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Burkley

First edition

Chapter 10

Goal Striving

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

10.1 Evaluate the importance of action in the goal striving phase

10.2 Explain why self-regulation is important in the goal striving phase

10.3 Analyze the importance of standards in the goal striving phase

10.3.1 Explain the theory of possible selves

10.3.2 Explain self-discrepancy theory

10.3.3 Explain the theory of regulatory focus

10.3.4 Explain the theory of self-awareness

10.4 Analyze the importance of monitoring in the goal striving phase

10.4.1 Describe the difference between positive and negative feedback loops

10.4.2 Explain the TOTE model

10.4.3 Describe the benefits of monitoring

10.4.4 Describe the difficulties of monitoring

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

10.5 Analyze the impact of self-control

10.5.1 Explain the concept of delay of gratification

10.5.2 Describe the limited resource model of self-control

10.5.3 Describe ways to avoid self-control failures

10.5.4 Describe ways to boost self-control

10.6 Analyze the pros and cons of goal disengagement

10.6.1 Explain why people fail to disengage from goals

10.6.2 Explain how to facilitate goal disengagement

10.7 Analyze the neuroscience components associated with the motivation process

10.7.1 Determine the brain regions associated with goal setting

10.7.2 Determine the brain regions associated with goal planning

10.7.3 Determine the brain regions associated with goal striving

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Introduction: Goal Striving

Key questions to be answered

Goal striving stage in motivation

Self-regulation

Standards

Monitoring

Strength

Goal disengagement

Neuroscience of the motivation process

The goal striving stage is action toward goals.

Self-regulation refers to our capacity to alter our responses.

Standards are ideas of how things might or should be, and we have various selves to measure against standards.

Monitoring refers to keeping track of behaviors.

We use self-control to engage in behaviors that facilitate goals.

Sometimes, we must choose to not pursue a goal, which is harder than it sounds.

Various components of the brain help activate the motivation process.

10.1: Goal Striving Stage in Motivation

10.1: Evaluate the importance of action in the goal striving phase

Why is the action important?

Hardest part

Required to engage in purposeful behavior

10.1: Evaluate the importance of action in the goal striving phase

Point 1 – Why is the action important?

The action is actual behaviors toward the goal.

10.2: Self-Regulation

10.2: Explain why self-regulation is important in the goal striving phase

What is self-regulation?

Capacity to alter our own responses

Standards

Monitoring

Strength

10.2: Explain why self-regulation is important in the goal striving phase

Point 1 – What is self-regulation?

We have to control our thoughts, emotions, impulses, and behaviors.

Refer to Figure 10.1: Basic Elements of Self-Regulation.

Figure 10.1: Basic Elements of Self-Regulation

10.3: Standards (1 of 4)

10.3: Analyze the importance of standards in the goal striving phase

What are standards?

Ideas of how things should be that we use when making judgments

Means of comparison

10.3.1: Possible Selves

10.3.1: Explain the theory of possible selves

Possible selves

Ideal self

Undesired self

10.3: Analyze the importance of standards in the goal striving phase

Point 1 – What are standards?

We have standards of beauty, genius, intelligence, and about our self.

By comparing the actual self to a standard, we gain a sense of whether we are living up to what we should be, or if we are falling short.

10.3.1: Possible Selves

10.3.1: Explain the theory of possible selves

Point 1 – Possible selves

People are motivated to become more like their ideal self.

The undesired self also is highly motivating—why?

10.3: Standards (2 of 4)

10.3.2: Self-Discrepancy Theory

10.3.2: Explain self-discrepancy theory

What is self-discrepancy theory?

Discrepancies occur when people feel their actual self is far from their ideal or ought selves.

Dejection emotions

Agitation emotions

10.3.2: Self-Discrepancy Theory

10.3.2: Explain self-discrepancy theory

Point 1 – What is self-discrepancy theory?

Refer to Figure 10.2: Higgins’s Self-Discrepancy Theory.

When there is a large discrepancy between the actual self and the ideal self, people experience dejection emotions.

When there is a large discrepancy between the actual self and ought self, people experience agitation emotions.

Figure 10.2: Higgins's Self-Discrepancy Theory

10.3: Standards (3 of 4)

10.3.3: Regulatory Focus

10.3.3: Explain the theory of regulatory focus

What is regulatory focus?

