Household codes in the new testament

THE POLITIC S

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ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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gh ts r es er ve d. M ay n ot b e re pr od uc ed i n an y fo rm w it ho ut p er mi ss io n fr om t he p

ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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C O N T E N T S

B O O K I . TH E H O U S E H O LD AN D TH E C I T Y 7 Associations (Chapters 1-2) 7

B: Th e Association of the Household and its Differen t Factors (Chapters 3-13) 1 2 1. Th e constituen t elements of the household

(Chapter 3 ) 1 2 2. Slaver y (Chapters 4-7) 1 3 3. Propert y and th e art o f acquisition

(Chapters 8-11 ) 2 1 4. Marriage , parenthood, and the general

management of the household (Chapters 12-13) 3 3

B O O K II . R E V I E W O F C O N S T I T U T I O N S 3 8 A: Constitution s in Theory (Chapters 1-8) 3 8

1. Plato' s Republic (Chapter s 1-5 ) 3 8 2. Plato' s Laws (Chapter 6 ) 5 1 3. Phalea s of Chalcedon (Chapter 7 ) 5 6 4. Hippodamu s of Miletus (Chapter 8 ) 6 1

B: Actua l Constitutions which Approach the Ideal (Chapters 9-12) 6 7 1. Th e Sparta n constitution (Chapter 9 ) 6 7 2. Th e Cretan constitution (Chapter 10 ) 7 3 3. Th e Carthaginia n constitution (Chapter 11 ) 7 6 4. Postscrip t o n other legislators (Chapter 12 ) 8 0

B O O K I I I . T H E T H E O R Y O F C I T I Z E N S H I P A N D C O N S T I T U T I O N S 8 4

A: Citizenshi p (Chapters 1-5) 8 4 B: Constitution s and their Classification (Chapters 6-8) 9 7 C: Th e Principles of Oligarchy and Democracy and

the Nature of Distributive Justice (Chapters 9-13) 10 2

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gh ts r es er ve d. M ay n ot b e re pr od uc ed i n an y fo rm w it ho ut p er mi ss io n fr om t he p

ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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4 C O N T E N T S

D: Kingshi p and its Forms (Chapters 14-18) 12 0

BOOK IV. ACTUAL CONSTITUTIONS AND THEIR

V A R I E T I E S 13 3

A: Introductor y (Chapters 1-2) 13 3 B: Th e Varieties of the Main Types of Constitution

especially Democracy, Oligarchy, and 'Constitu- tional Government' or Polity (Chapters 3-10) 13 7

C: Th e Type of Constitution which is most Generally Practicable (Chapter n) 15 6

D: Wha t Sort of Constitution is Desirable for What Sort of Civic Body? (Chapters 12-13 ) I0 1

E: Th e Methods of Establishing Constitutions, in Relation to the Three Powers—Deliberative, Executive, and Judicial (Chapter s 14-16) 16 5

B O O K V . C A U S E S O F F A C T I O N A L C O N F L I C T A N D C O N S T I T U T I O N A L C H A N G E 17 8

A: Th e General Causes of Factional Conflic t an d Change in all Types of Constitution (Chapters 1-4) 17 8

B: Particula r Causes of Conflict an d Change in Democracies, Oligarchies, and Aristocracie s (Chapters 5-7) 18 9 1. Democracie s (Chapter 5 ) 18 9 2. Oligarchie s (Chapter 6 ) 19 2 3. Aristocracie s (Chapter 7 ) 19 6

C: Method s of Ensuring Constitutional Stability in the Three Previous Types of Constitution and More Generally (Chapters 8-9) 20 0

D: Th e Causes of Conflict an d Change and the Methods of Ensuring Stability in Monarchies (Chapter s lo-n) 20 9

E: Th e Chronology of Tyrannies and Criticisms of Plato's Account of Constitutional Change (Chapter 12 ) 22 5

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gh ts r es er ve d. M ay n ot b e re pr od uc ed i n an y fo rm w it ho ut p er mi ss io n fr om t he p

ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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C O N T E N T S 5

B O O K V I . M E T H O D S O F C O N S T R U C T I N G D E M O C R A C I ES A N D O L I G A R C H I E S W I T H A S P E C I A L V I E W T O T H E I R

G R E A T E R S T A B I L I T Y 2 2 9

A: Th e Construction of Democracies (Chapter s 1-5) 22 9 B: Th e Construction o f Oligarchies (Chapters 6-8) 24 2

B O O K V I I . P O L I T I C AL I D E A L S A N D E D U C A T I O N A L P R I N C I P L E S 25 1

A: Politica l Ideals : The Nature of the Highest Goo d and of the Best an d Happiest Lif e (Chapters 1-3) 25 1

B: Th e Population, th e Territory, the Natural Endowment of the Inhabitants, the Social Structure, and the Physical Plannin g of an Ideal City (Chapters 4-12) 26 0 1. Th e population (Chapter 4) 26 0 2. Th e territory (Chapter s 5-6) 26 3 3. Th e natural endowment (Chapte r 7 ) 26 6 4. Th e social structur e (Chapter s 8-10 ) 26 8 5. Th e planning o f the central city (Chapter s 11-12 ) 275

C: Th e General Principles of Education (Chapters 13-15) 27 9 1. Th e en d an d th e means (Chapter 13 ) 27 9 2. Educatio n and citizenship ; education for leisure ,

and educatio n of character (Chapters 14-15 ) 28 2 D: Th e Early Stages of Education (Chapters 16-17) 29 0

1. Th e regulatio n o f marriage (Chapte r 16 ) 29 0 2. Th e nursery an d th e infant schoo l (Chapte r 17 ) 29 4

B O O K V I I I . T H E T R A I N I N G O F Y O U T H 2 9 8

A: Th e General Scheme of Training (Chapters 1-3) 29 8 B: Physica l Training , or Gymnastics (Chapter 4) 30 3 C: Th e Aims and Methods of Education in Music

(Chapters 5-7) 30 5

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ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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gh t @ 19 98 . Ox fo rd U ni ve rs it y Pr es s.

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gh ts r es er ve d. M ay n ot b e re pr od uc ed i n an y fo rm w it ho ut p er mi ss io n fr om t he p

ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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BOOK I THE HOUSEHOLD AND THE CITY

A: Th e Political Associatio n an d its Relation t o other Associations (Chapters 1-2)

C H A P T E R 1

All associations have ends: the political association has the highest; but the principle of association expresses itself in different forms, and through different modes of government.

1252"! Observatio n show s us, first, that every city [polis] i s a species o f association, * and , secondly , tha t al l association s come int o bein g fo r th e sak e o f som e good—fo r al l me n d o all thei r act s wit h a vie w to achievin g somethin g whic h is, in their view , a good. * I t i s clear therefor e tha t al l association s aim at som e good, an d that the particular associatio n whic h is the mos t sovereig n of all, and include s all the rest , wil l pursue this aim most, an d wil l thus b e directed t o th e mos t sovereig n of al l goods . Thi s mos t sovereig n an d inclusiv e association i s the cit y [OT polis], as it is called, o r th e politica l association.

1252*7 I t i s a mistak e t o believ e tha t th e statesma n i s th e same a s th e monarc h o f a kingdom , o r th e manage r o f a household, o r th e maste r o f a numbe r o f slaves. * Those wh o hold thi s vie w consider tha t eac h one of these differ s fro m the others no t wit h a differenc e o f kind , bu t accordin g t o th e number, larg e o r small , o f those wit h whom he deals. On thi s view someon e wh o i s concerned wit h fe w people i s a master , someone wh o i s concerne d wit h mor e i s th e manage r o f a household, and someon e who i s concerned with still more i s a statesman,* o r a monarch . Thi s vie w abolishe s an y rea l difference betwee n a larg e househol d an d a smal l city ; and i t also reduce s th e differenc e betwee n th e 'statesman ' an d th e monarch t o th e on e fac t tha t th e latte r ha s a n uncontrolle d and sol e authority, while the forme r exercise s his authority in conformity wit h the rule s imposed b y the art o f statesmanshi p

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ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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8 P O L I T I C S I . I

and a s on e wh o rule s an d i s ruled i n turn . Bu t thi s i s a view which cannot b e accepted as correct.*

I252ai8 Ou r poin t wil l b e mad e clea r i f w e procee d t o consider th e matter accordin g to our normal metho d o f analy- sis. Jus t as, in all other fields, a compound* shoul d be analysed until w e reac h it s simpl e element s (or , i n othe r words , th e smallest part s o f th e whol e whic h i t constitutes) , s o w e mus t also conside r analyticall y th e element s o f whic h a cit y i s composed. W e shal l then gai n a bette r insigh t int o th e way in which thes e diffe r fro m on e another; an d w e shall also b e in a position t o discove r whether ther e i s any kin d o f expertis e t o be acquired i n connection wit h the matters under discussion.

CHAPTER 2

To distinguish the different forms of association we must trace the development successively of the association of the household, that o f th e village, an d that o f th e city o r polis . Th e polis , o r political association, is the crown: it completes and fulfils the nature of man: it is thus natural to him, and he is himself 'naturally a polis-animal'; it is also prior to him, in the sense that it is the presupposition of his true and full life.

1252*24 I n this , a s i n othe r fields, we shall b e abl e t o stud y our subjec t bes t i f w e begi n a t th e beginnin g an d conside r things i n th e proces s o f their growth. * Firs t o f all , there mus t necessarily b e a unio n o r pairin g o f thos e wh o canno t exis t without on e another . Mal e an d femal e mus t unit e fo r th e reproduction o f the species—not from deliberat e intention, but from th e natural impulse, which exists in animals generally as it also exist s i n plants , t o leav e behin d the m somethin g o f th e same natur e a s themselves . Next, ther e mus t necessaril y be a union of the naturally ruling element with the element which is naturally ruled , fo r th e preservatio n o f both . Th e elemen t which i s able , b y virtu e o f it s intelligence , t o exercis e fore- thought, i s naturally a ruling and maste r element ; the element which i s able, by virtue of its bodily power, to d o th e physica l work, is a ruled element, which is naturally in a state of slavery; and master and slave have accordingly a common interest.

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gh ts r es er ve d. M ay n ot b e re pr od uc ed i n an y fo rm w it ho ut p er mi ss io n fr om t he p

ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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P O L I T I C S 1 . 2 9

I252b2 Th e femal e and th e slav e are naturall y distinguished from on e another . Natur e make s nothin g i n a miserl y spirit, as smith s d o whe n the y mak e th e Delphi c knife * t o serv e a number o f purposes : sh e make s eac h separat e thin g fo r a separate end ; an d sh e does s o because th e instrumen t i s most perfectly mad e whe n i t serve s a singl e purpos e an d no t a variety o f purposes . Amon g barbarians , however , th e femal e and th e slav e occup y th e sam e position*—th e reaso n bein g that n o naturall y rulin g elemen t exist s amon g them , an d conjugal unio n thu s comes to be a union of a female who is a slave wit h a mal e wh o i s als o a slave . Thi s i s wh y ou r poet s have said,

Meet it is that barbarous peoples should be governed by the Greeks*

the assumptio n bein g tha t barbaria n an d slav e ar e b y natur e one and the same.

The firs t resul t o f thes e tw o elementar y association s i s th e household o r family . Hesio d spok e truly in the verse,

First house, and wife , and ox to draw the plough,*

for oxe n serv e th e poo r i n lie u o f househol d slaves . The firs t form o f association naturall y institute d fo r th e satisfactio n of daily recurren t need s i s thu s th e family ; and th e member s o f the famil y ar e accordingl y terme d b y Charonda s 'associate s of th e breadchest' , a s the y ar e als o terme d b y Epimenides * the Cretan 'associate s of the manger'. I252bi7 Th e nex t for m o f association—whic h i s als o th e

first t o b e forme d fro m mor e household s tha n one , an d fo r the satisfactio n o f somethin g mor e tha n dail y recurren t need s —is th e village . The mos t natura l for m o f the villag e appears to b e that o f a colony [o r offshoot] from a family; * an d som e have thu s calle d th e member s o f th e villag e b y th e nam e o f 'sucklings o f th e sam e milk' , or , again , o f 'son s an d th e son s of sons' . This , i t ma y b e noted , i s the reaso n wh y citie s were originally ruled , a s th e people s o f th e barbaria n worl d stil l are, b y kings . They wer e forme d of peopl e wh o wer e alread y monarchically governed , for ever y household i s monarchically governed b y th e eldes t o f th e kin , just a s villages , whe n they are offshoot s fro m th e household , ar e similarl y governed i n

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ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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10 P O L I T I C S I . 2

virtue o f th e kinshi p betwee n thei r members . Thi s i s wha t Homer describes:

Each of them ruleth Over his children and wives, *

a passag e whic h shows that the y lived in scattere d groups, a s indeed me n generall y di d i n ancien t times . Th e fac t tha t me n generally wer e governe d b y king s i n ancien t times , an d tha t some stil l continue t o b e governe d i n tha t way , is the reaso n that lead s everyon e to sa y that th e god s ar e als o governe d by a king . Peopl e mak e th e live s o f th e god s i n th e likenes s of their own—as they also make their shapes . I252b27 Whe n w e com e t o th e fina l an d perfec t

association,* forme d fro m a numbe r o f villages , w e hav e already reache d th e cit y [o r polis]. Thi s ma y b e sai d t o hav e reached th e heigh t o f ful l self-sufficiency; * o r rathe r w e ma y say that whil e it comes into existenc e for th e sak e of mere life , it exists for th e sak e of a good life. * Fo r thi s reason ever y city exists b y nature, * jus t a s di d th e earlie r association s [fro m which i t grew] . I t i s the en d o r consummatio n t o whic h those associations move , an d th e 'nature ' o f thing s consists i n thei r end o r consummation; fo r wha t each thin g is when it s growth is completed w e call th e natur e o f tha t thing , whethe r it b e a man o r a hors e o r a family . Agai n th e end , o r fina l cause , i s the best and self-sufficienc y i s both th e end, and the best. I253a2 Fro m thes e consideration s i t i s evident tha t th e cit y

belongs t o th e clas s o f thing s tha t exis t b y nature , an d tha t man i s b y natur e a politica l animal. * H e wh o i s withou t a city, by reason o f his own nature an d no t o f some accident, i s either a poor sor t o f being, or a bein g higher tha n man : h e is like the man o f whom Homer wrot e in denunciation:

Clanless and lawles s and hearthles s is he.* The man who is such by nature a t once plunges into a passio n of war ; he i s in the positio n o f a solitar y advance d piec e i n a game of draughts.

1253*7 I t i s thu s clea r tha t ma n i s a politica l animal , i n a higher degre e tha n bee s or othe r gregariou s animals . Nature , according t o ou r theory , make s nothin g i n vain ; an d ma n

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gh ts r es er ve d. M ay n ot b e re pr od uc ed i n an y fo rm w it ho ut p er mi ss io n fr om t he p

ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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P O L I T I C S 1 . 2 I I

alone o f the animal s i s furnished wit h the facult y of language. The mer e makin g o f sound s serve s t o indicat e pleasur e an d pain, an d i s thus a facult y tha t belong s t o animal s i n general: their natur e enable s the m t o attai n th e poin t a t whic h the y have perception s o f pleasur e an d pain , an d ca n signif y thos e perceptions t o on e another . Bu t languag e serve s t o declar e what i s advantageou s an d wha t i s th e reverse , an d i t i s th e peculiarity o f man, i n comparison wit h othe r animals , tha t he alone possesse s a perception o f good an d evil , o f the just an d the unjust , and othe r simila r qualities ; and i t i s association i n these things which makes a family an d a city. I253ai8 W e may no w procee d t o ad d tha t th e cit y i s prio r

in th e orde r o f natur e t o th e famil y an d th e individual . Th e reason fo r thi s i s tha t th e whol e i s necessaril y prio r t o th e part.* I f th e whol e bod y i s destroyed , ther e wil l no t b e a foot o r a hand , excep t i n tha t ambiguou s sens e i n whic h one use s th e sam e wor d t o indicat e a differen t thing , a s when on e speak s o f a 'hand ' mad e o f stone ; fo r a hand , when destroye d [b y th e destructio n o f th e whol e body] , wil l be n o bette r tha n a ston e 'hand'. * Al l thing s deriv e thei r essential characte r fro m thei r functio n an d thei r capacity ; and i t follow s tha t i f the y ar e n o longe r fi t t o discharg e their function , w e ough t no t t o sa y tha t the y ar e stil l th e same things , bu t onl y that , b y a n ambiguity , the y stil l hav e the same names .

1253*25 W e thus se e that th e city exists by nature and tha t i t is prio r t o th e individual. * Fo r i f th e individua l i s no t self - sufficient whe n he is isolated h e will stand i n the sam e relation to th e whole as other part s d o t o thei r wholes . The man who is isolated , wh o i s unable t o shar e i n th e benefit s o f politica l association, or has no need t o share because h e is already self - sufficient, i s no part o f the city, and mus t therefor e be either a beast o r a god. Ther e is therefore a natural impuls e in all men towards a n associatio n o f thi s sort . Bu t th e ma n wh o firs t constructed suc h an association* was none the less the greatest of benefactors . Man , whe n perfected , i s th e bes t o f animals ; but i f h e b e isolate d fro m la w an d justic e h e i s th e wors t o f all. Injustic e i s al l th e grave r whe n i t i s arme d injustice ; an d man i s furnished fro m birt h wit h weapons which are intended

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gh ts r es er ve d. M ay n ot b e re pr od uc ed i n an y fo rm w it ho ut p er mi ss io n fr om t he p

ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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12 P O L I T I C S I . 2

to serv e th e purpose s o f wisdo m an d goodness, * bu t whic h may b e use d i n preferenc e fo r opposit e ends . Tha t i s why, if he b e without goodnes s [o f mind an d character] , h e is a mos t unholy an d savag e being , an d wors e tha n al l other s i n th e indulgence o f lus t an d gluttony . The virtu e of justice belong s to the city; for justice is an ordering of the political association, and th e virtu e o f justice consist s i n the determinatio n o f what is just.

B: The Association of the Household and its Different Factors (Chapters 3-13)

C H A P T E R 3 I. The constituent elements of the household. The three relations of master and slave, husband and wife, parent and child. The fourth element of 'acquisition '.

I253bi Havin g ascertained, fro m th e previous analysis, what are the element s of which the cit y is constituted, w e must first consider th e managemen t o f th e household ; fo r ever y city i s composed o f households. Th e parts o f household management will correspon d t o th e part s o f whic h th e househol d itsel f is constituted. A complet e househol d consist s o f slave s an d freemen. Bu t ever y subject of inquiry should first be examined in its simplest elements; and th e primary and simples t elements of th e househol d ar e th e connectio n o f master an d slave , that of th e husban d an d wife , an d tha t o f parent s an d children . We mus t accordingl y conside r eac h o f thes e connections , examining th e natur e o f eac h an d th e qualitie s i t ough t t o possess. Th e factor s t o b e examine d ar e therefore three : first, the relationshi p of master an d slave ; next, what ma y be called the marita l relationshi p (fo r ther e i s no wor d i n ou r languag e which exactl y describe s th e unio n o f husban d an d wife) ; an d lastly, wha t ma y b e calle d th e parenta l relationship , whic h again ha s n o singl e wor d i n ou r languag e peculia r t o itself . But beside s th e thre e factor s whic h thu s presen t themselve s for examinatio n ther e i s also a fourth , whic h som e regar d a s identical with the whole of household management, and other s

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ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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P O L I T I C S 1 . 4 1 3

as it s principa l part . Thi s i s th e elemen t calle d 'th e ar t o f acquisition';* and we shall have to consider it s nature. I253bi4 W e ma y firs t spea k o f maste r an d slave , partl y i n

order t o gathe r lesson s bearing o n th e necessitie s o f practica l life, an d partl y in order t o discove r whether we can attai n an y view, superio r to thos e now generall y held, whic h is likely to promote a n understanding of the subject . There ar e some who hold tha t th e exercis e o f authorit y ove r slave s i s a kin d o f knowledge. The y believ e (a s w e sai d i n th e beginning) * tha t household management , slav e ownership, statesmanship, an d kingship ar e al l th e same . Ther e ar e others , however , wh o regard the control of slaves by a master as contrary to nature . In thei r vie w th e distinctio n o f master an d slav e is due t o la w or convention ; there i s no natura l differenc e betwee n them: * the relatio n o f master an d slav e is based o n force , an d s o ha s no warrant in justice.

C H A P T E R 4

2. Slavery. The instruments of the household form its stock of property: they are animate and inanimate: the slave is an animate instrument, intended (like all the instruments of the household) for action, and not for production.

I253b23 Propert y i s par t o f th e househol d an d th e ar t o f acquiring property i s part o f household management , fo r i t is impossible t o liv e well , o r indee d a t all , unles s th e necessar y conditions ar e present. Thu s the same holds true in the sphere of househol d managemen t a s i n th e specialize d arts : eac h must b e furnishe d wit h it s appropriat e instrument s i f it s function i s t o b e fulfilled . Instrument s ar e partl y inanimat e and partly animate:* the steersman of a ship, for instance , has an inanimate instrument i n the rudder, and a n animate instru- ment i n th e look-ou t ma n (fo r i n th e art s a subordinat e i s of the natur e o f a n instrument) . Eac h articl e o f propert y i s thu s an instrumen t fo r th e purpos e o f life , propert y i n genera l i s a quantity of such instruments, the slave is an animate article of property, an d subordinates , o r servants , i n genera l ma y b e described a s instruments which are prior t o othe r instruments.

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14 P O L I T I C S I . 4

We ca n imagin e a situatio n i n whic h eac h instrumen t coul d do it s ow n work , a t th e wor d o f comman d o r b y intelligent anticipation, lik e the statue s o f Daedalus o r th e tripods mad e by Hephaestus, o f which the poet relate s tha t

Of their own motion they entered the conclave of Gods on Olympus.*

A shuttl e woul d the n weav e o f itself , an d a plectru m woul d do it s ow n harp-playing . I n thi s situatio n manager s woul d not nee d subordinates an d masters would not nee d slaves. I254ai The instruments of which we have just been speaking

are instrument s o f production; bu t propert y i s an instrument of action. * Fro m th e shuttl e ther e issue s somethin g whic h i s different, an d exist s apart, fro m th e immediat e ac t o f it s use; but fro m garment s o r bed s ther e come s onl y th e on e fac t o f their use . W e may ad d that , sinc e productio n an d actio n ar e different i n kind , an d bot h o f the m nee d instruments , thos e instruments mus t als o sho w a correspondin g difference . Lif e is actio n an d no t production ; an d therefor e th e slav e i s a servant in the sphere of action . I254a8 Th e ter m 'articl e o f property ' i s use d i n th e sam e

way i n which the ter m 'part ' is also used. A part i s not onl y a part o f somethin g other tha n itself : it als o belong s entirel y t o that othe r thing . I t i s th e sam e wit h a n articl e o f property . Accordingly, whil e th e maste r i s merel y th e maste r o f th e slave, an d doe s no t belon g t o him , th e slav e i s not onl y th e slave of his master; he also belongs entirely to him. I254ai3 Fro m thes e consideration s w e can se e clearly what

is th e natur e o f th e slav e an d wha t i s hi s capacity : anybod y who b y his nature is not hi s own man, bu t another's , i s by his nature a slave ; anybod y who , bein g a man , i s a n articl e o f property i s another's man ; a n articl e o f property i s an instru- ment intende d fo r th e purpos e o f actio n an d separabl e fro m its possessor.

C H A P T E R 5

There is a principle of rule and subordination in nature at large: it appears especially in the realm of animate creation. By virtue

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P O L I T I C S I . 5 1 5

of that principle, the soul rules the body; and by virtue of it the master, who possesses the rational faculty of the soul, rules the slave, who possesses only bodily powers and the faculty of understanding the directions given by another's reason. But nature, though she intends, does not always succeed in achieving a clear distinction between men born to be masters and men born to be slaves.

1254*17 W e have nex t to conside r whethe r ther e are , o r ar e not, som e peopl e wh o ar e b y nature suc h a s are her e defined ; whether, in othe r words , ther e are som e peopl e for who m slavery is the bette r an d just condition , o r whether the reverse is th e cas e an d al l slaver y i s contrary t o nature. * Th e issu e is not difficult , whethe r w e stud y i t philosophicall y i n th e ligh t of reason , o r conside r i t empirically o n th e basi s o f the actua l facts. Th e relatio n o f rule r an d rule d i s on e o f thos e thing s which ar e no t onl y necessary , bu t als o beneficial ; an d ther e are specie s in whic h a distinctio n i s already marked , immedi- ately a t birth , betwee n thos e o f its members who are intende d for bein g rule d an d thos e wh o are intended t o rule . There ar e also many kinds both o f ruling and ruled elements. (Moreover the rul e which is exercised ove r th e bette r sor t o f subjects is a better sor t o f rule—as, for example, rul e exercised over a ma n is better tha n rul e over a n animal. The reason i s that th e value of somethin g whic h i s produce d increase s wit h th e valu e o f those contributin g t o it ; and wher e one element rules an d th e other i s ruled, ther e is something whic h they jointly produce. ) In al l case s wher e ther e i s a compound , constitute d o f mor e than on e par t bu t formin g on e commo n entity , whethe r th e parts b e continuous o r discrete , a rulin g elemen t an d a rule d can alway s be traced. This characteristi c i s present i n animat e beings b y virtu e o f th e whol e constitution o f nature; fo r even in things which are inanimate there is a sort o f ruling principle, such a s i s to b e found , fo r example , i n a musica l harmony. * But suc h consideration s perhap s belon g t o a mor e popula r method o f inquiry ; an d w e ma y conten t ourselve s her e wit h saying that animat e being s are composed, i n the first place, o f soul an d body , with the former naturally rulin g and th e latte r naturally ruled . When investigating the natural stat e o f things,

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16 P O L I T I C S I . 5

we mus t fi x ou r attention , no t o n thos e whic h ar e i n a corrupt, bu t o n thos e whic h ar e i n a natura l condition. * I t follows tha t we must conside r the man who is in the best stat e both o f bod y an d soul , an d i n who m th e rul e o f sou l ove r body i s accordingl y evident ; for wit h viciou s peopl e o r thos e in a viciou s condition , th e revers e woul d ofte n appea r t o b e true—the bod y rulin g th e sou l a s th e resul t o f thei r evi l an d unnatural condition .

