent to the main research questions: Do COEs guiding practice in emergency and first response organizations take race, gender and social equity into account? Are these terms mentioned explicitly, and how else might issues of equity be articulated in these codes, given that disparities in outcomes for individuals based on race and gender are evident in the outcomes of organiza- tional processes?

� Race � Ethnicity

� Gender

DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION IN EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AND FIRST RESPONSE 89

� Sex � Women

� Other Equity: � Discriminate/Discrimination � Diverse, Diversity � Equity

Analysis Informed by Grounded Theory: Emerging Concepts within the Codes of Ethics

Grounded theory is an inductive methodology in which data is systematically gathered, eval- uated, and analyzed in an iterative process. Researchers construct codes that categorize con- cepts and themes emerging from the data through an “interpretive process by which data are broken down analytically… given conceptual labels… and grouped together to form catego- ries and subcategories” (Corbin & Strauss, 1990, p. 12). Selective coding generally occurs in the final phase of the study and “is the process by which all categories are unified around a “core” category” representing “the central phenomenon of the study” (Corbin & Strauss, 1990, p. 14).

A grounded theory approach informed the analysis of key concepts within the identified COEs. The data collection consisted of curating COEs from an identified set of emergency and first response organizations. After a review of the collected COEs (N¼ 19) for key words, emergent terms and themes were identified within the codes, with note made of the appearance of relevant terms arising in three or more codes; those terms were then placed into relevant emergent categories. Then, themes were identified that evince distinct categories of concern across the COE documents examined using selective coding.

FINDINGS

Five fields were identified as comprising emergency and first response entities within the field of Public Administration. These include EM, First Response, Intelligence, Health and Environment, and Public Works (see Figure 1). Within these categories, 27 organizations were identified, all but two of which are private organizations (only FEMA and DNI are fed- eral governmental entities); 19 of these were determined to have COEs (see Figure 2). These codes were examined to determine whether they contained explicit mention of the identified key words of “race,” “gender,” or a few others explicitly associated with equity.

Table 1 lists identified organizations, indicating whether each is guided by a COE, and whether it contains these equity-associated key words. It was found that 70% have COEs; one quarter of which mention race; one fifth contain the word gender; and 40% mention key words in the “other equity” category. As had been anticipated, the analysis found that only a minority of the codes make explicit mention of these key words.

Terms that were found in the COEs of three or more organizations were identified and grouped together to form the emergent categories of “Practitioner Actions or Traits” and “Population Effect” (see Table 3) (Table 2 identifies the acronyms used in Tables 3 and 4 for

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the organizations in the data set.) The former category, which describes actions to be taken by a responsible public administrator, such as “do not discriminate” or show “respect,” also contains words that describe desirable traits of a responsible public administrator, including “integrity” and “professionalism.” The latter category, labelled “population effect” contains various phrases with the words “confidence” and “trust” (such as to instill or promote confi- dence, or engender public trust) which are expressed as characteristics to be fostered in the public or population served by the organizations in the data set.

In addition to these concise terms, longer, narrative phrases were identified in two emer- gent theme categories: Professionalism and Equity (see Table 4). In the Professionalism cat- egory, five organizations expressed, through the articulation of seven distinct narrative phrases, a concern for professionalism, defined as competence or skill expected of or carried out by a practitioner. These phrases include admonitions or guidance to “serve society,” “fairly administer,” and, more specifically, “take preventative and preparatory measures to build disaster-resistant and disaster-resilient communities” and “choose assessment methods that are reliable, valid, and appropriate…”

In the Equity category, seven organizations articulated a dozen different narrative phrases, all of which are evocative of a concern for treating the populations served with equity, defined as the quality of being fair and impartial. These include such phrases as

Public Administra�on American Society

for Public Administra�on

Na�onal League of Ci�es

Emergency Management

Federal Emergency Management

Agency

Interna�onal Associa�on of

Emergency Managers

Na�onal Emergency

Management Associa�on

Emergency Management Accredita�on

Program

First Response

US Responders Associa�on

Law Enforcement •Fraternal Order of Police •Interna�onal Associa�on

of Chiefs of Police •Interna�onal Associa�on

of Women Police •Na�onal Asian Peace

Officers Associa�on •Na�onal Associa�on of

Police Organiza�ons •Na�onal Associa�on of

Women Law Enforcement Execu�ves

•Na�onal Organiza�on of Black Law Enforcement Execu�ves

Fire/EMT •Interna�onal Associa�on

of Fire Chiefs •Na�onal Associa�on of

EMTs •Na�onal Fire Protec�on

Associa�on

Intelligence

Intelligence & Na�onal Security

Alliance

Health

American Mental Health Counselors

Associa�on

American Counseling Associa�on

American Public Health Associa�on

Environment and Public Works

Air & Waste Management Associa�on

American Public Works Associa�on

American Water Resources

Associa�on

Solid Waste Associa�on of North America

Na�onal Associa�on of Environmental Professionals

FIGURE 1. Professional fields and organizations.

DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION IN EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AND FIRST RESPONSE 91

“value diverse thoughts and opinions”; having a “commitment to the wellbeing of all”; “ensure rights of all to liberty, equality, justice”; and being “sensitive to the diversity of varying populations.” Though the phrases point to a desired condition of the target pop- ulations—that of wellbeing and equality—they are still practitioner focused, in that the verbs in the phrases point to actions to be taken by public administrators, such as to: “take into account,” “value,” “encourage,” “embrace,” “enhance,” “perform.” The pri- mary population effect terms identified in the analysis—confidence and trust—are con- sidered to be indicators of citizen satisfaction with government functions (Beeri, Uster, & Vigoda-Gadot, 2019).

DISCUSSION

Both the Identified Terms (Table 3) and the Identified Themes (Table 4) coalesce around two main categories: Practitioner Actions and Professionalism; and Population Effects and Equity. As expressed, both categories appear to be more focused on practitioners than popu- lations served, with little consideration of the main distal outcomes of interest for EM and first response organizations: the mitigation of death and suffering. In fact, only one of the phrases in the Equity category points to such an outcome; the Air and Waste Management Association’s (AWMA) code expresses the intent to “enhance human health and welfare and environmental quality for all” (n.d., par 1). Despite this mention of health—a condition of

27 organiza�ons iden�fied

Code of ethics available online?

Yes (18 organiza�ons)

No (9 organiza�ons)

Contacted via email (9 organiza�ons)

Responded (4 organiza�ons)

No code of ethics (3 organiza�ons)

Had code of ethics (1 organiza�on)

Did not respond (5 organiza�ons)

FIGURE 2. Summary of data collection.

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the population served which is a central outcome goal of the organization—it is lacking in specificity, which is an identified shortcoming of COEs in general (Cooper, 2012).

This imbalance of attention on practitioner actions appears to be out of step with recent decades of government reform, in keeping with the precepts of New Public Management, which emphasizes the preeminence of meaningful outcomes over processes. More pertinently in the context of concern with diversity and inclusion in EM and first response, the dispro- portionate focus on practitioner actions also seems to fall short of directly advancing the pri- macy of the value espoused in APSA’s COE “to correct or prevent disparities in outcomes” (ASPA, 2015, p. 14). The focus on professionalism and practitioner responsibility to promote equity espoused in COEs is not without merit, though. The encouragement to value “diverse thoughts and opinions” (International Association of Fire Chiefs, n.d.) or perform “duties impartially” (International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1989) offers rhetorical support for actions that can help create the conditions needed for the ultimate achievement of the most meaningful outcomes of interest for organizations focused on EM and first response, which are to “conserve life, alleviate suffering, promote health, do no harm, and encourage the qual- ity and equal availability of… care” (National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians, 2013).

Inputs

Staff Activities

yrevoceR retsasiD sreganaM ycnegremE

noitagitiM doolF sreciffO eciloP

esnopseR ycnegremE srethgiF eriF

Emergency Medical Technicians Patient Treatment and Transport

gnilesnuoC lennosreP ytiruceS

tnemeganaM etsaW srolesnuoC

Health Care Providers Water Resource Management

Environmental Professionals

Outcomes

Short Term

Medium Term

Long Term (Distal) (Achieved with Equitable results

across populations served) Inform public of availability

of services and how to contact

Reduce vulnerability Reduce Morbidity and Mortality

Educate public about risks and vulnerability

Increase adoption of preventive and preparatory

measures

FIGURE 3. Logic model depicting inputs and outcomes of emergency management and first response.

DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION IN EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AND FIRST RESPONSE 93

The Practitioner-oriented focus that we found to be exhibited by COEs suggests that pro- fessional development could be a potential mechanism for advancing social equity through established procedures. Specifically, “embedding cultural competence” more broadly in the education and professional development of public administrators is suggested to promote justice in the form of more uniformly equitable outcomes for individuals and communities on the receiving end of public service (Blessett, 2018). Education in cultural competency is intended to contribute to reducing risk and building resilience in communities served by enhancing understanding on the part of practitioners and bolstering their ability to communi- cate among stakeholders. Cultural competency for EM professionals, as outlined by Feldmann-Jensen et al. (2017, p. 28, 52) encourages “promoting dignity, diversity and the rights of others” and treating others “equitably and fairly.” But the current handbook argu- ably could do more to broaden understanding of concepts like social vulnerability and the degree to which it predisposes populations to experience adverse outcomes based on charac- teristics including race and gender. As noted by McCandless and Ronquillo (2020), social

TABLE 1 Findings: key words in code of ethics.