Individual differences in tendencies to frame goals in ideal or ought terms.

Promotion-oriented

Prevention-oriented

Outcomes of regulatory focus

Differences in goal definition

Differences in goal striving strategies

Differences in goal focus

Regulatory fit

10.3.3: Regulatory Focus

10.3.3: Explain the theory of regulatory focus

Point 1 – What is regulatory focus?

Promotion-oriented people focus on their ideal self and are concerned with the nurturance needs of aspirations and accomplishments.

Prevention-oriented people focus on their ought self and are concerned with the security needs of safety and responsibility.

Outcomes of regulatory focus

Promotion people tend to pursue their goals using an eager strategy, while prevention people tend to use a vigilant strategy.

Promotion people focus more on the quantity of their responses, while prevention people focus on quality.

When a person’s regulatory focus matches the focus of the situation or task, people perform better.

10.3: Standards (4 of 4)

10.3.4: Self-Awareness Theory

10.3.4: Explain the theory of self-awareness

What is self-awareness theory?

Objective self-awareness

Inducing objective self-awareness

Outcomes of self-awareness

Negativity

Change behavior

Escape

10.3.4: Self-Awareness Theory

10.3.4: Explain the theory of self-awareness

Point 1 – What is self-awareness theory?

Our objective self-awareness increases the likelihood that we will make the comparison between the actual self and the standard.

Sitting in front of a mirror or audience, or being taped all can increase objective self-awareness.

Point 2 – Outcomes of self-awareness

Why do we often experience negative emotions when we become self-aware?

People may choose escape, such as alcohol or drugs, to avoid self-awareness.

10.4: Monitoring (1 of 3)

10.4: Analyze the importance of monitoring in the goal striving phase

Monitoring

Tracking behaviors

Maintains comparisons

10.4.1: Cybernetic Mechanism

10.4.1: Describe the difference between positive and negative feedback loops

What is a cybernetic mechanism?

Internal monitor

Regulates its input and output

Feedback loop

10.4: Analyze the importance of monitoring in the goal striving phase

Point 1 – Monitoring

When people stop monitoring their goal-relevant behavior, they often fail to achieve or maintain goals.

10.4.1: Cybernetic Mechanism

10.4.1: Describe the difference between positive and negative feedback loops

Point 1 – What is a cybernetic mechanism?

Machines that rely on a feedback loop are equipped with sensors that detect deviations from some rearranged setting.

Discuss Table 10.1: Types of Feedback Loops.

Table 10.1: Types of Feedback Loops

Negative Feedback Loop	Positive Feedback Loop
Designed to reduce or eliminate the iscrepancy between the current state and some desired state.	Designed to increase the iscrepancy between the current state and some undesired state.
Example: a thermostat that is designed to keep the temperature in the room at a designated level	Example: a machine that is signed to keep the pressure within a chamber above a certain danger level.

10.4: Monitoring (2 of 3)

10.4.2: TOTE Model

10.4.2: Explain the TOTE model

The TOTE model

Test

Operate

Test

Exit

10.4.2: TOTE Model

10.4.2: Explain the TOTE model

Point 1 – The TOTE model

Refer to Figures 10.3–A-D: Test-Operate-Test-Exit (TOTE) Model.

How would the TOTE model explain someone’s struggle with dieting? Or with maintaining a GPA?

The comparisons that drive the TOTE model are largely subjective.

Figure 10.3: Test-Operate-Test-Exit (TOTE) Model

10.4: Monitoring (3 of 3)

10.4.3: Benefits of Monitoring

10.4.3: Describe the benefits of monitoring

What are the benefits of monitoring?

Increased goal attention

Goal strategy adjustments

Provides performance feedback

10.4.4: Difficulties in Monitoring

10.4.4: Describe the difficulties of monitoring

What are the difficulties of monitoring?

Situational factors

Alcohol consumption

10.4.3: Benefits of Monitoring

10.4.3: Describe the benefits of monitoring

Point 1 – What are the benefits of monitoring?

Any behavior that makes it easier to monitor a goal will increase the odds of goal achievement.

10.4.4: Difficulties in Monitoring

10.4.4: Describe the difficulties of monitoring

Point 1 – What are the difficulties of monitoring?

How could over-monitoring also be bad?