I254b2 I t i s possible , a s w e hav e said , t o observ e firs t i n animate being s the presence o f a ruling authority, bot h o f the sort exercised b y a master over slaves and o f the sort exercised by a statesma n ove r fello w citizens . Th e sou l rule s th e bod y with th e authorit y o f a master : reaso n rule s th e appetit e wit h the authorit y o f a statesma n o r a monarch.* I n thi s spher e it is clearly natura l an d beneficia l t o th e bod y tha t i t shoul d b e ruled b y the soul , an d agai n i t is natural an d beneficia l t o th e affective par t of the sou l tha t it should be ruled by the reaso n and th e rationa l part ; wherea s th e equalit y o f th e tw o ele - ments, o r thei r revers e relation , i s alway s detrimental . Th e same principl e i s true o f the relation o f man t o othe r animals . Tame animal s hav e a bette r natur e tha n wild , and i t i s better for al l such animal s that the y shoul d be ruled b y man becaus e they the n ge t th e benefi t o f preservation . Again , th e relatio n of mal e t o femal e i s naturall y tha t o f th e superio r t o th e inferior, o f the ruling to th e ruled. This genera l principl e must similarly hold goo d o f all human beings generally. I254bi6 W e may thus conclude that al l men who diffe r fro m

others a s muc h a s th e bod y differ s fro m th e soul , o r a n animal fro m a ma n (an d thi s i s th e cas e wit h al l whos e function is bodil y service , and who produc e thei r bes t whe n they suppl y suc h service)—al l suc h ar e b y natur e slaves . I n their case , a s i n th e othe r case s just mentioned , it i s better t o be rule d b y a master. Someon e i s thus a slav e by nature i f he is capabl e o f becomin g th e propert y o f anothe r (an d fo r thi s reason doe s actuall y becom e another' s property ) an d i f h e participates i n reaso n t o th e exten t o f apprehendin g i t i n another, thoug h destitut e o f it himself . Othe r animal s d o no t apprehend reason * bu t obe y thei r instincts . Even s o ther e i s little divergence in the way they are used; both of them (slaves

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P O L I T I C S I . 6 1 7

and tam e animals ) provid e bodil y assistanc e i n satisfyin g essential needs.

I254b27 I t is nature's intentio n also to erect a physical differ - ence betwee n th e bodie s o f freeme n an d thos e o f th e slaves , giving th e latte r strengt h fo r th e menia l dutie s o f life , bu t making the former upright i n carriage an d (thoug h useles s for physical labour) usefu l fo r the various purposes o f civic life—a life whic h tends , a s i t develops , t o b e divide d int o militar y service and th e occupations o f peace. Th e contrary o f nature's intention, however , ofte n happens: ther e ar e som e slave s who have th e bodie s o f freemen , a s ther e ar e other s wh o hav e a freeman's soul . But , i f ther e wer e me n wh o wer e a s distin - guished in their bodies alon e a s are th e statue s o f the gods, all would agre e tha t th e other s shoul d b e thei r slaves. * An d i f this i s true whe n th e differenc e i s one o f th e body , i t ma y b e affirmed wit h still greater justice whe n the differenc e i s one o f the soul ; though i t i s not a s easy to se e the beaut y of th e sou l as it is to se e that of the body. I254b39 I t i s thus clear that , just a s some are by nature free ,

so other s are by natur e slaves , and for thes e latte r the condi - tion of slavery is both beneficial and just.

C H A P T E R 6

Legal or conventional slavery: the divergence of views about its justice, and the reason for this divergence. In spite of the divergence, there is a general consensus—though it is not clearly formulated—that superiority in goodness justifies the owning and controlling of slaves. Granted such superiority in the master, slavery is a beneficial and just system.

I255a3 Bu t it is easy to se e that thos e who hold a n opposite view ar e als o i n a wa y correct. 'Slavery ' an d 'slave ' ar e term s which ar e use d i n two differen t senses ; for ther e i s also a kind of slave , and o f slavery, which owes its existence to law . (Th e law i n questio n i s a kin d o f understandin g tha t thos e van - quished i n war are held to belon g t o th e victors.) Tha t slaver y can b e justifie d b y suc h a conventio n i s a principl e agains t which a number of jurists bring an 'indictment of illegality',* as

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l8 P O L I T I C S I . 6

one might against a n orator. They regar d it as a detestable no - tion tha t someon e wh o i s subjugated b y forc e shoul d becom e the slave and subjec t of one who has the capacity t o subjugat e him, an d i s his superio r i n power . Eve n amon g me n o f judge- ment ther e ar e som e wh o accep t thi s an d som e wh o d o not . The caus e o f thi s divergenc e o f view, an d th e reaso n wh y th e opposing contention s overla p on e another , i s t o b e foun d i n the followin g consideration. Ther e i s a sens e i n whic h goo d qualities, whe n the y ar e furnishe d wit h th e righ t resources , have th e greates t powe r t o subjugate ; an d a victo r i s always pre-eminent i n respec t o f som e sor t o f good . I t thu s appear s that 'powe r never goes without good qualities' ; and the dispute between th e tw o side s thu s come s t o tur n exclusivel y on th e point of justice.* (In this matter som e think that being just con- sists in goodwill* while others hol d that the rule of the stronger is in itself justice.) If these different position s ar e distinguishe d from on e another, n o other argumen t has any cogency, or even plausibility, agains t th e vie w tha t on e wh o i s superio r i n goodness ough t to rule over, and be the master of, his inferiors. I255a2i Ther e ar e som e who , clinging , a s the y think , t o a

sort o f justice (fo r law is a sort o f justice), assum e that slavery in wa r i s just. Simultaneously , however , the y contradic t tha t assumption; fo r i n the first place i t is possible tha t th e origina l cause o f a wa r ma y no t b e just, an d i n th e secon d plac e n o one woul d eve r sa y that someon e wh o doe s no t deserv e to b e in a conditio n o f slaver y is really a slave . I f suc h a vie w were accepted, th e resul t woul d b e tha t me n repute d t o b e o f th e highest ran k woul d b e turne d int o slave s o r th e childre n o f slaves, i f they [o r their parents ] happene d t o b e captured an d sold int o slavery . Thi s i s the reaso n wh y the y d o no t lik e t o call suc h peopl e slaves , bu t prefe r t o confin e th e ter m t o barbarians. Bu t b y thi s us e o f term s the y are , i n reality , onl y seeking t o expres s tha t sam e ide a o f th e natura l slav e whic h we bega n b y mentioning. The y ar e driven , in effect , t o admi t that ther e ar e som e wh o ar e everywher e slaves , an d other s who ar e everywher e free. Th e sam e line of thought i s followed in regar d t o goo d birth . Greek s regar d themselve s a s wel l born no t onl y i n thei r ow n country, bu t absolutel y an d i n all places; bu t the y regar d barbarian s a s wel l bor n onl y i n thei r

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P O L I T f C S I . 7 1 9

own country—thu s assumin g tha t ther e i s on e sor t o f goo d birth an d freedo m whic h i s absolute , an d anothe r whic h i s only relative . We are reminde d of what Helen say s in the pla y of Theodectes:*

Scion of Gods, by both descent alike, Who would presume to call me serving-maid?

When the y us e suc h term s a s these , me n ar e usin g th e on e criterion o f th e presence , o r absence , o f goodnes s fo r th e purpose o f distinguishing between slave and freeman, or again, between th e well-bor n an d th e low-born . The y ar e claimin g that just a s ma n i s born o f man , an d anima l o f animal , s o a good ma n i s born o f good men . It i s often th e case , however, that nature wishes but fail s to achieve this result.* I255b4 I t i s thu s clea r tha t ther e i s som e reaso n fo r th e

divergence o f vie w whic h ha s bee n discussed—i t i s no t tru e that th e on e grou p ar e natura l slave s an d th e othe r natura l freemen. I t i s als o clea r tha t ther e ar e case s wher e suc h a distinction exists , an d tha t her e i t i s beneficia l an d jus t tha t the forme r shoul d actuall y b e a slav e and th e latte r a maste r —the on e bein g ruled , an d th e othe r exercisin g th e kin d o f rule for whic h he is naturally intended an d therefor e acting as master. Bu t a wrong exercise of his rule by a master i s a thing which i s disadvantageous fo r bot h maste r an d slave . The part and th e whole , lik e th e bod y an d th e soul , hav e a n identica l interest; an d th e slav e is a par t o f th e master , i n th e sens e of being a livin g but separat e par t o f hi s body . Ther e i s thu s a community o f interest , an d a relatio n o f friendship , between master an d slave , whe n bot h o f them naturall y meri t th e position i n whic h the y stand . Bu t th e revers e i s true , whe n matters ar e otherwis e an d slaver y rest s merel y on lega l sanc - tion and superior power.

C H A P T E R 7

The training of slaves, and the art of using them properly. How they may be justly acquired.

I255bi6 Th e argumen t make s i t clea r tha t th e rul e o f th e master an d tha t o f th e statesma n ar e differen t fro m on e

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ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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20 P O L I T I C S I . 7

another, an d tha t i t i s not th e cas e tha t al l kind s o f rul e are , as some thinkers hold, identical.* One kind of rule is exercised over thos e wh o ar e naturall y free ; th e othe r ove r slaves ; an d again th e rule exercised over a household by its head i s that of a monarc h (fo r al l household s ar e monarchicall y governed) , while th e rul e o f th e statesma n i s rul e ove r freeme n an d equals. No w master s ar e no t s o terme d i n virtu e o f an y knowledge whic h the y hav e acquired , bu t i n virtu e o f thei r own endowment ; an d th e sam e i s tru e o f slave s an d freeme n generally. Bu t ther e ma y b e a kin d o f knowledg e whic h belongs t o masters , an d anothe r whic h belongs t o slaves ; an d the latte r woul d b e o f th e natur e o f th e knowledg e taught b y the ma n o f Syracuse , wh o instructe d servant s fo r pa y i n th e discharge o f their ordinar y duties. Instruction i n such subjects might b e extende d further : i t migh t include , fo r example , th e art o f cooker y an d othe r simila r form s o f skille d domesti c service. Th e reaso n wh y this migh t be don e i s that th e dutie s differ; som e ar e o f a highe r standing , eve n i f other s ar e needed more. As the proverb says:

Slave may go before slave , and maste r may go before master. *

All suc h form s o f knowledg e ar e necessaril y o f a servil e character. Bu t ther e i s also a for m o f knowledge belonging t o the master , whic h consist s i n th e us e o f slaves : a maste r i s such i n virtu e no t o f acquiring , bu t o f usin g slaves . Thi s knowledge belonging to th e master i s something which has no great o r majestic character: th e master must simply know how to comman d wha t th e slav e mus t kno w ho w t o do . Thi s i s why those who are in a position t o escape fro m bein g troubled by i t delegat e th e managemen t o f slave s t o a steward , an d spend o n politics o r philosophy th e time the y are thus abl e t o save. Th e ar t o f acquirin g slave s fo r ownershi p differ s bot h from th e ar t o f bein g a maste r an d fro m tha t o f bein g a slave—that i s t o say , whe n i t i s justly practised ; fo r i n tha t case i t i s a particula r for m o f th e ar t o f war , o r o f th e ar t o f hunting. I255b39 Thi s shoul d b e a n adequat e accoun t o f th e distinc-

tion between master and slave .C op yr ig

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P O L I T I C S I . 8 2 1

CHAPTER 8 5. Property an d th e ar t o f acquisition. Th e ar t o f household management is distinct from that of acquisition. It has to provide a stock of requisites for the household; and the different methods by which this is done produce different ways of life —the hunting, the pastoral, the agricultural, and so forth. Nature intends and provides the requisites for household use; and the acquisition of such requisites is a natural mode of acquisition. Property in them is limited to the amount required by household needs; and it is the nature of all true wealth to be so limited.

i256ai W e ma y no w stud y generall y al l form s o f propert y and the art o f acquiring it,* following our norma l method; fo r we hav e alread y see n tha t th e slav e is a n articl e o f property . The firs t proble m whic h ma y b e raise d i s whethe r th e ar t o f acquiring property i s identical with that of household manage- ment, o r i s a part o f it, o r i s ancillary t o it ; an d whether , if it is ancillary , i t i s s o i n th e sens e i n whic h th e ar t o f makin g shuttles i s ancillar y t o th e ar t o f weaving , o r i n th e sens e i n which th e ar t o f castin g bronz e i s ancillar y t o th e ar t o f sculpture. Thes e ar e ancillar y i n a differen t way ; th e on e provides instruments , an d th e othe r th e material . (B y 'mate- rial' we mean th e substanc e fro m whic h a product i s made; a s wool, for instance, serves the weaver; and bronze the sculptor. ) That th e ar t o f househol d managemen t i s no t identica l wit h the ar t o f acquirin g propert y i s obvious. I t i s the functio n of the latte r simpl y t o provide , bu t i t i s th e functio n o f th e former t o us e what ha s bee n provided ; fo r wha t ar t ca n ther e be, othe r tha n tha t o f househol d management , whic h will use the resource s o f th e household ? Bu t th e questio n whethe r th e art o f acquisition i s a part of it, or a separat e art altogether , is one whic h admits o f a divergence of views. If someone who is engaged i n acquisitio n ha s t o conside r fro m wha t differen t sources h e ca n ge t goods an d property , an d i f propert y an d wealth includ e man y differen t parts , w e shal l firs t hav e t o consider whether farming is a part of the art o f acquisition, o r a separat e art : indee d w e shal l hav e t o as k tha t questio n

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22 P O L I T I C S I . 8

generally, i n regar d t o al l mode s o f occupatio n an d gai n which ar e concerne d wit h the provisio n o f subsistence . Ther e are a number o f different mode s o f subsistence; and th e result is a number o f differen t way s of life , amon g both animal s an d human beings . It is impossibl e to liv e withou t mean s of subsistence; and amon g th e animals we may notice tha t differ - ences i n th e mean s o f subsistenc e have produce d consequen t differences i n way s o f life . Som e wil d animal s liv e i n herds , and other s ar e scattere d i n isolation, accordin g a s they find it convenient fo r th e purpos e o f gettin g subsistence—som e o f them bein g carnivorous , som e herbivorous , an d some , again , omnivorous. Natur e ha s thu s distinguishe d thei r way s of life , with a vie w t o thei r greate r comfor t an d thei r bette r attain - ment o f thes e things : indeed , a s th e sam e sor t o f foo d i s no t naturally agreeabl e t o al l th e member s o f a class , an d a s different sort s sui t differen t species , ther e ar e als o differen t ways of life eve n within the class of carnivorous animals—an d equally i n tha t o f th e herbivorous . Th e sam e i s als o tru e o f men. Thei r way s o f lif e als o diffe r considerably . Th e mos t indolent ar e th e pastoral nomads. The y acquir e a subsistenc e from domesti c animals , a t thei r leisure , an d withou t an y trouble; an d a s i t i s necessary for thei r flocks to mov e fo r th e sake o f pasturage , the y als o ar e force d t o follo w an d t o cultivate wha t ma y b e calle d a livin g farm . Ther e ar e other s who liv e b y hunting ; an d o f these , again , ther e ar e differen t kinds, accordin g t o thei r differen t mode s o f hunting . Som e live b y bein g freebooters; * some , wh o liv e nea r lake s an d marshes an d rivers , o r b y a se a whic h i s suitabl e fo r th e purpose, gai n a livelihoo d b y fishing ; other s liv e b y huntin g birds o r wil d animals . Mos t o f mankind , however , deriv e their livelihood fro m th e soil, and fro m cultivate d plants . I256a40 Th e differen t way s o f lif e (a t an y rat e i f w e tak e

into accoun t onl y those wh o follo w a n occupatio n dependen t on thei r ow n labours , an d d o no t provid e themselve s wit h subsistence b y exchang e an d pett y trade ) ma y b e roughl y classified a s pastoral, freebooting , fishing, hunting, and farm - ing. Bu t ther e ar e som e wh o liv e comfortably b y mean s o f a combination o f differen t methods , an d wh o supplemen t th e shortcomings o f on e wa y o f life , whe n it tend s t o fal l shor t o f

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P O L I T I C S I . 8 2 3

being sufficien t i n itself , b y addin g som e othe r way . Fo r example, som e combin e th e pastora l wa y o f lif e wit h th e freebooting; other s combine farming with hunting; and similar combinations ma y b e mad e o f othe r way s o f life ; a s nee d impels people so they shape their lives. I256b7 Thi s kin d o f capacit y fo r acquisitio n i s evidentl y

given b y natur e t o al l livin g beings, fro m th e momen t whe n they ar e firs t bor n t o th e day s whe n their growt h i s finished. There ar e animal s which , whe n thei r offsprin g i s born, brin g forth alon g wit h i t foo d enoug h t o suppor t i t unti l i t ca n provide fo r itself : this i s the cas e wit h those whic h reproduc e themselves b y grubs , an d wit h animal s whic h d o s o b y eggs. Animals which ar e viviparous have foo d fo r thei r offsprin g i n themselves, fo r a certai n time , o f th e natur e o f wha t i s called milk. I256bi5 Likewis e we must evidently believe that simila r pro-

vision i s mad e fo r adults . Plant s exis t fo r th e benefi t o f animals, an d som e animal s exis t fo r th e benefi t o f others. * Those whic h ar e domesticated , serv e huma n being s fo r us e as wel l a s fo r food ; wil d animals , too , i n mos t case s i f no t i n all, serv e t o furnis h u s no t onl y wit h food , bu t als o wit h other kind s o f assistance , suc h a s th e provisio n o f clothin g and simila r aid s t o life . Accordingly , i f nature make s nothin g purposeless o r i n vain , al l animal s mus t hav e bee n mad e b y nature fo r th e sak e o f men . I t als o follow s tha t th e ar t o f war i s in som e sens e a natura l mod e o f acquisition . Huntin g is a par t o f tha t art ; an d huntin g ough t t o b e practised , no t only agains t wil d animals , bu t als o agains t huma n being s who ar e intende d b y natur e t o b e rule d b y other s an d refus e to obe y tha t intention , becaus e thi s sor t o f wa r i s naturall y just.

I256b26 I t follow s tha t on e for m o f acquisitio n i s naturally a par t o f th e ar t o f household management , i n th e sens e that the manage r of a househol d mus t eithe r hav e availabl e or ensure the availability of a supply of objects which are capabl e of bein g stored an d ar e eithe r necessar y fo r lif e o r usefu l t o the associatio n o f th e cit y \polis] o r th e household . Thes e ar e the objects which may be regarded a s constituting true wealth, for th e amoun t o f househol d propert y whic h suffice s fo r a

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ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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24 P O L I T I C S I . 8

good lif e i s no t unlimited , no r o f th e natur e describe d b y Solon* in the verse,

There i s no bound to wealth stand s fixed for men.

There i s a boun d fixed , a s i s als o th e cas e i n th e mean s required b y th e othe r arts . Al l th e instrument s neede d b y al l the arts are limited, both i n number an d size , and wealt h may be defined a s a number o f instruments use d in a household o r city.

T256b37 I t i s thu s clea r tha t ther e i s a natura l ar t o f acquisition* whic h has t o b e practised b y managers o f house- holds an d statesmen ; an d th e reaso n fo r it s existenc e i s als o clear.

C H A P T E R 9 The 'art of acquisition ', as a way of acquiring property distinct from the natural way of the household. It originates in exchange, when exchange is conducted through the medium of currency and for profit. The view thus arises that the art of acquisition is specially concerned with accumulating a fund of currency. But there is a contrary view that currency is a mere convention, and not the true object of the art of acquisition. This contrary view has its truth. There is a natural form of the art of acquisition, which is not distinct from, but a part of, the art of household management. This natural form of acquisition aims at the accumulation not of currency, but of true wealth—and therefore not at the infinite, but at the finite.

I2s6b40 Bu t ther e i s a secon d for m o f th e ar t o f gettin g property, whic h i s particularl y called , an d whic h i t i s just t o call, 'th e ar t o f acquisition'. * I t i s thi s secon d for m whic h gives ris e t o th e opinio n tha t ther e i s n o limi t t o wealt h an d property. Ther e ar e many who hold i t to b e identical wit h the other for m previousl y mentioned , becaus e i t ha s affinitie s with it. In fact it is not identical, and yet it is not fa r removed . The othe r for m previousl y mentioned i s natural : thi s secon d form i s not natural , bu t i s rather th e product o f a certain sor t of experience and skill.

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ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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P O L I T I C S I . 9 2 5 I257a5 W e ma y star t ou r discussio n o f thi s [second ] for m

from th e followin g poin t of view. All articles o f property have two possibl e uses. * Bot h o f these use s belong t o th e articl e a s such, bu t the y d o no t belon g to i t in th e sam e manner , o r t o the sam e extent . Th e on e us e i s prope r an d peculia r t o th e article concerned ; th e othe r i s not . A shoe , fo r example , ca n be used both fo r wearing and fo r exchange. Bot h of these uses are use s o f the sho e a s such . Eve n th e ma n wh o exchange s a shoe, i n retur n fo r mone y o r food , wit h someon e who need s the article , i s using the sho e a s a shoe ; bu t sinc e th e sho e ha s not bee n mad e fo r th e purpos e o f bein g exchanged , th e us e which h e i s makin g o f i t i s no t it s prope r an d peculia r use . The sam e i s true o f all othe r article s o f property. Exchang e is possible i n regar d t o the m all : it arise s fro m th e natura l fact s of th e case , an d i s due t o som e men havin g more, an d other s less, tha n suffice s fo r thei r needs . W e ca n thu s se e that retai l trade i s not naturall y a par t o f th e ar t o f acquisition . I f tha t were the case, it would onl y be necessary to practis e exchange to the extent that suffice d fo r the needs of both parties.

1257*19 I n th e firs t for m o f association , whic h i s the house - hold, it is obvious that there is no purpose t o b e served by the art o f exchange. Suc h a purpose onl y emerged when the scop e of associatio n ha d alread y bee n extended . Th e member s o f the househol d ha d share d al l thing s i n common : thos e wh o lived separatel y fro m on e another , ha d a t thei r disposa l a number o f differen t things , whic h the y ha d t o exchang e a s need arose , by way of barter—much as many barbarian tribe s still d o t o thi s day . O n thi s basi s thing s whic h ar e usefu l ar e exchanged themselves , and directly , fo r simila r usefu l things , but th e transaction doe s not g o any further; wine , for instance, is given , o r taken , i n retur n fo r wheat , an d othe r simila r commodities ar e similarl y bartere d fo r on e another . Whe n used i n thi s way , th e ar t o f exchang e i s no t contrar y t o nature, no r i n an y wa y a for m o f th e ar t o f acquisition . Exchange simpl y serves t o satisf y th e natura l requirement s of sufficiency. Non e th e les s i t wa s fro m exchange , a s thu s practised, tha t the art o f acquisition developed, * in the sor t of way w e might reasonabl y expect . Th e suppl y o f men' s need s came t o depen d o n mor e foreig n sources , a s me n bega n t o

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26 P O L I T I C S I . 9

import fo r themselve s wha t the y lacked , an d t o expor t wha t they ha d i n superabundance : an d i n thi s wa y th e us e o f a money currenc y wa s inevitabl y instituted. * Th e reaso n fo r this was that al l the naturally necessar y commoditie s wer e not easily portable ; an d peopl e therefor e agreed , fo r th e purpos e of thei r exchanges , t o giv e an d receiv e som e commodit y which itsel f belonge d t o th e categor y o f usefu l thing s an d possessed th e advantag e o f bein g easil y handle d fo r th e pur - pose o f gettin g th e necessitie s o f life . Suc h commoditie s wer e iron, silver , an d othe r simila r metals . A t firs t thei r valu e wa s simply determine d b y thei r siz e an d weight ; bu t finall y a stamp wa s impose d o n th e meta l which , servin g a s a definit e indication o f th e quantity , woul d sav e peopl e th e troubl e o f determining the value on each occasion . I257a4i Whe n i n thi s wa y a currenc y ha d onc e bee n insti -

tuted, ther e nex t arose , fro m th e necessar y proces s o f ex - change, th e secon d for m o f th e ar t o f acquisition , th e on e which consist s i n retai l trade . A t first , w e may allow , i t wa s perhaps practised i n a simple way: but i n process o f time, an d as th e resul t o f experience , i t wa s practise d wit h a mor e studied technique , whic h sough t t o discove r th e source s fro m which, an d th e methods b y which, the greates t profi t coul d b e made. Th e resul t ha s bee n th e emergenc e o f th e vie w that th e art o f acquisitio n i s speciall y concerne d wit h currency , an d that it s functio n consist s i n a n abilit y t o discove r th e source s from whic h a fun d of mone y can be derived . In suppor t of this vie w it i s urged tha t th e ar t i s one which produces wealt h and money ; indeed thos e who hold th e view often assum e that wealth i s simpl y a fun d o f currency , o n th e groun d tha t th e arts o f acquisitio n an d o f retai l trad e ar e concerne d wit h currency. I n oppositio n t o thi s vie w i t i s sometimes hel d tha t currency i s a sham , an d entirel y a convention . Naturall y an d inherently [th e supporter s o f th e vie w argue ] a currenc y i s a nonentity; for i f those who us e a currency giv e it u p i n favour of another , tha t currenc y is worthless, and useles s for any of the necessar y purpose s o f life . A ma n ric h i n currenc y [the y proceed t o urge ] will ofte n b e at a los s to procur e th e necessi - ties o f subsistence ; an d surel y i t i s absurd tha t a thin g shoul d be counted a s wealth which a man ma y possess in abundance ,

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and ye t non e th e les s di e o f starvation—lik e Midas * i n th e fable, whe n everything set before hi m was turned a t onc e int o gold through th e granting of his own avaricious prayer. I257bi7 Fo r thi s reason som e people see k a different concep -

tion o f wealth an d o f the ar t o f acquisition. The y ar e righ t t o do so . Th e natura l for m o f th e ar t o f acquisition , lik e th e natural for m o f wealth , i s somethin g different. * I t i s part o f the managemen t o f th e househol d whil e retail trad e serve s t o make money , an d tha t onl y b y th e exchang e o f commodities . The latte r ma y b e see n a s concerne d wit h currency ; fo r cur - rency is both a basic unit and a limiting factor in exchange. I257b23 A furthe r poin t o f differenc e i s tha t th e wealt h

produced b y thi s [second ] for m o f th e ar t o f acquisitio n i s unlimited.* The ar t o f medicine recognize s n o limi t i n respec t of th e productio n o f health , an d th e art s generall y admi t n o limit i n respec t o f th e productio n o f thei r end s (eac h seekin g to produc e it s en d t o th e greates t possible extent)—thoug h medicine, an d th e art s generally , recogniz e an d practis e a limit t o th e mean s the y use to attai n thei r ends , sinc e th e en d itself constitute s a limit. * Th e sam e i s tru e o f th e retai l for m of th e ar t o f acquisition . Ther e i s no limi t t o th e en d i t seeks; and th e en d i t seek s i s wealth o f th e sor t w e have mentione d and th e mer e acquisitio n o f money. Bu t th e ar t o f househol d management, a s distinc t fro m th e ar t o f acquisition , ha s a limit; an d th e objec t o f that ar t i s not a n unlimited amoun t o f wealth. I t woul d thu s appear , i f we look a t th e matte r i n thi s light, tha t al l wealt h mus t hav e a limit . I n actua l experience , however, w e se e th e opposit e happening , an d al l wh o ar e engaged i n acquisition increas e thei r fun d o f currency without any limit or pause .

