M6 WA#1: Classroom Arrangement
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CH9AND11.docxChapter 9: Creating Environments
Chapter Introduction
© Cengage Learning ®
· LO1Outline the major criteria that are used in creating a developmentally appropriate learning environment.
· LO2Examine the central elements of children’s health, safety, and well-being when planning environments.
· LO3Analyze basic arrangements and materials for the physical, temporal, and interpersonal aspects of the environment.
Competency Areas
Standards for Professional Development
The following NAEYC Standards for early childhood professional development are addressed in this chapter:
· Standard 1 Promoting Child Development and Learning
· Standard 4 Using Developmentally Effective Approaches to Connect with Children and Families
· Standard 5 Using Content Knowledge to Build Meaningful Curriculum
Code of Ethical Conduct
These are the sections of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct that apply to the topics in this chapter:
Section I:
· P-1.2.
We shall care for and educate children in positive emotional and social environments that are cognitively stimulating and that support each child’s culture, language, ethnicity, and family structure.
Section II:
· I-2.5
To respect the dignity and preferences of each family and to make an effort to learn about its structure, culture, language, customs, and beliefs to ensure a culturally consistent environment for all children and families.
Section III:
· Based upon our core values, our primary responsibility to colleagues is to establish and maintain settings and relationships that support productive work and meet professional needs.
· 9-1Criteria for Creating Environments
· What does it mean to create an environment appropriate for young children? The environment is the stage on which children play out the themes of childhood: their interests, triumphs, problems, and concerns. An environment for children includes all of the conditions that affect their surroundings and the people in it.
· Recent studies presented at the Society for Neuroscience tracked children over 20 years, and found that childhood home environment predicts frontal and temporal cortical thickness in the young adult brain. Further, children whose parents received training in stress reduction and attention to children showed improved memory development (Avants et al., 2012). Clearly, the environment affects brain growth and function.
· A teacher’s role is critical to a child’s learning and development. Not only are teachers performing various roles—including parent, nurse, psychologist, and coach—they are also responsible for creating a developmentally appropriate learning environment for children. The young child spends as much as 12,000 hours in this new setting away from home (Isbel, 2014). Therefore, the school becomes the most important space after their home.
· Each environment is unique. Rather than a single model, there are many good settings for all children. Each program has goals that reflect the values and priorities of its teachers, families, and communities. When growth goals and the setting mesh, the atmosphere encourages enthusiasm and engagement.
9-1bDevelopmentally Appropriate Learning Environments
Because children live in the world of the senses, actions, and feelings, they are greatly influenced by their immediate surroundings. Therefore, we must pay attention to what is in their environment and what happens during their stay there. The following are key elements of developmentally appropriate learning environments:
· Create brain-compatible environments. Positive neurological changes occur when a child is engaged in a learning experience. “By immersing a child in a highly motivating and challenging room, we may be able to engage the brain, especially the pre-frontal cortex [where] higher-order thinking skills take place such as comparing and contrasting or making connections between size and shape” (Rushton, Joula-Rushton, & Larkin, 2010). A child at the sand table adds water to build a castle [stimulating the motor cortex], sizes it up [occipital lobe], then gauges how high to build it before it collapses [prefrontal lobe]. Children with language or learning disabilities are often overstimulated by excessive noise or harsh lighting. Acoustics, light, colors, and other stimuli may affect the brain.
· Build culturally responsive environments. The environment reflects the cultures of the children in the program and introduces them to those outside of their experience. Consider the perspectives of those using the environment (Klein, 2015). An anti-bias goal brings in values of group harmony and interdependence; a self-help focus reinforces the Euro-American cultural value of independence. Even if the teachers do not look like the children, or the space does not look like home, it is critical that the environment complement children’s home culture. (See Figure 9-3 and the next sections of this chapter.)
Figure 9-3
An environment checklist provides questions for teachers to evaluate and monitor progress toward an anti-bias environment for children.
Culturally Responsive Environment Checklist
Overall Environment
1. In general, is the classroom hospitable?
2. What is on the walls?
· If there is work done by children, does it all look alike? For example, are there teacher-made shapes that the children colored, or is the art genuinely done by the children?
· Are all of the pictures for children and the art hung at children’s eye level?
· Are the pictures of people hanging on walls or bulletin boards representative of a multicultural community?
· Even if pictures do represent a diverse population, are they stereotypical in any way? For example, is there an alphabet chart that uses “Indian” to symbolize the letter “I”?
3. Is there evidence of families in the environment?
Social Studies
4. Does the curriculum as a whole help the children increase their understanding and acceptance of attitudes, values, and lifestyles that are unfamiliar to them?
5. Are materials and games racially or sex-role stereotypical—for example, African-American people shooting dice or boys playing war games? Are women depicted only as caregivers while men do lots of exciting jobs?
Music and Games
6. Do the music experiences in the curriculum reinforce the children’s affirmation of cultural diversity?
7. Are fingerplays, games, and songs from various cultural groups used in the classroom?
8. Are there many varieties of musical instruments, including ones made by the children?
Dramatic Play
9. Is there a wide variety of clothes, including garments from various cultural groups?
10. Are the pictures and the props representative of a diversity of cultures?
11. Are the dolls representative of a broad variety of racial groups?
· Are they just white dolls with changed skin color?
Blocks
12. Are the accessories representative of various cultural groups and family configurations?
13. Are the people figurines supplied with block sets stereotypical in terms of sex roles or appearance?
Language Arts
14. Does the classroom have a wide variety of age-appropriate and culturally diverse books and language arts materials?
15. Are there stories about a variety of people from each of the following groups in the book corner?
· Native-American cultures
· Asian-American cultures
· African-American cultures
· White ethnic cultures
· Spanish-speaking cultures
· Biracial or multiracial people
· Family configurations, including biracial and multiracial families and gay and lesbian families
16. Are there any books that speak of people of diverse cultures in stereotypical or derogatory terms (e.g., describing Latinos as “lazy” or Japanese as always taking photographs)?
Cooking
17. Do the cooking experiences in the classroom encourage the children to experiment with foods other than those with which they are familiar?
18. Are the cooking experiences designed to give young children a general notion of the connections between cultural heritage and the process of preparing, cooking, and eating food?
(Adapted from Frances E. Kendall, Diversity in the Classroom: New Approaches to the Education of Young Children. New York: Teachers College Press. Copyright © 1996 by Teachers College Press, Columbia University. Reprinted with permission.)
· Consider children’s developmental levels. Recognize that there are many things young children are not able to do on their own but allow them the chance to do all they can. Be developmentally aware—know what children in the class are capable of, at what point they are now in their development, and what the next step should be. Three-year-old Sophie can only zip her jacket now, so having dressing frames helps her put the zipper in the housing. Kindergartener Andrew needs time for both independent work and cooperative peer play.
· Give families ways to identify their children’s space. Label cubbies, storage bins, or baskets with names, a photo, or a familiar picture so that children can see where to put jackets, artwork, and other personal belongings.
· Provide access to enough toys and materials. Make sure that supplies are stored in such a way that adults do not have to hand them to children each time they are used. “A developmentally appropriate learning environment is designed for individual children to be messy, noisy and quiet, alone and social, and active and still,” says Greenman (2000). “It is designed to accommodate much stuff—loose parts—the raw materials of discovery for active hands and minds.” Equipment placed at a child’s height on open, low shelving permits children to proceed at their own pace and to select materials without depending on adults to serve them.
· Give opportunities for making choices. Both indoors and out, children should be given an abundance of materials and a range of activities from which to choose so that they may decide how to spend their time. Choosing to feed the hamster instead of painting at the easel helps 2- to 7-year-olds practice self-regulation. Choosing who to play with and which teacher to join gives children experience in establishing close relationships.
· See that children are responsible for caring for the environment. Have a cleanup time in the daily schedule and allow children time to help restore the room and yard. Label shelves and cupboards with pictures or symbols of what is stored there so that children can readily find and return things. Outline the specific shapes of the blocks that are stored on each shelf and make a “parking lot” for wheel toys. An accessible drying rack with large clothespins tells children that they are expected to care for their own artwork.
· Involve children in planning and setting up the environment. Let the children help decide what they want to learn. When Sarita’s cat had kittens, the center encouraged a visit to school, and then sent a newsletter asking for other pets, arranged a field trip to a pet store, and organized a pet hospital for dramatic play.
· Provide children with enough time. One of the ways that children learn is to repeat an activity over and over again. They explore, manipulate, experiment, and come to master a puzzle, to shape a lump of clay, or how to brush their teeth. Large blocks of time in the daily schedule—especially for routines—let children learn at an unhurried pace (see the section entitled “ The Temporal Environment ”).
· Make expectations clear and consistent. Use both the environment and your words to let children know what you want them to do. Putting on a cleanup song that lasts several minutes communicates both verbally and nonverbally, without pressure. Give clues that indicate how to proceed. For example, Isaac usually has someone dress him at home, yet when he comes to the toddler class, he sees the poster of a child dressing himself, and then plays a dressing game in circletime. So when the teacher prompts him, “If you pull up your underpants first, it will be easier to get your pants up,” and then gives feedback on what is working, “Good. You’ve got the back up. Now reach around the front,” he hears the teacher’s confidence in his ability to finish the task.
Be sure that staff expectations are consistent. The teaching team should set common goals for each child and reinforce them consistently. Children become confused if one teacher expects children to get their cots ready for nap, then another does it for them.
· Let children teach one another. Encourage children to share the skills they have mastered with their peers. Actively seek out each child’s way of doing things; support a diversity of approaches. Those who can tie shoes enjoy helping their friends with stubborn laces or slippery knots. Whether reading or telling stories to one another, or showing a friend a fast way to put on a jacket, children benefit from helping each other.
· Allow children to solve their own problems whenever possible. Jean Piaget reminds us that we rob a child of the joy of self-discovery when we do things for them. See how far a child can go in discovering how to manipulate a pin so that it closes, or to work out with another child who uses the red paint first. A good teacher tries not to intervene too early and can let a child struggle sufficiently with a problem before stepping in to help.
· Accept children’s efforts. To support children in their quest for independence, the adult must be satisfied with children’s efforts. Be ready to accept that Shelley put her boots on the wrong feet, if they seem right to her.
· Make it safe to make a mistake. Children learn from their own actions and their own experiences. Let them know it is perfectly acceptable, indeed inevitable, that they at times make mistakes. Help them deal with the consequences of their mistakes. When Chelo spills her juice, she is encouraged to find a sponge and clean up the table, then reinforced by commending her for scrubbing ability and swift action.
· Give credit where it is due. Provide feedback so that children know when they have been successful. Compliment Chaz on how carefully he sorted through the nails to find the one he wanted. Let children take pride in their own accomplishments.
A final note: Include beauty in your planning. The environment in which children grow and learn should also be visually appealing and relaxing. There are so many assaults on our visual senses in schools: concrete, barred windows, heavy doors, clutter, to name a few. People become numbed to balance, shape, form, line, and color. While resources are limited, beauty does not need to be ignored. The environment is one of the few things that teachers can control and use to everyone’s advantage.
9-1cThree Core Aspects of DAP Environments
When creating engaging, appropriate environments for young children, teachers keep in mind the concepts of anti-bias, self-help, and inclusion.
9-1dThe Anti-Bias Environment
One of our ethical responsibilities is to create and maintain settings for children that respect their dignity and their contributions. Children learn to value one another’s uniqueness, the differences as well as the similarities when culturally relevant experiences are embedded in the environment and curriculum.
The anti-bias curriculum, originally developed at Pacific Oaks College, encourages children and adults to:
· Explore the differences and similarities that make up our individual and group identities.
· Develop skills for identifying and countering the hurtful impact of bias on themselves and their peers (Derman-Sparks & Olsen Edwards, 2010).
The physical and interpersonal environments can be used to help children see that culture consists of the various ways that people do similar activities. This approach is different from the “tourist curriculum,” which provides only superficial information that is often detached from the child’s own life. It is also different from an approach that is based only on the interests of the class and gender, racial, and cultural groups represented therein. The anti-bias environment incorporates the positive aspects of a multicultural curriculum and uses some of the activities that highlight other cultures, but it provides a more inclusive, ongoing approach. This approach avoids patronizing or emphasizing trivial, isolated, exotic differences. There is an inherent feeling of fairness to self and others in the anti-bias approach as children explore the many ways people do the basic human tasks of everyday life. Think of the diverse cultures expressed in how babies and things are carried from place to place in different parts of the world. How many ways do people eat? Cook? Shop for food?
The anti-bias approach to creating environment has its roots in the theories of Piaget, Abraham Maslow, and Erik Erikson (see Chapter 4 ). Research data reveal that children begin to notice and construct classifications and evaluative categories very early. Infants before age 1 year notice differences among faces from their own species and their own ethnic group and most distinguish female faces more readily than male ones (Straker et al., 2010). Children begin to notice gender and racial differences and may even notice physical disabilities once they have turned 2 years old (Froschl, Rubin, & Sprung, 1984). Early childhood programs must develop a child’s basic sense of trust and mastery so that children can learn to understand themselves and become tolerant and compassionate toward others (see Figure 9-3 ).
With the prevalence of stereotyping in society, and the impact of bias on children’s development, early childhood educators have a responsibility to find ways to prevent—even counter—the damage done by such stereotyping. Teachers do this by arranging an anti-bias physical environment, as well as creating an atmosphere of problem solving and learning in the day-to-day conflicts and interactions that arise naturally. Think about how teachers provide the materials and encourage an atmosphere of trust and time for conflict resolution in these examples:
· A kindergarten teacher shows the children a magazine picture entitled “Brides of America.” All of the women pictured are Caucasian. She asks, “What do you think of this picture?” Sophia responds, “That’s a silly picture. My mom was a bride, and she’s Mexican” (Derman-Sparks & Olsen Edwards, 2010).
· A toddler teacher sets up the water play table for washing babies. Choosing dolls that represent several racial and ethnic groups, she invites the children to soap and rinse them. One 2-year-old begins to wash the teacher’s arm, and then scrubs it hard. “Do you wonder if my color will wash off?” the teacher asks. The child nods, and several others look up. “Does it? Go ahead and try … See, a person’s color is her own and stays with her. Try yours, too. That’s one way people look different: we all have skin, and yet we each have our own color” (Gutierrez, personal communication, 1987).
The anti-bias approach takes a broad view of a classroom, as a kind of “mini-society,” in which children and adults work together. Injustices from the outside world are sometimes addressed. (See the “ Diversity ” box.) For instance, a teacher helps children ticket parents’ cars who improperly park in the class-made handicapped parking space (Derman-Sparks, 1988). An anti-bias classroom fosters:
· Positive self-concept. Curiosity and creativity stem from being able to affect the environment and what is in it. When Jamal says his baby’s hair is fuzzy like his, his smile tells how good he feels about the similarity.
