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Burkley

First edition

Chapter 8

Goal Setting

Learning Objectives (1 of 3)

8.1 Analyze the components of a goal

8.1.1 Define the term goal

8.1.2 Explain why goals are important

8.1.3 Explain the causes of goals

8.1.4 Explain how goals are structured

8.2 Analyze the features of a goal

8.2.1 Explain the concepts of expectancy and value with regard to goals

8.2.2 Explain the concept of difficulty with regard to goals

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Learning Objectives (2 of 3)

8.2.3 Explain the concept of specificity with regard to goals

8.2.4 Describe the joint effect of difficulty and specificity

8.2.5 Explain the concept of proximity with regards to goals

8.2.6 Contrast approach goals and avoidance goals

8.2.7 Explain how factors other than motivation affect performance

8.3 Explain the importance of goal commitment in motivation

8.3.1 Analyze the causes and consequences of goal commitment

8.3.2 Explain the mental strategies used to boost goal commitment

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Learning Objectives (3 of 3)

8.3.3 Describe the factors that make up a commitment to an ongoing goal

8.4 Analyze the phases of the motivation process

8.4.1 Describe the four motivational phases

8.4.2 Describe the two types of goal mindsets

8.5 Analyze the concept of goal conflict

8.5.1 Identify the four types of goal conflict

8.5.2 Explain the concept of goal shielding

Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

Key questions to be answered

Goals

Goal features

Goal commitment

The motivation process

Goal conflict

Introduction: Goal Setting

A goal is a cognitive representation of a future outcome. We all have them, but rarely consider what they entail.

People tend to select goals that are high in expected likelihood of success and high perceived value.

Goal commitment refers to the process whereby a person forms an intention to strive for a goal.

The motivation process can be divided into defined steps.

Goal conflict occurs whenever we have two competing goals.

8.1: Goals (1 of 2)

8.1: Analyze the components of a goal

What is special about goals?

Separate from fantasy

Motivational

8.1.1: What Is a Goal?

8.1.1: Define the term goal

Four aspects of goal construct

Cognitive representations

Future-focused

Commitment

Approach or avoidance-based

8.1: Analyze the components of a goal

Point 1 – What is special about goals?

We all have a general sense of goals and how they are motivating, but there are more specific details of how to define them and use them.

8.1.1: What Is a Goal?

8.1.1: Define the term goal

Point 1 – Four aspects of goal construct

A goal is defined as a cognitive representation of a future outcome that an individual is committed to approach or avoid.

What are some goals you have for this course? In your personal life? How do those goals fulfill the four aspects of goal construct?

8.1: Goals (2 of 2)

8.1.2: Why Are Goals Important?

8.1.2: Explain why goals are important

Why are goals important?

Enhance performance

Focus

Positive psychological functioning

Greater life satisfaction

8.1.3: Where Do Goals Come From?

8.1.3: Explain the causes of goals

Reasons for adopting a goal

Needs (autonomy, competence, belonging)

Demands

Culture

8.1.2: Why Are Goals Important?

8.1.2: Explain why goals are important

Point 1 – Why are goals important?

People who set goals paid more attention to the goal-relevant sections (refer to Rothkopf and Billington, 1979).

The psychological benefits of having goals occurs regardless of whether or not the goal is achieved.

8.1.3: Where Do Goals Come From?

8.1.3: Explain the causes of goals

Point 1 – Reasons for adopting a goal

Henry Murray believed that people adopt goals to fulfill physiological or psychological needs.

Murray also believed that people receive external sources of pressure to fulfill a goal. Self-set goals are ones we choose for ourselves, while assigned goals are given to us by others.

The environment and culture where we are raised influences the types of goals we set.

Figure 8.1: Goal Hierarchy

Figure 8.2: Goal Systems Theory

8.2: Goal Features (1 of 6)

8.2: Analyze the features of a goal

Types of goals

Not all goals are created equal.