I257b35 Th e caus e [o f thi s contradiction ] lie s i n th e clos e connection betwee n th e tw o differen t mode s o f acquisition . They overla p i n the sens e tha t the y bot h us e the sam e object , that is , the y us e th e sam e propert y bu t no t i n th e sam e way . The objec t o f the on e is simply accumulation, an d tha t o f th e other somethin g quite different. * Thi s explains why some men believe tha t mer e accumulatio n i s th e objec t o f househol d management; an d wh y the y stic k t o th e ide a tha t the y mus t keep intact thei r wealth in currency, or increase i t indefinitely .

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ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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But th e fundamenta l caus e o f thi s stat e o f min d i s concer n about living , rathe r tha n abou t livin g well ; an d sinc e thei r desire fo r tha t i s unlimited , thei r desir e fo r th e thing s tha t produce i t i s equall y unlimited . Eve n thos e wh o d o ai m a t well-being see k th e mean s o f obtainin g physica l enjoyments ; and, a s wha t the y see k appear s t o depen d o n th e activit y o f of acquisition, the y are thus led to occup y themselves wholly in the making of money. This is why the second form of the art o f acquisition ha s com e int o vogue . Becaus e enjoyment depend s on superfluity , men addres s themselve s to th e ar t whic h pro - duces th e superfluit y necessar y t o enjoyment ; an d i f the y cannot ge t wha t the y wan t b y th e ar t o f acquisition , the y attempt t o d o s o b y othe r means , usin g eac h an d ever y capacity i n a wa y not consonan t wit h it s nature . Th e prope r function o f courage , fo r example , i s no t t o produce mone y but t o giv e confidence . Th e sam e i s tru e o f militar y an d medical ability : neither has th e functio n o f producing money : the on e ha s th e functio n o f producin g victory , an d th e othe r that o f producing health . Bu t those o f whom w e are speakin g turn al l such capacitie s int o forms of the ar t o f acquisition, a s though t o mak e mone y wer e the on e ai m an d everythin g else must contribute t o that aim . I258ai4 W e have thus discussed th e unnecessary for m of the

art o f acquisition : w e have describe d it s nature , an d w e have explained wh y me n nee d it s services . W e hav e als o discusse d the necessar y form : w e hav e show n tha t i t i s differen t fro m the other , an d i s naturall y a branc h o f th e ar t o f househol d management, concerne d wit h th e provisio n o f subsistence , and no t therefor e unlimite d i n it s scope , a s th e othe r for m is, but subjec t to definite bounds.

C H A P T E R 1 0 Household management is concerned with the use, and not (except in the way of general supervision) with the acquisition, of property; generally the householder should be able to count on nature supplying the means he needs. Acquisition for acquisi- tion's sake shows its worst side in usury, which makes barren metal breed.

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ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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1258*19 Th e argumen t o f th e las t chapte r provide s a clea r solution t o th e problem whic h we originally raised. 'Doe s th e art o f acquisitio n belon g t o th e provinc e o f th e manage r o f the househol d an d th e statesman ? O r i s it outsid e tha t prov - ince, an d shoul d propert y b e regarde d a s somethin g whic h they ca n simpl y take a s given? ' I t ma y b e urged, i n favou r o f the secon d alternative , tha t jus t a s th e ar t o f th e statesma n does no t produc e huma n stock , bu t count s o n it s bein g supplied b y nature an d proceed s t o us e her supply , s o natur e must als o provid e th e physica l mean s o f subsistence—th e land, o r sea , o r whatever it be. Then, an d upo n tha t basis, it is the provinc e o f th e householde r t o manag e properl y thes e means. I t i s not th e busines s o f the ar t o f weaving to produc e wool, bu t t o us e it, an d t o distinguis h the sort s o f wool which are goo d an d suitabl e fro m thos e whic h are poor an d unsuit - able. I f the ar t o f acquisitio n wer e held t o b e a part o f the ar t of househol d management , th e questio n migh t b e raise d wh y the art of medicin e shoul d not equall y be hel d to be a part ; and i t might be argued tha t the members o f a household mus t needs hav e health , i n th e sam e wa y a s the y mus t need s hav e life o r any o f the othe r necessaries. There is a sense in which it is the busines s of the manage r o f a household o r o f a rule r t o see to th e health of the member s o f his household o r city ; bu t there is another sens e in which it is not thei r business but tha t of th e doctor . Similarly , in th e matte r o f property , ther e i s a sense in which it is the business of the manager o f a househol d to se e to it s acquisition an d anothe r sens e in which that i s not his business, but par t of an ancillar y art . Bu t in general, a s we have already noticed , a suppl y of property shoul d b e ready t o hand. 1258*35 I t i s th e busines s o f natur e t o furnis h subsistenc e

for eac h bein g brough t int o th e world ; an d thi s i s show n b y the fac t tha t the offsprin g o f animals always gets nourishment from th e residuu m o f th e matte r tha t give s it it s birth . Th e natural form , therefore , o f th e ar t o f acquisitio n i s always , and i n all cases, acquisitio n fro m fruit s an d animals . That art , as w e have said , has tw o forms : on e whic h is connected wit h retail trade, an d anothe r which is connected wit h the manage- ment o f th e household . O f thes e tw o forms , th e latte r i s

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ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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30 P O L I T I C S I . 1 0

necessary an d laudable ; th e forme r i s a metho d o f exchang e which i s justly censured, becaus e th e gai n i n which it result s is not naturall y made , bu t i s made a t th e expens e o f othe r men . The trad e o f th e pett y usure r i s hate d wit h mos t reason : i t makes a profit from currenc y itself, instea d o f making it fro m the proces s whic h currenc y wa s mean t t o serve . Currenc y came int o existenc e merel y a s a mean s o f exchange ; usur y tries t o mak e i t increase . Thi s i s th e reaso n wh y i t go t it s name; fo r a s the offsprin g resemble s it s parent, s o the interes t bred b y mone y i s lik e th e principa l whic h breed s it , an d i t may b e calle d 'currenc y th e so n o f currency.'* Henc e w e can understand why , of all modes of acquisition, usury is the mos t unnatural.

CHAPTER 1 1

A practical consideration of the art of acquisition. The divisions of that art which may be made on practical grounds. Instances of the successful practice of the art, especially by the creation of monopolies.

I258b9 W e have no w discusse d sufficientl y tha t par t o f ou r subject whic h i s relate d t o pur e knowledge : i t remain s t o consider th e part which is related t o actua l use . All subjects of this natur e ma y b e treated liberall y in theory , bu t hav e t o b e handled i n practic e a s circumstance s demand . Th e part s o f the art o f acquisition which are of actual use are the following. The first is an experience o f farm-stock. This involves knowing which ar e th e mos t profitabl e breeds , an d o n wha t soil , an d with wha t treatment , the y wil l giv e u s th e greates t profit — knowing, fo r example , th e righ t wa y o f stockin g horses , o r cattle, o r sheep , o r an y othe r kin d o f farm-stock . W e nee d experience t o tel l ho w differen t breed s compar e wit h on e another i n point o f profit , o r wha t breed s ar e mos t profitabl e on wha t sort s o f soil : fo r som e breed s thriv e o n on e sor t o f soil, an d som e o n anothe r sort . Othe r usefu l part s o f the ar t of acquisitio n ar e experienc e i n cultivation, no t onl y o f corn- land bu t als o o f land planted with vines and olives ; experience in bee-keeping ; an d experienc e i n th e rearin g o f such fis h an d

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P O L I T I C S I . I I 3 1

fowl a s ma y hel p t o provid e subsistence . These ar e th e part s and th e origina l elements of th e ar t o f acquisitio n i n it s mos t proper form . W e no w com e t o exchange . Thi s includes , firs t and foremost , commerc e (whic h i s divide d int o th e thre e operations o f the provisio n o f a ship , th e carriag e o f freight , and offerin g fo r sale—operation s whic h diffe r fro m on e an - other i n th e sens e that som e have a greate r margi n o f safety , and other s a greate r margi n o f profit) ; i t includes , i n th e second place , investmen t a t interest ; an d i t als o includes , i n the thir d place , servic e for hire . Thi s las t par t o f exchang e is partly a matte r o f skille d craftsme n i n th e mechanica l arts , and partl y o f unskille d worker s wh o ca n rende r onl y th e service of bodily labour. A third form of the art o f acquisition is a for m intermediat e betwee n the first and second ; for it possesses element s both o f th e first , o r natural , form , an d o f the for m whic h consist s i n exchange . I t i s concerne d wit h things extracte d fro m th e eart h o r wit h products o f th e eart h which bear n o frui t bu t ar e stil l of use; an d w e may thu s cite, as examples, lumbering and al l [form s of ] mining.* Mining, in its turn , ha s man y forms , becaus e ther e ar e man y specie s o f metals extracted fro m th e earth. I258b33 A genera l accoun t ha s no w bee n give n o f th e vari-

ous form s o f acquisition : t o conside r them minutely , an d i n detail, migh t b e usefu l fo r practica l purposes ; bu t t o dwel l long upon them woul d b e i n poor taste . Suffic e i t t o sa y that the occupation s whic h requir e mos t skil l ar e thos e i n whic h there i s least roo m fo r chance : the meanes t are thos e i n which most damag e i s don e t o physique : th e mos t servil e ar e thos e in which most use is made of physical strength: the least noble are thos e i n whic h ther e i s leas t nee d fo r th e exercis e o f goodness. I258b39 Ther e are books on these subjects by several writers:

Charetides o f Paros an d Apollodoro s o f Lemnos have written on th e cultivatio n o f cornlan d an d lan d plante d wit h vine s and olives : others hav e writte n on othe r themes ; anyon e wh o is intereste d shoul d stud y these subject s with th e ai d o f thes e writings. A collectio n ough t als o t o b e made o f th e scattere d stories abou t th e way s i n whic h differen t peopl e hav e suc - ceeded i n making a fortune . They ar e al l usefu l t o thos e wh o

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ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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32 P O L I T I C S I . I I

value th e ar t o f acquisition . Ther e is , fo r example , th e stor y which i s tol d o f Thaïe s o f Miletus. * I t i s a stor y abou t a scheme fo r makin g money, which i s fathered o n Thaïe s owin g to hi s reputatio n fo r wisdom ; bu t i t involve s a principl e o f general application . H e was reproached fo r his poverty, which was suppose d t o sho w th e uselessnes s o f philosophy ; bu t observing fro m hi s knowledg e o f meteorolog y (s o th e stor y goes) tha t ther e wa s likel y t o b e a heav y cro p o f olives , an d having a small sum at hi s command, h e paid deposits , earl y in the year , fo r th e hir e o f al l th e olive-presse s i n Miletu s an d Chios; and h e managed, in the absence of any higher offer, t o secure the m a t a lo w rate. Whe n th e seaso n came , an d ther e was a sudde n an d simultaneou s deman d fo r a numbe r o f presses, h e le t ou t th e stoc k h e ha d collecte d a t an y rat e h e chose t o fix; and makin g a considerabl e fortun e h e succeede d in provin g tha t i t i s eas y fo r philosopher s t o becom e ric h i f they s o desire , thoug h i t i s no t th e busines s whic h the y ar e really about . Th e stor y i s told a s showin g tha t Thaïe s prove d his ow n wisdom ; bu t a s w e hav e said , th e pla n h e adopted , which was , i n effect , th e creatio n o f a monopoly , involve s a principle whic h can b e generall y applie d i n the ar t o f acquisi - tion. Som e cities , therefore , a s wel l a s individuals , adop t thi s resource whe n i n nee d o f money: the y establish , fo r instance , a monopol y i n provisions. I n Sicil y a ma n wit h who m a sum of money had bee n deposite d bough t u p al l the iro n fro m th e ironworks; an d afterwards , whe n retailer s cam e fro m thei r shops t o ge t a supply , h e was the onl y selle r fro m who m the y could buy . H e di d no t rais e th e pric e t o an y extent ; bu t h e gained, non e th e less , a profi t o f a 10 0 talents o n a n outla y o f 50. This speculatio n cam e to the notice o f Dionysius [th e ruler of Syracuse ] and h e ordered th e man t o leav e the city, thoug h he allowed hi m to tak e his gains: the reaso n wa s his discovery of a way of making profi t whic h was injurious t o th e interest s of Dionysius himself. Yet his idea was simply the same a s tha t of Thaïes ; an d wha t bot h o f them di d was merely to establis h a privat e monopoly . Bu t a knowledg e o f thes e method s i s useful t o statesmen—cities , lik e households , bu t t o a n eve n greater extent , ar e ofte n i n wan t o f financia l resource s an d i n need o f mor e way s o f gainin g them . Thi s i s th e reaso n wh y

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ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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P O L I T I C S I . 1 2 3 3

some o f thos e wh o adop t a politica l caree r confin e thei r political activity to matters of finance.

C H A P T E R 1 2

4. Marriage, parenthood, and the general management of the household. The nature of marital authority, which is like that exercised by a statesman over his fellow citizens. The nature of parental authority, which is like that of a king over his subjects.

I259a37 W e said , i n a previou s passage , tha t ther e wer e three part s o f th e ar t o f househol d management—th e first , of which we have already spoken , bein g the ar t o f controllin g slaves: th e second , th e ar t o f exercisin g paterna l authority ; and th e third , tha t o f exercising marital authority . Whil e th e head o f th e househol d rule s ove r bot h wif e an d children , and rule s ove r bot h a s fre e member s o f th e household , h e exercises a differen t sor t o f rul e i n eac h case . Hi s rul e ove r his wif e i s lik e tha t o f a statesma n ove r fello w citizens ; hi s rule ove r hi s childre n i s lik e tha t o f a monarc h ove r subjects.* Th e mal e i s naturall y fitte r t o comman d tha n th e female, excep t wher e ther e i s som e departur e fro m nature ; and ag e an d maturit y ar e similarl y fitte r t o comman d tha n youth an d immaturity . I n mos t case s wher e rule of the states - man's sor t i s exercise d ther e i s a n interchang e o f rulin g an d being ruled : th e member s o f a politica l associatio n ai m b y their ver y nature a t bein g equa l an d differin g i n nothing. I t is none the less true that when one rules and the other is ruled, [the former] desire s to establis h a difference , i n outwar d forms , in modes of address, and in titles of respect. This may remind us of the sayin g o f Amasis about his foot-pan.* The relation of the male to th e femal e i s permanently tha t i n which the statesma n stands to his fellow citizens. Paternal rul e over children, on the other hand , i s like that o f a kin g over hi s subjects . Th e mal e parent is in a position of authority both in virtue of the affectio n to whic h h e i s entitle d an d b y righ t o f hi s seniority ; an d hi s position i s thu s i n th e natur e o f roya l authority . Home r wa s right, therefore, to use the invocatio n

Father of Gods and o f men

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34 P O L I T I C S I . 1 2

to addres s Zeus , wh o i s king of them all . A kin g ough t t o b e naturally superior t o hi s subjects, an d yet of the sam e stock a s they are ; and thi s is the case with the relatio n o f age to youth , and of parent t o child.

C H A P T E R 1 3

The art of household management is a moral art, aiming at the moral goodness of the members of the household; and this is true in regard to slaves as well as to other members. The goodness of the head of the household has a quality of its own: the different classes of members have also different qualities of goodness. This is part of a general law that goodness is relative to function, and that it is the function of some to guide, and of others to be guided —and guided, too, in different ways. The master's duty of guiding the slaves of the household. The subjects of marriage and parenthood (only briefly mentioned in the previous chapter) are to be reserved for future treatment, in connection with the city and the proper mode of its government (Book vu , Chapters 17-18).

I259bi8 I t i s clea r fro m th e previou s argumen t tha t th e business o f househol d managemen t i s concerne d mor e wit h human being s tha n it is wit h inanimat e property ; tha t it is concerned mor e wit h th e goo d conditio n o f huma n being s than wit h a good conditio n of property (whic h is what we call wealth); and , finally , tha t i t i s concerne d mor e wit h th e goodness o f the fre e member s of the household tha n wit h that of slaves . Here a preliminary question ma y be raised i n regar d to the slave. Has he any 'goodness' beyond that of discharging his functio n a s a n instrumen t an d performin g hi s menia l service—any goodnes s of a higher value , suc h a s temperance , fortitude, justice , an d th e res t o f suc h mora l qualities? * O r has he no 'goodness ' outsid e th e area of the bodily services he renders? Eithe r alternativ e presents difficulties . I f slave s have a 'goodness ' o f the higher sort , i n what respect wil l they diffe r from freemen ? I f the y hav e no t i t woul d b e surprisin g sinc e they ar e huma n beings , wit h a shar e i n reason.* Practicall y the sam e question ma y b e asked in regar d t o a woma n an d a

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P O L I T I C S i. 1 3 3 5 child. D o the y hav e thei r ow n form s o f goodness ? Mus t a woman b e temperate , brave , an d just ? I s it , o r i s i t not , possible for a child to be licentious or temperate ? I259b32 I n genera l w e mus t rais e th e followin g questio n

about thos e wh o ar e naturall y rule d an d abou t thos e wh o rule: 'I s thei r goodnes s th e sam e o r doe s i t differ? ' I f w e say that bot h o f them ough t t o shar e i n the nobilit y of goodness , why shoul d on e o f them permanentl y rule , an d th e othe r b e permanently ruled ? Th e differenc e betwee n the m canno t b e simply a differenc e of degree: the differenc e betwee n ruler and ruled i s on e o f kind , an d degre e ha s nothin g t o d o wit h th e matter. O n th e othe r hand , i t would be strange if one o f them ought t o shar e an d th e othe r ough t not . Ho w ca n th e rule r rule properly, o r th e subjec t be properly ruled , unless they are both temperat e and just ? Anyon e who is licentiou s or cow - ardly wil l utterl y fai l t o d o hi s duty . Th e conclusio n whic h clearly emerge s i s tha t bot h classe s mus t shar e i n goodness , but tha t ther e mus t b e differen t kind s o f goodness , jus t a s [there ar e als o differen t kind s o f goodness] amon g thos e wh o are naturally ruled. iz6oa4 Th e vie w her e suggeste d take s u s straigh t t o th e

nature o f th e soul . Th e sou l ha s naturall y tw o elements , a ruling an d a ruled ; an d eac h ha s it s differen t goodness , on e belonging to th e rational an d rulin g element, and th e other t o the irrationa l an d ruled . Wha t i s true o f th e sou l i s evidently also tru e of the othe r cases ; an d w e may thus conclud e tha t it is natural i n most case s fo r ther e t o b e bot h a rulin g element and on e tha t i s ruled.* Th e rul e o f the freema n ove r the slav e is one kin d o f rule ; that o f th e mal e ove r th e femal e another ; that o f th e grow n man ove r th e chil d anothe r still . I t i s tru e that al l these peopl e posses s in common th e differen t part s of the soul ; but the y possess the m in differen t ways . The slav e is entirely without th e facult y o f deliberation; th e femal e indee d possesses it, but i n a form which lacks authority; and children also posses s it , bu t onl y i n a n immatur e form . W e mus t assume tha t th e sam e hold s wit h regar d t o mora l goodness : they mus t al l shar e i n it , bu t no t i n th e sam e way—eac h sharing onl y t o th e exten t required fo r th e discharg e o f his o r her function. The ruler, accordingly, must possess moral good-

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36 P O L I T I C S 1 . 1 3 ness i n it s ful l an d perfec t form , becaus e hi s functio n i s essentially tha t o f a master-craftsman, * an d reaso n i s suc h a master-craftsman; bu t othe r people need only to possess moral goodness t o th e exten t require d o f them . I t i s thus clea r tha t while moral goodness is a quality of all those mentioned, th e fact stil l remains that temperance—an d similarl y courage an d justice—are not , a s Socrate s held, * th e sam e i n a woma n a s they ar e i n a man . On e kin d o f courag e i s concerne d wit h ruling, th e othe r wit h serving ; an d th e sam e i s tru e o f th e other form s of goodness. iz6oa24 Thi s conclusion also emerges clearly when we exam-

ine th e subjec t in more detail. T o spea k i n general terms, an d to maintai n that goodnes s consists in 'a good conditio n o f the soul', o r i n 'righ t action' , o r i n anythin g o f th e kind , i s to b e guilty o f self-deception . Fa r bette r tha n suc h genera l defini - tions i s th e metho d o f simpl e enumeratio n o f th e differen t forms o f goodness , a s followe d by Gorgias. * W e mus t there - fore hol d that what the poet sai d of women

A modest silence is a woman's crown*

contains a general truth—but a truth which does not appl y t o men. An d sinc e a chil d i s immature it s goodnes s i s obviously not a matte r o f it s relatio n t o itself , bu t o f it s relatio n t o it s end an d t o th e authorit y tha t guide s it . Similarly , too , th e goodness of the slave is a matter o f his relation t o his master. I26oa33 W e lai d i t down , i n treatin g o f slaves , tha t the y

were usefu l fo r th e necessar y purposes o f life . I t i s clear , o n that basis, that they need bu t littl e goodness; onl y so much, in fact, a s wil l preven t the m fro m fallin g shor t o f thei r dutie s through intemperanc e o r cowardice . I f thi s be true, th e ques - tion ma y b e raise d whethe r artisan s to o ough t no t t o hav e goodness, seein g tha t the y ofte n fal l shor t o f thei r dutie s through intemperance . Bu t doe s no t th e cas e o f th e artisa n differ greatly fro m tha t o f the slave ? The slav e is a partner i n his master's life : th e artisan i s less closely attached t o a master. The extent of the goodness incumbent on him is proportionat e to th e exten t o f the servitud e to whic h he i s subject; since th e mechanical typ e o f artisa n i s subjec t onl y t o wha t ma y b e called a limite d servitude. * Agai n th e slav e belong s t o th e

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P O L I T I C S i . 1 3 3 7 class o f thos e wh o ar e naturall y what the y are; bu t n o shoe - maker, o r an y othe r artisan , belong s t o tha t class . I t i s therefore clea r tha t th e tas k o f producing i n the slav e the sor t of goodnes s we have been discussin g belongs to th e maste r of the household, not t o whoeve r instructs him in his work. Thi s is why those wh o withhold reason fro m slaves , and argu e tha t only comman d shoul d b e employed, * ar e makin g a mistake : admonition ough t to b e applied t o slave s even more tha n i t is to children.

I26ob8 Thi s may be sufficient a s a discussion o f these topics . There remai n fo r discussio n a numbe r o f questions : th e rela - tion o f husban d an d wife , an d tha t o f paren t an d child ; th e nature o f th e goodnes s prope r t o eac h partne r i n thes e rela - tions; th e characte r o f the mutua l associatio n o f the partners , with it s qualitie s an d defect s an d th e method s o f attainin g those qualitie s an d escapin g thos e defects . Al l these ar e ques - tions which must be treated late r in the discourse s which deal with constitutions. * Ever y househol d i s a par t o f a cit y an d the relationship s w e hav e mentione d ar e part s o f th e house - hold. Moreover , th e goodnes s o f ever y par t mus t b e consid - ered wit h referenc e to the goodnes s of the whole . We mus t therefore conside r th e constitutio n befor e w e proceed t o dea l with th e trainin g o f childre n an d women—a t an y rat e i f we hold tha t th e goodnes s o f childre n an d o f women make s an y difference t o th e goodnes s o f th e city . An d i t mus t mak e a difference. Wome n ar e a hal f o f the fre e population : childre n grow up to be partners in the constitution .

I26ob20 A s w e hav e alread y discusse d som e aspect s [of-th e household], an d a s we are t o discus s the res t a t a late r stage , we ma y dismis s our presen t inquir y as finished , an d mak e a new start. Le t us first examine the theorie s o f those wh o have expressed opinions about th e best for m o f constitution.*

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BOOK I I R E V I E W O F C O N S T I T U T I O N S

A: Constitutions i n Theory (Chapters 1-8)

C H A P T E R 1

1. Plato's Republic. Before describing ou r own conception o f th e best constitution we must consider both those constitutions that are in force in cities considered to be well governed and those constitutions that have been proposed by our predecessors. In doing so we should note that political association is a sharing: so we may ask 'How much should be shared?' In Plato's Republic i t i s proposed that women, children, an d property should be held in common.

I26ob27 Ou r purpos e i s t o conside r wha t for m o f politica l association i s best fo r peopl e abl e s o far a s possible to liv e a s they would wish.* We must therefor e consider not onl y consti- tutions actuall y i n forc e i n citie s tha t ar e sai d t o b e wel l governed, bu t als o othe r form s o f constitutio n whic h peopl e have proposed if these are thought to hav e merit.* In thi s way we wil l b e abl e t o se e in wha t respect s these constitutions ar e properly designed and useful . Wha t i s more, when we proceed to loo k fo r somethin g differen t fro m them , w e shall not see m to b e th e sor t o f peopl e wh o desir e a t al l cost s t o sho w thei r own ingenuity , bu t rathe r t o hav e adopte d ou r metho d i n consequence o f the defects we have found in existing forms.