· Awareness. All people have interests and feelings, both about themselves and about others. Yoko notices that her classmate, Julie, runs and throws her arms around her dad, but she prefers a less demonstrative greeting.
· Skills in communication and problem solving. Learning how to express thoughts and feelings includes being able to hear others and finding peaceful ways to resolve conflicts. Jim and LaNell are quick to tell Eben he cannot play, but they find out that telling him he is “too little” does not work. He does not accept that simply being 3 years old is enough reason to leave him out, so they must either try to include him or make a claim for privacy.
Diversity
A Place at the Table
The anti-bias environment gives the message that all kinds of people belong and that, in their school settings, all children will be included. This pluralistic view assumes that
· (1)
people are different from each other and
· (2)
differences are valuable; they add to the richness of everyone’s experiences.
The educational environment and curricular activities are derived from three sources: the children and their activities, the teachers’ awareness of the developmental needs and learning styles of the group, and societal events.
A high-quality program might look like this:
· All of the children are asked to bring something that shows their culture, so we have foods, clothing items, and toys throughout the environment on a daily basis. We ask about regular routines and special days in their cultures, such as Kwanzaa, Ramadan, and Hanukkah. Children share to educate us on why these days are special and what they do to celebrate them. We try to be sensitive; for example, during Ramadan, you are not allowed to eat while the sun is up. If a family wants their children to participate in a cultural ritual, you have to make accommodations. And you watch the other children’s reactions; if they seem to view it as “not normal,” you take this opportunity to teach everyone so that it becomes familiar.
· The various cultural learning moments include families.
1. One of our African American families came in to educate us on Black History Month.
2. Two Hispanic families explained Dia de los Muertos, and we all made a place in our environment for photos and items of special family members.
3. Our new family from Shanghai helped us learn to make zongzhi and celebrate the Dragon Boat Festival by making boats to race.
Teachers make general selections of what children are to learn and arrange the environment for learning to begin. If unity is the completed puzzle, then diversity are the many pieces—with a place at the table for everyone. (Special thanks to Professor Elizabeth Jones and Leah Navarre Johnson.)
The Self-Help Environment
A self-help environment has as one of its fundamental goals the development of children’s own skills—fostering their mastery of basic abilities that allow them to become responsible for their personal care, learning, emotional controls, problem solving, and choices and decisions. A self-help environment gives children the feeling that they are capable, competent, and successful. It allows children to do for themselves, to meet the challenge of growing up. A self-help environment reflects the belief that autonomy and independence are the birthright of every child.
I Can Do It Myself “I can do it myself” and “Me do it!” are heard frequently in early learning programs. Nothing renders people more helpless than not being able to maintain their own needs or to take care of themselves in basic ways. Children are still in the process of learning about what they can and cannot do. They need many different kinds of experiences to help them learn the extent of their capabilities. Most of all, they need adults who understand their tremendous drive to become self-reliant—adults who not only encourage their abilities and provide the time for them to practice skills, but also understand that it is the nature of the child to develop this way.
Self-concept is based on what we know about ourselves, which includes the ability to take care of our own needs. To care for oneself, to feel capable of learning, and to solve problems are all related to feelings of self-esteem . Self-esteem is the value we place on ourselves; how much we like or dislike who we are. Helping children achieve a positive self-concept and self-esteem is the most important part of teaching. The development of a strong sense of self-esteem is a lifelong process; its origins are in the early years.
The anti-bias environment encourages girls and boys to play together, respecting differences and including others in new ways.
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That kind of thoughtful preparation can create spaces that say to children, “Try me. Master me. You are capable.” Teachers want to communicate to children that they value self-help skills as much as they appreciate an art project or science experiment. If Claudia feels that learning to tie her shoes is worth doing just because of the pleasure it gives her to manipulate the strings, weave them through the holes, and bring them together in a knot, then that becomes her reward. She becomes capable of reinforcing herself.
The Inclusive Environment
In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142) called for an end to segregation for disabled students from kindergarten through high school. This policy was amended to include preschools and child care centers (Public Law 99-457, 1986), mandating that all preschoolers with special needs be placed in the least restrictive environment (LRE) . The practice of placing children with disabilities in the same classroom as children without disabilities is called mainstreaming . A more comprehensive method is known as full inclusion , in which both typically developing children and children with diverse abilities are taught together by a teaching staff with expertise in both normal child development and special education (see Chapter 3 ). The Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) prohibits child care centers from denying admission to a child simply because he or she has a disability. Together, these federal laws form part of the rationale for early childhood centers to become more inclusive environments (Allen & Cowdery, 2015).
Children with diverse abilities need the same things in their environment as their more typically developing peers. They need an environment that is safe, secure, and predictable, and one that provides a balance of the familiar and novel so that there are materials and activities that provide for their development. At the same time, a child with disabilities may be at a different level or need special help, so accommodations must be made. These may require a modification of the environment or the schedule, either adding something to the environment that is not already there or using something in the environment in a different way, either providing more time for something to get accomplished or less focus on the time it may take. As noted at the chapter opening, we make adaptations in teaching strategies, learning environment, and curriculum so that each child can play and learn in an inclusive environment that meets the needs of children with and without disabilities.
Environmental adaptations are changes that make the environment fit the child better, so they will vary with the children. Children with motor disabilities need different adaptations than those with hearing or language disabilities or with visual impairments. Physical changes may be necessary, modifications in the schedule may be recommended, or individualizing activities may be best. Parents are the best source of information about the child; other readings or specialists can be further guides (see Figure 9-4 ).
When designing an inclusive environment, providing environmental support means altering the physical, temporal, and interpersonal environment to promote participation and learning.
Checklist for an Inclusive Environment
Physical Environment
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Questions to Think about:
· How can we enhance or adapt the physical environment for children who have difficulty moving (or who move too much)?
· How do different children use their bodies or the space around them for learning?
· How can we capitalize on the physical environment for children who learn by moving?
Accessing the Environment Safely:
· Doorway widths in compliance with local building codes
· Ramps in addition to or instead of stairs
· Low, wide stairs where possible (including playground equipment)
· Handrails on both sides of stairs
· Easy handles on doors, drawers, etc.
· Kids’ chairs with armrests, “cubes,” or footrest and seat strap
· When adapting seating activities for a specific child with physical disabilities, consult a physical therapist.
Learning through the Environment:
· Toys and equipment physically accessible
· Magnets glued to backs of puzzle pieces and attribute blocks and use on a steel cookie tray
· Large knobs or levers attached to toys with lids, movable parts
· Tabs attached to book pages for easier turning
· Tray for boundaries for art activities
· An occupational therapist can provide specific suggestions for adapting materials and activities.
Visual Environment
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Questions to Think about:
· How do different children use their vision for learning?
· How can we enhance the visual environment for a child with low or no vision?
· How can we capitalize on the visual environment for children who learn by seeing?
Accessing the Environment Safely:
· Contrasting colors are used on edges and when surfaces change (e.g., tile to carpet, beginning of stairs, etc.)
· Windows shaded to avoid high glare
· Darker nonglossy floors and tabletops.
· Visual clutter is avoided on walls, shelves, etc.
· “Spot lighting” (e.g., swing-arm lamp) available on some table tasks
· Orientation and mobility specialists help children with visual impairments learn to navigate the space.
Learning through the Environment:
· Large-print materials, textured materials, and auditory materials are available (e.g., big books, sandpaper letters, books on tape).
· Daily schedule is represented in words and pictures (e.g., a Velcro® schedule with photos/pictures for children to post the schedule and then remove items as activities are completed).
· Children with low vision are seated close to the center of activity and away from high glare.
Auditory Environment
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Questions to Think about:
· How do different children use their hearing for learning?
· How can we enhance the auditory environment for a child who is deaf or hearing impaired, or who has poor auditory discrimination skills?
· How can we capitalize on the auditory environment for auditory learners?
Accessing the Environment Safely:
· Eliminate or dampen background noise (using carpeting, closing windows and doors, etc.)
· “Auditory competition” is avoided (e.g., instead of raising one’s voice to get attention, use a “silent signal,” such as holding up a peace sign and encouraging children who notice to do the same until the room is focused)
· Nonauditory signals, such as turning lights on and off, are used to alert children
Learning through the Environment:
· Auditory messages are paired with visual ones (e.g., simple sign language, flannel boards, picture schedules).
· Children with hearing impairments are seated so they can see others’ faces and actions.
Social Environment
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Questions to Think about:
· How do different children use social cues for learning?
· How can we adapt the social environment for children with impulsive behavior, attention deficits, or other behavior problems?
· How can we capitalize on the social environment for children who learn by relating to others?
Accessing the Environment Safely:
· Predictable schedule with children informed of changes
· Schedule provides a range of activity levels (e.g., adequate opportunities for physical activity, activities simplified into small steps)
Learning through the environment:
· Environment has a positive impact on self-esteem (capitalizing on child’s interests and favorites, inviting adaptive equipment, invites peer support).
· Learning materials and toys include representations of all kinds of people, including children and adults with disabilities.
· Schedule includes opportunities for a variety of groupings (pairs, small groups, whole class), as well as quiet time or time alone.
· Schedule provides both structured and open activity times.
· School psychologists and behavior specialists can help analyze misbehavior and modify the environment or schedule.
(Based on Brault, 2009.)
Three key concepts are helpful to remember—access, usability, and maximizing learning:
1. Can the child get where she or he needs to be in the classroom to learn something?
2. Once the child is in that location, can he or she use the materials and equipment and participate in the activity as independently as possible to learn something?
3. Are the learning activities there arranged and scheduled to meet the individual learning needs of all the children, including the child with disabilities?
Come Together for a Child “Come together for a child” is an adage for including children with special needs. Consider Andrew, who at 5 years of age had a motor/muscle disability with some speech difficulties. His cognitive skills were very strong and his social skills very weak. Andrew’s mother talked to everyone during “Kinder Circle” about Andrew’s needs and fears. If he fell down, he had a hard time righting himself. He needed help sitting and standing. He was afraid of getting bumped because he could not catch himself before falling very hard, and then he could not get up. The children all agreed to be careful about roughhousing around him. The setting for success was being created with accommodations.
Because Andrew did not have much control of his fine motor skills, the teachers provided him with painting and play dough. They set up a crafts table; soon he was gluing pictures on paper, with or without order, and was very proud of his accomplishments. He even started using scissors on simple patterns. The physical environment was responding to his needs with modifications.
He was a wonderful puzzle builder, and the other children asked for his help often when they were stuck. It was wonderful to watch how they included him in many things. They accepted his differences right from the beginning and treated him just like all the rest—except they were careful when running and playing around him. His fear was apparent, and they respected it. Thus, an interpersonal environment emerges that encourages inclusion of those with disabilities and tolerance on the part of everyone.
There was a regular physical education time each day in the big room where the group jumped rope, played Simon Says, played Red Light, Green Light, and ran obstacle courses. At first, Andrew sat on the sidelines and watched. He cheered and looked interested, so one teacher started asking him if he’d be her partner because she was a little afraid. At first he refused and told her to use someone else. The teacher kept asking but would drop it as soon as he gave his answer. Then, one day, he said, “OK.” The two of them ran and jumped over the snake (rope), and all the kids laughed. They hugged and that was the beginning. When given the materials, time, and awareness that is needed, the child triumphs. (Special thanks to Cindy Rogers for this example.)
9-2Central Elements in Environment Planning
Planning environments is a complex task for early childhood teachers. There are many people who use the environment, and the children’s health, safety, and well-being are the primary focus.
9-2aWho Is in the Environment?
Many people live and work in the early childhood environment. Cooks, bus drivers, office personnel, and yard and building maintenance people are but a few. Each person has special demands on the environment to do the job they are hired to do. Three key groups of people are the children, their teachers, and their families.
Children
Children’s needs are met through the environment. The physical, social, emotional, and intellectual requirements of children suggest the type of building, the size of the furniture, the choice of equipment, the size and age range of the group, the number of teachers who lead and supervise, and the budget allocations. Guided by child development principles, teachers match the setting to the children who learn and play there. The individuality of a particular group of children, of a school, and of its philosophy is expressed by the arrangement of the environmental factors. Who are the children who use this space? What are their needs? How can those needs be met in this particular setting?
Teachers
The working environment is a predictor of the quality of care that children receive. What has been done to meet the needs of the teachers? Do they have an office? A teachers’ room? A place to hold conferences? Where do they keep their personal belongings or the materials they bring to use at school? Do they have a place to park? All teachers need room to create curriculum materials, to evaluate their programs, to review other educational materials, and to meet with their peers. The general context of the setting, opportunities for professional development, status, and wages are factors of how well teachers are provided for in an educational setting.
The needs of children’s parents and other adults vary, depending on whom the program serves. Adults who drive their children to child care or school need adequate and safe parking facilities. In settings in which adults are free to stay, a reading room, resource library, or a comfortable place to talk with others is desirable. Those who participate in the class are welcomed by a teacher, shown a place to put their belongings, and given a name tag and appropriate directions.
There are many reasons for families to need to contact the school or center. Are there ways to reach teachers and children in emergencies? How welcoming is the environment as they enter the building? The office? The classroom? What does the environment say about family involvement and interest?
The environment can be accessible and welcoming in several ways:
· Post contact information about how school authorities and teachers can be reached after hours or in an emergency.
· Have a bulletin board for community notices, pertinent announcements, and for family use, along with
· mail pockets.
· Provide a place for families to talk with each other or wait outside the classroom.
The center that offers parents both an authoritative teacher and other useful resources helps them feel that their children are important. (See Chapter 8 for more suggestions.)
Children develop a sense of self when they have their own space, labeled with a photo or other visual clue so that they can easily identify it as their own.
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Regardless of how many children are in the setting and for how long, the first priority is to provide for their health and safety. Health, safety, and nutrition are closely related because the quality of one affects the quality of the others (Marotz, 2015). Programs for children must establish policies that provide for the protection, service, and education of child health and safety at all times. Government regulations and professional recommendations vary, but all establish some kind of standards to ensure good health and safety practices.
9-2bKeeping Children Healthy
Sanitation
When groups of people live in close quarters, proper sanitary conditions are imperative to prevent the spread of disease. For an early childhood center, the physical plant must have adequate washing and toileting facilities for both children and adults. The number and size of toilets and wash basins are usually prescribed by local health or other regulatory agencies. Children do not realize their role in spreading germs, especially as their moist and warm hands touch and handle everything. Set regular times, use gentle reminders, and model hand washing to help children learn the habit of washing their hands at important times.
Sanitation depends on frequent, systematic cleaning. The classrooms require daily cleaning, and equipment that is used regularly should be sanitized on a periodic basis. Nontoxic paint must be used in all circumstances, including on outdoor equipment and cribs, as well as for art activities with children. Classroom dress-up clothing, pillows, nap blankets, and cuddle toys all need regular laundering, either at school or at home.