10.5: Strength (1 of 3)

10.5: Analyze the impact of self-control

The impact of self-control

Willpower

10.5.1: Delay of Gratification

10.5.1: Explain the concept of delay of gratification

Delay of gratification

Hardwired for immediate rewards

Uncertainty of the future

Are some people better at delaying gratification?

Mischel (1970)—marshmallows

Strategies to improve delay of gratification

Out of sight, out of mind

Turn down the heat

10.5: Analyze the impact of self-control

Point 1 – The impact of self-control

Whenever we strive for a goal, we must also use self-control to control our behaviors.

10.5.1: Delay of Gratification

10.5.1: Explain the concept of delay of gratification

Point 1 – Delay of gratification

From Curious George to college students, delaying gratification can be very difficult.

Point 2 – Are some people better at delaying gratification?

Mischel and his colleagues found that only 30% of 4-year-olds could wait for a larger treat.

One study found that the children who could wait scored an average of 210 points higher on the SAT.

Point 3 – Strategies to improve delay of gratification

Why do these strategies help improve delay of gratification?

Delay of gratification can be learned.

10.5: Strength (2 of 3)

10.5.2: Limited Resource Model

10.5.2: Describe the limited resource model of self-control

What is the limited resource model of self-control?

People’s capacity for self-control is based on a limited and general resource.

Ego depletion

Evidence of ego depletion

Less able to resist inner impulses

Similar pattern in dogs

Less effective at resisting the push of others

Glucose

10.5.2: Limited Resource Model

10.5.2: Describe the limited resource model of self-control

Point 1 – What is the limited resource model of self-control?

When people exert self-control in one domain, it can easily become impaired and thus reduce our ability to exert self-control in another unrelated domain.

Because of the ego depletion effect, some argue that self-control acts like a muscle.

Refer to Figures: Experiment to Test Limited Resource Model.

Point 2 – Evidence of ego depletion

Refer to Figure 10.4: Self-Control and Susceptibility to Persuasion.

Expecting to exert self-control in the future can be just as debilitating.

Researchers suggest that self-control uses up glucose, which is the brain’s primary source of fuel.

Figure: Cookies and Radish

Figure: Cookies (Striked off) and Radish

Figure: Anagrams

Figure: Thinking Person

Figure: Limited Self-Control Resources

Figure 10.4: Self-Control and Susceptibility to Persuasion

10.5: Strength (3 of 3)

10.5.3: Avoiding Self-Control Failures

10.5.3: Describe ways to avoid self-control failures

How to avoid self-control failures

Plan your day with depletion in mind.

Avoid taking on too many goals at once.

Create a habit.

Avoid all-out bans.

10.5.4: Boosting Self-Control

10.5.4: Describe ways to boost self-control

How to boost self-control

Exercise your self-control muscle.

Retrain your brain.

Take a break.

Seek out autonomy.

Believe in yourself.

10.5.3: Avoiding Self-Control Failures

10.5.3: Describe ways to avoid self-control failures

Point 1 – How to avoid self-control failures

Which strategies do you think are most effective? Why?

10.5.4: Boosting Self-Control

10.5.4: Describe ways to boost self-control

Point 1 – How to boost self-control

Which techniques do you think are most effective? Which would you use, and why?

10.6: Goal Disengagement

10.6: Analyze the pros and cons of goal disengagement

Why choose goal disengagement?

Sisyphean or unrealistic goal

Change of circumstances

10.6.1: Reasons People Fail to Disengage

10.6.1: Explain why people fail to disengage from goals

Why do people fail to disengage?

Others’ perceptions

Lose spent resources—sunk cost effect

10.6.2: Facilitating Goal Disengagement

10.6.2: Explain how to facilitate goal disengagement

Facilitating goal disengagement

Implementation intentions

10.6: Analyze the pros and cons of goal disengagement

Point 1 – Why choose goal disengagement?

People who are able to easily disengage from unattainable goals and reengage in new goals had higher levels of subjective well-being.

10.6.1: Reasons People Fail to Disengage

10.6.1: Explain why people fail to disengage from goals

Point 1 – Why do people fail to disengage?

People are afraid of looking bad to others, and to also lose the resources they have invested in the goal pursuit.