Possibility of achievement

8.2.1: Expectancy and Value

8.2.1: Explain the concepts of expectancy and value with regard to goals

Expectancy-Value Theory

Expectancy x Value = Behavior

Motivation

Subjective

Influential sources

Perceived capability

Belief in outcome

8.2: Analyze the features of a goal

Point 1 – Types of goals

The types of goals are set will help determine whether or not they can be met.

8.2.1: Expectancy and Value

8.2.1: Explain the concepts of expectancy and value with regard to goals

Point 1 – Expectancy-Value Theory

Behavior results from the joint function of expectancy and value.

If either expectancy or value is 0, then the person will not carry out the action.

Motivation is highest when both expectancy and value are high.

Expectancy and value are both subjective assessments.

Point 2 – Influential sources

A person’s perceived capability and a belief in goal achievement both influence expectancy estimates.

8.2: Goal Features (2 of 6)

8.2.2: Difficulty

8.2.2: Explain the concept of difficulty with regard to goals

What is goal difficulty?

Knowledge

Skill

Understanding the role of goal difficulty in goal achievement

Levels of aspiration

Goal conflict

8.2.3: Specificity

8.2.3: Explain the concept of specificity with regard to goals

What is specificity?

How precisely one defines a goal

8.2.2: Difficulty

8.2.2: Explain the concept of difficulty with regard to goals

Point 1 – What is goal difficulty?

Difficulty relates to the knowledge and skill required to achieve a goal.

Point 2 – Understanding the role of goal difficulty in goal achievement

Lewin et al. (1944) observed the paradox of aspiration.

Goal conflict occurs whenever we have two competing or mutually exclusive goals.

The more difficult the goal, the more energy and effort people will invest in their goal pursuit.

What can you do to ensure your goal is difficult enough to ensure success?

8.2.3: Specificity

8.2.3: Explain the concept of specificity with regard to goals

Point 1 – What is specificity?

Discuss Earley, Wojnaroski, and Prest (1987) and student goals.

Point 2 – Why do specific goals facilitate goal achievement?

How can you transform a vague goal into a specific one?

Vague Goals	Specific Goals
Write a novel
Perform better in school
Be healthier
Save more money

Table 8.1: Vague Versus Specific Goals

8.2: Goal Features (3 of 6)

Why do specific goals facilitate goal achievement?

Attention

Reduce ambiguity

Measure progress

Definitive end point

8.2.4: Joint Effect of Difficulty and Specificity

8.2.4: Describe the joint effect of difficulty and specificity

The joint effect of difficulty and specificity

Significant impact

Strong effect on performance

8.2.4: Joint Effect of Difficulty and Specificity

8.2.4: Describe the joint effect of difficulty and specificity

Point 1 – The joint effect of difficulty and specificity

Refer to Figure 8.3: Goal Difficulty and Specificity.

Figure 8.3: Goal Difficulty and Specificity

8.2: Goal Features (4 of 6)

8.2.5: Proximity

8.2.5: Explain the concept of proximity with regards to goals

What is proximity?

Distal goals

Proximal goals

Goal-gradient hypothesis

Construal level theory

Distal—abstract

Proximal—concrete

8.2.5: Proximity

8.2.5: Explain the concept of proximity with regards to goals

Point 1 – What is proximity?

Refer to Figure 8.4: Distal and Proximal Goals.

The more proximal the goal, the more motivated we are to achieve it.

Organisms increase effort as the goal becomes more proximal.

Refer to Figure 8.5: Proximal Versus Distal Goals.

Point 2 – Construal level theory

Discuss Liberman and Trope (1998).

Figure 8.4: Distal and Proximal Goals

Figure 8.5: Proximal Versus Distal Goals

8.2: Goal Features (5 of 6)

8.2.6: Approach Versus Avoidance Goals

8.2.6: Contrast approach goals and avoidance goals

Approach goals

Goal means

Behavioral activation system (BAS)

Avoidance goals

Chaotic, unpredictable behaviors

Behavioral inhibition system (BIS)

8.2.6: Approach Versus Avoidance Goals

8.2.6: Contrast approach goals and avoidance goals

Point 1 – Approach goals

Approach goals narrow focus on the goal means that directly lead to the desired outcome.