The nature of preventive health care in educational settings has expanded in the last decade. Knowledge of how disease is spread and concern over communicable diseases (see the following discussion) have increased awareness of the kinds of practices that teachers must engage in on a daily basis. These include hand washing (the number one way to prevent the unnecessary spread of germs) and an approach known as universal infection control precautions . All teachers should receive training in using universal health precautions with all children.
Spaces should be arranged according to the needs—and dimensions—of the children, so they can see and relate to things of interest at their level.
© Cengage Learning ®
Temperature, Ventilation, and Lighting
Heating and ventilation should be comfortable for the activity level of the children and should change when weather conditions do. Adequate lighting without glare is a necessity. Uniform, fluorescent lighting may not be the best environment for children; therefore, a mixture of lighting, such as is in homes, is preferable. Rooms should have some means of controlling light (e.g., shades and blinds). Cross-ventilation is necessary in all rooms where children eat, sleep, or play. Proper heating and insulation are important.
Communicable Disease
This is an important issue when dealing with young children in group care. Some people question the advisability of early group care on the grounds that it exposes children to too much illness. Others claim that such exposure at an early age helps children build up resistance, and that they are actually stronger and healthier by the time they enter primary grades. In the largest U.S. study to date on children’s health, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) concluded that, although infants and toddlers face a higher risk of colds and viruses, day care was not seen as increasing children’s illnesses at older ages and was not a risk overall (CDC, 2014).
Families should be notified when normal childhood diseases (such as chicken pox) or common problems (such as head lice) occur in the classroom. Infections of special concern to adults include chicken pox, hepatitis, cytomegalovirus (CMV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Regular education about disease is helpful; a handout on each specific infection that describes its symptoms, dates of exposure, and incubation informs families, who can then help prevent the spread of infectious disease.
In group care, children can contract a fair number of colds and viruses, especially when they are eating and sleeping close to each other (see Figure 9-5 ). The school and its staff have responsibility to ensure that good health standards are instituted and maintained to keep illness to a minimum.
Figure 9-5
Common health problems require effective solutions.
Tips for Common Children’s Health Problems
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Condition |
Tips |
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Allergies and asthma |
Post a list of all children with chronic conditions; check ingredient lists of foods; watch what triggers reactions. |
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Scrapes and cuts |
Reassure and sympathize with child; supervise child’s washing with soaped pad and caring comments; use packs of ice or frozen peas in a towel to treat swelling. |
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Bumps on the head |
Notify parents of any loss of consciousness and watch for signs for two to three days. |
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Sand in eyes |
Remind child “Do not rub!” Have child wash hands and cover eyes with a tissue; normal eye tearing will bring sand to inside corner of eye; remove with clean tissue. |
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Splinters |
Clean area with alcohol and remove with tweezers or cover with adhesive strip and let parent remove. |
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Conjunctivitis |
Also known as pinkeye, conjunctivitis is highly contagious; watch for excess eye rubbing and red eyes; have child wash hands; isolate with washable toys until the parent takes the child home and gets treatment. |
|
Head lice |
Distressing but not dangerous; wash shared clothing, stuffed animals, bedding; vacuum rugs and furniture; remove hats, combs, and brushes from dramatic-play area; send notices home and inspect children’s hair for two to three weeks. |
|
Chicken pox |
Isolate the child until parents pick up; alert all parents about the contagious period of this disease; watch for signs on all children for three weeks after exposure. |
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Strep throat |
Send home notices; wash all equipment that might carry germs. |
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Lingering coughs |
At onset, send the child home until evaluated; frequent drinks will soothe; coughs may last up to two weeks; if longer, may suggest infection or allergy. |
(Adapted from Needlman & Needlman, 1995.)
Health Assessment and School Policies
Every early childhood center should establish clear health policies and make them known to families. A daily inspection of each child helps adults spot nasal discharge, inflamed eyes, and throat and skin conditions of a questionable nature. This daily check screens out more serious cases of children too ill to remain at school and may be done by a teacher, nurse, or administrator. Educating families about the warning signs of illness encourages sick children to be cared for at home.
It is very important for the school to inform families about what happens when children are refused admittance or become ill during the school day. Every school should provide a place for sick children where they can be isolated from others, kept under supervision, and be made comfortable until they are picked up. For their part, parents must arrange to have sick children cared for elsewhere if they are unable to take them home. School policies on these issues must be explicit and upheld consistently and compassionately for the sake of all the children.
Teachers must be sensitive to families’ feelings and situations when sending a sick child home. This situation often produces guilt feelings and work-related stress in parents. Working families may need school assistance in locating alternatives for the care of a sick child.
Most schools require, under state or local laws, a doctor’s examination and permission to participate in an early childhood education program before a child can enter the program. This includes a record of immunizations and the child’s general health. Parents, too, should submit a history of the child, highlighting eating, sleeping, and elimination habits. It is critical to note any dietary restrictions or allergies and then post them in the classrooms for a reminder.
Nutrition
Clothing
The health and safety of children are affected by the clothing they wear. A simple way to be sure that children stay healthy is to encourage them to dress properly for play and for varying weather conditions. Children need clothing in which they can be active—clothing that is not binding and is easy to remove and easy to clean. To promote a self-help environment, parents and teachers should provide clothes that the children can manage themselves (with features such as elastic waistbands, Velcro® ties, and large zippers). Pants are a good choice for both boys and girls; long skirts can become a hazard when climbing, running, or going up and down stairs. The safest shoes for active play should have composition or rubber soles. Whenever possible, it helps to keep extra clothes at school.
Health of the Staff
A responsible early childhood center is one that supports and maintains a healthy staff. Teachers should be in good physical and mental health to be at their best with children. It is wise to check the health regulations and benefits of the individual center when employed there. Many states require annual chest X-rays and tuberculosis clearance as a condition of employment. Sick leave policies should be clearly stated in print. Early childhood education is an intense job involving close interpersonal contact. Most teachers work long hours, often with low wages and few health benefits, and with clients in various stages of health. Such working conditions produce fatigue and stress, which can lead to illness or other stress-related problems.
Family-style eating encourages social interaction, as well as lifelong positive attitudes about food and nutrition.
© Cengage Learning ®
9-2cGuarding Children’s Safety
Beyond the continual supervision of indoor and outdoor space, everything is planned with the children’s safety in mind. Creating a hazard-free environment that still allows for risk and challenge for children takes careful observation and attention to detail. A quick walk around the usual, non-childproofed room and yard reveals potential problems. Sharp corners, loose rug edges, and gated stairwells are sample indoor items; fences and broken equipment in the playground, use of scissors/hammers, and appliances everywhere are just some of the examples (see Figure 9-6 ).
Figure 9-6
Children’s safety is of primary importance to teachers and caregivers. Careful evaluation and regular safety checks eliminate dangerous materials and conditions in children’s spaces.
Safety List for Indoor Environments
· Person or persons monitoring children (at entrances, indoors, outdoors)
· First aid and emergency
· Materials readily available to adults, out of children’s reach, and regularly stocked and updated
· Adults trained in first aid and CPR regularly and familiar with emergency routines
· Safety plugs on all outlets
· Cords
· Electrical cords out of children’s reach; avoid using extension cords
· Curtain and window cords, window pulls and poles out of children’s reach
· Floor mats and carpets tacked down to avoid slippage
· Doors
· Made to open and close slowly
· All clear access, marked exits, and not blocked
· Cubbies and storage cabinets
· Bolted to walls (or back-to-back together)
· Any dangerous materials in locked area
· Toys
· In good repair; no splinters or sharp, broken edges
· Check for size with younger children (purchase safety-sizing gadget or estimate to keep at the size of a child’s fist)
· Check for peeling paint
· Plants and animals
· Nonpoisonous plants only
· Check animal cages regularly
· Supervise animal handling carefully
· Store animal food out of children’s reach
· Adult materials
· Keep adult purses, bags, etc., away from children
· Avoid having hot beverages around children
· No smoking in children’s areas
· Kitchen and storage
· Children allowed in only with adult supervision
· Poisonous or hazardous materials stored in a locked area
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Most important, there must be safety rules that are explained to children and upheld by adults. Outdoors is especially important because children are physically active. Approximately 200,000 children are sent to an emergency room every year as a result of a playground accident (Consumer Product Safety Commission, 2009). With an estimated 27 to 30 million children between 5 and 14 years of age participating in organized sports each year, safety issues are paramount for school-aged children. The adults serve as the link between children and sports and are the chief means of prevention of injuries and accidents (see Chapter 11 ).
Field trips are an extension of the program, and “safety first” is the motto. Preparing children for the trip includes rehearsal of safety procedures.
First Aid
Every school should establish procedures for dealing with children who are injured on the property. First aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) training should be required of all teachers and made available as part of their in-service training. Teachers should know how to handle a child who is not breathing, as well as to treat bumps and bruises, minor cuts and abrasions, bleeding, splinters, bites and stings, seizures, sprains, broken bones, and minor burns. Each classroom should be equipped with two first aid kits. One is for use in the classroom and yard; the other should be suitable for taking on field trips. Each kit should be readily available to adults but out of children’s reach, and supplies should be replenished regularly.
Emergency numbers to be posted near the telephone in each room include those of the ambulance squad, fire department, police, health department, nearest hospital, and a consulting physician (if any). All families should be aware of the center’s or school’s policy regarding injuries at the facility and should provide emergency information for each child: the name of their physician, how to locate the family, and who else might be responsible for the injured child if the parents cannot be reached. The program, in turn, must make sure that they notify families of any injuries the child has incurred during the school day.
Disasters and Threats
Automobile Safety
Automobile safety is a related concern when considering potential hazards for preschool children. The use of approved car seats and restraints for children riding in automobiles has received national attention in recent years. Some states have passed legislation requiring the use of specific devices to ensure safer travel for young children. Whether or not they walk to school, children should also be aware of basic rules for crossing streets. The street and parking lot can be a source of danger unless the program articulates policies to parents regarding the safety needs of children. There are potential risks when cars and children occupy the same space. Children should not be left unattended in parking lots.
9-2dMaintaining Children’s Well-Being
The overall environment for children takes into consideration many factors. To provide for children’s health and safety, teachers look at the physical environment carefully, review the schedule, and finally assess the overall atmosphere of well-being. Young children are growing up in a world threatened by violence abroad and at home, drug abuse, unresolved conflicts among adults, and constant bombardment of (not always wholesome) television and other media.
Because young children do not easily separate the home and school parts of their lives, early childhood educators learn about children’s lives and family details readily. They are often at a loss as to what to do, either with information that a child shares or with the child’s behavior in the program. Yet, a situation does not need to be a crisis to affect a child’s well-being. As a rule of thumb, when you feel the child’s physical or emotional development is in jeopardy, you have an ethical responsibility, and often a legal obligation as well, to take further action.
Difficulties in the Program
Children’s well-being can be threatened by a difficult situation at school, such as being bitten, left out, or ridiculed. Although the situation may be remedied quickly and seem resolved, it may linger in a child’s mind and get triggered later or when looking ahead to another day in the program.
Problems at Home
Children are at risk for myriad crises in the home—problems with family members, separation or divorce, violence, or substance abuse. Community problems, such as closure of a local grocery store or a neighborhood crime incident, can affect children. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory (see Chapter 4 ) is applicable to conditions of well-being. Although much of our response is concerned with adults—families, community resources, professional supports—we are also responsible for trying to provide a psychologically safe and positive environment for children. By design (physical and temporal) and by responsiveness (interpersonal), teachers provide an environment that soothes and cares for young children.
9-3Basic Arrangements and Materials for Creating the Environment
The environment is more than just the space provided, or even the things put into it. When planning a place for children’s growth and development, teachers consider three aspects of the environment: the physical elements, the temporal (time) dimensions, and the interpersonal atmosphere.
9-3aThe Physical Environment
Every educational setting is organized fundamentally around physical space. The building itself may be new and designed specifically for young children. In Reggio Emilia, for example, it is the environment that creates an atmosphere of discovery. As founder Loris Malaguzzi explains (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 1993):
There is an entrance hall, which informs and documents, and which anticipates the form and organization of the school. This leads into the dining hall, with the kitchen well in view. The entrance hall leads into the central space, or piazza, the place of encounters, friendships, games, and other activities that complete those of the classrooms. The classrooms and utility rooms are placed at a distance from but connected with the center area. Each classroom is divided into two contiguous rooms … to allow children either to be with teachers or stay alone… . In addition to the classrooms, we have established the atelier, the school studio and laboratory, as a place for manipulating or experimenting.
More than likely, however, the space is a converted house or store, a parish hall, or an elementary classroom. Sometimes a program shares space with another group so that furniture or materials have to be moved between sessions. Family child care programs are housed in a private home, so adaptations are made in the space both for the children and for the family that lives there. There may be a large yard, a small yard, or none at all. Some playgrounds are on the roof of the building, or a park across the street may serve as the only available playground (see Chapter 11 ).
Constraints also come in the form of weather conditions. Outdoor play—and therefore large-muscle equipment—may be unavailable during the winter, so room for active, vigorous play is needed inside during that time. Hot summer months can make some types of play difficult if there is little or no shade. Weather conditions must be considered when planning programs for children.
Early childhood programs have specific needs that must be met by the buildings and yards they occupy. Although the choice is generally determined by what is available, at a minimum the setting should provide facilities for:
|
playing/working |
food preparation |
|
eating |
washing/toileting |
|
sleeping/resting |
clothing and wraps |
|
storage |
office/work space |
Ideally, the setting should have enough space to house these various activities separately. In practice, however, rooms are multipurpose, and more than one event takes place in the same space. A playroom doubles as an eating area because both require the use of tables and chairs. A yard has an area for group activities and individual play at different times. When a space serves many functions (e.g., playing, eating, and sleeping), convenient and adequate storage space is a necessity.
Ground-floor classrooms and contiguous yards are preferable for young children to ensure that they can enter and leave with relative ease and safety. For noise reduction, the walls and ceilings should be soundproofed. Carpeting, draperies, and other fireproof fabrics in the room help absorb sound. Floors must be durable, sanitary, and easily cleaned. They should be free from drafts. Rugs should be vacuumed each day. Outdoors, ground cover should be varied and easy to maintain; sand areas should have clear boundaries that keep the sand contained, areas around swings clearly marked to keep traffic out, and climbers with cushioning material. Room and yard size should be sufficient to allow for freedom of movement and the opportunity to play without interference.
Many local and state agencies have regulations regarding the use of space for children in group care settings. Licensing agencies often recommend or mandate minimum room and yard size standards. The fire marshal, health department, and similar agencies must be consulted and their regulations observed.