Organization Code of Ethics? Race Gender Other Equity

American Counseling Association Yes Yes Yes Yes American Mental Health Counselors Association Yes Yes Yes Yes American Public Health Association Yes No No Yes American Public Works Association Yes No No No American Society for Public Administration Yes No No Yes Air & Waste Management Association Yes No No No American Water Resources Association No N/A N/A N/A Director of National Intelligence Yes N/A N/A Yes Emergency Management Accreditation Program� Yes No No No Federal Emergency Management Agency� Yes No No No Fraternal Order of Police N/A N/A N/A N/A International Association of Chiefs of Police Yes Yes Yes Yes international Association of Emergency Managers Yes No No No International Association of Fire Chiefs Yes Yes Yes Yes International Association of Women Police Yes No No No Intelligence & National Security Alliance N/A N/A N/A N/A National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians Yes Yes No Yes National Association of Environmental Professionals Yes No No Yes National Association of Police Organizations No N/A N/A N/A National Asian Peace Officers Association N/A N/A N/A N/A National Association of Women Law Enforcement Executives No N/A N/A N/A National Emergency Management Association� Yes No No No National Fire Protection Association� Yes No No No National League of Cities Yes No No Yes National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Executives N/A N/A N/A N/A Solid Waste Association of North America Yes No No Yes US First Responders Association N/A N/A N/A N/A Total 19/27 5/27 4/27 11/27

Notes. Organizations with an asterisk and in bold share the same Code of Ethics. “N/A” refers to organizations that did not respond to inquiry.

94 B. STABILE ET AL.

equity acknowledges that different groups receive different treatment, and it can be critical to identify those groups in the course of addressing that inequity.

Based on the findings of this analysis, it is also recommended that ASPA and other asso- ciations revisit COEs to emphasize the importance of equitable outcomes for individuals and

TABLE 2 Organizations and acronyms.

Org Full Name

ACA American Counseling Association AMHCA American Mental Health Counselors Association APHA American Public Health Association APWA American Public Works Association ASPA American Society for Public Administration AWMA Air & Waste Management Association AWRA American Water Resources Association DNI Director of National Intelligence EMAP Emergency Management Accreditation Program FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency FOP Fraternal Order of Police IACP International Association of Chiefs of Police IAEM International Association of Emergency Managers IAFC International Association of Fire Chiefs IAWP International Association of Women Police INSA Intelligence & National Security Alliance NAEMT National Association of EMTs NAEP National Association of Environmental Professionals NAPO National Association of Police Organizations NAPOABLUE National Asian Peace Officers Association NAWLEE National Association of Women Law Enforcement Executives NEMA National Emergency Management Association NFPA National Fire Protection Association NLC National League of Cities NOBLE National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Executives SWANA Solid Waste Association of North America USFRA US First Responders Association

TABLE 3 Identified terms (Words mentioned by three or more organizations’ Codes of Ethics, grouped in

Emergent Categories).

Practitioner actions or traits

� Discriminate, Discrimination (do not, never/zero tolerance/non) (ACA, AMHC, IAFC, IAWP, NAEP) � Integrity (Exhibit personal) (APWA, ASPA, IACP, IAFC) � Professional/Professionalism (ASPA, AWMA, IACP, IAEM, NAEMT) � Respect (ASPA, AWMA, IACP, IAFC) Population effect � Confidence (Instill, promote) (ASPA, AWMA, IACP, IAFC) � Trust/Public Trust, Engender Trust (ASPA, APWA, DNI, FEMA, IACP, IAEM, IAFC)

DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION IN EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AND FIRST RESPONSE 95

communities served. Cultural competency education could facilitate this effort by raising awareness among practitioners of the existence and implications of disparities in service delivery. In order to further underscore this point, the eighth practice highlighted in ASPA’s (2014) COE, to “Advance Professional Excellence” could be augmented to indicate that it is

TABLE 4 Identified Themes (Narrative phrases in Codes of Ethics, grouped in Emergent Categories).