The BAS is generally perceived as a system sensitive to positive stimuli.

Point 2 – Avoidance goals

Avoidance goals tend to direct people’s focus to any behavior that moves the individual away from the undesired end state.

The BIS is generally sensitive to negative stimuli.

People vary in which system is stronger.

8.2: Goal Features (6 of 6)

8.2.7: Non-Motivational Factors

8.2.7: Explain how factors other than motivation affect performance

Non-motivational factors

Skill level

Training

Coaching

Access to resources

8.2.7: Non-Motivational Factors

8.2.7: Explain how factors other than motivation affect performance

Point 1 – Non-motivational factors

If two individuals have comparable skills, training, and resources, then the person who sets difficult, specific, proximal approach goals will likely outperform the other individual.

8.3: Goal Commitment (1 of 3)

8.3: Explain the importance of goal commitment in motivation

Goal commitment

Process whereby a person forms an intention to strive for a goal

Varies per individual

8.3.1: Causes and Consequences of Goal Commitment

8.3.1: Analyze the causes and consequences of goal commitment

What factors increase goal commitment?

Equifinity

Expectancy

Value

8.3: Explain the importance of goal commitment in motivation

Point 1 – Goal commitment

A high level of commitment implies the individual is willing to exert resources into the pursuit of the goal and will not give up until the goal is achieved.

People vary greatly in terms of their goal commitment.

8.3.1: Causes and Consequences of Goal Commitment

8.3.1: Analyze the causes and consequences of goal commitment

Point 1 – What factors increase goal commitment?

If there are multiple ways to achieve a goal, expectancy is high.

Point 2 – What consequences does goal commitment have on the goal process?

Being committed to a goal has many positive influences on whether or not the goal will be achieved.

8.3: Goal Commitment (2 of 3)

What consequences does goal commitment have on the goal process?

Goal performance

Higher effort

Persistence

Goal-consistent actions

Resist temptations

Reach goal completion

8.3.2: Mental Strategies to Boost Goal Commitment

8.3.2: Explain the mental strategies used to boost goal commitment

Mental strategies to increase goal commitment

Indulging

Dwelling

Mental contrasting

8.3.2: Mental Strategies to Boost Goal Commitment

8.3.2: Explain the mental strategies used to boost goal commitment

Point 1 – Mental strategies to increase goal commitment

Mental fantasies can lower goal commitment.

Dwelling on obstacles is also associated with lower goal commitment.

Mental contrasting involves first imagining the desired positive future and then imagining the present negative future. Mental contrasting gets people excited and energized about a goal.

8.3: Goal Commitment (3 of 3)

8.3.3: Commitment to an Ongoing Goal

8.3.3: Describe the factors that make up a commitment to an ongoing goal

Factors that influence goal commitment

Goal satisfaction

Goal investments

Goal alternatives

8.3.3: Commitment to an Ongoing Goal

8.3.3: Describe the factors that make up a commitment to an ongoing goal

Point 1 – Factors that influence goal commitment

Burkley et al. (2013) proposed a model of goal commitment that shows goal commitment is highest when satisfaction and investments are high and alternatives are low.

8.4: The Motivation Process (1 of 2)

8.4: Analyze the phases of the motivation process

The motivation process

Process that occurs between goal selection and goal performance

8.4.1: The Four Motivational Phases

8.4.1: Describe the four motivational phases

The Rubicon Model

Predecisional phase

Rubicon

Postdecisional phase

Actional phase

Postactional phase

8.4: Analyze the phases of the motivation process

Point 1 – The motivation process

Researchers have identified a handful of processes to break down the motivation process.

8.4.1: The Four Motivational Phases

8.4.1: Describe the four motivational phases

Point 1 – The Rubicon Model

Refer to Figure 8.6–A-D: Rubicon Model.

The first phase consists of choosing a goal from an array of possible goals.

The Rubicon is the point of no return.