I26ob36 Ou r starting-poin t mus t b e th e on e tha t i s natura l for suc h a discussion . It is necessar y eithe r tha t the citizen s have al l thing s i n common , o r tha t the y hav e nothin g i n common, o r tha t the y hav e som e thing s i n common , an d others not. * I t i s clearl y impossibl e tha t the y shoul d hav e nothing i n common : th e constitutio n o f a cit y involve s i n itself som e sor t o f association , an d it s member s mus t i n th e first place shar e a common locality . Just a s a singl e city [polis] must hav e a singl e locality, s o citizens are thos e wh o shar e in

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P O L I T I C S II . 2 3 9

a singl e city . Bu t i s i t bette r tha t a cit y whic h i s t o b e wel l conducted shoul d shar e in all the things in which it is possible for i t to share , o r tha t i t shoul d shar e in som e things and no t in others? It i s certainly possibl e that the citizens should shar e children an d wome n an d propert y wit h on e another . Thi s i s the pla n propose d i n th e Republic o f Plato , wher e 'Socrates'* argues tha t childre n an d wome n an d propert y shoul d b e held in common . W e ar e thu s face d b y th e questio n whethe r i t i s better t o remai n i n our present conditio n o r t o follo w th e rule of life laid dow n in the Republic. *

C H A P T E R 2

Community of women and children. Criticisms of the end or object (unity) which Plato proposes to attain by it: (a) carried to its logical extreme, that object would produce a one-man city; (b) it neglects the social differentiation necessary in a city (a differentiation which, even in a city of 'equals and likes', pro- duces the distinction of rulers and ruled); (c) it thus makes self- sufficiency impossible, because self-sufficiency involves different elements making different contributions.

i26iaio A system in which women are common to all involves, among man y others , th e followin g difficulties. Th e object fo r which Socrate s state s that it ought to be instituted is evidently not established by the arguments which he uses.* Moreover, the end whic h h e state s a s necessar y fo r th e cit y [polis] i s impracticable;* and yet he gives no account of the lines on which it ough t t o b e interpreted. I have in mind here the idea, which Socrates takes as his premiss, that the greatest possible unity of the whole city is the supreme good. Yet it is obvious that a city which goes on becoming more and more of a unit, will eventually cease t o b e a cit y a t all . A city , b y it s nature , i s some sor t o f plurality. I f i t become s mor e o f a unit , i t wil l firs t becom e a household instea d of a city, and then an individual instead of a household; fo r we should al l call the household mor e of a unit than th e city , an d th e individua l mor e o f a uni t tha n th e household. I t follow s that , eve n if we could, w e ought no t t o achieve this object: it would be the destruction o f the city.*

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40 P O L I T I C S II . 2

I26ia22 No t onl y i s th e cit y compose d o f a number o f people: i t i s als o compose d o f differen t kinds o f people , fo r a city canno t b e compose d o f those wh o ar e lik e on e another. * There i s a differenc e betwee n a cit y an d a militar y alliance . An alliance , forme d b y it s ver y natur e fo r th e sak e o f th e mutual hel p whic h it s member s ca n rende r t o on e another , possesses utility purely i n virtue o f its quantity, even if there is no differenc e o f kin d amon g it s members . I t i s lik e a weigh t which depresse s the scale s more heavil y in the balance . I n thi s respect a city wil l als o diffe r fro m a tribe , assumin g tha t th e members of the tribe are not scattere d i n separate villages , bu t [are united i n a confederacy] like the Arcadians.* A rea l unity must b e mad e u p o f element s which diffe r i n kind . I t follow s that th e stabilit y of every city depends o n eac h o f its elements rendering t o th e other s a n amoun t equivalen t t o wha t i t receives fro m them— a principl e alread y lai d dow n i n th e Ethics.* Thi s ha s t o b e th e cas e eve n amon g fre e an d equa l citizens. The y canno t al l rul e simultaneously; * the y mus t therefore eac h hol d offic e fo r a year , unles s the y adop t som e other arrangemen t o r som e othe r perio d o f time . I n thi s way it comes about tha t al l are rulers , just a s it would if shoemak - ers and carpenter s change d thei r occupation s s o that th e sam e people wer e not alway s following thes e professions . Sinc e th e arrangement [followe d i n th e art s an d crafts ] i s als o bette r when applie d t o th e affair s o f th e politica l association , i t would clearl y b e bette r fo r th e sam e peopl e alway s t o b e rulers wherever possible. Bu t where this is impossible, throug h the natura l equalit y o f al l th e citizens—an d als o becaus e justice require s th e participatio n o f al l i n offic e (whethe r office b e a good thin g or a bad)—there is an imitatio n o f it, if equals retir e fro m offic e i n tur n an d ar e all , apar t fro m thei r period o f office , i n th e sam e position . Thi s mean s tha t som e rule, an d other s ar e ruled , i n turn , a s i f they ha d become , fo r the tim e being , differen t people . W e may ad d tha t eve n thos e who ar e ruler s diffe r fro m on e another , som e holdin g on e kind o f offic e an d som e another . I26ib6 Thes e consideration s ar e sufficien t t o show , first ,

that i t is not th e natur e o f the cit y t o b e a uni t in the sens e in which som e thinker s say that i t is , and secondly , tha t wha t i s

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P O L I T I C S II . 3 4 1

said t o b e th e suprem e goo d o f a cit y i s reall y it s ruin . Bu t surely the 'good' of each thing is what preserves it in being. i26ibio Ther e i s stil l anothe r consideratio n whic h ma y b e

used to prove that th e policy of attempting a n extreme unifica- tion o f the city is not a good policy . A household i s something which attain s a greate r degre e o f self-sufficienc y tha n a n individual; and a city, in turn, i s something which attains self - sufficiency t o a greate r degre e tha n a household . Bu t i t be - comes fully a city, onl y when the associatio n which forms it is large enoug h t o b e self-sufficing . O n th e assumption , there - fore, tha t th e highe r degre e o f self-sufficienc y i s th e mor e desirable thing , th e lesse r degre e o f unit y i s mor e desirabl e than the greater.*

C H A P T E R 3

Community of women and children (continued). Criticisms of such community considered as a means for producing the end of unity: (a) as all collectively, and not each individually, are parents, there will be no real feeling, but rather a general apathy; (b) kinship will be fractional kinship (when 1,000 are father to the same child, each father is only 111,000 father ); (c) nature will 'recur ', and spoil the scheme.

I26ibi6 Eve n i f i t wer e th e suprem e goo d o f a politica l association tha t i t should hav e the greatest possibl e unity, this unity doe s no t appea r t o follo w fro m th e formul a of 'All men saying "Mine" and "Not mine " at the same time', which, in the view o f 'Socrates', * i s the inde x o f th e perfec t unit y of a city. The wor d 'all ' ha s a doubl e sense: * i f i t mean s 'eac h sepa - rately', th e objec t whic h 'Socrates ' desires t o realiz e may per- haps b e realize d i n a greate r degree : eac h an d al l separatel y will the n sa y 'M y wife ' (o r 'M y son' ) o f on e an d th e sam e person; an d eac h an d al l separatel y wil l spea k i n th e sam e way o f property , an d o f ever y other concern . Bu t i t i s not i n the sens e o f 'eac h separately ' tha t al l wh o hav e childre n an d women i n commo n wil l actually spea k o f them . The y wil l al l call the m 'Mine' ; bu t the y wil l d o s o collectively , an d no t individually.* The sam e is true of property also ; [al l will call it

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42 P O L I T I C S II . 3

'Mine'] bu t the y wil l d o s o i n th e sens e o f 'al l collectively' , and no t i n th e sens e o f 'eac h separately'. I t i s therefore clea r that ther e i s a certain fallac y i n the us e of the ter m 'all' . 'All ' and 'both ' an d 'odd ' an d 'even ' ar e liabl e b y thei r ambiguit y to produce captious arguments* eve n i n reasoned discussions. We ma y therefor e conclud e tha t th e formul a o f 'al l me n saying "Mine " o f th e sam e object ' i s i n on e sens e somethin g fine but impracticable , an d i n anothe r sens e doe s nothin g t o promote harmony . I26ib32 In additio n to thes e problem s the formul a als o

involves another disadvantage . Wha t i s common t o th e great - est numbe r get s th e leas t amoun t o f care . Peopl e pa y mos t attention t o wha t i s thei r own : the y car e les s fo r wha t i s common; or , a t any rate, the y care fo r it only t o th e extent t o which eac h i s individually concerned. Eve n wher e there i s n o other caus e fo r inattention , peopl e ar e mor e pron e t o neglec t their dut y when they think tha t anothe r i s attending t o it : this is wha t happen s i n domesti c service , wher e man y attendant s are sometime s o f les s assistanc e tha n a few . [Th e schem e proposed i n th e Republic mean s that ] each citize n wil l have a thousand sons : the y wil l no t b e th e son s o f eac h citize n individually: an y so n whateve r wil l b e equall y th e so n o f an y father whatever . The resul t wil l be that al l will equally neglect them. I202ai Furthermor e eac h person , whe n h e say s 'Mine ' o f

any citize n wh o i s prosperou s o r th e reverse , i s speakin g fractionally. H e mean s onl y tha t h e is 'Mine' t o th e exten t of a fractio n determine d b y th e tota l numbe r o f citizens . Whe n he say s 'He is mine' o r 'H e is so-and-so's', the term 'Mine ' o r 'So-and-so's' i s use d wit h referenc e t o th e whol e bod y con - cerned—the whol e thousand , o r whateve r ma y b e th e tota l number o f citizens. Even s o he cannot b e sure ; for ther e i s no evidence who ha d a child born t o him , o r whether , i f one was born, i t managed t o survive . Which is the better system—tha t each o f tw o thousand , o r te n thousand , peopl e shoul d sa y 'Mine' o f a chil d i n thi s fractiona l sense , o r tha t eac h shoul d say 'Mine ' i n th e sens e i n whic h th e wor d i s no w use d i n ordinary cities ? A s thing s are , on e ma n call s b y th e nam e o f 'My son ' th e sam e perso n who m a secon d ma n call s b y th e

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P O L I T I C S n . 4 4 3 name o f 'My brother' : a thir d call s hi m 'My cousin ' o r 'My relative', becaus e h e i s someho w relate d t o him , eithe r b y blood or by connection through marriage ; while besides thes e different mode s o f address someon e els e may use still another, and cal l hi m 'My clansman ' o r 'My tribesman' . It i s better t o be someone' s ow n cousi n tha n t o b e hi s so n afte r thi s fashion.* Eve n o n Plato' s syste m it i s impossible t o avoi d th e chance tha t som e o f th e citizen s migh t gues s wh o ar e thei r brothers, o r children , o r fathers , o r mothers. * Th e resem - blances betwee n childre n an d parent s mus t inevitabl y lead t o their drawin g conclusion s abou t on e another . Tha t thi s actu - ally happens i n real lif e i s stated a s fact by som e of the writers on descriptiv e geography . The y tel l u s tha t som e o f th e inhabitants of upper Libya have their women i n common; bu t the childre n bor n o f suc h union s ca n stil l b e distinguished by their resemblanc e t o thei r fathers . Indee d ther e ar e som e women, an d som e female s i n th e anima l worl d (mares , fo r instance, an d cows) , tha t sho w a stron g natura l tendenc y t o produce offsprin g resemblin g the male parent : th e Pharsalia n mare which was called the 'Just Return'* is a good example.

C H A P T E R 4

Community of women and children (continued). Problems arise when parents do not know their children, or children their parents. At best such a community produces a watery sort of friendship. The addition to it of a scheme of transposition of ranks raises further difficulties.

I202a25 Ther e ar e als o othe r difficultie s whic h thos e wh o construct suc h a community wil l not fin d i t easy to avoid . We may tak e a s example s case s o f assault , homicide , whethe r unintentional o r intentional , fighting , an d slander . Al l thes e offences, whe n the y ar e committe d agains t fathe r o r mothe r or a nea r relative , diffe r fro m offence s agains t peopl e wh o are no t s o related, i n bein g breache s o f natura l piety. * Suc h offences mus t happe n mor e frequently when men ar e ignoran t of thei r relative s tha n whe n the y kno w wh o the y are ; an d when the y d o happen , th e customar y penanc e ca n b e made if

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44 P O L I T I C S ii. 4 people kno w their relatives , but non e ca n b e made i f they ar e ignorant o f them. I t i s also surprisin g that, afte r havin g made sons commo n t o all , h e shoul d simpl y forbi d lover s fro m engaging i n carna l intercourse. * No r doe s h e forbi d othe r familiarities which , i f practise d betwee n so n an d father , o r brother and brother , are the ver y height of indecency, all the more as this form of love [even if it is not expressed ] is in itself indecent. I t i s surprising , too , tha t h e shoul d deba r mal e lovers fro m carna l intercours e o n th e on e groun d o f th e excessive violence of th e pleasure , an d tha t h e shoul d thin k i t a matter of indifference tha t the lovers may be father and son , or again that they may be brothers. I202a40 Communit y o f women an d childre n woul d see m t o

be mor e usefu l i f it wer e practised amon g th e farmer s rathe r than amon g th e guardians . Th e spiri t o f friendship * is likely to exis t t o a lesse r degre e wher e wome n an d childre n ar e common; an d th e governe d clas s ough t t o hav e littl e o f tha t spirit if it is to obe y and no t t o attemp t revolution . Generally, such a syste m must produc e result s directl y oppose d t o thos e which a syste m o f properl y constitute d law s shoul d produce , and equall y oppose d t o th e ver y object fo r which , in the view of 'Socrates', this community of women and children ought t o be instituted . Friendship , w e believe , i s th e chie f goo d o f cities, becaus e i t i s th e bes t safeguar d agains t th e dange r o f factional disputes . 'Socrates ' himsel f particularl y commend s the idea l of th e unit y of th e city ; and tha t unit y is commonly held, an d expressl y stated b y him , t o b e th e resul t o f friend - ship. W e ma y cit e th e argumen t o f th e discourse s o n love, * where 'Aristophanes' , a s w e know , speak s o f lover s desirin g out o f friendship to gro w together int o a unity , and t o be one instead o f two . No w i n tha t cas e i t woul d b e inevitabl e tha t both o r a t leas t on e o f them shoul d ceas e t o exist . But i n th e case o f th e politica l associatio n ther e woul d b e merel y a watery sort of friendship: a father would be very little disposed to sa y 'Mine ' o f a son , an d a so n woul d b e a s littl e dispose d to sa y 'Mine ' o f a father . Jus t a s a littl e swee t wine , mixe d with a grea t dea l o f water , produce s a tasteles s mixture , s o family feelin g i s diluted an d tasteles s when family name s have as littl e meanin g a s the y hav e i n a constitutio n o f thi s sort ,

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P O L I T I C S ii. 5 4 5

and whe n there is so little reason for a fathe r treatin g his sons as sons , o r a so n treatin g hi s fathe r a s a father , o r brother s one another a s brothers . Ther e ar e tw o thing s which particu- larly move people t o care fo r an d lov e an object . One of these is tha t th e object shoul d belon g t o yourself : th e othe r i s that you shoul d lik e it. Neithe r of thes e motive s can exis t amon g those who live under a constitution suc h as this.

I202b24 Ther e i s stil l a furthe r difficulty . I t concern s th e way in which children bor n amon g th e farmer s and craftsmen are t o b e transferre d t o th e guardia n class, * an d vic e versa . How suc h transpositio n i s actuall y t o b e effecte d i s a matte r of grea t perplexity ; and i n an y cas e thos e wh o transfe r such children, an d assig n the m thei r ne w place , wil l b e boun d t o know who are th e children s o placed an d wit h whom they are being placed. In addition, those problems of assault, unnatura l affection, an d homicide , whic h have alread y bee n mentioned, will occu r eve n mor e i n th e cas e o f thes e people . Thos e transferred fro m th e guardia n clas s t o tha t o f th e othe r citizens wil l ceas e fo r th e futur e t o addres s th e guardian s a s brothers, o r children , o r fathers , o r mothers , a s the cas e ma y be; and it wil l hav e the sam e effec t for thos e who hav e bee n transferred fro m amon g th e othe r citizen s t o th e guardians . Such peopl e wil l n o longe r avoi d committin g thes e offence s on account o f their kinship. I202b35 Thi s ma y serv e a s a determinatio n o f th e issue s

raised by the idea of community of women and children.

C H A P T E R 5

Community of property. Three possible systems of property. The difficulties of a system under which ownership and use are both common: the merits of a system under which ownership is private and use is common —it gives more pleasure, and it encourages goodness more. Communism cannot remedy evils which really spring from the defects of human nature: it is also based on a false conception of unity, and neglects the true unity which comes from education; finally, it is contradicted by experi- ence. Plato's particular scheme of community of property leaves the position of the farming class obscure. The system of govern-

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46 P O L I T I C S ii. 5 ment which he connects with his scheme is too absolute, and is likely to cause discontent: it also deprives the ruling class of any happiness.

I262b39 Th e nex t subjec t fo r consideratio n i s property. * What i s the prope r syste m of property fo r citizen s who are t o live unde r th e bes t for m o f constitution ? Shoul d propert y b e held i n commo n o r not ? Thi s i s a n issu e whic h ma y b e considered in itself, an d apart from an y proposals fo r commu- nity o f wome n an d children . Eve n i f women and childre n ar e held separately , a s i s no w universall y th e case , question s relating t o propert y stil l remai n fo r discussion . Shoul d us e and ownershi p both b e common?* For example , there may be a syste m unde r which plots of land ar e owne d separately , bu t the crops (as actually happens amon g som e tribal peoples ) ar e brought into a common stock for the purpose of consumption. Secondly, an d conversely , th e lan d ma y b e hel d i n commo n ownership, an d ma y als o b e cultivate d i n common , bu t th e crops ma y b e divided amon g individual s for thei r private use : some o f th e barbaria n people s ar e als o sai d t o practis e thi s second metho d o f sharing . Thirdly , th e plot s an d th e crop s may both be common.

I203a8 Whe n th e cultivator s o f th e soi l ar e a differen t bod y from th e citizen s wh o ow n it , th e positio n wil l b e differen t and easie r t o handle ; bu t whe n th e citizen s wh o own the soi l do th e work themselves, the problems o f property wil l cause a good dea l o f trouble. I f they do no t shar e equall y in the work and i n th e enjoymen t o f th e produce , thos e wh o d o mor e work an d ge t les s o f th e produc e wil l b e boun d t o rais e complaints agains t thos e wh o get a larg e rewar d an d d o littl e work. I n genera l i t i s a difficul t busines s to liv e togethe r an d to shar e i n an y for m o f huma n activity , bu t i t i s speciall y difficult i n suc h matters . Fellow-traveller s wh o merel y shar e in a journe y furnis h a n illustration : the y generall y quarre l about ordinar y matter s an d tak e offenc e o n pett y occasions . So, again, the servant s with who m w e are most prone to take offence ar e thos e wh o ar e particularl y employe d i n ordinar y everyday services. I203a2i Difficultie s suc h a s these , an d man y others , ar e

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P O L I T I C S n . 5 4 7 involved i n a syste m o f communit y o f property . Th e presen t system woul d b e fa r preferable , i f i t wer e embellishe d wit h social custom s an d th e enactmen t o f prope r laws . I t woul d possess th e advantage s o f bot h systems , an d woul d combin e the merits of a system of community of property wit h those of the syste m of private property . For , althoug h ther e i s a sens e in whic h propert y ought t o b e common , i t shoul d i n genera l be private . Whe n everyon e ha s hi s ow n separat e spher e o f interest, ther e wil l no t b e th e sam e groun d fo r quarrels ; an d they will make mor e effort , becaus e eac h ma n wil l feel tha t he is applying himself to wha t is his own.

I203a30 O n suc h a scheme , too , mora l goodnes s wil l ensur e that the property o f each i s made t o serv e the use of all, i n th e spirit o f th e prover b whic h say s 'Friends ' good s ar e good s i n common'.* Eve n no w ther e ar e som e citie s i n whic h th e outlines o f suc h a schem e ar e s o fa r apparent , a s t o sugges t that i t i s not impossible ; i n well-ordere d cities , mor e particu - larly, ther e ar e som e element s o f i t alread y existing , an d others whic h might b e added . [I n these cities ] each citize n ha s his ow n property ; par t o f whic h h e make s availabl e t o hi s friends, an d par t o f whic h h e use s a s thoug h i t wa s commo n property. I n Sparta , fo r example , me n us e on e another' s slaves, an d on e another' s horse s an d dogs , a s i f the y wer e their own ; an d the y tak e provision s o n a journey , i f the y happen t o b e i n need, fro m th e farm s in the countryside . I t is clear fro m wha t ha s bee n sai d tha t th e bette r syste m i s tha t under whic h property i s privately owned but is put to commo n use; an d th e functio n prope r t o th e legislato r i s to mak e me n so disposed tha t the y will treat property i n this way.

1263*40 I n addition , t o thin k o f a thin g a s your ow n makes an inexpressibl e difference , s o far a s pleasur e i s concerned. I t may wel l b e tha t regar d fo r onesel f i s a feelin g implanted b y nature, an d no t a mer e rando m impulse . Self-lov e i s rightly censured, bu t tha t i s no t s o muc h lovin g onesel f a s lovin g oneself i n excess. * I t i s the sam e wit h on e wh o love s money; after all , virtually everyone love s things o f this kind . W e ma y add tha t a ver y grea t pleasur e i s t o b e foun d i n doin g a kindness an d givin g some hel p t o friends , o r guests , o r com - rades; an d suc h kindness an d hel p become possible onl y when

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48 P O L I T I C S ii. 5 property i s privately owned . Bu t no t onl y ar e thes e pleasures impossible unde r a syste m i n whic h th e cit y i s excessively unified; th e activitie s o f tw o form s o f goodnes s ar e als o obviously destroyed . Th e firs t o f thes e i s temperanc e i n th e matter o f sexual relations* (i t is an ac t o f moral valu e to kee p away fro m th e wif e o f anothe r throug h temperance) : th e second i s generosity in the us e of property.* In a city which is excessively unifie d n o ma n ca n sho w himsel f generous , o r indeed do a generou s act ; for the functio n of generosit y consists in the proper use which is made of property. I203bi5 Thi s kin d o f legislatio n ma y appea r t o wea r a n

attractive fac e an d t o demonstrat e benevolence . Th e heare r receives i t gladly , thinkin g tha t everybod y wil l fee l toward s everybody els e som e marvellou s sens e o f friendship—al l th e more as the evils now existing under ordinary form s o f govern- ment (lawsuit s abou t contracts , conviction s fo r perjury , an d obsequious flatterie s o f the rich ) are denounce d a s due t o th e absence o f a syste m o f commo n property. * Non e o f these , however, i s due t o propert y no t bein g held i n common. The y all aris e fro m wickedness . Indee d i t i s a fac t o f observatio n that thos e wh o ow n commo n property , an d shar e i n it s management, are fa r more ofte n a t varianc e wit h one anothe r than thos e wh o hav e propert y separately—thoug h thos e wh o are a t varianc e i n consequence o f sharin g i n property loo k t o us fe w i n numbe r whe n w e compar e the m wit h th e mas s o f those who own their property privately. *

I203b27 Wha t i s more, justice demands tha t w e should tak e into accoun t no t onl y th e evil s whic h peopl e wil l b e spare d when the y have begu n t o hol d thei r propert y i n common, bu t also th e benefit s o f which the y will b e deprived. Their lif e ca n be seen to be utterly impossible.

I203b29 Th e caus e o f th e fallac y int o whic h 'Socrates ' fall s must b e held t o b e his incorrect premiss. * I t i s true tha t unity in som e respect s i s necessary bot h fo r th e househol d an d fo r the city , bu t unit y i n al l respect s i s not . Ther e i s a poin t a t which a city , b y advancin g i n unity , wil l ceas e t o b e a city : there i s anothe r poin t a t whic h i t wil l stil l b e a city , bu t a worse on e becaus e i t ha s com e clos e t o ceasin g altogethe r t o be a city . I t i s a s i f yo u wer e t o tur n harmon y int o mer e

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P O L I T I C S n . 5 4 9 unison, o r to reduce a theme to a single beat. Th e truth is that the city, as has alread y been said , is a plurality; and educatio n is therefore the means of making it a communit y an d givin g it unity. I t i s therefor e surprisin g tha t on e wh o intend s t o introduce a syste m o f education , an d wh o believe s that th e city ca n achiev e goodnes s b y mean s o f thi s system , shoul d none th e les s thin k tha t h e i s settin g i t o n th e righ t trac k b y such method s a s h e actuall y proposes , rathe r tha n b y th e method o f socia l customs , o f menta l culture , an d o f legislation.* A n exampl e o f suc h legislatio n may b e foun d in Sparta an d Crete, wher e the legislator has made the institution of propert y serv e a commo n us e b y th e syste m o f commo n meals.

1264*1 Ther e i s another matte r whic h mus t no t b e ignored: we ar e boun d t o pa y som e regar d t o th e lon g pas t an d th e passage o f th e years , i n whic h thes e thing s woul d no t hav e gone unnotice d i f the y ha d bee n reall y good . Almos t every- thing ha s bee n discovere d already;* thoug h som e thing s have not bee n combine d wit h on e another , an d other s ar e no t pu t into practice . I t woul d she d a grea t dea l o f ligh t o n thes e matters, i f w e coul d watc h th e actua l constructio n o f suc h a constitution. Th e foundatio n of an y cit y wil l alway s involve the divisio n an d distributio n o f it s member s int o classes , partly i n th e for m o f association s fo r commo n meals , an d partly i n tha t o f clan s an d tribes . I t follow s tha t th e onl y peculiar featur e o f th e legislation * is the rul e that th e guard - ians ar e no t t o far m th e land ; an d eve n tha t i s a rul e which the Spartans ar e already attempting to follow . iz64aii 'Socrates ' doe s no t explai n th e characte r o f th e

whole constitutio n s o fa r a s concern s thos e wh o shar e i n it , nor indee d is it eas y to explain . The mas s of the citizen s who are no t guardian s wil l be , i n effect , nearl y th e whol e o f th e citizen body . Bu t thei r position i s left undefined. * W e ar e no t told whether the farmers are also to have property in common, or t o ow n i t individually ; no r d o w e lear n whethe r thei r women an d childre n ar e t o b e commo n t o the m all , o r t o belong to each separately. I204ai7 Th e first alternative i s that al l things should belon g

to them all in common. In that case, what will be the differenc e

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50 P O L I T I C S II . 5

between them and the guardians ? Wha t advantag e wil l the y gain b y acceptin g th e governmen t o f th e guardians ? Wha t convinces them actuall y t o accep t it?—unles s i t b e som e device suc h a s i s used i n Crete , wher e the serf s ar e allowe d t o enjoy th e sam e genera l privilege s a s thei r masters , an d ar e excluded onl y fro m athleti c exercise s an d th e possessio n o f arms.