10.7: Neuroscience of the Motivation Process

10.7: Analyze the neuroscience components associated with the motivation process

The neuroscience components

Frontal lobe

Anterior and posterior

Dorsal and ventral

Medial and lateral

10.7: Analyze the neuroscience components associated with the motivation process

Point 1 – The neuroscience components

Refer to Figure 10.5: Key Brain Regions Involved in the Motivation Process.

Figure 10.5: Key Brain Regions Involved in the Motivation Process

10.7: Neuroscience of the Motivation Process

10.7.1: Neuroscience of Goal Setting

10.7.1: Determine the brain regions associated with goal setting

Brain regions associated with goal setting

Lateral prefrontal cortex (lPFC)

Assigned goals

10.7.2: Neuroscience of Goal Planning

10.7.2: Determine the brain regions associated with goal planning

Brain regions associated with goal planning

Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)

Premotor cortex (pMC)

10.7.1: Neuroscience of Goal Setting

10.7.1: Determine the brain regions associated with goal setting

Point 1 – Brain regions associated with goal setting

The prefrontal cortex plays a major role in all of the motivational processes because it is the only part of the brain that received input from all five senses.

It is unclear if the lPFC plays a role in self-set goals. The medial prefrontal cortex appears to play more of a role with self-set goals.

10.7.2: Neuroscience of Goal Planning

10.7.2: Determine the brain regions associated with goal planning

Point 1 – Brain regions associated with goal planning

Discuss Spunt, Falk, and Lieberman (2010).

When people focus on what the goal is, it activates the areas of the brain associated with mental states and agency (mPFC).

When people focus on how the goal is achieved, it activates areas of the brain associated with the execution of behavior (pMC).

10.7: Neuroscience of the Motivation Process

10.7.3: Neuroscience of Goal Striving

10.7.3: Determine the brain regions associated with goal striving

Brain regions associated with goal striving

Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)

Dorsal

Ventral

Prefrontal cortex (PFC)

Inferior frontal gyrus (IFG)

10.7.3: Neuroscience of Goal Striving

10.7.3: Determine the brain regions associated with goal striving

Point 1 – Brain regions associated with goal striving

The ACC is located in the medial region of the frontal lobes and is interconnected with other brain regions associated with cognitive processing.

The dACC is likely responsible for the detection of discrepancies between actual and desired states.

The PFC helps inhibits actions that threaten goals.

The IFG has been shown to be active when people engage in self-control behaviors.

Summary: Goal Striving

The importance of action in the goal striving phase

Why self-regulation is important in the goal striving phase

The importance of standards in the goal striving phase

The importance of monitoring in the goal striving phase

The impact of self-control

The pros and cons of goal disengagement

The neuroscience components associated with the motivation process

The goal striving phase is characterized by action toward goal achievement.

Self-regulation is involved whenever we try to control our thoughts, emotions, impulses, and behaviors.

Standards are how we compare our progress on our goals. Actual self is the perception of our current self. Possible selves are self-standards. The ideal self is one possible self that represents what we hope to be in the future. The undesired self represents what we fear becoming in the future. Self-discrepancy theory suggests that the comparison of the actual self with possible selves produces different emotions. People different in their regulatory process, and people who pursue a goal in a manner that matches personal orientation experience regulatory fit.

Cybernetic mechanisms rely on a feedback loop for monitoring. The TOTE model refers to the regulatory feedback of Test, Operate, Test, and Exit. Monitoring is beneficial because it increases attention toward a goal, helps identify faulty strategy, and leads to better goal performance.

Delay of gratification occurs when the individual sacrifices short-term rewards for long-term rewards. Children who can delay gratification grow up to be successful adults. Ego depletion refers to the tendency for prior self-control to impair subsequent self-control exertion.

Goal disengagement can be difficult; people fear others’ perceptions of them and also don’t want to lose their invested resources. The tendency to persist in an endeavor once an investment has been made is called the sunk cost effect.

The lateral section of the prefrontal cortex enables people to hold a goal in mind. The medial prefrontal cortex becomes activated when people reflect on their personal goals. The premotor cortex plays a role in goal planning. The dorsal anterior cingulated cortex detects discrepancies between actual and desired states. Once a discrepancy is detected, the premotor cortex, primary motor cortex, and basal ganglia help regulate behavior. The prefrontal cortex and the inferior frontal gyrus allow an individual to exert self-control and inhibit undesirable responses.