The postdecisional phase is deciding how to pursue the goal.

The actional phase is engaging in goal-directed behaviors.

The postactional phase evaluates the results of the goal striving.

Figure 8.6: Rubicon Model

8.4: The Motivation Process (2 of 2)

8.4.2: Goal Mindsets

8.4.2: Describe the two types of goal mindsets

Deliberative mindset

Precisional phase

Open-mindedness

Implemental mindset

Actional phase

Closed-mindedness

8.4.2: Goal Mindsets

8.4.2: Describe the two types of goal mindsets

Point 1 – Deliberate mindset

It is important to have an objective view of oneself, but it is difficult to do so.

Point 2 – Implemental mindset

A closed-minded approach can help keep people motivated by promoting the initiation of goal-directed behaviors.

8.5: Goal Conflict (1 of 2)

8.5: Analyze the concept of goal conflict

Goal conflict

Two competing or mutually exclusive goals

Stress, depression, anxiety

8.5.1: Types of Goal Conflict

8.5.1: Identify the four types of goal conflict

Types of goal conflict

Approach-approach

Avoidance-avoidance

Approach-avoidance

Double approach-avoidance

8.5: Analyze the concept of goal conflict

Point 1 – Goal conflict

Goal conflict occurs whenever we have goal alternatives that interfere with our focal goal.

People who experience goal conflict are more likely to experience depression than others, as well as be less likely to achieve their goals.

8.5.1: Types of Goal Conflict

8.5.1: Identify the four types of goal conflict

Point 1 – Types of goal conflict

Two equally attractive goals make choosing them difficult and stressful.

Choosing between two unattractive goals may cause people to drop out or try other avoidance techniques.

Approach-avoidance involves attractive and unattractive features within a single goal. It is the most common conflict.

Double approach-avoidance involves choosing between two goals that each have both good and bad aspects.

Refer to Figures 8.8 to 8.11.

8.5: Goal Conflict (2 of 2)

8.5.2: Goal Shielding

8.5.2: Explain the concept of goal shielding

Goal shielding

Prioritization

Highlighting

Balancing

Harmonious passion

Obsessive passion

8.5.2: Goal Shielding

8.5.2: Explain the concept of goal shielding

Point 1 – Goal shielding

We can protect focal goals by engaging in different strategies.

Prioritization involves giving one goal priority over the other.

Consistently choosing the goal highest in priority is highlighting.

The tendency to alternate back and forth between multiple goals is balancing.

People experience harmonious passion when they can easily switch to another goal.

Obsessive passion involves an uncontrollable urge to pursue a goal and an inability to turn it off.

The components of a goal

The features of a goal

The importance of goal commitment in motivation

The phases of the motivation process

The concept of goal conflict

Summary: Goal Setting

Goals are similar to other thoughts in that they are organized hierarchically and can be automatically activated. They represent an image of something in the future and enhance performance. Goals are associated with positive psychological benefits. They are organized in a three-level hierarchy: higher-order goals, short-term goals, and goal means.

People are more likely to set difficult goals than easy goals since we are more likely to earn praise when we attain a difficult goal. People are more successful when they select specific goals and when they choose goals high in difficulty. Proximal goals are short-term goals, while distal goals are long-term. Proximal goals are more concrete, and distal goals are more abstract.

High commitment is associated with better goal performance and persistence. Commitment is higher when expectancy and value levels are high and equifinality is high. Mentally elaborating on a positive future is called indulging and do so on the negative future is dwelling. Mental contrasting increases goal commitment.

The four phases in the Rubicon model are predecisional, postdecisional, action, and postactional. A deliberative mindset is characterized by open-mindedness and objectivity, and is most beneficial during the predecisional process. An implemental mindset is characterized by closed-mindedness and positive bias, and is most beneficial during the actional phase.

Goal conflict can take the form of approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance, or double-approach avoidance. Goal shielding occurs when people protect their focal goal by inhibiting alternative goals. When goals conflict, people may highlight a higher priority goal or strive to achieve balance.