1264*22 Th e secon d alternativ e i s tha t thes e institution s should b e the sam e fo r th e farmer s as the y ar e in mos t citie s today. I n tha t case , w e ma y inquire , wha t th e characte r o f their association * wil l be ? There wil l inevitabl y b e tw o citie s in one , an d thos e citie s wil l b e oppose d t o on e another—th e guardians bein g mad e int o somethin g o f th e natur e o f a n army o f occupation , an d th e farmers , artisans , an d other s being give n th e positio n o f ordinar y civilians . Again , lega l complaints, an d action s a t law , an d al l th e othe r evil s which he describe s as existin g in citie s a s the y are , wil l equall y exist among them . Certainl y 'Socrates ' say s that , i n virtu e o f thei r education, the y wil l no t nee d a numbe r o f regulations * (such as city ordinances, market by-laws , and th e like) ; but i t is also true tha t h e provide s educatio n onl y fo r th e guardians . A further difficult y i s tha t h e ha s th e farmer s contro l thei r holdings on conditio n tha t the y pay a quot a o f their produc e to th e guardians. This is likely to make them far more difficul t to handle , an d muc h mor e filled with high ideas o f thei r own importance, tha n other people's helots, penestae,* o r serfs .

1264*36 I n an y cas e ther e i s n o indicatio n whethe r i t i s necessary fo r thes e arrangement s t o b e th e sam e [fo r th e farmers a s fo r th e guardians ] o r not , no r ar e othe r matter s connected wit h this mad e clear—matter s suc h a s the positio n of th e farmer s i n th e politica l system , th e natur e o f thei r education, an d th e characte r o f th e la w the y ar e t o observe . We thu s fin d i t difficul t t o discove r wha t th e farmin g clas s will be like , and ye t this is a matter o f the highes t importanc e if th e commo n lif e o f th e guardian s i s t o b e preserved . Th e third an d las t alternativ e i s tha t th e farmer s shoul d hav e a system o f communit y o f women , combine d wit h a syste m of private property . I n tha t case , wh o wil l se e to th e hous e while the men ar e seein g t o th e busines s o f the fields? And, fo r tha t

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P O L I T I C S II . 6 5 1

matter, who wil l see to the house, whe n the farmer s hav e property a s well as women in common? It i s strange, too , tha t Plato shoul d draw a n analogy fro m th e animal worl d in orde r to prov e tha t wome n should follo w th e sam e pursuits a s men. Animals do not have households to manage.* iz64b6 Ther e is also a n elemen t of dange r i n th e metho d o f

government whic h 'Socrates' propose s to institute . He make s the sam e peopl e b e rulers all the time . This i s a syste m which must caus e factiona l conflic t eve n amon g th e element s which have n o particula r standing , an d al l th e more , therefore , among th e high-spirite d an d martia l elements . I t i s obviously necessary for hi m to make th e sam e people ruler s all the time. The 'divin e gold' * cannot b e sometime s mixe d in the soul s of one grou p an d sometime s i n thos e o f another , bu t mus t always b e i n th e sam e people . Thi s i s why h e say s that whe n they were first created 'th e god mixed gold in the composition' of some , silve r in that o f others, an d bras s an d iro n in that of the rest, who were to be craftsmen and farmers . It is a furthe r objection tha t h e deprive s hi s guardian s eve n o f happiness, * maintaining tha t th e objec t o f the legislato r shoul d b e for th e whole cit y t o b e happy . I t i s impossible fo r th e whol e cit y t o be happ y unles s all , o r most , o r a t leas t som e o f its part s ar e happy. The qualit y of being happy is not o f the sam e order a s the qualit y o f bein g even. That ma y exis t i n a whol e withou t existing i n eithe r o f it s parts : th e quality o f bein g happ y cannot. Furthermore , i f th e guardian s ar e no t happy , wh o else is ? Certainl y no t th e craftsmen , o r th e mas s o f th e common people .

1264^24 W e ma y thu s conclud e tha t th e constitutio n whic h 'Socrates' describe s raise s al l th e difficultie s w e hav e men - tioned, an d others which are no less serious.

C H A P T E R 6

2. Plato's Laws. The scheme of th e Laws is not greatly different from that of the Republic . // postulates too large a territory, but fails to pay proper attention to the problem of foreign relations. It does not sufficiently define the amount of property required, or the object for which it is required; nor does it make

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52 P O L I T I C S II . 6

proper provision for a balance between property and population. The system of government is a sort of 'constitutional govern- ment', but it is not properly balanced: the method of electing officials and councillors is too oligarchical.

1264*26 Th e same , o r nearl y the same , i s true o f the Laws;* which i s a late r work . Thi s make s i t advisabl e fo r u s t o examine briefl y th e constitutio n ther e described . A furthe r reason fo r doing so is that i n the Republic 'Socrates' attempte d to resolv e onl y a ver y smal l numbe r o f issues—mainl y th e proper metho d fo r ensurin g communit y o f wome n an d chil - dren an d communit y o f property , an d th e structur e o f th e constitution. H e divide s th e populatio n int o tw o parts : on e consists o f th e farmers , th e othe r o f th e militar y class ; an d from thi s las t i s selecte d a thir d part , th e deliberativ e an d sovereign class . Bu t s o fa r a s th e farmer s an d artisan s ar e concerned, 'Socrates ' leave s i t unsettle d whethe r the y ar e t o share i n som e office s o r i n none, an d whethe r or no t the y ar e to bea r arm s an d join i n militar y service . H e think s tha t th e women shoul d join i n the militar y servic e an d enjo y the sam e education a s th e mal e guardians ; bu t otherwis e h e ha s filled up th e dialogu e wit h digression s extraneou s t o th e mai n theme, and wit h a discussion o f the proper manne r o f educat - ing the guardians .

1265*1 Th e grea t bul k o f the Laws is concerned wit h legisla- tion. H e say s littl e abou t th e constitution; * an d i n wha t h e does say , thoug h h e speak s of desirin g t o institut e a for m o f government whic h will be more i n th e reac h o f existing cities, he graduall y bring s th e for m he propose s roun d agai n t o th e other type * [i.e . t o tha t describe d i n th e Republic]. I n al l matters othe r tha n communit y o f wome n an d property , h e provides identica l institution s fo r bot h o f hi s constitutions . Education i s th e sam e i n both : th e member s o f bot h ar e t o live a lif e fre e fro m menia l duties : ther e i s th e sam e arrange - ment for common meals in both. The only difference s ar e tha t in the Laws there are to b e common meal s for women and th e number o f citizen s wh o bea r arms, * whic h i n th e Republic is only 1,000 , is to be fixed at a total of 5,000. I205aio Al l th e Socrati c dialogue s ar e original: * the y sho w

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P O L I T I C S n . 6 5 3 ingenuity, novelt y o f view, and a spiri t o f inquiry . T o handl e everything well is perhaps a difficul t thing . Take , for example, the numbe r o f citizen s whic h ha s jus t bee n mentioned . W e cannot overloo k th e fac t tha t suc h a numbe r wil l requir e a territory o f th e siz e o f Babylo n o r som e spac e whic h i s similarly unlimite d in extent . I t wil l nee d al l tha t t o suppor t 5,000 peopl e i n idleness , especiall y whe n w e reflec t tha t the y will b e augmente d b y a crow d o f wome n an d attendant s many time s a s grea t a s themselves . I t i s righ t t o assum e th e most desirabl e condition s bu t no t t o assum e anythin g whic h is plainly impossible.

T205ai8 I t i s state d [i n the Laws] tha t ther e ar e tw o factor s to which the legislator shoul d pa y regard i n enacting laws : the territory o f th e city , an d th e inhabitant s o f tha t territory. * But ther e i s als o a thir d factor . I f a cit y i s t o liv e a politica l life, an d no t a lif e o f isolation , i t i s a goo d thin g tha t it s legislator shoul d als o pa y regar d t o neighbourin g countries . For example , a city shoul d emplo y no t onl y such instrument s of wa r a s ar e serviceabl e i n it s ow n territor y bu t als o suc h a s are serviceabl e fo r us e abroad . Eve n i f on e doe s no t accep t this wa y o f life * a s desirabl e fo r th e individua l o r fo r th e cit y as a whol e i t i s non e th e les s essentia l t o b e formidabl e t o enemies both whe n they are invading one's territory an d when they are in retreat. I205a28 Th e amoun t o f property shoul d als o b e considered ;

and we have to as k whether it is not bette r t o determin e it in a different, o r rathe r a mor e definite , way . H e state s tha t th e amount shoul d b e 'sufficien t fo r a lif e o f temperance' , a s though thi s wa s equivalen t t o 'sufficien t fo r a goo d life' ; th e latter is , o f course , a mor e genera l expressio n an d i t is , moreover, possibl e fo r a lif e t o b e both temperat e an d miser - able. A bette r definitio n woul d be , 'sufficien t fo r a lif e o f temperance an d generosity', * fo r i f thes e qualitie s ar e separ - ated, generosit y wil l b e accompanie d b y luxury , an d temper - ance b y hardship. The y ar e th e onl y qualities t o b e desired i n the us e o f wealth : on e cannot , fo r example , [b e sai d to ] us e wealth i n a meek o r i n a manly spirit; but on e ca n us e it bot h in a temperat e an d i n a generou s spirit . Thes e mus t therefor e be the qualities involved in the use of wealth.

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54 P O L I T I C S ii. 6 I205a38 I t i s strange that h e shoul d distribut e landed prop -

erty in equal lots, without making any corresponding arrange - ments to fix the number o f citizens.* He imposes no restriction on the production o f children, on the assumption tha t however many childre n ma y b e bor n [i n som e families] , infertilit y [i n others] will keep the numbe r level . The reaso n [wh y he makes this assumption] is that it appears to b e what actually happens in existin g cities . Bu t a constan t populatio n wil l nee d t o b e maintained wit h far mor e accurac y tha n i t is in existing cities. As thing s ar e now , propertie s ca n b e freel y divide d t o cove r the whol e population, howeve r large i t ma y be , an d nobod y need be destitute, but unde r these proposals the properties ar e indivisible, an d an y surplu s populatio n whic h ma y arise , whether it be large o r small , will have no propert y a t all . On e would hav e though t tha t i t wa s eve n mor e necessar y t o limi t the rat e o f reproductio n s o tha t n o mor e tha n a certai n number o f childre n shoul d b e produced , tha n t o limi t prop - erty. The rate of reproduction shoul d b e fixed to allo w for th e chances bot h o f mortalit y amon g childre n an d o f infertilit y among marrie d couples . I f n o restrictio n i s impose d o n th e rate o f reproductio n (an d thi s i s th e cas e i n mos t o f ou r existing cities) , povert y is the inevitabl e result ; and povert y produces, i n it s turn , factiona l dispute s an d wrongdoing . Pheidon o f Corinth , on e o f th e earlies t legislators , hel d tha t the numbe r o f famil y plot s an d th e numbe r of citizens should be kep t equa l t o on e another , eve n i f th e citizen s ha d al l started originall y with plots o f unequal size ; but wha t w e find in the Laws is the opposite .

I265bi6 W e must leav e t o a late r occasion * an y discussio n of the improvement s which might be suggested in this scheme . Another omissio n i n th e Laws i s th e failur e t o explai n ho w the rulers are to diffe r fro m th e ruled. He simpl y uses a simile: the relation o f ruler an d ruled , he suggests, should b e like that of warp an d woof, * whic h are made ou t o f different wools . It is a furthe r omissio n tha t whil e h e allow s someone' s whol e property t o b e increase d fivefold, * h e doe s no t explai n wh y his plo t o f land shoul d no t als o b e allowe d t o increas e up t o some give n point . Th e distributio n o f th e farmhouse s i s an - other subjec t whic h need s furthe r consideration : i t hardl y

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P O L I T I C S n . 6 5 5 seems t o conduc e t o efficienc y o f household management. H e assigns two quite separate plots o f land* to each o f its citizens but i t is difficult t o liv e in two houses.

I265b26 Th e whole system tends to be one neither o f democ- racy no r o f oligarchy , bu t rathe r a n intermediat e form , o f th e sort whic h i s usuall y calle d 'constitutiona l government ' [o r polity]:* th e citizens , for example , are draw n onl y fro m thos e who bea r arms . I f his vie w i n constructing this constitution i s that it represents th e for m whic h is most readily attainabl e by most cities , h e ma y ver y well be right ; bu t i f h e regard s i t a s the for m whic h come s nex t i n meri t t o hi s firs t for m o f constitution [i.e . tha t i n th e Republic], h e i s mistaken : on e might commen d mor e highl y th e constitutio n o f Sparta , o r some othe r for m o f a more aristocrati c character. * There are , indeed, som e thinker s wh o hol d tha t th e bes t constitutio n should b e a mixtur e o f al l constitutions ; an d the y commend , for thi s reason , th e constitutio n o f Sparta . Som e sa y that th e Spartan constitutio n i s compose d o f al l th e thre e elements , monarchy, oligarchy , an d democracy : monarch y i s repre - sented b y th e tw o kings ; oligarch y b y th e Counci l o f Elders ; and democrac y by the Ephors, wh o are drawn fro m th e ranks of th e people . Others , however , regar d th e Ephoralt y a s representing tyranny ; an d thes e conside r tha t th e elemen t of democracy appear s i n th e syste m o f commo n meals , an d i n the genera l habi t o f dail y life . Bu t i n th e Laws i t i s claime d that th e bes t constitutio n shoul d b e compose d o f democrac y and tyranny , form s whic h on e woul d classif y eithe r a s no t constitutions a t al l or as the worst of all constitutions.* Those who combin e mor e form s pu t forwar d a bette r view ; fo r a constitution i s better whe n it i s composed o f mor e numerou s elements.

I266a5 I t i s a furthe r objectio n tha t thi s constitutio n ha s really n o elemen t o f monarchy , bu t onl y th e element s o f oligarchy an d democracy , wit h a particula r inclinatio n to - wards oligarchy.* This appears clearly in the method proposed for appointin g officials. * Th e us e of the lo t fo r th e purpos e o f finally choosing official s fro m thos e who have been previously elected combine s democrac y wit h oligarchy . Bu t compellin g the riche r citizen s to atten d th e assembly , t o vot e i n elections

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56 P O L I T I C S n . 6 of officials , an d t o discharg e othe r form s o f politica l duty , while th e othe r citizen s are allowe d t o abstai n i s oligarchical . So is the attemp t t o secur e a greate r numbe r o f office-holder s from th e wealthie r class , an d t o fil l th e highes t office s fro m the rank s o f thos e whos e assessment s ar e highest . H e als o makes th e metho d o f electing councillor s oligarchical. Al l the citizens, it is true, ar e compelled t o tak e part in the election of candidates fro m th e firs t assessmen t class , an d o f a n equa l number fro m th e second . The y then elect candidates fro m th e third class , bu t i t is not compulsor y fo r everyon e to tak e par t in electio n o f candidate s fro m th e thir d an d fourt h classes , indeed i n the electio n fro m th e fourt h clas s onl y the members of th e firs t an d secon d classe s ar e compelle d to vote . [Al l this relates t o th e proces s o f pre-election. ] Then , fro m thos e [chosen i n thi s way] , ther e mus t next , h e says , b e elected , a n equal numbe r fo r eac h assessmen t class . Th e resul t wil l b e that th e elector s wh o hav e th e larges t assessment s an d ar e of better characte r wil l for m th e majority , becaus e man y o f th e common people, no t bein g compelled to vote, will not do so. iz66a22 Thes e considerations, an d other s which will be men-

tioned whe n th e tim e come s fo r u s t o examin e thi s sor t o f constitution, ar e sufficien t t o prov e tha t i t shoul d no t b e formed b y combining democracy an d monarchy. We may ad d that ther e i s als o a dange r i n th e metho d o f electin g th e officials b y th e doubl e proces s o f pre-electio n an d a fina l election. I f a kno t o f people, eve n o f moderate size , decid e t o act in combination th e elections will always be decided accord - ing to their preference. I266ai8 Thes e ar e th e consideration s whic h ar e raise d b y

the constitution describe d in the Laws.

C H A P T E R 7

3. Phaleas of Chalcedon. His proposal for the equalization of property in land. It would involve regulation of the population: it would also involve determination of the exact standard on which equality was to be achieved. Generally, equality matters more in the moral, or educational, sphere than in the material: disorder and crime are due to moral defects as well as to

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P O L I T I C S ii. 7 5 7 economic causes. The amount and distribution of property in a city are affected by considerations of foreign as well as domestic policy; but the essential criticism of Phaleas is that he lays too much emphasis on material factors.

I266a3i Ther e ar e als o a numbe r o f othe r scheme s fo r ne w constitutions, som e o f the m propose d b y laymen , an d other s by me n wh o wer e verse d i n philosoph y o r statesmanship . They al l com e neare r t o th e existin g constitutions , unde r which peopl e ar e no w actuall y living , than doe s eithe r o f th e schemes propose d b y Plato . N o othe r thinke r ha s propose d such novelties as community of wives and childre n or commo n meals for women: on the contrary, thinker s have rather started from th e immediat e necessitie s o f life . Thu s ther e ar e som e who hol d tha t th e prope r regulatio n o f propert y i s mor e important tha n an y othe r object , because , s o the y say , i t i s about thi s issu e tha t factiona l conflict s alway s arise . Phalea s of Chalcedon * wa s th e firs t t o sugges t thi s an d h e propose d accordingly that all the citizens should have equal amount s o f property. H e though t tha t i n ne w colonie s thi s coul d b e achieved, withou t an y difficulty , a t th e moment o f their foun - dation. Citie s whic h were already established woul d present a greater problem ; bu t eve n her e equalit y coul d b e intro - duced—and tha t i n th e shortes t possibl e time—i f th e ric h gave dowrie s bu t di d no t receiv e them , an d th e poor , con - versely, receive d bu t di d no t giv e them . Plato , whe n h e wa s writing th e Laws, wa s o f th e opinio n tha t th e amoun t o f property shoul d b e lef t unrestricte d u p t o a give n point ; beyond tha t point , h e was in favour of restriction, proposing , as has alread y bee n said , tha t n o citize n shoul d be allowed t o accumulate t o a n extent whic h would make his property more than five times as large as the smalles t property owne d by any other citizen.

I266b8 Thos e wh o propos e suc h legislatio n ough t no t t o forget, a s the y continually do , tha t regulatio n o f th e amoun t of propert y ough t t o b e accompanie d b y regulatio n o f th e number o f childre n i n th e family . I f th e numbe r o f childre n gets ou t o f proportio n t o th e amoun t o f th e property , th e abrogation o f th e la w mus t necessaril y follow ; and , apart

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58 P O L I T I C S ii . 7

from thi s abrogation , i t i s a sorr y thin g tha t a larg e numbe r of peopl e shoul d b e reduce d fro m comfor t t o penury . I t i s difficult fo r me n wh o hav e suffere d tha t fat e no t t o b e revolutionaries. Eve n i n time s past , ther e wer e som e wh o clearly recognize d tha t suc h equalit y ha d a n influenc e o n th e character o f a politica l association . W e may cit e th e exampl e of Solon' s legislation; * an d i n othe r citie s to o ther e i s a la w which prevent s me n fro m acquirin g lan d t o an y exten t the y desire. Similarl y there are laws to be foun d which preven t th e sale o f property : amon g th e Locrians , fo r instance , ther e i s a law t o th e effec t tha t me n canno t sel l thei r propert y unles s they ca n prov e tha t a n eviden t misfortun e has befalle n them . There ar e als o law s which provide that th e origina l lot s must be maintaine d intact : i t wa s th e abrogatio n o f suc h a la w a t Leucas, to mentio n on e instance, which made th e constitutio n excessively democratic ; a s a result , thos e wh o possesse d th e necessary legal qualification no longe r came into office . Bu t i t is possibl e tha t equalit y o f propert y ma y exist , an d ye t th e amount possesse d b y eac h individua l ma y b e eithe r undul y large, which leads to luxury , or undul y small, which results in penury. I t i s therefor e clea r tha t i t i s no t enoug h fo r th e legislator t o establis h th e equalit y o f property : i t i s [also ] necessary t o ai m at a moderat e amount . Bu t eve n if one were to fi x th e sam e moderat e amoun t fo r each , ther e woul d still be n o gain . I t i s mor e necessar y t o equaliz e people' s desire s than thei r properties ; an d tha t i s a resul t whic h canno t b e achieved unles s the y ar e adequatel y traine d b y th e influenc e of laws . Phaleas , however , migh t possibl y retor t tha t thi s i s just th e vie w which he himself propounds; fo r i t is his opinion that citie s should practise equality i n two things: property an d education. Bu t i n that cas e w e ought t o be tol d wha t i s to b e the characte r o f the education . Ther e woul d be no rea l gain if it wer e merely one an d th e sam e fo r all ; fo r i t i s possible fo r education t o b e on e an d th e same for all , an d ye t t o b e o f a character whic h will produce a disposition t o cove t wealth, o r to cove t office , o r t o cove t both . Thi s raise s a furthe r point : factional conflic t arise s no t onl y from inequalit y of property , but als o fro m inequalit y o f offices . Bu t thes e tw o kind s o f inequality wor k in opposite ways . The masses become révolu-

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P O L I T I C S n . 7 5 9 tionary whe n th e distributio n o f propert y i s unequal. Me n o f education becom e revolutionar y whe n th e distributio n o f office i s equal.* This is the point o f the saying :

Office an d honour ar e one and th e same for the good an d th e bad man.*

1267*2 Bu t people d o no t commi t crime s solel y because o f a lack of necessities, a condition fo r which Phalea s think s equal - ity o f propert y wil l b e a remed y sinc e i t wil l serv e t o preven t men fro m stealin g simpl y through col d o r hunger . The y als o commit crimes t o get the pleasure it gives and to rid themselves of desire . I f the y hav e a desir e whic h goe s beyon d th e simpl e necessities o f life , the y wil l tur n criminal s t o cur e it . Thi s i s not th e onl y reason : eve n whe n the y d o no t hav e an y desir e they d o wron g just i n orde r t o enjo y thos e kind s o f pleasur e which are unaccompanied b y pain. I207a9 Wha t i s th e remed y fo r thes e thre e kind s o f crime ?

For th e first kind, we may answer, some modicum o f propert y and som e sor t o f work ; fo r th e second , a temperat e disposi - tion; a s fo r th e thir d kind , w e ca n onl y sa y tha t i f ther e ar e men wh o wan t t o ge t unmixe d pleasur e purel y b y thei r ow n effort, the y wil l fin d n o cur e excep t i n th e ai d o f philosophy ; for al l pleasure s othe r tha n tha t o f philosoph y nee d th e assistance o f others . Th e greates t crime s ar e committe d no t for th e sak e o f necessities , bu t fo r th e sak e o f superfluities . Men d o no t becom e tyrant s i n orde r t o avoi d exposur e t o cold. Thi s i s th e reaso n wh y grea t honour s ar e pai d t o someone wh o kill s not a mere thief, bu t a tyrant . W e thus see that th e genera l schem e o f th e constitutio n propose d b y Phaleas avail s only against the lesser crimes. I207ai7 Furthermore , whil e Phalea s seek s t o arrang e mos t

of the details o f his scheme wit h a view to th e proper workin g of the constitutio n internally , he ought als o t o mak e arrange - ments to meet the problem o f defence against al l neighbouring and foreign cities . It is therefore necessary that the constitutio n should b e constructed wit h a view to militar y strength; and o f this Phaleas ha s nothing t o say . The same applies t o property . It shoul d b e adequat e no t onl y a s a basi s fo r th e politica l

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6o P O L I T I C S u. y activities o f th e citizen s internally , bu t als o a s a resourc e fo r meeting externa l dangers . Thi s latte r consideratio n suggest s the prope r amount . O n th e on e hand , i t shoul d no t b e s o large that neighbouring and mor e powerfu l citie s will covet it , while it s owner s ar e unabl e t o repe l a n attack : o n th e othe r hand, i t shoul d no t b e s o smal l tha t thos e wh o ow n i t ar e unable t o sustai n th e burde n o f a wa r eve n wit h citie s equa l and simila r t o thei r own . Phalea s ha s give n us no indication ; but w e mus t no t forge t tha t some amoun t o f propert y i s a n advantage. Perhaps , therefore , th e bes t criterio n o f tha t amount i s that stronger citie s shall find no advantag e in going to wa r wit h a cit y because it s wealth i s excessive, but wil l g o to wa r wit h i t onl y i n circumstance s i n whic h the y woul d d o so even if its wealt h wer e less than i t is . There i s an historica l incident whic h illustrate s ou r argument . Whe n th e Persia n Autophradates wa s plannin g t o besieg e Atarneus , Eubulus * asked hi m t o conside r th e lengt h o f tim e which it would tak e to captur e it , an d t o calculat e th e expens e whic h a sieg e o f that duratio n woul d mean. H e was willing, he said, t o surren - der th e town immediatel y fo r les s tha n tha t amount . B y saying thi s h e cause d Autophradates , afte r a littl e reflection, to abandon th e siege. I207a37 A syste m whic h give s equa l propertie s t o al l th e

citizens ha s a certai n advantage , i n tha t i t help s t o preven t mutual discord; but the advantage, on the whole, is inconsider- able. The educate d woul d be aggrieve d b y the system , feelin g that the y deserved something more than mere equality; indeed, as a matter o f actual observation , they often ris e in revolt and cause civi c discor d fo r thi s ver y reason . Th e wickednes s o f human being s is insatiable: a t first two obol s were a sufficien t allowance,* bu t no w tha t thi s ha s becom e th e traditio n me n are alway s wanting something more , an d ar e neve r contented until the y get to infinity . It is the natur e of desir e to be infinite, an d mos t peopl e liv e fo r th e satisfactio n o f desire . The sourc e fro m whic h a remed y fo r suc h evil s ma y b e expected i s no t th e equalizatio n o f property , bu t rathe r a method o f trainin g whic h ensure s tha t th e bette r sor t o f people hav e no desir e to mak e themselve s riche r whil e the poorer sor t hav e n o opportunit y t o d o so . Th e latte r objec t

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P O L I T I C S II . 8 6 l

will b e attaine d i f thos e concerne d ar e pu t i n a n inferio r position without being subjected to injustice.