The National Academy of Early Childhood Programs (NAEYC, 2005) has developed guidelines for indoor and outdoor facilities that promote optimal growth. Besides floor and play space [minimum 35 (and recommended 50) square feet indoors and 75 square feet outdoors], the guidelines suggest how to arrange activity areas to accommodate children and what kinds of activities and materials are safe, clean, and attractive. This document, along with Inspiring Spaces for Young Children (Deviney, Duncan, Harris, & Rody, 2010), The Creative Curriculum (Heroman, Dodge, Berke, & Bickart, 2010), and the Environmental Rating Scales (Harms, Clifford, & Cryer, 2006–2014) are used extensively to develop this material. There are several key dimensions to any environment that are helpful to consider. If we are to offer children both balance and variety, these criteria need to be included in developing space both indoors and out (see Figure 9-7 ).
Figure 9-7
Key dimensions when considering an early childhood environment.
Key Environmental Dimensions
(Adapted from Exchange Magazine, E. Prescott, 1994.)
Indoors
Interest Areas/Learning Centers Interest areas or learning centers are activity centers, with a classic definition that holds today. As Olds (1989) states (italics in original):
An activity area has five defining attributes. Physical location, with visible boundaries indicating where it begins and ends, within which are placed work and sitting surfaces, and the storage and display of materials used to execute the activities for which the area is intended. An area, like a room, has a mood or personality distinguishing it from contiguous spaces.
Deciding what interest centers you want, reflective of program philosophy and children’s interests, and what kind of space you need is good preparation to making a basic floor plan and sketching in the interest centers. Start with an assessment of the way that space is set up now. “First draw a simple floor plan of the room you are currently working in, one you are familiar with, or one you imagine using in a new job. As you sketch out the arrangements of the room, do not include a lot of detail… . Put yourself in the shoes of the children who spend their days in your space” (Carter & Curtis, 2014). You consider their ages and needs of the group, and make a list of “I can” and “I like to” statements as if you are those children. Now check your floor plan; if you had trouble finding any of the components in your room, make some changes.
Most programs include basic areas for play and engagement in a variety of dimensions. Learning centers are areas of the environment focused on different activities for different developmental experiences. For infants and toddlers, areas for movement and for sensory experiences dominate; preschoolers want more creative and manipulative choices; school-age children might include areas for academic stimulation or practice. Remember that body movement influences thinking: young children use their whole bodies to paint, build, and pretend. This is sometimes described as embodied cognition: the idea that the body gives information to the brain, rather than only the brain communicating with the body (McNerney, 2011). Teachers must create learning centers that are interesting, accurately reflect the goals for children, and consider space, traffic flow, the number of people, and availability of equipment and materials. Teachers use environmental cues to communicate to children what may happen there, and make good use of the learning centers as places for observation and assessment (see Figure 9-8 ). Creating learning centers is a standard early childhood practice that has tremendous potential in school-age and primary settings.
Figure 9-8
Environmental features in the environment are set in a framework that helps build appropriate experiences for children in the early years.
Environmental Components
Infants, Toddlers, and Twos
© Cengage Learning ®
Routines
Hello/goodbye, diapering/toileting, eating
Sleeping/napping, getting dressed
Experiences and Explorations
Playing with toys, imitating/pretending
Enjoying stories, connecting with music
Creating with art, tasting food, exploring
Sand and water, going outdoors
Partnering with Families—All three age groups
Plenty of display space
Preschoolers (3–5)
© Cengage Learning ®
Learning and Playing
Time for play, routines, transitions, groups of several sizes
Interpersonal opportunities with peers and teachers
School-Agers (Kinders–Grade 3)
© Cengage Learning ®
Friends and Peers
Quiet area for just talking, tables for being in groups, large area for whole group
Homework
Place with lighting, computer access, teacher availability, away from noise
Special places for either older [6+] or younger [K only]
Furniture Maria Montessori (see Chapters 1 and 10 ) introduced the idea of child-sized furniture to early education. John Dewey expanded upon it, even encouraging classes to build some of their own furniture. Licensing regulations often stipulate how many child-sized chairs must be provided, and the Environmental Rating Scales describe the kind of furniture that provides for children’s needs in a setting (see Figures 9-10 , 9-11 and 9-12 ). Reggio-inspired programs and Waldorf schools recommend natural wood and decline to use plastic furniture as much as possible.
Figure 9-9
All programs should stock both indoor and outdoor environments with developmentally appropriate basic materials.
Basic Materials for ECE Environments
Basic Materials for Indoor Environments
Floors and Seating: Various surfaces (carpet, linoleum or tile, wood floor) kept clean and draft-free, comfortable seating (chairs at tables, rocking chair or sofa, carpet squares)
Areas: Art, blocks, dramatic play, toys and games, library, discovery/science, music and movement, cooking, media
Equipment: Art: Easels, paints, watercolors; playdough, clay; pens, pencils, brushes; scissors, hole punch; glue, paste; collage materials; assorted paper
Blocks: Unit, hollow blocks; props (people & animal figures); accessories (signage, doll furniture)
Dramatic play: Mirrors; furniture; clothing; dolls, cooking utensils, pretend food items; purses and backpacks; expanded materials beyond house as needed
Toys and games: Puzzles, constructions toys, math toys, Montessori materials, cooperative games
Library/book nook: Picture books; flannel board and items; photos; writing center materials; listening post items
Discovery/science: Nature materials; pets; sensory materials; water/sand table; magnifying glasses and scales, etc.; textured materials or other “theme/ interest” related displays
Music and movement: CD/tape player and items; instruments, dancing scarves (may also be used in circle time)
Cooking: Food preparation materials (may also be used in discovery or art areas)
Media: Computers, tape/CD deck; TV
Infant-toddler: Limit materials and reduce number of interest areas; offer fewer choices in each area; substitute soft blocks and push/pull toys; have knobbed puzzles and stacking toys
School-age: Increase game area, vary units, add self-help in art and chapter books in library
Basic Materials for Outdoor Playgrounds/Yards
Grounds: Various surfaces (grass, asphalt, gravel/sand, tanbark), as much natural habitat as possible
Areas: Climbing place, sand/water space, wheel toy/riding place, games and dramatic play area, building space, pet/garden area
Equipment: Climbing apparatus with ramps, slide, pole, ladder; swings (various types); house/quiet area; ramps and supports to build; tires, “loose parts”
· Sand and water toys
· Various wheel toys
· Large building blocks
· Dramatic-play props
· Balls and game materials
· Workbench and woodworking/clay materials
Infant-toddler: Have plenty of simple riding toys, eliminate woodworking, have apparatus correct size and simplicity, perhaps with foam wedges
School-age: Increase game area, may eliminate number or kinds of wheel toys; substitute a stage, mural, boat, creek; increase “loose parts” for child-created forts
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Figure 9-10
A preschool child care center needs clearly defined boundaries and obvious pathways so that children can use the space independently.
Preschool Classroom
Figure 9-11
A toddler environment has safety and accessibility in mind so that children can be maximally involved with a minimum of distraction from others.
Toddler Room
Figure 9-12
A school-age center has learning centers to allow children to engage in peer connections and homework constructively.
School-Age Center
Bathrooms Bathrooms should be adjacent to the play and sleeping areas and easily reached from outdoors. Child-sized toilets and wash basins are preferable, but if unavailable, a step or platform may be built. In most settings designed for children younger than age 5, the bathrooms are without doors, for ease of supervision. Toileting facilities for children should be light, airy, attractive, and large enough to serve several children at a time. An exhaust fan is desirable. Paper towel holders should be at child height and wastebaskets placed nearby.
If diapering is part of the program, areas for this purpose should be clearly defined and close to hand-washing facilities. Hand-washing regulations for the staff should be posted, and an area should be provided for recording children’s toileting and elimination patterns. Closed cans and germicidal spray must be used, and diapering materials should be plentiful and handy.
Room to Rest Room to rest means providing nap and sleeping facilities with adequate storage space for cots and bedding. Movable screens that are low enough for teacher supervision allow privacy and help reduce the noise level. Cots or cribs should be labeled with children’s names and washed regularly. They should be placed consistently and in such a way that children feel familiar, cozy, and private—for instance, not in the center of the room or in rows. Teachers can develop a “nap map” that places children so that they can get the rest or sleep they need while still feeling part of the group.
Food Service This aspect includes routines and choices around food. “Good nutrition affects the health and well-being of individuals of all ages,” states Marotz (2015). “Small children need nutrients for growth and energy … regardless of the guideline selected, the common factor necessary for good nutrition is the inclusion of a wide variety of foods.” As early childhood classrooms have become more diverse and multicultural, educators must consider families’ cultural practices and preferences.
Quality early learning programs provide environments that both indoors and outdoors encourage children to play and work either alone or together.
© Cengage Learning ®; © Cengage Learning ®; © Cengage Learning ®; © Cengage Learning ®
Feeding young children and teaching toddlers and older children about good food choices can be a challenge throughout the early childhood span. In an infant program, storing formula and milk is a necessity. As toddlers assert their independence, they begin to make their preferences known. Care must be taken to offer a variety of foods at regular times but avoid a battle of wills over what the child eats. Preschoolers are influenced by a teacher who sets a good example of eating with balance and variety. School-aged children can understand nutritional concepts better but are more influenced by what their peers are eating.
Whether involved in a light snack or a full meal program, the center must adhere to the most rigid standards of health protection and safety provisions. Every precaution must be taken to ensure maximum food service with maximum hygiene. Daily cleaning of equipment, counters, floors, and appliances is a necessity. Proper disinfecting of high chairs and tables requires an appropriate bleach-to-water ratio, and bottles of this solution should be stored away from children’s reach, yet kept handy for teachers’ use. Consult NAEYC or local referral agencies for guidelines on serving nutritional foods and incentives or subsidies.
Each age has its unique food-service needs. Infants need to be held or seated near an adult with enough high chairs or low tables to prevent an unreasonable wait for eating. Toddlers should not be fed popcorn, nuts, hot dogs, or raw carrots because of the hazard of choking. All children must be served food on disposable dishes or on dishes cleaned in a dishwasher with a sanitation cycle. Lunches brought from home by school-age and full-day children must be checked for spoilage. Information about eating patterns, proportions, and nutritional needs should be regularly shared with families.
Adult Space Adult space is rare in early childhood centers. “Oh, for a real ‘teacher’s desk,’” the early childhood caregiver moans. “I’m lucky if I can find a place to stash my bag in the morning!” A common practice in early childhood education programs is to donate nearly all the available space to child use and materials storage. Yet, the personal and professional needs of adults deserve environmental support as well. Early education programs sometimes have an adult space in the director’s area. An adult bathroom is also common. Elementary classrooms include a desk and a bookshelf for the teachers and a workroom or lounge for staff in the school office. However, in programs for children younger than age 5, even a desk can seem a hazard, taking up precious space for children.
Still, early childhood professionals should have a safe place for their belongings and space for first aid/emergency materials, information for families, and curriculum preparation and documentation. An area for adult activity goes a long way toward respecting teachers’ lives in the classroom. We show our priorities by the space and time we give them.
Outdoors
Some of our deepest childhood joys—those of running in the grass, wading in a stream, exploring vacant lots, of privacy and secrecy—can only be experienced outside. Fresh air and open space to move about at will are often children’s favorite spots in a program. Indeed, many a preschooler has been able to say good-bye to parents easier when the great outdoors beckons.
Traditional playgrounds—typically in a flat, barren area with steel structures such as swings, climbers, a slide, perhaps a merry-go-round or seesaws, fixed in concrete and arranged—are poor places for children’s play from both safety and developmental perspectives. Children as young as toddlers and through the primary years much prefer the adventure of a creative playground, spaces that have a variety of fixed and movable equipment. Raw materials, such as sand, water, tires, spools, sawhorses, bowls, or pans, in combination with larger superstructures or open-air “houses” with some flexible parts, stimulate a wide variety of both social and cognitive play (including constructive, dramatic, and games play). For instance, the focused teacher uses current conditions to create a stimulating environment and activities:
Every summer I welcome a few days of 90+ degree heat…these hot spells demand a complete change of curriculum at preschool….We start with something simple, a lawn sprinkler in the middle of the yard. We open the tap…At the back of the yard, teachers spray a hose on the green plastic slide…“It’s like the beach today,” a child notices. “Can we get buried in the sand?”…By late afternoon, we sit inside for closing, wrapped in blankets as parents begin to arrive. “What did you kids do today?” We had water, almost all day!
(Raskin, 2014).
A wide porch or covered patio is ideal for rainy days or days when the sun is too severe. Many activities can be extended to the outside area with this type of protection. The physical plant should include adequate playground space adjacent to the building. A variety of playground surfaces makes for more interesting play and provides suitable covering for outdoor activities. Tanbark can be used in the swing area, cement for wheel toys, and grass for under climbers. Sand is used for play in a large area and also in a sensory table.
No matter what the surface, the yard should be constructed with a good drainage system. Trees, bushes, and other plantings allow for both sunshine and shade. Fences are mandatory. They must be durable, an appropriate height, with no opportunity for a child to gain a foothold. Because there are no mandatory standards for the manufacture of play equipment, adults who work with children must assume responsibility for playground design. Given the importance that young children attach to the outdoors, teachers are well advised to concentrate their efforts by visiting high-quality playgrounds and consulting with child development specialists when selecting equipment (see Chapter 11 ).
Materials and Equipment
Selection of materials and equipment is based on a number of criteria. Program budgets are limited, so to make every dollar count, teachers select materials that
· Are age and developmentally appropriate
· Are related to the program philosophy and curriculum
· Reflect quality design and workmanship
· Are durable
· Offer flexibility and versatility in their uses
· Have safety features (e.g., nontoxic paints, rounded corners)
· Are aesthetically attractive and appealing to children (and adults)
· Are easy to maintain and repair
· Reflect the cultural makeup of the group and the diversity of the culture overall
· Are nonsexist, nonstereotypical, and anti-bias
Materials should be appropriate for a wide range of skills because children within the same age group develop at different, individual rates. Simplicity of detail and versatile in use are practical watchwords (Community Products, 2011). Selecting equipment and toys to support development is important because young children typically try to play with everything in their environment. Many of the materials can be open-ended ; that is, they can be used in their most basic form, or they can be developed in a variety of ways. Using the key dimension of simple/complex (see Figure 9-7 ) elements, unit blocks, clay, and LEGOs® are examples of materials that children can use in a simple fashion and, as skills develop, these materials can be manipulated in a more complex manner.
Toys and materials need to reflect the diversity of the class, the families, and the community:
· From a DAP perspective, materials need to appeal to individual interests and also respond to children’s cultural and linguistic strengths. Homemade materials and a variety of cultural artifacts help the environment feel familiar.
· From a self-help viewpoint, dressing frames and plenty of workable doll clothes help children learn those self-care tasks.
· From an anti-bias outlook, children’s books should demonstrate social values and attitudes that expand gender roles and family lifestyles.
· An inclusive viewpoint includes materials to highlight tactile, auditory, and olfactory experiences for children with visual impairments, and is carefully planned to avoid overstimulating those with hyperactivity disorders.