Professionalism (exhibited by practitioners in carrying out their duties)

“maintain high levels of competence” (IAEM) Fairly administer (IAEM) “Serve society” (APWA) [Be] Progressive –”take preventive and preparatory measures to build disaster-resistant and disaster-resilient

communities.” (NFPA) “Value science and knowledge-based approach” (FEMA) “choose assessment methods that are reliable, valid, and appropriate based on the age, gender, race, ability, and

other client characteristics” (AMHC) consider multicultural factors (including but not limited to gender, race, religion, age, ability, culture, class,

ethnicity, sexual orientation) in diagnosis, and in the formulation of prognosis and treatment recommendations. (AMHC)

Equity (in treatment and condition of populations served)

“Take into account all stakeholders and impacts”( NFPA) “Commitment to the wellbeing of all” (IAEM) Value diverse thoughts and opinions (IAFC) “Encourage quality and equal availability of EM care” (EM here stands for “emergency medical” (NAEMT) “ensure rights of all to liberty, equality, justice” (IACP) “perform duties impartially, without regard to status, sex…” (IACP) uphold equality/inclusion (NAEP) “zero tolerance for discrimination” (NAEP) “Embrace diversity of the nation, promote diversity and inclusion” (DNI) “enhance human health and welfare and environmental quality for all” (AWMA) “sensitive to the diversity of varying populations” (AMHCA) “Mental health counselors do not condone or engage in any discrimination based on ability, age, color, culture,

disability, ethnic group, gender, gender identity, race, religion, national” (AMHCA)

TABLE 5 ASPA Code of Ethics.

ASPA Code of Ethics

1) Advance the public interest; 2) Uphold the Constitution and the Law; 3) Promote democratic participation; 4) Strengthen social equity; 5) Fully inform and advise; 6) Demonstrate personal integrity; 7) Promote ethical organizations, and; 8) Advance Professional Excellence.

Source: American Society for Public Administration, 2015, p. 4.

96 B. STABILE ET AL.

intended for the explicit purpose of improving overall outcomes and reducing disparities where race, gender and general equity are concerned.

LIMITATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Though it is argued here that the explicit articulation of equity within ethical codes is founda- tional to informing practice, and that advancing cultural competency education could advance the achievement of equitable outcomes, these measures alone are not expected to be suffi- cient to reduce disparities in treatment and outcomes of populations along lines of race and gender. In addition to revising codes, raising awareness of disparate outcomes, and establish- ing and enforcing mechanisms of accountability among their ranks, public administrators in all fields might also consider the race and gender representativeness of those who deliver their core services with regard to the populations they serve. Representative bureaucracy the- ory holds that more representative bureaucracies are better at “meeting their goals than non- representative bureaucracies in similar circumstances” (Andrews, Ashworth, & Meier, 2014). Riccucci and Van Ryzin (2017) make the case that representative bureaucracy can promote social equity nationally, enhance citizen trust and the achievement of democratic goals, and improve outcomes. Attending to issues of representation among street-level bureaucrats and up the chain of command is one way for organizations to “walk the talk” of equity expressed in their guiding COEs. So, future research could fruitfully continue to investigate both the symbolic and practical import of more representative bureaucracies, and how to best advance towards its realization.

CONCLUSION

This analysis was undertaken to see what guidance COEs offer with regard to social equity, given the observed disparities of outcomes across services in EM and first response. We endeavored to consider the relationship between foundational documents codifying values, and the outcomes observed in target populations receiving government services.

Frederickson (1990) asserted that social equity should emphasize responsiveness to the needs of citizens rather than the needs or activities of public organizations. Our recommenda- tions, upon review of extant COEs governing the broad field of EM and first response, are twofold. First, given the strong emphasis on personal and professional development of public administrators and emergency managers in the COEs, we recommend that that development comprise significant cultural competency education, with an emphasis on advancing under- standing of disparities and social vulnerabilities. Second, we recommend making the implicit rationale for ethical guidance on organizational efforts more explicit. This means making clear that success in achieving any organization's overarching goals can only be claimed if outcomes are equitable in the populations served with regard to race, gender and overall equity. The expression of equity in COEs must go beyond vaguely describing the inputs of employee behavior and program processes and emphasize their primary purpose: equitable outcomes in the lives and experience of citizens.

DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION IN EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AND FIRST RESPONSE 97

We found that explicit mention of equity, race and gender were evident in only a minority of the examined COEs, in keeping with the findings of other recent research (McCandless & Ronquillo, 2020). Further, we discovered, through an approach informed by grounded theory, that those codes seem focused on the professional development of public administrators, with little, if any consideration of equity in outcomes for the populations served. Yet, in keeping with the values espoused by ASPA’s COE, the principles of social equity, and the arc of management reforms to date, equity should be understood to be measurable in tangible out- comes, rather than merely evident in organizational processes or aspirational pronounce- ments. Professional development that includes education in cultural competency and awareness of social vulnerability could advance the cause of achieving equality of treatment, protection, and distribution and quality of services for all. Steps towards “concretion and practicality” (Cooper, 2012, p. 150) in codes of ethics could assist in the translation of equity into meaningful outcomes for all citizens, regardless of race, gender or any other category of identity.

ORCID

Bonnie Stabile http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9162-8332

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