I267b9 Eve n in regar d t o hi s proposal fo r equalit y o f prop- erty Phalea s ha s expresse d himsel f imperfectly . H e woul d equalize property only in land; but wealt h ma y also consist in slaves, cattle , an d money , an d i n additio n ther e wil l b e a considerable stoc k o f wha t ar e calle d movables . Th e prope r course i s eithe r t o dea l wit h al l thes e form s o f wealt h b y a n equal distributio n o r b y fixing a moderat e maximum , o r t o leave all alike unregulated. I t i s also evident , from th e legisla- tion propose d b y Phaleas, tha t h e proposes t o institut e only a small bod y o f citizens: the artisan s ar e al l to b e public slaves, and ar e no t t o furnis h an y additio n t o th e citize n body . I t may b e th e cas e tha t on e clas s o f artisans—thos e wh o ar e employed o n publi c property—should b e made public slaves. If so , i t ough t t o b e don e o n th e line s which are followe d a t Epidamnus, o r o n th e schem e which Diophantus onc e sough t to introduce at Athens.* I207bi9 Thes e observation s on the constitution propose d by

Phaleas wil l enable on e t o judg e whethe r hi s suggestion s ar e good or bad .

C H A P T E R 8

4. Hippodamus of Miletus. A planner of towns, who also sought to plan cities on new lines. His advocacy of 'triads' —three social classes; three divisions of the territory; three sorts of laws. Criticism of his three classes and three divisions of terri- tory. Criticism of his legal novelties, and especially of his proposal to reward the inventors of reforms. Tradition has its claims; and the value of a law-abiding habit may be greater than that of legal reforms.

I26jb22 Hippodamus * th e so n o f Euryphon , a citize n o f Miletus, wa s th e firs t ma n withou t practica l experienc e o f politics wh o attempte d t o handl e th e them e o f th e bes t for m of constitution . H e wa s a ma n wh o invente d the plannin g of towns i n separat e quarters , an d lai d ou t th e Piraeu s wit h regular roads . I n hi s genera l life , too , h e wa s le d int o som e

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02 P O L I T I C S II . 8

eccentricity b y a desir e t o attrac t attention ; an d thi s mad e some peopl e fee l tha t hi s wa y o f lif e wa s to o studie d an d artificial. H e wor e hi s hai r lon g an d expensivel y adorned: h e had flowin g robes , mad e fro m a chea p bu t war m material , which h e wor e i n summer-tim e a s wel l a s i n winter ; an d h e aspired t o be learned about nature generally.

I267b30 Th e cit y whic h he planne d t o construc t wa s on e of 10,000 citizens, divide d int o thre e classes : th e firs t o f artisans , the secon d o f farmers, an d th e thir d a defenc e forc e equippe d with arms. The territor y was to b e similarly divided int o three parts. One was intended fo r religiou s purposes; th e secon d fo r public use ; and th e thir d wa s to b e private property . Th e first part wa s t o mee t th e expense s o f th e regula r worshi p o f th e civic deities ; th e secon d part , tha t devote d t o publi c use , wa s to suppor t th e defenc e force ; an d th e thir d wa s t o b e th e private propert y o f th e farmin g class . Hippodamu s als o be - lieved tha t ther e ar e onl y thre e classe s o f laws, * fo r h e hel d that ther e ar e three mai n issues , wanton assault , damage , an d homicide, fro m whic h lawsuit s arise . H e proposed , too , tha t there should b e a single supreme court, t o which al l cases that appeared t o hav e been improperl y decided shoul d b e referred ; and thi s court , o n hi s plan , wa s t o b e constitute d o f elder s selected fo r th e purpose . H e also held tha t judgements shoul d not b e given in the courts by the method o f dropping a pebble into th e votin g urn : eac h juryman shoul d deposi t a tablet . I f he gav e a n absolut e verdic t o f condemnatio n agains t th e defendant, h e woul d writ e tha t verdic t o n th e tablet : i f h e gave an absolut e verdict of acquittal, he would leave the table t blank; i f h e wishe d t o recor d a [qualified ] verdict , partl y o f condemnation, an d partl y o f acquittal , h e woul d specif y th e nature o f this verdict. He considered tha t the present arrange - ment result s fro m poo r legislation : i t compel s a juryma n t o violate hi s judicial oath b y deciding the cas e i n favou r o f one side or the other. I268a6 H e als o propose d a la w tha t honour s shoul d b e

conferred o n thos e responsibl e for an y inventio n o f benefit t o the city ; an d h e furthe r suggested , a s a novelt y no t hithert o included i n th e legislatio n o f an y city , tha t th e childre n o f those wh o ha d bee n kille d i n actio n shoul d b e supporte d

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P O L I T I C S II . 8 6 3

at th e publi c expense . (Actually , suc h a la w i s alread y i n existence a t Athens , an d als o i n othe r cities. ) Finally , th e public officials , o n hi s scheme , wer e al l t o b e electe d b y th e people: th e peopl e wa s t o b e constitute d o f th e thre e classe s already mentioned; an d th e official s who m they elected would take charge o f public matters , matter s relating to aliens , an d matters relatin g to orphans .

I268ai4 Thes e are the main and most notable feature s in the political arrangement s propose d b y Hippodamus . Th e firs t criticism whic h w e ma y rais e concern s th e divisio n o f th e citizen body . Th e artisans , th e farmers , an d thos e wh o bea r arms al l shar e i n th e constitution ; bu t th e farmer s d o s o without possessing arms , an d th e artisan s withou t possessin g either land o r arms. This makes them both, in effect, th e slaves of th e clas s i n possessio n o f arms . I t i s thu s impossibl e tha t they should share in all the [office s and ] honours; for necessar - ily member s o f th e clas s whic h possesse s arm s mus t b e ap - pointed a s general s an d protector s o f th e citizens , an d mus t thus hold , i n th e main , th e highes t offices . Bu t ho w ca n thos e who d o not shar e in the constitution b e disposed i n a friendl y way toward s th e constitution ? I t ma y b e rejoine d tha t th e class which possesses arm s ough t t o b e superior t o both o f the other classes . [W e ma y answe r that ] i t wil l b e difficul t fo r them t o b e superio r unles s the y ar e als o numerous . But , i n that case , i s there an y nee d fo r th e othe r tw o classe s to shar e in the constitution, o r t o contro l th e appointmen t o f officials ? And ar e th e farmer s really of any servic e to th e city ? Artisans are necessar y (fo r ever y cit y need s artisans) , an d the y ca n earn a living from thei r crafts in the city proposed by Hippoda- mus a s they do in other cities. I f the farmer s had provide d th e means o f subsistenc e fo r thos e wh o bea r arms , the y migh t reasonably hav e bee n counte d a s a n integra l part o f th e city; but o n th e schem e o f Hippodamu s the y ow n thei r ow n land as privat e property , an d the y wil l far m i t fo r thei r privat e benefit. iz68a35 A furthe r difficult y arise s wit h regar d t o th e thir d

part o f th e territor y whic h i s t o b e commo n property , an d from whic h th e member s o f th e defenc e forc e ar e t o dra w their subsistence . I f th e member s o f th e defenc e forc e far m

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04 P O L I T I C S II . 8

this commo n lan d themselves , ther e wil l b e n o distinction , such a s Hippodamus wishes to establish , between the military and th e fannin g class . If , o n th e othe r hand , thos e wh o farm this commo n lan d ar e t o b e distinc t bot h fro m th e clas s o f those wh o far m thei r ow n lan d an d fro m th e militar y class , we shall have a fourth class in the city; and thi s class will have no shar e in anything whatsoever and wil l be extraneous t o th e constitution. Again , i f one makes the sam e persons wh o farm their ow n lan d far m th e commo n lan d a s well , th e crop s produced b y eac h farme r will no t b e sufficien t i n quantit y fo r two households ; an d th e questio n ma y als o b e fairl y asked , 'Why no t star t a t onc e wit h a syste m b y whic h th e farmers , using al l the sam e land, an d th e sam e estates, wil l a t on e an d the sam e tim e ge t subsistenc e fo r themselve s an d provid e i t for th e militar y class?' Ther e i s grea t confusio n o n al l thes e matters. n68b4 Th e law he proposes i n regard t o judicial decisions is

also unsatisfactory . He prescribe s tha t a juryman shoul d give a qualifie d verdict, even though th e case on which he gives his decision i s state d withou t qualification . Thi s is , i n effect , t o prescribe tha t th e juryma n shoul d becom e a n arbitrator . A qualified verdic t i s possibl e i n a cour t o f arbitration , eve n when ther e ar e severa l arbitrator s (fo r the y ca n confe r wit h one another i n order t o determin e thei r verdict); but i n courts of la w thi s i s impossible , sinc e mos t legislators , fa r fro m permitting this, lay down measures to ensur e that the jurymen shall no t communicate. * Ho w coul d a decisio n no t produc e confusion whe n a juryma n i s o f th e opinio n tha t damage s should b e given, but no t t o th e amount fo r whic h the plaintiff sues? A plaintiff , fo r example , ma y su e fo r 2 0 miria e bu t a juryman wil l give a verdict fo r 1 0 (or a plaintiff may su e for a still larger sum and a juryman will give a verdict for somethin g still less) ; another juryma n wil l giv e a verdic t fo r 5 , an d stil l another a verdic t fo r 4 . In thi s way , it is obvious, th e variou s jurymen who giv e a qualifie d verdic t wil l each awar d a differ - ent proportio n o f th e amoun t claimed . Som e wil l awar d th e whole su m claimed , whil e som e wil l awar d nothin g a t all . What i s th e metho d o f estimatin g [th e tota l effec t of ] th e decisions thus given?

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P O L I T I C S II . 8 6 5

I268bi7 Furthermore , w e must notice tha t a plain verdic t of pure acquittal or pure condemnation never compels a juryman to violat e hi s oath, * provide d tha t th e cas e itsel f ha s bee n duly lai d i n a plai n an d unqualifie d form . Th e juryman wh o gives a verdict for acquittal doe s not decid e that th e defendant owes nothing ; h e onl y decides [fo r example] that h e doe s no t owe 2 0 minae. Th e onl y juryman wh o reall y violate s his oath is on e wh o give s a verdic t against th e defendan t althoug h h e does no t believ e tha t h e owe s th e 2 0 mina e claime d b y th e plaintiff.

I268b22 A s fo r th e ide a tha t som e honou r ough t t o b e conferred o n thos e wh o sugges t a n improvemen t whic h i s of benefit t o th e city , legislation i n such a sens e cannot b e safel y enacted, an d ha s onl y a speciou s sound . I t migh t encourag e malicious accusations an d changes in the constitution. Bu t the proposal als o involves another problem, and suggests a furthe r argument. Som e peopl e rais e a doub t whethe r citie s los e o r gain b y changing their traditional law s even if some othe r la w is better. I f [o n this issue we take th e lin e that] change i s not a. gain, i t i s difficult t o agre e readil y with th e proposa l mad e b y Hippodamus; i t i s possibl e tha t peopl e migh t propos e th e overthrow of the laws , or of the constitution , as being for the common good . However , a s th e issu e ha s no w bee n men - tioned, i t wil l b e a s wel l t o defin e ou r view s abou t i t a littl e further. I t is , a s w e hav e said , a n issu e whic h i s ope n t o debate; and a cas e may be mad e for the vie w tha t chang e is the bette r policy . Certainl y i n othe r branche s o f knowledg e change ha s prove d beneficial . W e ma y cit e i n evidenc e th e changes fro m traditiona l practic e whic h hav e bee n mad e i n medicine, i n physica l training , an d generall y i n al l kind s o f craft an d skill ; and sinc e politic s mus t be see n as one of these , it seem s that th e sam e mus t als o b e tru e o f it . I t ca n als o b e argued tha t th e actua l fact s provide a n indication . I n ancien t times custom s wer e exceedingl y simple an d barbaric : Greek s went abou t armed , an d bough t thei r bride s fro m eac h other . Indeed the relics of ancient customs which are still in existence, here an d there , ar e absurd . Ther e is , fo r instance , a la w a t Cyme, relatin g t o homicide , tha t i f a n accuse r ca n produc e a certain numbe r of witnesses from hi s own kinsmen, the perso n

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66 P O L I T I C S n . 8 accused shal l b e liable to th e charge of murder. All men, a s a rule, seek , no t wha t i s sanctione d b y tradition , bu t wha t i s good; an d th e earlies t know n huma n beings , whethe r the y were 'earth-born', o r the survivor s of some cataclysm, wer e in all probabilit y simila r t o ordinar y o r eve n foolis h peopl e [today]. (Indee d tha t i s actuall y th e tal e tha t i s tol d o f th e 'earth-born' men. ) I t woul d therefor e b e a n absurdit y t o remain constan t to thei r notions. But besides these considera - tions, i t ma y als o b e urge d tha t t o leav e written law s un - changed i s not a good policy . The reason i s that i n matters of political organization , a s in th e art s generally , it i s impossible for everythin g t o b e writte n dow n precisely : wha t i s written down mus t b e i n genera l terms , bu t action s ar e concerne d with particulars.* I209ai2 Bu t while these arguments g o t o sho w tha t i n some

cases, an d a t some times , la w ough t t o b e changed , ther e i s another poin t o f vie w fro m whic h i t woul d appea r tha t change is a matter which needs great caution. When we reflect that th e improvemen t likel y to b e effecte d ma y b e small , an d that i t is a bad thin g t o accusto m me n to abrogat e law s light - heartedly, it becomes clear tha t there are some errors made by legislators an d b y ruler s whic h ha d bette r b e lef t untouched . The benefi t o f chang e wil l b e les s than th e los s which is likely to resul t i f men fal l int o th e habi t o f disobeyin g th e govern - ment. W e mus t als o notic e tha t th e analog y draw n fro m th e arts is false. T o chang e the practic e of an art i s not th e sam e as t o chang e a law . The la w ha s n o othe r sourc e o f strengt h through whic h t o secur e obedienc e apar t fro m habit . Bu t habit ca n b e create d onl y b y th e passag e o f time ; an d a readiness t o chang e fro m existin g to ne w an d differen t law s will accordingl y ten d t o weake n th e genera l powe r o f law . Further question s ma y als o b e raised . Eve n i f it i s allowabl e to mak e a change , doe s tha t hol d tru e o r no t o f al l laws an d in al l constitutions ? An d again , shoul d chang e b e attempte d by anyon e whatsoever , o r onl y b y certai n people ? Thes e points mak e a grea t difference . W e ma y therefor e dismis s this questio n fo r th e present . I t belong s t o a differen t occasion.Cop

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P O L I T I C S II . 9 6 7

B: Actual Constitutions which Approach the Ideal (Chapters 9-12)

C H A P T E R 9 1. The Spartan constitution. The problem of finding a leisured class for the purposes of government: serfdom as a solution: the Spartan Helots. The undue influence of women at Sparta: the bad distribution of property, and its bad effects on the army. The defects of the Ephorate, the Council of Elders, and the dual kingship: defects of the Spartan system of common meals. The bad results of Spartan militarism, and the bad state of the public finances at Sparta.

1269*21) Whe n w e conside r th e constitution s o f Spart a an d Crete—or indeed , fo r tha t matter , o f an y othe r city*—tw o questions emerge . Th e firs t i s whether any o f thei r provision s is goo d o r ba d whe n judge d b y th e standar d o f th e bes t system: th e secon d i s whethe r an y provisio n run s contrar y to th e principle s an d characte r o f thei r constitutions a s established.* I t i s generall y agree d tha t leisure , o r i n othe r words freedo m fro m th e necessit y of labour , shoul d b e avail- able i n a well-ordere d city ; bu t i t i s difficul t t o se e b y wha t mode o f organizatio n thi s leisur e i s t o b e secured. * Th e Penestae [o r serfs] of Thessaly have ofte n revolte d agains t th e Thessalians; an d th e Helot s hav e similarl y revolte d agains t the Spartans , fo r whos e misfortune s the y ar e alway s o n th e watch, just a s i f they lay i n a n ambush . Nothin g similar , it is true, ha s hithert o happene d i n Crete . Perhap s th e reaso n i s that th e neighbourin g cities , althoug h engage d i n mutua l hostilities, never enter int o an y allianc e with revolting serfs: i t is no t t o th e interes t of any, a s each ha s serf s of it s own . Th e neighbours o f Sparta , o n th e othe r hand , Argos , Messenia , and Arcadia, hav e been her enemies. Likewise the early revolts of their serf s agains t th e Thessalian s wer e due to th e fac t tha t they wer e still engaged i n hostilities wit h the people s o n thei r borders, th e Achaeans, th e Perrhaebians, an d the Magnesians . Even i f there wer e no adde d trouble , i n th e handlin g o f serf s

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68 P O L I T I C S ii. 9 there i s the irksom e business of deciding o n wha t footin g on e should associat e wit h them : i f the y ar e kep t o n a loos e rein , they becom e insolent , an d procee d t o clai m equalit y wit h their masters : i f they have a hard life , the y fall int o conspirac y and hatred . Th e mora l i s plain. Thos e wh o suffe r i n this way from havin g a system of serfdom have not discovere d th e bes t mode o f organization.

I269bi2 Th e indulgenc e permitte d t o wome n i s damagin g both t o th e purpos e o f th e constitutio n an d t o th e happines s of th e city . Just a s husban d an d wif e ar e part s o f th e family , so i t i s clea r tha t a cit y shoul d als o b e considere d a s divided almost equall y int o th e mal e an d femal e populations . I n al l constitutions, therefore, where the position o f women is poorly regulated, on e hal f o f th e citize n bod y mus t b e considered a s left untouche d b y the laws. This is what has actuall y happened at Sparta . The legislator who made the Spartan code intende d to mak e th e whol e citizen bod y hardy ; bu t i f he fulfille d tha t intention, a s h e obviousl y did , i n regar d t o th e men , h e ha s wholly neglecte d t o achiev e it i n regard t o th e women , whose lives are full o f every kind o f licence and luxury. The inevitabl e result, i n such a constitution, i s the worshi p of wealth, especi- ally if , a s happen s wit h mos t militar y an d martia l races , th e citizens ar e dominate d b y th e women . (Bu t th e Celt s ar e a n exception t o thi s genera l rule : so , too , ar e suc h people s a s openly approv e o f homosexua l attachments. ) Ther e wa s wisdom i n th e earlies t autho r o f myth s whe n h e paire d Are s and Aphrodite : th e fact s sho w that suc h people s ar e prone t o passionate attachment s eithe r t o me n o r t o women . I t wa s attachments o f the latte r sor t whic h were common i n Sparta ; and th e resul t wa s that , i n th e day s o f he r hegemony , affair s largely fell into the hands o f women. But what is the differenc e between ruler s bein g rule d b y wome n an d wome n bein g actually rulers ? The resul t i s th e same . Eve n i n th e matte r o f courage, whic h is useless in al l life' s ordinar y affair s an d onl y of use , i f i t ha s a use , i n tim e o f war , th e wome n o f Spart a have ha d a mos t mischievou s influence . The y showe d thi s during th e Theba n invasion; * unlik e th e wome n o f othe r cities, the y wer e o f n o us e whatever , an d cause d mor e con - fusion tha n th e enemy.

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P O L I T I C S II . 9 6 9

I209b39 Th e licenc e enjoye d by women seem s t o hav e come about originall y a t Spart a i n a wa y whic h i t i s eas y t o understand. Th e men wer e absent fro m thei r ow n country fo r long period s o n militar y expeditions : the y wer e a t wa r wit h the Argives , an d the n wit h th e Messenian s an d Arcadians . When th e me n returne d t o a lif e o f leisur e an d submitte d themselves t o th e legislato r the y wer e wel l prepare d b y thei r experience of military life ( a lif e whic h requires many kinds of human excellence) . But , a s th e stor y goes , whe n Lycurgus * attempted t o brin g th e wome n withi n th e rang e o f hi s laws, they opposed him , and he had t o abando n th e attempt. Thes e are th e cause s o f wha t happened , an d ar e thu s th e sourc e o f [the Spartans' ] error ; bu t w e hav e t o remembe r tha t w e ar e not concerne d wit h what can, o r cannot, b e excused, bu t with what is right or wrong.

1270*11 Th e defect s in th e positio n o f wome n i n Sparta , a s we hav e alread y suggested , see m no t onl y calculate d t o pro - duce some lack o f harmony i n the constitution, i f we take tha t by itself , bu t als o t o foste r the growt h o f avarice . On e might, indeed, pass from th e observation s just made t o a criticism of the unequa l distributio n o f property . Whil e som e o f th e Spartans hav e com e t o posses s fa r to o muc h property , other s have bee n reduce d t o th e tinies t amount ; an d i n thi s wa y the land ha s mostl y passe d int o th e hand s o f a ver y fe w people . This matte r ha s bee n badly handle d i n their laws . The legisla- tor, ver y rightly , made i t imprope r t o bu y o r sel l property i n land; bu t h e als o allowe d an y perso n wh o s o desire d t o giv e or bequeat h hi s property—thoug h th e sam e result s mus t necessarily follo w i n the on e cas e a s in the other . Abou t two - fifths of th e whol e country actually belong s t o women ; this is due t o th e numbe r o f heiresse s an d th e practic e o f givin g dowries. It would hav e bee n better to hav e had no dowrie s at all, o r t o hav e fixe d them a t a small , o r a t an y rat e a moderate, amount . A s i t is , a citize n ma y giv e th e daughte r who inherit s hi s propert y t o an y ma n who m h e like s (rich o r poor); an d i f he dies intestate befor e he has don e so , th e ma n who i s left i n the positio n o f guardian give s her t o whoeve r he chooses. Th e resul t ha s bee n tha t whil e th e territor y coul d have supporte d 1,50 0 hors e an d 30,00 0 foot , th e actua l

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70 P O L I T I C S II . 9

number wa s les s tha n 1,000 . Th e histor y o f th e Spartan s ha s shown tha t the effect s of this arrangemen t hav e bee n bad for them. Th e cit y wa s unabl e t o withstan d a singl e blow * an d was ruine d fo r wan t o f men . I t i s sai d that , unde r th e earl y kings, th e Spartan s wer e i n th e habi t o f sharin g [citizenshi p with foreigners] , and that , a s a result , ther e wa s n o wan t o f men, i n spit e o f th e lon g wars they were fighting: indeed the y are sai d t o hav e numbered , a t on e time , a s man y a s 10,00 0 citizens. Whethe r thi s statement i s true o r false , Spart a would have don e bette r t o kee p he r rank s fille d b y maintainin g a n equal distributio n o f property . Suc h a refor m is , however , impeded b y the la w concerning the birth-rate. Anxiou s for th e Spartans t o b e as numerous as possible, th e legislator encour- aged citizen s to hav e a s man y childre n a s possible ; the y hav e a la w tha t th e fathe r o f thre e son s shoul d b e exemp t fro m military service , an d th e fathe r o f fou r entirel y fre e fro m al l taxes. Ye t i t i s obviou s that , i f man y childre n ar e born , an d the lan d i s divided accordingly , a large number o f the citizens must necessarily be reduced to poverty.

I270b6 Moreove r ther e ar e deficiencie s i n th e wa y th e Ephorate i s organized. The Ephors a t Spart a have a sovereign authority i n matter s o f th e highes t importance; bu t the y ar e all draw n fro m th e peopl e a t large , an d i t ofte n happen s tha t very poo r men , whos e lac k o f mean s render s them ope n t o bribery, attai n thi s office . The y hav e ofte n show n thi s tend - ency i n the past ; an d ther e is a recen t instanc e in the affai r a t Andros,* whe n som e o f th e Ephors , b y takin g bribes , di d everything in their power to rui n the whole city. Furthermore , this institutio n i s s o important, an d s o much i n th e natur e o f a dictatorship , tha t eve n th e king s hav e bee n compelle d t o court th e favou r o f the Ephors . A s a result , damag e ha s als o been don e t o th e whol e constitution , which , fro m bein g a n aristocracy ha s tende d t o tur n int o a democracy . Bu t th e Ephorate doe s hol d th e constitutio n together . Th e peopl e a t large ar e contente d becaus e the y hav e a shar e i n th e mos t important office ; an d thi s result , whethe r i t b e du e t o th e legislator o r t o chance , ha s a beneficia l effec t o n thei r affairs . If th e constitutio n i s t o survive , ever y par t o f th e cit y mus t have a common desire for its existence and fo r the continuance

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P O L I T I C S II . 9 7 1

of it s arrangements. * Th e king s hav e thi s becaus e o f th e honour tha t is paid t o them ; the upper classe s have it becaus e there i s th e Counci l o f Elders (thi s offic e i s a rewar d fo r excellence); and th e genera l populatio n hav e i t becaus e o f th e Ephorate (whic h is open to all citizens). I270b26 I t i s right an d prope r tha t al l shoul d b e eligible fo r

the office , bu t no t tha t th e electio n shoul d b e conducte d o n the presen t method , whic h i s fa r to o childish. * Again , th e Ephors ar e just ordinar y men, bu t the y have powe r t o decid e important cases ; an d i t woul d b e better , therefore , that the y should no t decid e a t thei r discretion , bu t o n th e basi s o f written rule s se t dow n i n lega l form . Finally , thei r mod e o f life i s not i n agreement with the ai m of the city. It permit s to o much indulgence , wherea s for th e othe r citizens , the arrange - ments incline so much to th e opposit e extrem e of severity that men cannot endur e their rigour, an d escap e fro m th e law into the secre t enjoyment of sensual pleasures.