· Educational philosophy, including broad curriculum models of Montessori or High/Scope (see Chapter 10 ), might determine materials. Consider how the Waldorf philosophy contributes to the kindergarten environment (Waldorf School, 1995):
The feeling of warmth and security is largely created by using only natural materials—woods, cotton, wool—in the construction of the decor and toys. The curtains transmit a warm glow in the room. Ideally, the walls and floor of the room are of natural wood. In this warm environment are placed toys which the children can use to imitate and transform the activities that belong to everyday adult life. In one corner stands a wooden scale and baskets for children to pretend they are grocery shopping; a pile of timber stands ready to be constructed into a playhouse, a boat, or a train; a rocking horse invites a child to become a rider; homemade dolls lie in wooden cradles surrounded by wooden frames and cloths the children can use to create a pretend family and play house. Pinecones and flowers are artistically dispersed. Lovely watercolors adorn the walls. The effect of this beautiful arrangement of decorations and toys is the feeling of stepping out of the business and clutter of modern life into a sanctuary where one can breathe easily, relax, and play according to the impulses of one’s heart.
Basic materials form a foundation from which individual and program interests blossom (see Figure 9-9 ).
Try to avoid toys that have limited play value. The advocacy organization Teachers Resisting Unhealthy Children’s Entertainment (TRUCE, 2011) suggests that we steer away from toys that
· Make electronic technology the focus of play
· Lure girls into focusing on appearance
· Model violent and sexualized language or behavior
· Are linked to commercial products and advertisements
The “ DAP ” box on “ Technology in the Classroom ” discusses this point further. Children are active learners, and their materials should provide them with ways to explore, manipulate, and become involved. Young children learn through all their senses, so the materials should be appealing to many of the senses. All children need opportunities for quiet, private time and space as well, with materials that parallel the balance of key environmental dimensions.
DAP
Technology in the Classroom
Most children in the developed countries of the world use some type of technology. It is estimated that one-quarter of 3-year-olds, almost half of 5-year-olds, and two-thirds of 8-year-old children go online daily (Gutnick, Robb, Takeuchi, & Kotler, 2011). However, many adults express concern about children’s use of technology, particularly with young children (Alliance for Childhood, 2000; NAEYC, 2012).
Technology can enhance children’s development, provided that the tools add value to activities that benefit the child and the cost of the technology balances the need or cost of other classroom learning materials. Technology skills, social interaction, and cognitive learning can be enhanced when the use of technology is clearly related to the curriculum. Teachers can scaffold children’s learning with thoughtful planning and pinpointed strategies. For example, CD players let children listen to stories and music; audio recorders allow children’s invented stories and their own recordings to be created. Video recording expands documentation ability and can both invite children to revisit an experience and show families what children are learning. Light tables and overhead projectors highlight everyday objects, and of course, cameras support the curriculum with digital pictures (Bullard, 2014).
What causes the most concern is the overuse of computers, cell phones, and tablets, to the point where they become substitutes for hands-on experience and as substitute adults. If teachers can facilitate learning by becoming familiar with technology, software, and websites, they can use these as tools for learning. When they carefully observe children using technology, they can set the environment and schedule to avoid overuse. Moreover, they can notice if there is a “digital divide” in their programs between those who have access to technology and those who might be left behind. Finally, technology can be especially useful for some children with special needs. Adaptive and assistive technologies can increase school success for children with disabilities. Technology can provide the ability to translate and hear accurate pronunciation for English language learners (NAEYC & Fred Rogers Center for Learning and Children’s Media, 2012).
The criteria for using technology in the curriculum include several key points for the environment (Bullard, 2014):
· Design the setting for children’s independent use.
· Choose appropriate media.
· Provide for health and safety.
· Design the setting to encourage social interaction.
· Provide equal access to the technology.
· Provide ideas for using the equipment.
· Supply an adequate number of computers and other technology devices.
· Limit the amount of time that children are exposed to media.
· Use the Internet effectively.
Technology and media are discussed as a Special Topic in Chapter 12 .
Organizing Space
There are many different ways to arrange and organize space in an early childhood setting; the final result expresses the diversity of the program. Most early childhood centers are arranged by interest areas (learning centers or activity areas). The amount of space devoted to any one activity says a great deal about its value to the staff. For example, teachers at a child care center noticed the high interest in sociodramatic play with several new babies in children’s families. They built up the housekeeping area, making sure there were at least six baby dolls, four telephones, and three doll buggies and countless bottles, sippy cups, and pretend baby food. As interests change, so do the room and yard—someone brings in a hamster and the discovery area blossoms, or a family camping trip brings out the tents.
Room and Materials Arrangement Room arrangement and choice of materials play an important role in children’s educational experience. A developmentally appropriate room invites children in and welcomes them at their level, as seen in these four examples:
· Toddler class. Simplicity is a watchword in a toddler room. Room arrangement changes with the age range:
· A large-motor zone is essential for children aged 12 to 24 months.
· The dramatic-play area for pretend play is advisable for children aged 24 to 30 months.
· The messy zone for liquid materials is recommended for children aged 18 to 30 months.
· Every toddler room needs a quiet zone, a haven to relax and step back.
· Family child care home. Having a program in a home presents special challenges, both in the space and the mixed age ranges of children. Beyond the general spaces for indoor and outside play, retreats (such as an empty cabinet without its door or behind the couch) allow moderate privacy while still ensuring supervision.
· Space and furnishings
· Personal care routines
· Language-reasoning
· Activities (motor, cognitive, creative)
· Interaction (social, emotional)
· Program structure (schedules)
· Parents and staff (personal and professional needs)
· School-age programs. After-school programs for children from kindergarten through third and sometimes fifth or sixth grade have special requirements, as those environments have an extensive range of physical size, interests, and developmental needs. The National School-Age Core Competencies, from the National After-School Association (NAA, 2011), recommend tables for projects and experiments, homework tables in a quiet corner, a place for snacks and club meetings, art, blocks, house corner, and large group activity area.
Placement of the interest centers is important. Balance the number of noisy and quiet activities, both indoors and out. Some activities are noisier than others, so place the noisier centers together and cluster the quieter ones together. Quieter activities, such as puzzles, language games, and computers, should take place in areas away from blocks, water play, or dramatic play, because the last three tend to spark animated, active, and sometimes noisy behavior that can disrupt the concentration needed in those areas. (For more, see the “ DAP ” box on “ Technology in the Classroom .”) Some programs create a kind of layered room—easy entry to quiet areas, transitioning to messy/noisy ones.
Adult needs also should be met through proper organization. How can the teachers supervise all areas while ensuring cozy spots for children’s privacy? Are the teachers deployed evenly throughout the space? Is storage integrated so that equipment is located near the place where it is used? Is the space arranged for cooperation and communication among the adults as well as the children? In other words, is this a work and play place that is accepting, inviting, and challenging to all? (See Figures 9-10 , 9-11 and 9-12 .)
Playground Designs Playgrounds must be arranged so that there are enough play spaces for the number of children in the group. Clearly defined boundaries and obvious pathways make it easy for children to live and work in the space. There should be enough space for larger groups as well as small groups to gather together (see Figure 9-13 ).
Figure 9-13
A playground/yard, suitable for ages 4 and older, gives children a sense of security and adventure, contact with nature, opportunities for social play, and freedom for active physical play.
PreK-to-Grade 3 Yard
Calculating play prospects is part of analyzing the number of play opportunities in program settings. In their classic study, Prescott and others assigned areas and activities a value so that the overall richness of the environment could be calculated (Prescott et al., 1972). A simple area (swings, climbers) counts as one play space, a complex area (housekeeping/dramatic play) counts as four play spaces, and a superarea (sand and water play combined) counts as eight play spaces. The value assigned an area generally coincides with the number of children who might be accommodated in that space. When the total for the space is figured, it is matched against the actual number of children in the group to see if there is a place for everyone to play.
In summary, the physical environment should be organized around these criteria:
· Availability. Open, low shelving with visual cues for placement of toys and equipment aids in cleanup and room setup
· Consistency in organization. Neat, systematic, in logical order
· Compatibility. Noisy activities grouped away from quiet ones; art taking place in natural light when possible; water play near a bathroom or kitchen; messy projects done on washable floors
· Definition. Clearly defined boundaries indicating available space and what is to take place; obvious pathways outlined in class and yard; ways to get in and out of an area without disrupting activity in progress; no dead ends or runways
· Spacing. Interest areas with enough space to hold the children who play there; one-third to one-half of the surface should remain uncovered; materials stored near space where they are used; storage and activity spaces have visual cues
· Communicability. Tells children what to do instead of relying on adults to monitor activities; communicates to children what behavior is expected; arrangement suggests numbers of children, levels of activity
9-3cThe Interpersonal Environment
A child responds to everything in school: the color of the room, the way the furniture is arranged, how much time there is to play, and how people treat one another. To the child, everything is a stimulus. The feeling in a room is as real as the blocks or the books. Thus, the interpersonal or social aspects of an early childhood setting are powerful components of the environment.
Setting the Tone
Children are the most important people in the setting; they should feel safe and comfortable. A warm, interpersonal environment invites children to participate and to learn. When children feel secure with one another and with the setting, they are able to engage more fully in the total program.
Just how important is the interpersonal environment? Theories of Albert Bandura, Erikson, and Vygotsky (see Chapter 4 ) emphasize the role of relationships in learning. Although most experts agree that the relationship between teacher and child is important, extensive research has only recently begun to document exactly how teacher–child interactions occur and how variations in such interactions might be related to behaviors or other outcomes in children. With a pattern of positive relationships between children’s sensitive, involved interactions with teachers and other children, enhanced development is likely to be seen in cognitive, socioemotional, and language domains. Brain research confirms that socialization plays a critical role in development. “The circuitry of the brain is developed through stimulations presented with adequate intensity, repetition, and duration to create and amplify the neural connection which are stored in short-term and, eventually, in long-term memory” (Marshall, 2011).
People are at the heart of early childhood education.
Defining Interpersonal Elements
The human component, the connections among the people in a center or home, makes all the difference to young children because they are the barometers of interpersonal tension or openness and freedom.
There are four elements of the interpersonal environment (Conventry, 2011):
· Child–child relationships. Children learn from each other, observe and model other’s behavior, and react to other children’s expressions, especially emotional reactions.
· Teacher–child relationships. Because it is understood that the single most important factor in determining the quality of a program is the teacher (see Chapter 5 ), it follows that teachers are the key ingredient in determining the interpersonal “flavor” of a class. The first component of the NAEYC’s criteria for high-quality early childhood programs consists of the interactions among the staff and children (see Chapter 2 ).
· Teacher–teacher relationships. The way staff members feel about each other and how they express their feelings have an impact on children. How teachers solve conflicts with one another, how polite or kind they are, and how much positive communication flows makes a difference in the atmosphere.
· Teacher–family relationships. Families matter in the life of a program, especially in the early years. Does the teacher know the family, share resources, and support their parenting?
Crafting the Teacher’s Role
Young children develop best through close, affectionate relationships. Although this is true for all young children, it is particularly important for children younger than age 3 and those without facility in the dominant language spoken in the class. The interpersonal aspect of environment is the central element affecting the quality of toddler play. In addition, those who cannot talk about what is going on inside them show their feelings and conflicts through behavior. Teacher sensitivity and calm acceptance is critical. In this regard, every issue is a relationship issue.
The Reggio Emilia approach emphasizes relationships, as described here (Caldwell, 2011, p. 322):
I love Loris Malaguzzi’s image of thinking with children as being a little like a game of tossing a ball back and forth. A child or a group of children have an idea or are drawn to something. If we are listening, we notice. Then perhaps we want to play a game, so we “toss” them a twist, a provocation, a wide-open question about their idea. They respond with something marvelous that we did not anticipate, and the game continues. We don’t know where the next idea will come from, but the game is fun and challenging for both child and adult, and we get better at playing it in many situations and scenarios.
In a human and humane environment, people are respected, and the focus of the staff is on children’s strengths and capabilities; limitations are seen as needs rather than liabilities. Children model their behavior on what they see others doing, so teachers engage children in interactions that include smiling, touching, listening, asking questions, and speaking at eye level. The language and tone of voice used are respectful and friendly, with children treated equitably across lines of culture, language, ability, and gender. Staff use positive guidance rather than punitive discipline techniques (see Chapter 7 ) and develop warm relationships with families (see Chapter 8 ).
Including Family Contributions
Teachers have to see children within the family context. To do so, they must establish stability and consistency through mutual learning, open dialogue, and exchange of information. Note the struggle, and ultimate shift, for these teachers:
· No matter how many times you tell Kai’s grandfather that school starts at 9 AM, he continues to bring him between 9:30 and 10 … until you find out that in China, old people are often late and people respect their habits and sense of time. Now you realize you need to adapt your schedule to allow for this late arrival and support this family custom.
· Elena’s father speaks with such a heavy accent that you can hardly understand him. You would like to just avoid talking with him, but then you would connect only when there is a problem. You discover that, in his Salvadorean culture, “good parents” are those who ask for the teacher’s opinions. You understand it is for you to overcome your discomfort and converse more, asking him respectfully to repeat what he is saying a bit more slowly so that you can understand.
· Maryam brings her lunch every day, and you are having difficulty managing this. These Iranian foods are not the same as the other children’s, and the kindergartners tease each other about what they bring in their lunch boxes. You wonder if you should simply tell her auntie to send her with a sandwich. But then you realize that every child wants familiar foods, and letting Maryam eat what her parents send should be coupled with teaching tolerance to the other children. Now you move to use lunch as a time for everyone to get curious and interested in new foods.
Noting Interpersonal Learning Moments
The attitudes and behaviors of teachers affect children’s behaviors (see the “ Teaching with Intention ” box). Questions that teachers can ask themselves as they evaluate the quality of the environment are:
· Is there a feeling of mutual respect between children and adults?
· Do teachers pick up on nonverbal and verbal expressions of both girls and boys? Of children with varying abilities? Of children of color?
· How do children treat one another?
· Do teachers model cooperative behavior with other adults and children? Do they show by example how to work through a disagreement or problem?
· Does the physical setup allow the teacher to focus on the children?
· Do housekeeping details keep teachers disconnected from children?
· Do teachers encourage children to use one another as resources?
· Do teachers take time to show children how to accomplish a task by themselves?
· Are girls complimented only on appearance and boys just for achievement? Are all children helped to appreciate their similarities and differences?
· Do teachers use reasoning and follow-through?
· How and when do teachers interact with children?
· What are the teacher’s posture and facial expression when involved in a problem situation?
· If I were a child, would I like to come here?
Teaching with Intention
Noise and Busy-ness
Centers are very busy environments for children. So many things, so much learning, so much to do! Often, the children’s enthusiastic curiosity mixes with the teachers’ focus on transmitting skills and information, creating an intensity that threatens to crush the spirit of play and turn the feeling of “not enough time” into hurrying and rushing around. To avoid this, keep these tips in mind:
· Reserve an area of your environment for those who want to sit quietly. This should include children and adults, both alone and with each other.