I270b35 Th e institutio n o f the Counci l o f Elders has als o it s defects. I f th e member s o f th e counci l wer e men o f probity , and adequatel y traine d i n manl y virtues , it migh t b e argue d that th e institutio n wa s o f benefi t t o th e city . Eve n so , i t would be dubious whether councillors should be life-judge s in important cases : th e mind , a s wel l a s th e body , i s subjec t t o old age . Bu t when , a s a matte r o f fact , th e trainin g o f th e councillors i s suc h tha t eve n th e legislato r ha s n o confidence in thei r characte r a s goo d men , th e arrangemen t i s unsafe. It is evident fro m experienc e tha t thos e who hav e held th e offic e of councillor have often bee n influenced b y bribery and favour- itism i n dealin g with public affairs . Thi s i s a reaso n wh y they should no t b e fre e fro m scrutin y o f thei r conduct . I t i s tru e that th e Ephor s ca n apparentl y scrutiniz e th e conduc t o f every official ; bu t thi s is too sweepin g a prerogativ e fo r the m to possess , no r i s i t th e wa y i n which , i n ou r view , th e councillors should b e subjected to scrutiny. I27ia9 Th e syste m b y whic h the y appoin t councillor s in -

volves a childish metho d o f selection; * and ther e i s an impro - priety i n requirin g that , t o b e eligible , a ma n shoul d openl y seek election . The ma n wh o deserve s the offic e shoul d hav e it whether he wants it or not . Her e the legislato r is plainly doing

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72 P O L I T I C S II . 9

what he did wit h the res t o f the constitution . He ha s impose d this requirement [tha t candidates seek election] on the election of councillors because h e wants to mak e his citizens generally ambitious o f honours ; fo r n o on e woul d see k t o hol d offic e unless he was ambitious. Ye t ambition an d avaric e are exactly the motive s which lea d me n t o commi t nearl y al l intentional crimes. I27iai8 Th e genera l them e o f kingship , an d th e questio n

whether i t i s good o r ba d fo r citie s t o hav e kings, may b e lef t to anothe r occasion . Bu t i t woul d b e bette r i f the y di d no t come t o th e thron e o n th e principl e no w followe d [i n Sparta]; instead th e choic e o f a kin g should i n ever y case b e based o n his manne r o f life . O n th e presen t syste m it i s clear tha t even the legislato r himsel f must b e o f th e opinio n tha t h e canno t produce goo d an d honourabl e kings. At any rate he shows no confidence tha t the y will b e sufficientl y goo d men ; thi s i s why it wa s th e practic e t o sen d opponent s o f th e king s with them on embassies , an d wh y i t wa s considere d tha t factiona l dis - putes between the kings served as a political safeguard. I27iai6 Th e lega l arrangement s mad e b y it s founde r fo r

regulating th e syste m o f commo n meal s (or , a s th e Spartan s call them , phiditia), ma y als o b e criticized . Th e cos t o f suc h gatherings ough t t o b e defraye d fro m publi c funds, a s i t i s in Crete; but th e rul e at Spart a i s for eac h man t o brin g hi s own contribution, i n spit e o f th e fac t tha t som e o f th e citizen s ar e extremely poo r an d unabl e t o bea r th e expense . Th e natura l result i s th e ver y opposit e o f th e legislator' s intention . Th e system o f common meal s i s meant t o b e democratic, bu t wit h these regulation s i t i s the revers e o f democratic. Citizen s who are extremel y poo r fin d i t difficul t t o shar e i n th e commo n meals; and ye t it is the traditiona l rul e of the constitution tha t those wh o canno t contribut e thei r quot a ar e debarre d fro m participating i n it. 1271*37 Othe r writer s have als o censured , no t withou t jus-

tice, the law relating to th e offic e o f admiral. They are right t o do s o sinc e i t i s a caus e o f factiona l conflict . Th e offic e o f admiral i s a sor t o f secon d kingship , rivalling the kings , wh o are suprem e commanders fo r life . 1271*41 Ther e i s anothe r criticis m on e migh t mak e o f th e

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principle tha t underlie s th e Sparta n legislation , a criticis m also mad e b y Plat o i n hi s Laws.* Th e whol e syste m o f legislation i s directe d t o fosterin g onl y on e par t [o r element] of goodness , goodnes s i n war , becaus e tha t sor t o f goodnes s is useful fo r gainin g power. A s a result the Spartan s remaine d secure as long as they were at war ; but the y collapsed a s soon as the y acquire d a n empire . The y di d no t kno w ho w t o us e their leisure and the y had neve r accustomed themselve s to an y discipline othe r tha n an d superio r t o tha t o f war . Ther e i s another defec t at Spart a whic h is equally grave. The Spartan s hold tha t th e 'goods ' fo r whic h men striv e are t o b e attaine d through goodnes s rather tha n badnes s o f character. The y ar e right i n thinkin g this ; bu t the y ar e wron g i n supposin g tha t these 'goods' are greater tha n goodness of character.* i27ibio Anothe r defec t a t Spart a i s the stat e o f th e publi c

finances. Th e publi c treasur y i s empty , a t a tim e whe n they are compelle d t o wag e majo r wars ; an d th e taxe s ar e no t properly paid . Becaus e mos t o f th e lan d i s i n th e hand s o f citizens, the y d o no t loo k closel y a t eac h other' s payments . The effec t o f th e legislator' s wor k i s her e th e revers e o f beneficial: h e has reduced th e city to penury while encouraging private avarice . Thi s ma y serv e a s a n accoun t o f th e Sparta n constitution, an d thes e ar e th e defect s which ar e particularl y open to censure.

C H A P T E R 1 0

2. The Cretan constitution. Crete possibly the model of Sparta: similarities between the two. The Cretan system of common meals is superior to the Spartan; but the Cretan Cosmoi, who correspond to the Spartan Ephors, are inferior to them. Cretan 'feudalism': confederations of nobles: feuds and factions: Crete hitherto saved from their evil effects by its geographical isolation.

I27ib20 Th e Creta n constitution * i s clos e t o tha t o f th e Spartans; i n some ways it is no worse but i n most respect s it is less polished . I t i s sai d tha t mos t feature s o f th e Sparta n constitution wer e copied fro m th e Cretan . Thi s ma y wel l b e

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74 P O L I T I C S n . I Q the case , fo r institution s o f a n olde r origi n ar e generall y less elaborate tha n th e mor e modern . Traditio n records * tha t Lycurgus, whe n h e relinquishe d th e offic e o f guardia n t o King Charillu s an d wen t abroad , spen t mos t o f hi s tim e i n Crete, t o whic h h e wa s draw n b y tie s o f connection , th e people o f Lyctu s bein g a colon y fro m Sparta . Thos e wh o came t o th e colon y adopte d th e syste m o f la w whic h the y found existin g amon g th e inhabitant s a t th e tim e o f thei r settlement. Thi s i s wh y thes e law s ar e stil l i n us e amon g th e subject people s [o f Crete], wh o regard the m as a system of law created by Minos.* I27ib32 Th e islan d seem s t o b e naturall y designed, * an d

admirably situated , fo r rulin g i n th e Gree k world . I t com - mands th e whol e of th e se a on whos e shore s nearl y al l of th e Greeks ar e settled : it i s no t fa r fro m th e Péloponnès e o n th e one side , and clos e to th e corne r o f Asia roun d Triopiu m an d Rhodes on the other. This explains why Minos could establis h a maritim e empire . H e subdue d som e o f th e neighbourin g islands, an d sen t colonie s t o others . Finally h e carrie d hi s attacks a s far as Sicily, where he died near Camicus.

I27ib40 Th e Cretan syste m parallels the Spartan. The Helot s cultivate th e lan d fo r th e Spartan s whil e the subjec t people s [Perioikoi], do s o for th e Cretans; an d i n both places there is a system o f commo n meals , whic h th e Spartans , i n forme r times, used t o call andria (an d not , a s they now do, phiditia), a term stil l used by the Cretans, an d a proof tha t th e institutio n came from Crete . The same goes for the constitutional system . The Sparta n Ephor s hav e th e sam e powe r a s th e Creta n Cosmoi: th e onl y differenc e i s tha t th e Ephor s ar e fiv e i n number, an d th e Cosmoi ten. Similarl y the Sparta n elder s ar e equivalent to the Cretan ; bu t th e latter ar e called the Council . The Cretan s formerl y ha d a monarchy ; bu t afterward s abol - ished it , an d th e Cosmoi are no w i n comman d o f th e army . All citizen s ca n tak e par t i n th e assembly ; but it s onl y powe r is that o f ratifying th e decisions o f the elders and the Cosmoi.

1272*12 Th e arrangement s fo r commo n meal s i n Cret e ar e better tha n the y are at Sparta . A t Spart a eac h citize n contrib- utes individuall y th e quot a allotte d t o him , an d i f he fail s t o do s o he is legally debarred, a s has already bee n noted, fro m a

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share in the constitution. I n Crete things are placed o n a more communal footing . The whole of the agricultural produc e an d livestock raise d o n th e publi c land , an d al l th e rent s pai d b y the subjec t peoples , ar e divided , wit h on e par t goin g t o th e cult o f th e god s an d th e discharg e o f public services , an d th e other t o th e provisio n o f commo n meals . Thi s make s i t possible fo r al l alike, men , women , an d children , t o b e fed a t the publi c cost.* The legislator devised a number of ingenious measures bot h t o encourag e a n abstemiou s for m o f die t (something he saw as beneficial) an d t o ensur e the segregatio n of women , t o preven t the m fro m havin g to o man y children . For th e sam e reaso n h e encouraged homosexua l connections . (Whether h e wa s righ t o r wron g i s a questio n whic h ma y b e left fo r a later occasion.)*

I272az6 I t i s clear that the arrangement s fo r commo n meal s in Cret e ar e superior t o thos e a t Sparta . O n th e othe r hand , those fo r th e Cosmoi are inferio r even to th e Ephoralty . The y share th e defec t o f th e boar d o f Ephors—tha t o f bein g ap - pointed withou t an y proper qualification—bu t d o not presen t the sam e constitutiona l advantag e a s th e Ephors . I n th e Spartan system , unde r whic h ever y citize n i s eligibl e fo r th e Ephoralty, th e peopl e a t larg e shar e i n this highes t o f offices , and therefor e wis h th e constitutio n t o survive . I n Crete , however, th e Cosmoi ar e draw n fro m a limite d numbe r o f families, an d no t fro m th e citizen s a s a whole ; whil e th e members o f th e Counci l o f Elder s ar e drawn , i n thei r turn , from thos e wh o hav e serve d a s Cosmoi. This Creta n Counci l of Elder s ma y b e criticize d o n th e sam e ground s a s th e Spartan. Thei r lac k o f accountability , an d thei r life-tenure , are bot h prerogative s beyon d thei r desert; an d thei r powe r o f acting a t thei r ow n discretion—an d no t o n th e basi s o f written rules—i s dangerous. I t i s not proo f o f the institutions being properl y organize d tha t th e peopl e shoul d remai n con - tented i n spit e o f thei r exclusio n fro m it . Th e Cosmoi, unlike the Ephors , hav e n o opportunit y o f usin g thei r power s fo r their ow n profit : the y liv e o n a n island , remot e fro m thos e who might corrupt them .

I2j2bi The remedy which the Cretans provide for the defects of thi s institutio n is curious , and mor e fitted to governmen t

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7 6 P O L I T I C S i i . I Q

by clique * tha n t o a constitutiona l state . Agai n an d agai n a faction i s formed—either b y som e o f thei r ow n colleagues , o r by a grou p o f privat e citizens—whic h proceed s t o ejec t th e Cosmoi fro m office ; an d the y ar e als o allowe d t o resig n thei r office befor e thei r ter m ha s expired . Surel y it i s better tha t al l such matter s shoul d b e regulate d b y law , an d no t settle d b y the mer e wil l o f men , whic h i s a dangerou s standar d fo r action. Wors t o f all , however , i s th e practic e o f suspendin g the offic e o f th e Cosmoi, t o whic h powerfu l peopl e ofte n resort whe n the y ar e unwillin g t o submi t t o justice . Thi s proves tha t th e Creta n system , if it ha s som e o f th e element s of a constitution , i s no t reall y a constitutio n a t all , bu t a government by a clique. It has become customary for powerful men t o caus e dissensio n amon g th e peopl e an d amon g thei r own friend s t o se t u p monarchie s o f thei r own , t o for m factions, an d t o fight among themselves . In effec t suc h a state of thing s simpl y mean s tha t fo r a tim e th e cit y goe s ou t o f existence an d th e politica l associatio n i s dissolved . A cit y which i s brought t o thi s pas s i s in danger : thos e wh o wis h t o attack i t wil l no w hav e als o th e powe r t o d o so . Bu t Cret e itself, a s has alread y bee n noted , i s saved fro m thi s dange r b y its geographica l position ; an d distanc e ha s her e th e sam e effect a s law s fo r th e expulsio n o f aliens. * Thi s als o explain s why th e subjec t people s ther e sta y quiet , whil e th e Helot s o f Sparta ar e ofte n i n revolt . Th e Cretan s hav e n o shar e i n dominions overseas ; an d i t i s onl y latel y tha t foreig n force s have penetrate d int o th e island*—wit h result s whic h hav e gone to show the frailty o f their laws.

So much for the Cretan typ e of constitution.

C H A P T E R 1 1

3. The Carthaginian constitution. Similarities of Carthage and Sparta, with the balance, in some respects, in favour of Carthage. The constitution of Carthage is generally based on the principle of aristocracy; but it deviates from that principle, partly towards democracy and partly towards oligarchy. Its main defect is that it attaches too much importance to wealth, and is thus, in effect, a moneyed oligarchy. Another defect is

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the habit of pluralism. Carthage has sought to correct her defects by a policy of encouraging the emigration of the poor; but while this policy has been fortunate in its results, it is not an adequate remedy.

1272*24 Th e constitutio n o f Carthage * i s generall y ac - counted a goo d constitution , an d on e whic h i s i n man y respects differen t fro m others ; bu t th e chie f thin g abou t i t i s its likeness, a t a number o f points, t o th e Spartan. Indee d th e three constitution s wit h whic h w e ar e her e concerned—th e Cretan, th e Spartan , an d th e Carthaginian—ar e al l closel y related t o on e another , an d the y al l diffe r greatly fro m othe r constitutions. Man y of the institution s at Carthag e are cer - tainly good . I t i s a proo f o f a well-ordere d constitutio n tha t the peopl e ha s stoo d fir m b y th e politica l system : ther e hav e been no factiona l conflicts worth mentioning, nor an y attemp t at a tyranny . Ther e ar e th e followin g similaritie s wit h th e Spartan constitution : th e commo n meal s share d b y th e 'messes' a t Carthag e ar e simila r t o th e Sparta n phiditia. Th e office o f th e 'Hundre d an d Four ' i s simila r t o th e Ephoralty , but bette r i n s o fa r a s th e election s t o th e offic e ar e mad e o n the basi s o f merit , whil e th e Ephoralt y i s recruite d haphaz - ardly. Finally, the kings and the Council of Elders at Carthag e are analogou s t o th e Sparta n king s an d Counci l o f Elders . But her e agai n i t i s to th e credi t o f Carthag e tha t he r king s are draw n neithe r fro m a singl e famil y no r [indiscriminately ] from an y family . Rathe r the y ar e draw n fro m an y famil y which i s outstanding at th e time , an d the y are draw n fro m i t by election, and no t b y seniority. Kings, after all , have consid- erable powers : an d i f they ar e worthles s characters , the y ca n do a great dea l o f harm—as, indeed, the y have actuall y don e at Sparta. I273a2 Mos t o f th e feature s whic h ma y b e criticize d a s

deviations,* ar e feature s commo n t o al l o f th e constitution s with whic h w e ar e her e concerned. Bu t [i n th e cas e o f th e Carthaginian constitution ] som e o f th e deviation s fro m it s underlying principl e o f aristocrac y o r 'constitutiona l govern - ment' are in the direction of democracy, while others are in that of oligarchy. It is a deviation in the former direction that while

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y8 P O L I T I C S u. 11 the king s an d th e Elders , i f the y ar e bot h agreed , ca n freel y decide whethe r o r no t the y wil l submi t an y issu e t o th e assembly, th e assembl y is equally fre e t o dea l wit h an issu e if they ar e no t agree d abou t it s submission . Again , whe n th e kings an d th e Elder s submi t a proposal , th e assembl y i s no t confined t o hearin g and approvin g th e decisio n o f the rulers: it ha s th e powe r o f decision , an d an y o f it s member s who s o desire may oppos e th e proposal . Thi s doe s no t happe n unde r the othe r constitutions [i.e. those of Sparta an d Crete] . On the other hand , th e followin g features ar e oligarchic : th e board s of five, which ar e in control of many important matters, select their ow n members ; thes e board s choos e th e 'Hundre d an d Four', wh o ar e th e highes t authority ; wha t i s more , th e members of these boards hold offic e longe r than other official s (they are virtually in offic e bot h before and afte r the perio d of regular tenure) . Aristocrati c feature s ar e th e fac t tha t th e officials ar e no t pai d o r appointe d b y lot , an d othe r simila r practices; and th e rule that all lawsuits may be decided b y the boards, an d no t som e by one body and som e by another, a s is the case at Sparta.

1273*21 Th e Carthaginia n syste m deviate s mos t markedl y from aristocrac y in the direction of oligarchy by followin g th e widely hel d vie w tha t office-holder s shoul d b e chose n o n grounds o f mean s a s wel l a s o n ground s o f merit , becaus e poor men are unable to rule well and have no leisure.

1273*25 I f selection on ground s of means is characteristic of oligarchy an d selectio n b y meri t o f aristocracy , th e wa y i n which the constitutional affairs o f the Carthaginians are organ- ized woul d see m t o b e somethin g differen t fro m either . Bot h grounds ar e take n int o consideratio n i n th e elections , especi- ally in those for the highes t offices, th e kings and th e generals. This deviatio n fro m th e pur e principle o f aristocrac y mus t be regarded a s a n erro r o n th e par t o f th e lawgiver . From th e outset on e o f hi s most pressin g duties is to se e that th e mos t meritorious hav e th e opportunit y t o b e a t leisur e an d t o refrain fro m unworth y occupations, no t onl y when they are in office, bu t eve n whe n the y ar e not . Eve n i f it i s right t o tak e means to o int o consideration , i n orde r t o secur e me n o f leisure, i t i s disgracefu l to mak e th e highes t o f office s (thos e

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P O L I T I C S II . I I 7 9

of th e king s and th e generals ) ope n t o purchase . Thi s custo m puts riche s i n a mor e honourabl e positio n tha n merit , an d imbues th e whol e cit y wit h a spiri t o f avarice . Whe n th e sovereign bod y i n a cit y attache s valu e t o something , th e opinion o f th e othe r citizen s wil l necessaril y follo w it s lead , and wher e merit doe s no t receiv e the highes t plac e o f honou r an aristocrati c constitutio n canno t hav e a secur e existence . Besides, when money has been spen t to get office, th e purchas - ers ma y naturall y b e expecte d t o fal l int o th e habi t o f trying to mak e a profi t o n th e transaction . I f peopl e wh o ar e poo r but hones t wan t t o mak e profit , w e can hardl y expec t wors e characters wh o ar e alread y ou t o f pocke t t o refrai n fro m doing so . S o thos e wh o woul d mak e th e bes t ruler s shoul d rule; and eve n if the legislato r abandon s an y attemp t t o mak e honest citizen s wealthy , h e ough t a t an y rat e t o provid e fo r their havin g leisur e durin g th e perio d fo r whic h the y hol d office. I273b8 I t woul d als o appea r t o b e a defec t tha t on e perso n

should hol d a numbe r o f offices , whic h is a practic e i n vogue at Carthage . Eac h jo b i s don e bes t whe n i t i s don e b y on e man; an d th e lawgive r shoul d se e tha t thi s rul e i s followed, and not se t the sam e man t o be both flute-player and cobbler . Accordingly, excep t i n a smal l city , i t i s at onc e mor e states - manlike and mor e democratic tha t a larger number o f citizens should shar e i n office . Then , a s w e have alread y argued, * th e work i s share d mor e widel y an d eac h particula r jo b i s don e better an d mor e quickly . Thi s i s clearl y eviden t i n militar y and nava l matters . I n both , th e practic e o f rulin g an d bein g ruled extends to everyone concerned. I273bi8 Th e Carthaginian s hav e a constitutio n whic h i s in

practice oligarchical ; bu t the y get away with this b y an excel- lent means—fro m tim e t o tim e a sectio n o f th e populac e i s planted ou t amon g th e dependen t citie s an d thu s grow s wealthy. I n thi s wa y the y remed y defect s o f th e constitutio n and giv e it stability. Bu t thi s ma y b e sai d t o b e th e effec t o f chance; the y ough t t o b e kep t fre e o f factional conflic t b y th e work o f th e legislator . I n th e presen t positio n o f affair s th e law provide s n o remed y t o ensur e interna l peac e i f som e misfortune occur s an d the masses revolt against thei r rulers.

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I273b24 Suc h is the character o f the three constitutions—the Spartan, th e Cretan , an d th e Carthaginian—whic h ar e justly held in high regard.

C H A P T E R 1 2

4. Postscript on other legislators. Solon and the constitution of Athens. The earliest legislators. Various notes (e.g. on the severity of Draco 's laws, and on the legislation of Pittacus about the offences committed under the influence of drink).

I273b27 Som e o f thos e wh o hav e put forwar d a vie w abou t constitutional matters * hav e take n n o par t i n political affair s of any kin d or description , but hav e live d for the whol e of their live s i n a privat e capacity ; w e hav e alread y mentione d practically everythin g worth y o f not e concernin g these . Others, again , wer e experience d statesme n wh o serve d a s lawgivers, som e for thei r own and other s for foreig n cities . Some o f thes e simpl y dre w u p laws : other s wer e author s o f constitutions a s wel l a s o f laws . Lycurgu s an d Solon * ar e both i n th e latte r category : the y establishe d both law s an d constitutions.

I273b35 Th e constitutio n o f Spart a ha s alread y bee n de - scribed. Solo n i s hel d b y som e t o hav e bee n a n excellen t lawgiver. The y sa y tha t h e swep t awa y a n oligarch y whic h was fa r to o absolute , tha t h e emancipate d th e peopl e fro m serfdom, an d tha t h e institute d th e 'ancestral democracy' , thereby establishin g a n admirabl y 'mixed ' constitution : th e Council o f the Areopagu s i s oligarchic; the method o f electing office-holders i s aristocratic ; an d th e lawcourt s ar e demo - cratic. I n actua l fact , however , i t woul d appea r tha t tw o o f these element s (th e counci l an d th e electio n o f office-holders ) existed befor e hi s time ; h e simpl y refraine d fro m abolishin g them. Bu t h e certainl y pu t th e peopl e int o powe r b y makin g membership of the lawcourts open t o ever y citizen; and tha t is the reaso n wh y he is blamed b y some of his critics, who argu e that h e reall y destroyed th e othe r element s b y makin g thes e popular lawcourts , wit h thei r member s appointe d b y lot , supreme in every case. Later, a s these courts gre w in strength,

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they sough t t o flatte r th e people i n the wa y that me n flatter a tyrant, an d transforme d th e constitution int o it s present for m of democracy . Ephialte s an d Pericle s curtaile d th e Counci l o f the Areopagus ; Pericle s introduce d th e syste m o f payin g th e members o f th e lawcourts ; an d thu s eac h demagogue , i n hi s turn, increase d th e democrati c elemen t unti l th e constitutio n reached it s presen t form. * This , however , appear s t o b e du e to acciden t rathe r tha n t o any deliberate desig n o n the part of Solon. Th e people, who had bee n th e cause o f the acquisition of a maritim e empir e durin g th e cours e o f th e Persia n wars , acquired a conceit o f themselves; and in spite of the oppositio n of th e respectabl e citizen s the y foun d worthles s demagogue s to suppor t thei r cause . Solo n himsel f woul d see m t o hav e given the people only the necessary minimu m of power, allow- ing the m simpl y t o elec t office-holder s an d t o cal l the m t o account. ( A people whic h does not hav e this power is a peopl e of slaves , and a n enem y [to the city]. ) H e arrange d tha t office - holders shoul d b e draw n exclusivel y fro m thos e wh o wer e notable an d well-to-do , fro m th e Pentacosiomedimni , fro m the Zeugitae , an d fro m th e thir d class , th e Hippeis—whil e th e lowest class, that o f the Thetes, wa s ineligible for an y office. *

I274a22 Othe r legislators * were Zaleucus, for the Epizephyr - ian Locrians , an d Charonda s o f Catana, fo r hi s own city an d for other s i n Ital y an d Sicil y whic h ha d bee n settle d fro m Chaléis. Ther e ar e som e writers , however , wh o woul d g o farther back , an d argu e tha t Onomacritu s wa s th e earlies t expert i n legislation . The y mak e hi m a Locrian , wh o wa s trained i n Cret e durin g a visi t pai d ther e i n th e cours e o f his vocation a s a soothsayer : the y mak e Thaïe s hi s colleague : finally, they make Lycurgu s and Zaleucu s th e disciple s o f this Thaïes, an d Charondas the disciple o f Zaleucus. I n sayin g this they spea k wit h to o littl e regar d t o chronology ; bu t Philolau s of Corint h certainl y frame d law s for Thebes . H e belonge d b y birth t o th e Bacchia d famil y i n his native city; bu t h e was the friend an d love r o f Diocles , a n Olympi c victo r wh o lef t Corinth i n disgust at his mother Halcyone's incestuou s passio n for himself , an d h e accompanie d Diocle s t o Thebes , wher e they live d an d die d together . Thei r tomb s ar e stil l show n today: the y stan d i n ful l vie w of one another , bu t on e o f them

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82 P O L I T I C S II . 1 2

can b e see n fro m th e soi l o f Corinth , an d th e othe r cannot ; and th e stor y goe s tha t th e tw o friend s deliberatel y arrange d to b e burie d i n thi s way—Diocle s rememberin g his past wit h horror, an d anxiou s tha t Corint h shoul d no t b e visibl e fro m the moun d unde r whic h he lay , but Philolau s desirin g that i t should b e fro m his . Thi s wa s th e reaso n o f thei r settlin g a t Thebes; and thi s was how Philolau s cam e to mak e law s for that city . Among his laws there are som e which dea l wit h the production o f children. They are called the 'law s of adoption'; and the y are a peculiar featur e of the legislatio n o f Philolaus , intended t o kee p th e numbe r o f famil y plot s constan t an d undisturbed. I274b5 Th e onl y peculia r featur e o f th e legislatio n o f

Charondas i s tha t relatin g t o suit s brough t agains t thos e guilty o f perjur y (h e wa s th e firs t t o institut e th e practic e of denunciatio n fo r fals e witness) ; bu t i n th e genera l preci - sion o f hi s law s h e showe d himsel f a stil l bette r draftsma n than ou r moder n legislators . Th e peculia r featur e o f th e legislation propose d b y Phalea s i s th e equalizatio n o f prop - erty; th e peculia r feature s o f Plato' s legislation * are : th e community o f propert y an d o f wive s an d children ; a system o f commo n meal s fo r women ; th e rul e abou t drink - ing, whic h provide s tha t th e sobe r mus t b e i n th e chai r at a drinking-party ; an d th e rul e abou t militar y training , which provide s tha t soldier s mus t practis e ambidexterity , since i t i s wron g fo r on e han d t o b e usefu l an d th e othe r not. I274bi5 Ther e ar e law s of Draco bu t h e drew up thes e laws

for a n existin g constitution an d the y have no peculia r feature worth mentioning , excep t th e severit y whic h the y sho w i n fixing the amoun t o f punishments . Pittacus , lik e Draco , wa s the autho r onl y of laws, and no t o f a constitution. On e of the laws peculiar t o hi m is the law that a drunke n man shoul d b e punished mor e heavil y fo r a n offenc e tha n a sobe r one . H e noted tha t drunke n me n commi t offence s o f violenc e mor e frequently tha n sobe r ones ; bu t instea d o f holdin g tha t thi s entitled the m to greater consideration, he preferred to tak e his stand o n th e groun d o f expediency. Androdamas o f Rhegiu m was anothe r legislator , wh o mad e law s fo r th e Chalcidia n

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P O L I T I C S II . 1 2 8 3

settlements i n Thrace . Som e o f the m ar e concerne d wit h homicide, an d wit h the successio n o f women to property ; bu t his legislation has no peculiar feature that nee d be mentioned.