· Make meals a time for peace and quiet. This doesn’t mean silence, but rather a rejuvenating break from the hustle of playtime.
· Wake up children from naps a little sooner than is needed. This gives them time to transition and allows wakeful children to learn to respect others’ styles.
· Don’t decorate every window with paintings. These are places to let in light and to contemplate the outdoors.
· Change room displays often. The room can get cluttered when projects are left up while more are added.
Avoid overscheduling or making too many small time segments. Children may have short attention spans for adult-centered activities and “teacher talk.” Yet they need and use longer periods of time to discover their interests and stay focused.
The intentional teacher shows respect for children when putting the temporal environment to work for them.
Think about This
1. Write a sample schedule for a preschool morning program. Mark the times for noise/busy-ness and those for quiet/respite. Count the minutes allotted for each. Is it balanced? Why or why not?
2. Many family child care homes have full-day schedules with children from newborns to 5-year-olds. How would you plan a day with eight children in this age range?
3. If you had an after-school program of 25 kindergarteners through third graders, what would be a balanced schedule for the afternoon? How many teachers would you need?
The answers to these questions provide a sense of the atmosphere of positive social interaction. The most important thing to remember is that the way that people feel about each other and how they express their feelings have an impact on children. Teachers must focus as much attention on the interpersonal elements of the environment as they do on buying equipment or arranging the room.
The teacher’s posture and facial expressions show respect for children and their learning pace and style.
© Cengage Learni
Ch.11
Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development in Action
Chapter Introduction
© Ingrid Andrews
· LO1Know how to maximize the importance of learning through physical activity and movement that enhances the mind–body connection, and articulate how that affects children’s health and self-concept.
· LO2Examine patterns of physical growth and development that include knowledge of gender issues, ethnic variations, and special needs concerns.
· LO3Identify and implement effective approaches that foster motor skills through appropriate curriculum strategies throughout the school day.
· LO4Analyze the teacher’s role in promoting physical play through gender equity, an enriched playground, and a safe and challenging environment.
Competency Areas
Standards for Professional Development
The following NAEYC Standards for Initial and Advanced Early Childhood Professional Preparation are addressed in this chapter:
· Standard 1 Promoting Child Development and Learning
· Standard 2 Building Family and Community Relationships
· Standard 4 Using Developmentally Effective Approaches to Connect with Children and Families
· Standard 5 Using Content Knowledge to Build Meaningful Curriculum
Code of Ethical Conduct
These are the sections of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct that apply to the topics in this chapter:
Core Values: We have committed ourselves to basing our work with children on knowledge of child development.
Section I:
· 1-1.5
To create and maintain safe and healthy settings that foster children social, emotional, cognitive, and physical development and that respect their dignity and their contributions.
· 1-1.8
To support the right of each child to play and learn in an inclusive environment that meets the needs of children with and without disabilities.
V 11-1aIntegrated Learning
Motor abilities affect other areas of development. As noted earlier, research reinforces the notion that physical and motor development is integrated with a child’s cognitive development. Factors that affect children’s physical growth, such as poverty and malnutrition, can affect their ability to learn. Complex movements, such as dancing or throwing a ball, engage areas of the brain used for problem solving, planning, and sequencing new things to do. This mind–body integration can be seen in other areas of development as well:
Tim is reluctant to climb outside. He is frightened when he—or anyone else—is up in a tree or on a climber. Because he cannot risk using his body in space, he stops himself from playing with anyone who invites him to try these activities. Tim’s lack of gross motor development is affecting his social skills and his self-confidence.
Children are the picture of movement, spending the greatest portion of their day in physical activity.
© Cengage Learning ®
Samantha loves to draw and cut. She chooses the art area every day. Not only are her fine motor skills well developed for her age, but she also takes great pride in her creations. Her motor skills enhance her self-confidence in school. In turn, she receives praise and attention from others as she communicates with both adults and children through her work.
11-1bWhat Movement Exploration Teaches
The greatest portion of the young child’s day is spent in physical activity. Quality early childhood programs recognize this, providing for a full range of physical and motor experiences, planned and spontaneous. Indoors, children use puzzles, scissors, and dressing frames as they practice their fine motor skills. They dance with scarves and streamers to music. Perceptual motor development, as with body awareness, occurs when children learn songs and games (“Head and Shoulders, Knees and Toes” or “Mother, May I Take Two Giant Steps?”) or while finger painting. Outdoors, gross motor skills are refined by the use of climbers, swings, hopscotch, and ring-toss. Movement exploration enhances children’s ability to
· Solve problems
· Exercise divergent thinking
· Respond at their individual age and developmental level
· Learn to cooperate with others
· Become more aware of others’ viewpoints and ideas
· Share and take turns
· Be self-expressive
· Be creative
· Gain confidence
· Develop strong muscles
· Refine motor skills
Children need time, as well as equipment and activities, to practice these skills. The value that teachers place on physical and motor development is directly related to the time allotted in the daily schedule for children to pursue them.
11-1cThe Importance of Physical Activity and Movement
Physical activity should be part of every child’s daily life, in school and at home. The National Association for Sport and Physical Education recommends at least 20 minutes each day for recess in elementary schools (NASPE, 2009). Brain research tells us that physical activity and exercise are strongly correlated with increased brain mass, mood regulation, and reading ability (Jensen, 2005). Children move constantly. It is in their nature, and as educators, we need to understand that when they move, they learn.
DAP
Get Smart: Get Active! Get DAP!
We know that young children are physical beings; they seem to be in constant motion, whether inside or outside. In particular, through outdoor play, children experience the freedom of exercising their full body potential.
Developmentally appropriate practices (DAP) that help children appreciate and follow a healthy, active life are when “adults teach children the pleasure and importance of physical activity.” (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). These authors further state that DAP means children spend less time sitting and have opportunities to move around much of the school day, and that outdoor play takes place every day unless the weather is extremely bad.
Children learn through movement and exercise, and one recent study shows just how the brain’s executive function (the ability to multitask and concentrate) is enhanced through exercise. Hillman et al, (2014) found that an after-school exercise program improved the cognition in 7-, 8-, and 9-year-olds after 9 months of moderate to vigorous physical activity for at least 60 minutes after school each day. The students who were part of the exercise program were better able to pay attention, avoid distractions, and switch between tasks than their counterparts who didn’t participate in the exercise. At the end of the school year, the children in the exercise group were more physically fit, and their brain health was better too.
American children are exposed to a value system in which physical/motor fitness is not always a high priority. Children are often encouraged toward sedentary activities at an early age, such as watching television and videos and playing computer games.
The frequency of children who are overweight and childhood obesity has increased alarmingly. Childhood obesity has more than doubled in children and quadrupled in adolescents in the past 30 years (CDC, 2014). Health risks for these children include heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, depression, and low self-esteem.
Although there are many factors influencing obesity, such as socioeconomic status (SES), family eating habits, heredity, and television viewing, a key factor seems to be whether one of the parents is obese. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (2011) notes that if one parent is obese, there is a 59 percent chance that the child will be obese in adulthood; if both parents are obese, there is an 80 percent chance. The dramatic increase in childhood obesity only serves to underscore the need for regular physical exercise in programs for young children. Many outdoor areas in schools contain few challenges—perhaps only a blacktop for bouncing balls and a small metal climber. Structuring outdoor physical activity into the curriculum helps children maximize their movement experiences and provides skill development that unstructured play cannot.
Physical activity is an antidote to obesity.
© Ingrid Andrews
Brain Research Says …
Does Obesity Harm Brain Development?
In 2012, more than one-third of children and adolescents in the United States were overweight or obese. This rate has more than doubled for children and quadrupled for adolescents in the past 30 years (CDC, 2014). Obesity is defined by the American Academy of Pediatrics as more than 20 percent above ideal weight for a particular height or age. Most overweight children become overweight adults (Rathus, 2014).
Children who are obese are more likely to have a number of health problems that lead to diabetes and heart disease. These factors are known as metabolic syndrome, which include high blood pressure, low levels of “good” cholesterol levels, and breathing problems, such as asthma.
A recent study indicates there is some correlation between obesity and brain functions. In this research, 49 children with metabolic syndrome scored significantly lower on tasks related to reading and spelling that did the 62 children who did not have the syndrome. Those with metabolic syndrome also had decreased attention spans and less mental flexibility, and they took longer to do the tasks. Their brain structure showed a smaller hippocampus, a part of the brain that is involved in learning and recall of new information. The more risk factors a child had, the more drastic changes were noted in the brain (Yau et al, 2012).
This small study raises critical questions about the influence of obesity on brain development. Further research is needed to see if these brain abnormalities can be reversed once the child has lost weight.
Questions
1. What other studies can you find that connect brain development to obesity?
2. What would you say to parents who are concerned about their child being overweight but insist he will “outgrow” it?
3. As an early childhood educator, how can you support greater movement exploration for young children? What resources do you need?
NASPE and the Council on Physical Education for Children (COPEC) established developmentally appropriate guidelines for preschool-age children. See Figure 11-1 for a discussion of these guidelines.
Figure 11-1
NASPE provides a guide that enhances developmentally appropriate physical activity for young children.
DAP for Preschool and Elementary School Movement Programs
Movement is the planned and spontaneous curriculum goals that promote appropriate physical activity. The following guidelines and examples support developmentally appropriate practices for children from ages 3 to 12.
DAP for Children Ages 3 to 5
Movement programs are designed for a child’s individual developmental level.
Example: Equipment of different sizes and weights with multiple levels of complexity and difficulty accommodates children’s varying skill levels and body sizes. Activities are adapted for children who are overweight and those who have special needs.
Children learn by moving and doing and interacting with people and objects, and teachers understand that movement can occur in any learning environment.
Example: Math concepts are given meaning when children are asked to take four steps forward and three steps backward, or count the number of stairs to the reading loft.
Learning experiences in movement are integrated with other areas of development.
Example: Learning to print your name is both a cognitive and fine motor activity.
Planned movement experiences enhance play experiences.
Example: When a teacher helps a young child learn to toss a ball to another child, the visual and verbal information fosters repetition during later play.
Teachers serve as guides, facilitators, and models for young children.
Example: Teachers support physical activity and movement when they model joy and interest in children’s activity, when they allow children to make choices, and when they encourage exploration and creativity.
DAP for Elementary School Children
The ultimate goal is to help children develop the skills, knowledge, and desire to enjoy a lifetime of physical activity.
Example: Teachers demonstrate enthusiasm for active, healthy lifestyles and encourage all children to experience the joy and satisfaction that can come from regular physical activity.
Children should engage in physical activity that is appropriate for their developmental levels.
Example: All children, regardless of developmental level and ability, are challenged at an appropriate level. Both boys and girls are encouraged in all activities, which are adapted for children who are overweight or those with special needs.
Recess and physical education are important but different aspects of the school program.
Example: Recess provides an unstructured opportunity in the school day for children to play and socialize. Physical education is a planned instructional program with specific goals and objectives.
Physical activity and physical education are not the same.
Example: Physical education is an instruction program taught by teachers with professional credentials and is designed to teach fundamental motor skills that form the foundation for physical activity. Physical activity includes a variety of movements that children use throughout the day. Children in elementary school should have 60 minutes or more of daily physical activity.
Physical education and youth sports programs are different.
Example: Youth sports programs provide opportunities for children to choose one or more sports and refine their skills in competition with others. DAP physical education programs are designed for all children to have opportunities to learn motor skills appropriate to their developmental levels.
(Source: From Appropriate practices in movement programs for young children, ages 3–5, 2000, pp. 4–11, and Appropriate instructional practice guidelines for elementary school physical education, 2009, pp. 4–21. The Council on Physical Education for Children, Reston, VA: A position statement of NASPE.)
A Child’s Self-Concept
The image of the physical self is an important part of self-concept. How people feel about themselves is rooted in the way they feel about their bodies and what they can or cannot do with them. Attitudes about the body and its abilities directly affect the types of activities that children try. Studies show that skill in games appears to be tied to peer group acceptance (Gallahue & Cleland-Donnelly, 2007). Psychologists and teachers often notice a link between learning problems and clumsiness. Skilled early childhood educators carefully observe children, document their observations, and make referrals if a child needs an individual assessment.
Physical ability, then, contributes to a child’s self-concept. With practice comes a sense of competence. Children can learn to relax as they gain experience in physical activities and thus reduce the stress of anticipating failure. Competence breeds self-confidence and a willingness to try greater challenges. As children try new activities, they learn more about themselves. And physical activity increases awareness of what fun it is to move—to run through a field or pump a swing just for the sheer joy of it!
Teachers support positive self-concept through physical and motor development in several ways. They let children discover their physical limits rather than warning or stopping them from trying an activity:
· “I’m stuck!” A child shouts across the yard. Rather than rushing to lift the child down, the teacher walks over to the child and replies, “Where can you put your foot next?” “How can you find a way to get across that branch?”
· “I’m afraid!” The teacher stands close to the child who is climbing and responds to the fear. “I will stand close to the climbing ropes so that you will feel safe.”
· “Look what I can do!” Teachers reinforce children who try something new. “Greg, it’s good to see you cutting out that pumpkin all by yourself.”
· “I tried.” Teachers congratulate efforts for the achievement they really are. “Your hands reached the top this time, Shannon. I bet you are feeling proud of yourself.”
· “I can’t do it.” Children who stand on the side lines observing others may need some encouragement from the teacher to take the first step in mastering the climbing frame or slide. “Here is a good place for you to put your foot, Arturo. I will hold your hand until you ask me to let go.”
It is not so much what teachers say to children that influences their feelings about themselves as it is the way in which children are treated. Children value themselves to the degree they are valued by others. The ways in which teachers show how they feel about children actually builds their self-confidence and sense of selfworth. Children create a picture of themselves from the words, attitudes, body language, and judgment of those around them.
11-2 Patterns of Physical and Motor Development
Children do not need encouragement to participate in physical activity. They need the opportunity, time, and support of their teachers to learn the fundamental fine and gross motor skills necessary for a healthy, active life.
11-2 Patterns of Physical and Motor Development
Children do not need encouragement to participate in physical activity. They need the opportunity, time, and support of their teachers to learn the fundamental fine and gross motor skills necessary for a healthy, active life.
11-2aPhysical Growth
The average preschooler grows 2 to 3 inches and gains four to six pounds each year (Rathus, 2014), so understanding how physical development affects learning is important to teachers and parents. For example:
· New behavior is made possible through physical change: A toddler can be toilet trained once the anal sphincter muscles develop.
· Growth determines the child’s experiences: Observe the new vistas that open up when children learn to climb.
· Growth changes the way people respond to the child: The mobility of crawlers and toddlers leads to more restrictions from parents, and teachers choose materials that are more challenging and complex.
· Self-concepts are profoundly related to physical development: An obese first grader avoids the running and chasing games during recess.
Growth Patterns
Development follows a directional and sequential pattern, even with children who are physically or mentally disabled. Variations in growth patterns are influenced by environment and genetic makeup. Large muscles develop before smaller ones—one reason why most preschoolers are more proficient at running than at cutting with scissors. Growth also starts at the center of the body and moves outward. Watch a toddler walk using whole-leg action and compare that with a 5-year-old whose knees and ankles are involved in a more developed response. Children also tend to develop in a head-to-toe pattern. Infants move their eyes, head, and hands long before they learn to creep or crawl. It is important to remember, however, that growth does not occur in a smooth and unbroken pattern.
By the age of 5, a child’s brain is almost adult size. As the brain matures between the ages of 2 and 6, children gain greater impulse control, speed, and coordination of arms and legs. Eye–hand coordination is also complete by the age of 4 years (Shaffer & Kipp, 2014).
When looking at these growth patterns and brain development, parents and teachers must keep in mind the wide individual differences in the rates at which children grow and in the timing of each change. As a general rule, the pattern within individuals is consistent; that is, a child who is early, average, or late in one aspect of physical development is this way in all aspects of growth. Figure 11-2 shows the range of dramatic changes in growth for children up to age 8. Also see Chapter 3 for an overview of developmental norms.
Figure 11-2
An overview of growth shows how rapid physical growth is in childhood.
Growth Patterns of the Young Child
|
Age |
Weight |
Height |
Proportion |
Teeth |
|
Newborn |
7 lb. |
20 in. |
Head 1/4 of length |
None |
|
Infancy (up to 18 months) |
Gains 15 lb. (now 20–25 lb.) |
Adds 8 in. (now 28–29 in.) |
About the same |
6 |
|
Toddler (18 months to years) |
Gains 5 lb. (now 28–30 lb.) |
Adds another inch or two (now 29–33 in.) |
Legs = 34% of body |
20 |
|
Preschool ( years) |
About 5 lb./year (now 30–40 lb.) |
Add 14–15 in. from birth; at age 2 = half of adult height (now 35–40 in.) |
Head growth slows; legs at age 5 = 44% of body |
20 |
|
Early-middle childhood (5–8 years) |
Doubles before adolescence (age 6 = 45–50 lb.) |
Adds 9–10 in. (age 6 = 44–48 in.) |
Continues to move slowly toward adult proportions |
Begins to lose baby teeth; replaced by permanent teeth (age 6 = 20–24 teeth) |
Gender Differences
From infancy, boys and girls have similar body size and proportion; however, boys have a larger proportion of muscle tissue, are more physically active, and participate in more rough-and-tumble play than girls. Girls have more fat tissue than boys and are smaller and lighter until puberty (Santrock, 2012). Girls mature earlier than boys, and their growth is more regular and predictable. In motor skills, preschool girls have an edge in fine motor skills, such as writing and drawing, and gross motor skills, such as hopping and skipping. By age 5, boys can jump slightly farther, run slightly faster, and throw a ball about 5 feet farther than girls. These gender differences remain small until adolescence (Berk, 2015).
During middle childhood, motor development becomes smoother, more controlled, and coordinated. In gross motor skills, boys usually outperform girls through speed, strength, and agility. Fine motor skills increase as hands become steadier and more precise in both boys and girls (Santrock, 2012).
11-2bEthnic Variations
11-2cChildren with Special Needs
Every classroom is likely to have children who have special needs that must be met. It has already been established (see Chapters 3 and 9) that the inclusion of children with special needs in early childhood programs is not only appropriate, but also mandated by law. Physical education is the only subject area cited in the definition of an “appropriate education” in Public Law 94-42 that provides an opportunity for children to grow and develop through movement and physical activities.
To learn a motor skill, children must combine memory with experience, taking advantage of opportunities to try something new and practice what has already been learned.
© Ingrid Andrews
Children with physical, cognitive, emotional, or learning disabilities are faced with a variety of challenges, many of which may be met by adapting the environment and planning for activities that help children function within their range of abilities. The section entitled “The Inclusive Environment” and Figure 9-4 in Chapter 9 both offer a number of ways for teachers and caregivers to individualize the setting for a variety of needs. In Chapter 3, many types of disabilities are discussed.
There are a number of teaching strategies that can enhance the participation of children with special needs in regular classroom activities (shown in Figure 11-3). These brief examples make it clear that including children with special needs takes some careful thought about what kinds of movement experiences and physical development activities are within their abilities. Many of the suggestions are appropriate for all children, reminding us that the needs and interests of all children are essentially the same.
Figure 11-3
Many physical activities are appropriate for all children and encourage those with special needs to take an active part in the daily program.
Teaching Strategies for Children with Special Needs
1. For Children with Learning Disabilities:
· Help children gain a better understanding of their body, the space it occupies, and how it can move.
· Structure personalized activities that work within the child’s present level of abilities.
· Progress from simple to more complex activities in small increments.
· Make frequent use of rhythmic activities, stressing the rhythmical elements to movement.
2. For Children Who Are Visually Impaired:
· Use many auditory cues to help children gain a sense of space and distance.
· Include strenuous, big-muscle activities.
· Modify activities that require quick directional changes.
3. For Children with Cognitive Disabilities:
· Stress gross-motor activities.
· Focus on fundamental stability, locomotor, and manipulative skills.
· Allow children to repeat their successes to enjoy the accomplishment.
· Avoid activities in which participants are eliminated from the game.
(Source: From Gallahue, D. L., & Cleland-Donnelly, F., 2007. Developmental physical education for today’s children. Madison, WI: Brown and Benchmark.)
V11-3 Fostering Motor Skills in Young Children
Physical abilities and cognitive growth are intricately connected. Children acquire motor skills by making comparisons between their past experience and new actions. Such comparisons use memory and experience. Physical movement activities require full involvement of the mind and body.
Memory plays an important part in learning motor movements because children need to recall what they just did to make corrections or refinements. The ball that does not reach the basket is tossed farther on the next shot. To get the puzzle piece to fit, a child remembers other ways to manipulate the pieces. A long-term memory of movement is one that may go unrehearsed for long periods of time. The experience of swimming, for example, may be recalled and put to use only in the summer.
The experiences that children have and the ability to recall those experiences are part of the process of gaining motor skills. Rehearsal is as important to the young child because every day children repeat and practice specific movements over and over as they play and work.
11-3aTypes of Movement
Physical/motor skills involve three basic types of movement: locomotor, nonlocomotor, and manipulative abilities:
1. Locomotor abilities involve a change of location of the body (up, down, and sideways) (Gallahue & Cleland-Donnelly, 2007) and include the skills of walking, running, leaping, jumping, climbing, hopping, skipping, galloping, sliding, and riding a tricycle.
2. Nonlocomotor abilities (sometimes referred to as balancing or stabilizing) are any movements that require some degree of balancing (Gallahue & Cleland-Donnelly, 2007). These skills are turning, twisting, pushing, bending, stretching, pulling, swinging, rolling, dodging, and balancing.
3. Manipulative abilities include the operation and control of limited and precise movements of the small muscles, especially those in the hands and feet. Manipulative skills include throwing, catching, reaching, bouncing, striking, kicking (gross motor manipulation) and holding, grasping, cutting, and sewing (fine motor manipulation).
These three basic movements are necessarily combined when children are active in physical play:
|
With doll stroller: |
Holding onto the stroller— Manipulative |
|
|
Pushing the stroller— Nonlocomotor |
|
|
Walking with the stroller— Locomotor |
|
Playing ball: |
Bending down for the ball— Nonlocomotor |
|
|
Throwing the ball— Manipulative |
|
|
Running to a base— Locomotor |
|
Jumping rope: |
Holding and turning the rope— Manipulative |
|
|
Jumping—Locomotor |
|
|
Balancing self after jump— Nonlocomotor |
|
Breaking a piñata: |
Holding the bat— Manipulative |
|
|
Swinging the bat— Nonlocomotor |
|
|
Running to get the prize— Locomotor |
Figure 11-5 shows age-appropriate toys and games that foster the development of the three types of basic motor skills.
Figure 11-5
Toys and games help develop specific motor skills in young children.
How to Foster Basic Motor Skills
|
Type of Motor Skill |
Infants (0 to Years) |
Toddlers ( to 3 Years) |
Preschoolers (3 to 5 Years) |
Early School (6 to 8 Years) |
|
Locomotor: Walking Running Jumping Hopping Skipping Leaping Climbing Galloping Sliding |
Safe areas to explore body movements Balls to roll Hanging jumpseats Walkers on wheels Simple obstacle course |
Walker wagons Pull/push toys Dancing Wide balance board Toddler gym—stairs and slide “Ring around the Rosey” |
Hippity-hop balls Sled Beginning skis Trampoline Roller skates Jump rope Balance beam Climber Dancing |
Jump rope Roller skates Ice skates Climbing rope Tumbling mats Hopscotch |
|
Nonlocomotor: Pushing Pulling Bending Balancing Stretching Rolling turning Twisting |
Large, safe areas for exploration Parent/caregiver play: holding, pushing arms, legs, sturdy push toys Soft obstacle course of pillows |
Pounding board Simple, low rocking horse Ride-on toys Toddler-type swing Large LEGOs® Sturdy doll buggy Wagon Fabric tunnels Blocks Cars, trucks to push |
Shopping cart/doll carriage Wheelbarrow Pedal toys, trike Rakes, shovels Slide Swing Punching bag |
Scooter Two-wheel bike Sled, toboggan Exercise mat Acrobatics Diving mask for swimming Doorway gym bar |
|
Manipulative: Grasping Throwing Catching Kicking Receiving/moving objects Bouncing |
Mobile attached to crib—kicking feet moves it Rattles, teething rings Crib activity board Soft foam blocks Snap beads Floating bath toys |
Variety of balls Stacking, nesting toys Activity box—on floor Shape sorters Large, fat crayons Large pegs and board Water/sand table |
Crayons, markers Clay, play dough Bowling games Puzzles Woodworking tools Balls Lacing board Water/sand table |
Baseball glove/bat Ring toss game Full-size balls Oversize bat Frisbee “Miss Mary Mack” |
11-3bPracticing Basic Skills
· Holding a paintbrush, scissors, or rattle
· Tiptoeing to music
· Grasping a bottle, a hand, or a toy
· Threading a bead or a wide needle
Practice is challenging and fun.
© Cengage Learning ®
The child can also practice gross motor skills, such as
· Pumping on a swing
· Climbing a tree
· Digging a garden
· Balancing on a board, on one foot
Through self-help activities, the child can practice fine motor skills, such as:
· Buttoning a coat or a doll’s clothes
· Brushing teeth or hair
· Turning a faucet handle or doorknob
· Feeding self with utensils
Gross motor practice includes
· Moving a nap cot or table
· Kicking covers off
· Walking while holding onto furniture
· Climbing up stairs or on a climber
Children learning motor skills need experience in basic skills; they must learn simple skills before combining them into complex activities. Children must have time to try, refine, and try again.
Feedback
Children modify and improve their motor skills as they receive information about their movements, both intrinsic (the paintbrush makes marks when it is pushed across the paper) and extrinsic (“I notice that your legs are very far apart as you try to somersault; how about holding them together as you roll next time?”).
A Range of Developmental Levels
Any group of young children has various levels of motor growth and physical development. An individual child may have different abilities and skills in gross, fine, and perceptual-motor areas; activities should be offered on several developmental levels. Play materials and equipment, such as balls, climbers, and ladders, should accommodate a variety of skill levels, particularly if children with physical disabilities are in the class. Climbing boards put on several levels and puzzles ranging from 6 to 60 pieces are two examples of how teachers can meet the need for success and challenge.
11-3cCurriculum Strategies for Physical Development
Teachers plan activities that promote physical/motor skills in the areas of gross motor, fine motor, and perceptual-motor development. They look at the environment, both indoors and out, to see that all three areas of physical growth are encouraged.
Throughout the Day
When thinking of physical/motor development in the classroom, teachers tend to focus on the fine motor (or small-muscle) tasks for the classroom and on gross motor (or large-muscle) tasks for the outdoor play space. The indoor area lends itself more readily to activities with less movement, and the outdoor area encourages whole-body play. Yet children can have a wider variety of activities if teachers remember that both gross motor and fine motor projects can happen everywhere in the environment.
Indoor Areas Indoors, the art area is stocked with pens, crayons, scissors, and hole punches that develop the fine motor skills. These skills are further enhanced when you do the following:
1. Add large brushes or rollers to the easel or plan finger painting, and the art area now includes gross motor development.
2. When children use templates to trace both inside and outside spaces, they practice perceptual-motor skills.
3. In the science area, getting “just a pinch” of fish food is a fine motor activity; cleaning out the turtle house requires larger muscles to move rocks and sand.
5. At the manipulative table, when a child puts a peg into a pegboard, she uses fine motor skills.
6. Removing puzzles from a shelf and carrying them to a table brings in gross motor skills. Add nuts and bolts, and the child’s perceptual-motor skills are called into play.
7. The block area has endless possibilities, from lifting and carrying (gross motor), to balancing and stacking (fine motor), to building a space so that an animal or car fits through (perceptual-motor).
8. The language and library areas are places for turning pages or looking at words and pictures (fine motor). They also involve taking books off shelves and replacing them and trying out the movements and activities read about in books. For instance, Mercer Mayer’s book Octopus Soup encourages children to act out the scenes pictured in the story. With a listening post nearby, children listen for the beep and coordinate what they hear (perceptual) with turning the page (motor).
Outdoor Areas Outdoors, children develop motor skills of all kinds when they choose the following activities:
1. In the sand, children dig, a gross motor activity. As they judge how big a hole is or how much water will fill it, they are practicing and improving their perceptual motor skills. Turning on a faucet, planting seeds, and making mud pies involve fine motor development.
2. Wheeled toys offer children opportunities in all motor areas.
3. Pushing someone in a wagon develops arm and leg strength—gross motor development.
4. Guiding tricycles and carts on a path and around obstacles requires perceptual-motor skill.
5. Trying to “repair” or “paint” a wheeled toy with tools or with large brushes, tying wagons together, or weaving streamers through the spokes of a bicycle all use fine motor skills.
By looking at the classroom and yard with one eye to physical and motor development, teachers can plan activities that support growth in all skill areas.
For further suggestions on using the outdoors, see the “ Teaching with Intention Box”.
Transitions and Group Times Every part of the daily schedule can be planned to use all physical/motor skills. For instance:
1. Getting in and out of coats and snowsuits is a large-muscle activity. Children learn perceptual-motor skills as they try to get their arms into the correct sleeves.
2. Buttoning, zipping, and tying are fine motor activities.
3. As children get ready for group time (often a difficult transition), they might practice drawing faces in the air or making their bodies into the shapes of letters, both perceptual-motor tasks.
4. Group times also include activities for motor development, such as stretching, dancing, jumping, working puzzles, pounding clay, and writing stories.
5. When there are balloons, scarves, or a parachute at music time, children practice gross motor skills.
6. Finger plays at group time are a fine motor task. Activities for developing the senses of hearing and sight are two areas of sensory growth that can be utilized as content for group times.
What skills did this boy use to create this building?
© Ingrid Andrews
Focusing on Skills Development
The physical/motor skills include those that use large and small muscles and that coordinate perception and motor response. Teachers planning activities for children can focus on any one of the following skills as a basis for curriculum planning.
Eye–Hand Coordination Developing stitchery skills uses the perceptual-motor skill of eye–hand coordination. A series of activities can be planned to help children learn these skills:
1. It begins in infancy, when the baby first begins to manipulate and examine an object, learns to grasp with thumb and forefinger (pincer grasp), and shows a hand preference.
3. Sewing cards made by punching holes in polystyrene trays can be introduced as the next activity. Large plastic needles can be used with the lacing cards or with the trays; large embroidery needles with big eyes can be used for stitching yarn onto burlap.
4. Children may be ready to use embroidery hoops, with which they can make a design on burlap first and then stitch over the outlines. Buttons can be sewn on burlap or other fabric. Popcorn or packing material can be strung using a needle.
5. A final project might be to make a group wall hanging, with squares of children’s stitchery sewn together. Simple backpacks and coin purses might be made with the children sewing most of it themselves.
Balance Look again at Kareena’s story or the process that teachers use to help Kareena and others with a wide variety of capabilities learn how to use a balance beam.
Figure 11-5 lists age-appropriate equipment that fosters the development of motor skills.
Use of Themes
When teachers plan activities, they often have a theme or unit as their focus. Themes can be used to encourage physical and motor involvement. A unit on outer space involves ample opportunity to involve all the motor skills:
· Gross motor skills are used in jumping around on the moon, taking a space walk, getting in and out of the rocket ship, and building a spaceship with large blocks.
· Fine motor skills are needed to manipulate knobs on the instrument panel, to draw maps of the stars, or to write out a countdown on a chalkboard.
· Perceptual-motor skills are needed to work out how to get ready for a trip to Mars, what happens on the trip, and when and how to get back to Earth.
· Use the sample forms in Chapter 10 to develop an outer space unit, as well as other appropriate themes to encourage motor skills.
Once teachers realize which physical/motor skills the children possess and what the group is ready to learn, they can plan activities around a classroom unit. Parents can be a good source of ideas for ensuring that themes and activities reflect the various cultures within the classroom. Figure 11-5 lists many activities that are culturally related.
Curriculum planning for motor and movement skills requires teachers to know principles of physical growth and motor development. They then can use this knowledge to plan activities that encourage children to master their own movements and to learn other skills through movement. In the early childhood setting, curricula can be planned by concentrating on activity areas, focusing on a specific motor skill, or using a classroom theme.
11-4 The Teacher’s Role
As teachers plan programs for physical/motor development, they reflect on several important issues that go beyond written curriculum plans.
11-4aSex-Role Stereotyping
Is motor behavior different for boys and girls? If so, why? Research indicates that there are differences between girls and boys in these areas. For example, behavioral differences in motor development are apparent in early life: 1-year-old girls already spend more time in fine motor tasks, whereas baby boys are more engaged in gross motor activity. Around the age of 2, children begin to identify people by their gender and are aware of which behaviors are considered more appropriate for their sex (Shaffer & Kipp, 2014). Preschoolers often characterize many toys, articles of clothing, occupations, and behaviors with one sex or the other (Shaffer & Kipp, 2014). During preschool and early elementary years, boys seem to prefer rough-and-tumble, aggressive outdoor play (Else-Quest et al., 2006). By age 2, children seem to prefer playmates of their own gender, a tendency that increases in middle childhood (Shaffer & Kipp, 2014).
Why does this happen? Probably some sex differences are the result of genetics. At the same time, sex-role stereotyping profoundly affects the motor and physical development of young children. A gender stereotyping mind-set can either encourage or discourage children from developing to their fullest potential, and teachers need to be aware of these attitudes in others and themselves. They might ask themselves:
· Do I emphasize sports as a way to have fun? A way to be healthy? Do I praise only the “winner”?
· Can I provide male and female role models for physical activities using parents, grandparents, older siblings, staff, visitors, and guests?
· Do I encourage children to wear clothing that allows them the freedom to run, climb, or tumble? What do I do when girls arrive in long dresses and party shoes? (Be sensitive to family and cultural influences about appropriate clothing.) What should I wear?
· Are all physical/motor activities made equally available and attractive to boys and girls? What should I do if some children dominate these activities, while others never choose them?
· How do I actively engage all children in every form of physical activity? Do I let them know that I think it is important?
Teaching with Intention
The Outdoor Curriculum: Reconnecting with Nature
Teacher Joelle’s did her student teaching at her community college child care center and was surprised and pleased to see how the outdoor curriculum was stretched across the campus, where open spaces served as a nature laboratory for children’s learning. Joelle watched and learned how the children explored and discovered the outdoors in both structured and unstructured play.
The child care center where Joelle now works as a head teacher in the 4-year-old program is environmentally responsive, and the staff has been discussing ways in which they could enhance children’s connections with the natural world. In a recent staff meeting, Joelle shared her experience from her student teaching. One of the staff responded with, “What can we do to provide this kind of experience for our children? We don’t have a campus or park nearby.”
By the end of the meeting, the staff came to several conclusions:
1. This was an opportunity to put into practice their commitment to do more intentional teaching in the science curriculum.
2. The curriculum for using outdoor space in new ways would provide a good balance between teacher-directed and child-directed learning experiences.
3. Exploring the natural world would add greater depth to the scientific approach of observing, predicting, examining, verifying, and explaining.
4. This project would require participation from the children, their families, and the staff.
Several committees were formed: one to research outdoor areas in the school’s neighborhood; one to create a template for teachers to use in presenting the scientific method to the class; one to generate a list of open-ended questions and inquiry skills to guide children’s thinking and reflection; and another to plan the areas of science on which they will focus and to design some initial experiences (Epstein, 2014). Teachers began to meet to learn more about teaching science in this way and to strategize how to promote inquiry, experimentation, and define the tools and materials they would need.
Joelle took on the task of communicating with families about this project. Two families who lived near the school offered the use of their property for the children’s exploration. One of the families had a small creek running through the backyard, and another was raising chickens. A member of each family joined the committees that were planning and designing the curriculum.
The staff began this project by starting small within the classroom and then moving to the schoolyard. As the children became engaged, curious, and excited about their science projects, field trips to the neighboring homes were added. By the end of the school year, the staff agreed that this was a very successful venture into the world of nature.
Think about This
1. In what way did the teacher’s planning create a model for success?
2. How did the staff make sure that the science curriculum was intentional?
Pica (2013) notes that children between the ages of 6 and 8 usually play with others of the same sex. She further suggests that this growing gender awareness can be addressed by assigning play partners of the opposite sex for certain games or suggesting that all children take on the roles of people in various occupations (firefighters, police officers, hairdressers, dancers), regardless of gender. By working and playing together, children learn to appreciate not only their own ideas and ways of doing things, but also those of others. See Chapter 15 for further discussion of gender-related issues.
11-4bA Safe and Challenging Environment
First and foremost, teachers ensure the safety of the children. To maintain a safe physical environment, they see to it that materials and equipment are in usable condition and that overall traffic patterns are free of hazards. For example, to make a gymnastic activity safe, teachers provide mats and make sure that only one child is tumbling at a time.
Psychological safety requires an even finer sensitivity on the part of the teaching staff. Fear is a learned response, and teachers must be careful not to discourage children from using their full range of abilities, creating overly anxious and fearful children. The new teacher is often concerned about children’s safety, particularly when they are climbing. It helps to remember that children generally climb to heights that are comfortable for them; in other words, they often set their own limits.
Picking children up and placing them on equipment, often at their own request, is questionable. If teachers comply with children’s wishes to be lifted and set somewhere high, they are placing those children in situations outside of their natural limits. The children may see this as saying, “You are incapable of climbing up there yourself,” or “It is too dangerous for you to try that alone.” Also, this does not allow children to gain experience in basic skills first, but puts them in a situation that calls for skills more complex than they have at the time. This denies children the opportunity to practice those skills and increase their capabilities. When they must seek solutions to getting up, out, in, or down, they learn to handle realistically their current level of physical and motor development. Teachers lend encouragement and confidence to children by saying, “I cannot put you up there, but I will help you try to get there yourself.” Making playgrounds safe is a good way to promote physical growth and sets the stage for learning through motor development as shown in Figure 11-6.
Figure 11-6
Before children are allowed to use a playground, teachers should use a checklist such as this to ensure that safety standards are met. A safe playground stimulates physical development, social interaction, and full exploration of the materials and environment.
Making Playgrounds Safe
Safety in the yard means:
· Enough room for the number and age of children who will use it
· Adequate empty space
· Availability of both hard and soft surfaces
· Soft surfaces under any equipment from which a child might fall
· Shady areas alternating with sunny spots
· No standing water—good drainage
· No poisonous or thorny plants, or litter or debris
· Areas of play clearly defined and differentiated from one another
· Sand area protected at night from animals
· Fences high enough and in good repair
· Gates secure with latches out of children’s reach
Equipment is:
· Well maintained—no exposed nails, screws, sharp edges, chipped paint
· Chosen with children’s ages in mind in regard to height and complexity
· Stable and securely anchored
· Repaired immediately or removed if damaged
· Varied to allow for wide range of skills
· Not crowded
· Smooth where children’s hands are likely to be placed
· Checked frequently
· Placed appropriately: sides facing north, swings away from other structures and busy areas
· Scaled to age level: steps and other openings are 4 inches or less apart or 8 to 10 inches apart
· Modified for age levels: swings have soft seats
Teachers:
· Reinforce safe practices
· Wear appropriate outdoor clothing
· Check frequently where children are playing
· Involve children in safety checks of yard, equipment, and grounds
· Provide continual, adequate supervision
· Avoid congregating to talk
· Get involved with children
· Provide enough activities and challenges
· Watch for sun exposure, especially with toddlers
· Assist children when they want to rearrange movable equipment
11-4cPlayground Enrichment
Children’s access to outdoor play has evaporated like water in sunshine. …. Awareness of and concern about children’s vanishing opportunities for outdoor play have only increased among adults who understand the importance of such play to children’s development (Rivkin, 2014).
The playground is the natural arena for optimal physical development and the ideal environment to promote physical fitness. On the playground, all motor skills are called into play. Outdoor activities should challenge children to use a wide range of motor skills and provide for a wide range of differences among their abilities:
Carmine grabs a scarf and begins to dance, twirling and whirling, hopping and bending in time to the music. Following the teacher’s lead, Carmine balances on his toes and waves his scarf high over his head.
Tina walks to the climber, grasps the highest rung she can reach, pulls herself up by lifting one leg and then the other until she stretches vertically, full length, along the climber bars. Satisfied, she pushes off with her feet and jumps backward to the ground. She bends her knees as she lands, balances herself to an upright position, and runs off.
Ramon toddles over to pick up the large red ball. Momentarily overwhelmed by its size, he falls backward to sit on the grass. As a teacher approaches him, he rolls the ball toward her. She throws it back to him and Ramon imitates her movements. Soon they are involved in kicking and tossing the ball to each other.
Using both small and large muscles, children gain control over their bodies as they run and play. The playground provides open space where full-bodied action can take place, providing many opportunities to develop balance and coordination.
Physical skills, however, are not the only benefit of outdoor play. Social and cognitive skills are enhanced as well. On the playground, children must negotiate turns with the wagons, ask for a push on the swing, and wait in line going up the slide. Some of the most intricate and involved dramatic play takes place outdoors. Problems get solved when two tricycles collide. Scientific experiences are all around—finding a bird’s nest or planting a garden. “There are indeed advantages of the outdoors that cannot readily be provided indoors” (Frost, Wortham, & Reifel, 2008). On the playground, no one says “Be quiet!” or “Quit wriggling!” It is a place of motion and space, filled with the special sensations found only outdoors.
The outdoor area has great potential for developing gross motor skills (climbing, bending, sliding), fine motor skills (grasping, reaching, holding), and perceptual-motor skills (eye–hand coordination, directionality, tempo).
© Ingrid Andrews
When creating and maintaining a challenging environment, teachers consider both the variety and level of challenge. A choice of surfaces encourages a wide range of movements, and while cement may be appropriate for transportation toys, tanbark and rubber mats are better for climbing, hanging, and dropping.
Varying the equipment also stimulates motor activity. Equipment that is mobile allows for a greater range of uses and allows children to manipulate their environment. By creating their own physical challenges with wooden crates, children make platforms, caves, and houses to crawl in, over, and through. Another way to provide variety is to focus on less-developed skills, such as catching and throwing, rolling, latching, snapping, or zipping.
When children are encouraged to discover their physical potential, they learn to solve problems of movement defined by the limits of their abilities rather than by performance. This kind of learning encourages self-confidence as children find success.
11-4dEncouraging Physical Play
The vital role of physical activity is best fulfilled when teachers:
· Create time in the daily schedule for periods of physical activity, preferably, but not limited to, the outdoors
· Actively participate while supervising and encouraging all children to become involved in strenuous activity
· Set goals for children’s motor development and physical fitness
· Use a variety of activities on a daily basis, including science, art, and music, to stimulate physical development
· Select age-appropriate equipment and materials, providing a variety of props to enhance their use
· Give children opportunities to repeat, practice, and refine the skills they learn
When children develop their physical and motor skills under this kind of encouragement, their confidence and sense of competence grow. This sense of personal worth is at the core of their being.
Observing children while they play outdoors allows teachers an opportunity to assess potential problems in motor development. The checklist in Figure 11-7 indicates some areas to observe.
Figure 11-7
A checklist of possible problems in physical/motor development serves as a guideline when devising a developmentally specific profile for spotting problems.
Check whether the Child:
· ❑ 1.
Has trouble holding or maintaining balance
· ❑ 2.
Appears to have difficulty balancing and moves awkwardly
· ❑ 3.
Cannot carry self well in motion
· ❑ 4.
Appears generally awkward in activities requiring coordination
· ❑ 5.
Has difficulty making changes in movement
· ❑ 6.
Has difficulty performing combinations of simple movements
· ❑ 7.
Has difficulty in gauging space with respect to own body; bumps and collides with objects and other children
· ❑ 8.
Tends to fall often
· ❑ 9.
Has poor eye–hand coordination
· ❑ 10.
Has difficulty handling the simple tools of physical activity (beanbags, balls, other objects that require visual–motor coordination)
Professional Resource Download
Teachers plan activities that promote physical/motor skills in the areas of gross motor, fine motor, and perceptual- motor development. They look at the environment, both indoors and out, to see that all three areas of physical growth are encouraged.