I274b26 Thi s ma y conclud e ou r inquir y int o matter s con - nected wit h bot h type s o f constitutions , thos e whic h ar e actually in force, and thos e planned b y political theorists .

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BOOK II I THE T H E O R Y O F C I T I Z E N S H I P AND

C O N S T I T U T I O N S

A: Citizenship (Chapters 1-5 )

C H A P T E R 1 To understand what a constitution fpoliteia, ) is , we must inquire into the nature of the city (polis); and to understand that — since th e city i s a body o f citizens f poli tai,)—we must examine the nature of citizenship. Citizenship is not determined by residence, or by merely having access to the courts of law. Rather 'a citizen is one who permanently shares in the adminis- tration of justice and the holding of office'. This definition is more especially true in a democracy: to make it generally applicable, we must modify it to run, 'a citizen is one who shares for any period of time in judicial and deliberative office '.

I274b32 Whe n we are dealing wit h constitutions, an d seekin g to discove r th e essenc e an d th e attribute s o f eac h form , ou r first investigatio n ma y wel l b e directe d t o th e cit y [th e polis} itself; and w e may begi n by asking, 'Wha t is the city?' * This is at presen t a dispute d question—whil e som e say , 'I t wa s th e city that did such an d suc h a n act', others say, 'I t was not th e city, bu t th e oligarch y o r th e tyrant.' * Al l th e activit y o f th e statesman an d th e lawgive r i s obviousl y concerne d wit h th e city, an d a constitution i s a wa y of organizing th e inhabitant s of a city. I274b38 A cit y belong s t o th e orde r o f 'compounds', * just

like an y othe r thin g whic h form s a singl e 'whole' , whil e being composed, non e th e less , o f a numbe r o f differen t parts . Thi s being th e case , i t clearl y follow s tha t w e mus t inquir e firs t about th e citizen. * I n othe r words , a cit y i s a certai n numbe r of citizens ; an d s o w e mus t conside r wh o shoul d properl y b e called a citizen and wha t a citizen reall y is. * The definition o f

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P O L I T I C S I I I . I 8 5

a citize n i s a questio n whic h i s ofte n disputed : ther e i s n o general agreement on who is a citizen. It may be that someon e who i s a citize n i n a democracy i s not on e in an oligarchy . We may leav e ou t o f consideratio n thos e wh o enjo y th e titl e o f 'citizen' i n som e specia l sense , fo r example , naturalize d citi - zens. A citize n prope r i s no t on e b y virtu e o f residenc e i n a given place : fo r eve n aliens and slave s may shar e th e commo n place o f residence . No r [ca n th e titl e o f 'citizen ' b e give n to ] those wh o shar e i n lega l processes onl y to th e exten t of being entitled t o su e an d b e sue d i n th e courts . Thi s i s somethin g which belongs als o to alien s who share it by virtue of a treaty ; though i t i s t o b e note d tha t ther e ar e man y place s wher e resident alien s ar e oblige d t o choos e a legal protector, s o tha t they onl y share t o a limited extent in this for m o f association . They ar e lik e childre n wh o ar e stil l to o youn g t o b e entere d on th e rol l o f citizens , o r me n wh o ar e ol d enoug h t o hav e been excused fro m civi c duties. There is a sens e in which these may b e calle d citizens , bu t i t i s no t altogethe r a n unqualifie d sense: we must add th e reservation that th e young are undevel- oped, an d th e ol d superannuate d citizens , o r w e mus t us e some othe r qualification ; th e exac t ter m w e appl y doe s no t matter, fo r the meaning is clear.

I275ai9 W e ar e seekin g t o discove r th e citize n i n th e stric t sense, wh o ha s n o suc h defec t t o b e mad e good . Simila r questions ma y als o b e raise d an d answere d abou t thos e wh o are exile d or disenfranchised . The citize n in thi s stric t sens e is best define d b y the on e criterion tha t h e shares in the adminis - tration o f justice an d i n th e holdin g o f office . Office s ma y b e divided int o tw o kinds . Som e ar e discontinuou s i n poin t o f time: in other words , they are of the sort tha t eithe r canno t b e held a t al l for mor e tha n a singl e term o r ca n onl y be held fo r a secon d ter m afte r som e definit e interval . Others , however , have n o limi t o f time , fo r example , th e offic e o f jurymen, o r the offic e o f a membe r o f th e popula r assembly . I t ma y possibly b e contende d tha t suc h peopl e ar e no t holder s o f 'office', an d d o no t shar e i n 'office ' b y virtue of their position . But i t woul d b e ridiculou s t o exclud e fro m th e categor y o f holders o f offic e thos e wh o actuall y hol d th e mos t sovereig n position i n the city; and, sinc e the argument turn s o n a word,

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we shoul d no t le t i t mak e a difference . Th e poin t i s that w e have no wor d t o denot e what is common t o th e juryman an d the membe r o f the assembly , o r t o describ e th e positio n hel d by both . Le t us , i n th e interes t o f a clea r analysis , cal l i t 'indeterminate office' . O n tha t basi s w e may la y i t dow n tha t citizens ar e thos e wh o shar e i n th e holdin g o f offic e a s s o defined.* I275a33 Th e definitio n o f citizen whic h wil l most satisfacto -

rily cove r th e positio n o f al l wh o bea r th e nam e i s o f thi s general kind. We must als o notic e that ther e are certain kind s of thin g whic h ma y b e based-o n differen t kind s o f principle , one o f them standin g first , anothe r second , an d s o o n dow n the series. * Thing s belongin g t o thi s class , whe n considere d purely as such, have no common denominator whatever , or, if they have one, they have it only to a meagre extent. Constitu - tions obviousl y differ fro m on e anothe r i n kind , with some of them coming later i n the orde r and other s earlier; for constitu - tions which are defectiv e an d perverte d (we shall explai n late r in what sense we are using the term 'perverted') are necessarily secondary t o thos e whic h ar e fre e fro m defects . It follows that the citizen under eac h differen t kin d o f constitution mus t als o necessarily be different. W e may thus conclude that the citizen of ou r definitio n i s particularly an d especiall y th e citize n o f a democracy. Citizen s livin g unde r othe r kind s o f constitutio n may possibly, but d o not necessarily , correspond t o th e defini - tion. Ther e ar e som e cities , fo r example , i n whic h ther e i s n o popular element : suc h citie s hav e n o regula r meeting s of th e assembly, bu t onl y meeting s speciall y summoned ; an d the y decide differen t kind s of lega l cas e by differen t means . In Sparta, fo r example , th e Ephor s tak e case s o f contract s (not as a body , bu t eac h sittin g separately) ; th e Counci l o f Elder s take case s o f homicide ; an d som e othe r authorit y ma y tak e other cases . Muc h th e sam e i s also tru e o f Carthage, wher e a number o f officia l bodie s ar e entitle d t o decid e case s o f al l kinds. I275bi3 Bu t ou r definitio n o f citizenshi p ca n b e amended .

In othe r kind s o f constitutio n member s o f th e assembl y an d the courts do not hol d tha t offic e fo r a n indeterminate period. They hol d i t fo r a limite d term ; an d i t i s t o som e o r al l o f

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ub li sh er , ex ce pt f ai r us es p er mi tt ed u nd er U .S . or a pp li ca bl e co py ri gh t la w.

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these tha t th e citizen' s functio n o f deliberatin g an d judgin g (whether o n al l issues o r onl y a few ) is assigned. Fro m thes e considerations i t emerges clearly who a citizen is. We say tha t one wh o i s entitled t o shar e in deliberativ e o r judicial offic e i s thereby a citizen o f that city , and a city , in its simples t terms , is a bod y o f suc h peopl e adequat e i n numbe r fo r achievin g a self-sufficient existence. *

CHAPTER 2 A popular and pragmatic view of citizenship makes it depend on birth, i.e. descent from a citizen parent or two citizen parents. This does not carry us far, and in any case it only relates to old established citizens. A more serious question is raised when we consider new citizens, who have been allowed to participate in the constitution as the result of a revolution. Are they actually citizens? On the criterion of sharing in judicial and deliberative office (which is a functional criterion), they are actually citizens when once they possess that function.

I275b22 Fo r practica l purposes , i t is usual to defin e a citizen as 'on e bor n o f citizen parent s o n bot h sides' , an d no t o n th e father's o r mother's sid e only; but sometime s this requirement is carrie d stil l farthe r back , t o th e lengt h o f two , three , o r more stage s o f ancestry. This popular an d facil e definitio n has induced som e thinker s t o rais e th e question , 'Ho w di d th e citizen o f the third o r fourth stage o f ancestry himself come t o be a citizen? ' Gorgia s o f Leontini—perhap s partl y fro m a sense o f this difficult y an d partl y i n irony—said , 'A s mortar s are thing s whic h ar e made b y th e craftsme n who ar e mortar - makers, so Larissaean s are mad e by the craftsme n who are Larissaean-makers'.* Bu t th e matte r i s reall y simple . If , i n their day , the y ha d a shar e i n th e constitutio n i n th e sens e of our ow n definition, they were certainly citizens. I t i s obviously impossible t o appl y th e requiremen t o f descent fro m a citizen father o r a citizen mother t o thos e wh o were the first inhabit- ants or original founders o f a city.

I275b34 A mor e seriou s difficult y i s perhap s raise d b y th e case o f thos e wh o hav e acquire d a shar e a s th e resul t o f a

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öö P O L I T I C S I I I . 2

change i n th e constitution . W e ma y tak e a s a n exampl e th e action o f Cleisthenes * a t Athens , whe n afte r th e expulsio n o f the tyrant s h e enrolle d i n th e tribe s a numbe r o f residen t aliens both foreigner s and slaves . The question raise d b y suc h an additio n t o th e civi c bod y i s no t 'Wh o i s actuall y a citizen?' but , 'Ar e the y rightl y o r wrongl y such?'* I t mus t b e admitted, however , that someon e migh t als o rais e th e furthe r question whethe r a man wh o is not justly a citize n i s really a citizen, o n th e ground s tha t th e unjus t come s t o th e sam e a s the false . Obviousl y there ar e office-holder s who hav e n o just title t o thei r office ; bu t w e stil l sa y tha t the y hol d office , though w e do no t sa y it i s just fo r them t o d o so . The citizen also i s defined b y th e fac t o f holdin g a sor t o f offic e (fo r th e definition w e have give n t o th e citize n involve s his sharin g in office o f th e deliberativ e an d judicia l kind) ; an d i t follows , therefore, that these people must be called citizens.

C H A P T E R 3 The question, 'Are they justly citizens?' leads to the further question 'When can a given act be considered an act of the city or polis? ' This i n turn raises th e general question of th e identity of the city. Is the city identical with the government for the time being? Generally, what are the factors which constitute its identity? The identity of a city does not depend on its being surrounded by one set of walls, or on its consisting of one stock of inhabitants. The city is a compound; and its identity, like that of all compounds, is determined by the scheme of its composition, i.e. by its constitution.

1276*6 Th e questio n whethe r thes e peopl e are , i n justice , citizens or no t i s a different matter , whic h is closely connected with a larger questio n alread y mentioned.* Some peopl e hav e wondered whe n a give n ac t can , an d whe n i t cannot , b e considered t o b e th e ac t o f th e city . W e ma y tak e a s a n example th e cas e o f a n oligarch y o r tyrann y whic h change s into a democracy. I n suc h a case som e people ar e reluctant t o fulfil publi c contracts , o n th e ground s tha t thes e wer e made , not b y th e city , bu t b y th e governin g tyrant , an d the y ar e

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P O L I T I C S I I I . 3 8 9

unwilling to meet other obligation s of a similar natur e becaus e they hold tha t som e constitutions exis t by virtue of force, an d not fo r th e sak e o f the commo n good . I t woul d follo w tha t if a democrac y exist s in thi s fashio n [i.e . b y force ] w e hav e t o admit tha t act s don e unde r th e governmen t o f such a democ - racy ar e n o mor e act s o f th e cit y concerne d tha n wer e act s done under the oligarchy or tyranny. I276ai7 Ou r discussio n woul d seem t o b e closely connected

with th e followin g problem: 'O n wha t principle s ought w e t o say tha t a cit y ha s retaine d it s identity , o r conversely , tha t i t has los t it s identit y an d becom e a differen t city? ' Th e mos t obvious mod e o f dealin g wit h thi s questio n i s t o conside r simply territor y an d population . O n thi s basi s w e ma y not e that th e territory and populatio n o f a city may be divided into sections, with some of the populatio n residin g in on e bloc k of territory, and som e of it in another. Thi s question nee d no t b e regarded as particularl y difficult : the issu e which it raise s can easily b e me t i f w e remembe r tha t th e wor d 'city ' i s use d i n different senses. *

I2j6a24 I n th e cas e o f a populatio n whic h inhabit s a singl e territory, we may likewis e ask 'Whe n shoul d w e consider tha t there i s a singl e city?' For , o f course , th e identit y of a cit y is not constitute d b y its walls—it would be possible to surroun d the whol e of the Péloponnès e by a singl e wall . Babylo n (which, i t i s said , ha d bee n capture d fo r thre e whol e day s before som e o f it s inhabitants kne w of th e fact ) may perhap s be counte d a cit y o f thi s dubiou s nature : so , too , migh t an y city which had th e dimensions of a people [ethnos] rathe r tha n those o f a cit y [o r polis]. Bu t i t wil l b e bette r t o reserv e th e consideration o f thi s questio n fo r som e othe r occasion. * (T o determine the size of a city—to settle how large it can properly be, an d whethe r it ough t t o consis t o f th e member s of several races—is a duty incumbent on the statesman.)

1276*34 Assumin g a singl e populatio n inhabitin g a singl e territory, shal l we say tha t th e cit y retains it s identit y as long as th e stoc k o f it s inhabitant s continue s t o b e th e sam e (although the old members are always dying and ne w members are always being born), and shal l we thus apply t o th e city the analogy of rivers and fountains, to which we ascribe a constant

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go P O L I T I C S in. 3 identity i n spit e o f th e fac t tha t par t o f thei r water i s always flowing in an d par t alway s flowing out? O r mus t w e tak e a different view , an d sa y tha t eve n thoug h th e populatio n re - mains th e same , th e city , fo r th e reaso n alread y mentioned , may none the less change?

I276bi I f a cit y i s a for m o f association , an d i f this form of association i s a n associatio n o f citizen s i n a constitution , i t would see m t o follo w inevitabl y tha t whe n th e constitutio n undergoes a change in form, and become s a different constitu - tion, th e cit y wil l likewis e cease t o b e th e sam e city . W e sa y that a choru s whic h appear s a t on e tim e a s a comi c an d a t another a s a tragi c choru s i s not th e same—an d thi s i n spit e of th e fac t tha t th e member s ofte n remai n th e same . Wha t i s true o f th e choru s i s also tru e o f ever y other kin d of associa - tion, an d o f al l other compound s generally . If th e for m o f its composition i s different , th e compoun d become s a differen t compound. A scal e compose d o f th e sam e note s wil l b e a different scal e depending on whethe r it is in the Doria n o r th e Phrygian mode . I f thi s i s th e case , i t i s obviou s tha t i n determining th e identit y o f th e cit y w e mus t loo k t o th e constitution. Whethe r th e sam e grou p o f peopl e inhabit s a city, or a totally differen t group , w e are fre e t o call it the same city, o r a different city . I t i s a differen t question * whether it is right t o pa y debt s o r t o repudiat e the m whe n a cit y change s its constitution int o another form .

C H A P T E R 4 Aristotle now raises the question, 'What is the relation of the excellence of the good citizen to the excellence of the good man?' If we look at constitutions generally, we must note that different constitutions require different types of good citizen, while the good man is always the same. If we look at the best constitution, we may argue that even here there must be different types of good citizen, because there are different sorts of civic function; and thus here too the good citizen cannot be identified with the good man. On the whole, therefore, the good citizen and the good man cannot be identified. But there is one case in which they can be. This is the case of the good ruler who

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P O L I T I C S I I I . 4 9 1

possesses the quality of moral wisdom required for being a good subject. The quality of moral wisdom which he possesses is the essential quality of the good man; and in his case the excellence of the good citizen is identical with that of the good man.

I276bi6 A questio n connecte d wit h thos e whic h hav e jus t been discusse d i s th e questio n whethe r th e excellenc e o f a good ma n an d tha t o f a goo d citize n ar e identica l o r different.* I f thi s questio n i s to b e investigated , w e must firs t describe th e excellenc e o f th e citize n i n som e sor t o f outline . Just a s a sailo r i s a membe r o f a n association, * s o to o i s a citizen. Sailor s diffe r fro m on e anothe r i n virtu e o f th e differ - ent capacitie s i n whic h the y act : on e i s a rower , anothe r a steersman, anothe r a look-ou t man ; an d other s wil l hav e still other suc h titles . I t is , nevertheless, clear that , whil e the mos t accurate definitio n o f th e excellenc e o f eac h sailo r wil l b e special t o th e ma n concerned , a commo n definitio n of excel- lence wil l apply t o all , inasmuch a s safet y i n navigatio n i s th e common tas k o f all and th e objec t at which each o f the sailor s aims. The same is also tru e of citizens. Thoug h they differ , th e end whic h they all serve is the safet y o f thei r association; an d this associatio n consist s in the constitution. Th e conclusion t o which we are thu s led is that th e excellenc e of the citize n must be a n excellenc e relative to th e constitution . I t follow s tha t if there ar e severa l differen t kind s o f constitutio n ther e canno t be a singl e absolut e excellenc e o f th e goo d citizen. * Bu t th e good ma n i s a ma n s o calle d i n virtu e o f a singl e absolut e excellence.

I276b34 I t i s thu s clea r tha t i t i s possibl e t o b e a goo d citi/en withou t possessin g th e excellenc e b y whic h on e i s a good man . Bu t we may reac h th e sam e conclusion i n anothe r way,* b y discussin g th e questio n wit h particular referenc e t o the bes t constitution. Althoug h i t is impossible for a city to be composed entirel y o f goo d men , eac h citize n must , non e th e less, perform well his particular functio n and thi s requires [the appropriate kin d of ] excellence. But, sinc e it i s impossible fo r all the citizens to b e alike, the excellence of a citizen cannot b e identical wit h tha t o f a goo d man . Th e excellenc e o f a goo d citizen must belong to all citizens, because tha t is the condition

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necessary for th e cit y being the bes t city; but th e excellenc e of a goo d ma n canno t possibl y belon g to all—unless , indeed, we hold tha t ever y citize n o f a goo d cit y mus t als o b e a goo d man. Furthermore , th e cit y i s compose d o f unlik e elements. Just a s a livin g bein g i s composed o f sou l an d body , o r th e soul o f th e differen t element s o f reaso n an d appetite , o r th e household o f man an d wife , o r propert y o f master an d slave , so th e cit y to o i s composed o f differen t an d unlik e elements, among them not onl y the various elements already mentioned , but als o other s i n addition . I t follow s tha t ther e canno t b e a single excellenc e commo n t o al l th e citizens , an y mor e tha n there ca n b e a singl e excellenc e commo n t o th e leade r o f a dramatic chorus an d his assistants. I277ai2 Althoug h it i s clear fro m thes e consideration s why

they ar e no t i n al l case s identical , th e questio n ma y stil l b e raised whether there are not som e cases in which the excellence of th e goo d ma n an d tha t o f th e goo d citize n ar e th e same . We sa y tha t a goo d rule r i s a goo d ma n an d possesse s practical wisdom , whil e th e citize n doe s no t nee d t o hav e practical wisdom . Indee d ther e ar e som e wh o hol d tha t th e very trainin g o f th e rule r shoul d be , fro m th e first , o f a different kind ; and i t i s a matte r o f observatio n tha t th e son s of king s ar e speciall y traine d i n ridin g an d th e ar t o f war . Thus Euripides says

No subtletie s for me, But what the city most needs,*

which implie s a specia l trainin g fo r th e ruler . W e ma y thu s assume tha t th e excellenc e o f th e goo d rule r i s identica l with tha t o f th e goo d man . Bu t subject s to o ar e citizens . It follow s tha t th e excellenc e o f th e goo d citize n canno t b e identical wit h tha t o f th e goo d ma n i n al l cases , thoug h it ma y b e s o i n a particula r case. * Th e excellenc e o f th e ordinary citize n i s differen t fro m tha t o f th e ruler ; an d thi s may wel l b e th e reaso n wh y Jaso n [th e tyrant o f Pherae] sai d that h e wa s ' a hungr y ma n excep t whe n h e wa s tyrant' , meaning tha t h e di d no t kno w ho w t o liv e a s a n ordinar y person. I277a25 O n the other hand, people hol d in esteem the capac-

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P O L I T I C S i n .4 9 3

ity both to rul e and t o obey , an d the y regar d th e excellence of a goo d citize n a s bein g a matte r o f rulin g an d obeyin g well . Now i f the excellenc e of th e goo d ma n i s in ruling , whil e that of th e goo d citize n i s i n bot h rulin g an d obeying , thes e tw o excellences cannot b e held in the sam e esteem.

1277*29 Sinc e i t thu s seem s tha t rule r an d rule d shoul d acquire differen t kind s o f knowledge , rathe r tha n th e sam e kind, whil e th e citize n shoul d hav e bot h sort s o f knowledge, and shar e i n both , w e ca n no w se e the nex t ste p whic h ou r argument ha s t o take. * Ther e i s rul e o f th e sor t whic h i s exercised b y a master ; an d b y thi s w e mean th e sor t o f rul e connected wit h th e necessar y function s o f life . Her e i t i s no t necessary fo r th e rule r t o kno w ho w t o d o th e tas k himself , but onl y to kno w how to use those who do: indeed th e former kind o f knowledge (by which we mean a n abilit y to d o menial services personally) ha s a servile character. Ther e are a number of kind s o f servant , becaus e ther e ar e a numbe r o f kind s o f menial servic e which have t o b e rendered . On e o f these form s of servic e i s tha t whic h i s rendere d b y manua l labourers . These, a s thei r ver y nam e signifies , ar e thos e wh o liv e b y th e work o f thei r hands ; an d th e menia l craftsman [o r mechanic ] belongs t o thi s class. Thi s i s the reaso n wh y in some cities the manual worker s wer e once upon a tim e exclude d fro m office , in th e day s befor e th e institutio n o f th e extreme for m o f democracy. Th e occupations pursue d by those who are subjec t to rul e of the sor t just mentioned nee d neve r b e studied b y the good man, o r by the statesman, o r by the good citizen—excep t occasionally an d i n orde r t o satisf y som e persona l need , i n which cas e ther e cease s t o b e an y questio n o f th e relatio n o f master an d slave .

I277b7 Bu t ther e i s als o rul e o f th e sor t whic h i s exercise d over thos e wh o ar e simila r i n birt h t o th e ruler , an d ar e similarly free . Rul e o f thi s sor t i s what w e cal l politica l rule ; and thi s is the sor t o f rule whic h the rule r must begi n to lear n by bein g ruled—jus t a s on e learn s t o b e a commande r o f cavalry b y servin g unde r anothe r commander , o r t o b e a general o f infantr y b y servin g unde r anothe r genera l an d b y acting firs t a s colone l and , eve n befor e that , a s captain . Thi s is why it is a goo d sayin g that 'yo u cannot b e ruler unless you

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94 P O L I T I C S in. 4 have firs t bee n ruled' . Rule r an d rule d hav e indee d differen t excellences; bu t th e fac t remain s tha t th e goo d citize n mus t possess th e knowledg e and th e capacit y requisit e for rulin g as well a s fo r bein g ruled , an d th e excellenc e of a citize n ma y b e defined a s consistin g i n ' a knowledg e o f rul e ove r fre e me n from bot h point s o f view'. I277bi6 A goo d man , also , wil l need both , eve n thoug h th e

temperance an d justic e require d fo r rulin g hav e a differen t character. Equally , th e excellenc e (justice , fo r example ) o f a good ma n wh o i s a subjec t in a fre e cit y will not b e of a single kind. I t wil l includ e differen t sorts : on e sor t whic h fits him t o act a s a ruler , an d on e which fits him t o ac t a s a subject . Th e temperance an d th e courag e o f a ma n diffe r fro m thos e o f a woman i n muc h th e sam e sor t o f way . A ma n woul d b e thought cowardl y if his courage wer e only the sam e as that o f a courageou s woman ; an d conversel y a woma n woul d b e thought a gossi p i f sh e showe d n o mor e decoru m tha n tha t which befit s a goo d man . Th e functio n o f th e ma n i n th e household i s differen t fro m tha t o f th e woman : i t i s th e function o f the one to acquire , and of the other t o keep .

I277b25 Practica l wisdo m i s th e onl y for m o f excellenc e which i s peculiar t o th e ruler . Th e othe r form s must, i t would seem, belon g equall y t o ruler s an d subjects . The excellenc e of subjects canno t b e practica l wisdom , an d ma y b e define d a s 'right opinion' . Th e ruled ma y be compared t o a flute-maker: the rule r i s lik e a flute-playe r wh o use s wha t th e flute-make r makes.

I277b30 Thes e consideration s wil l sho w whethe r th e excel - lence o f th e goo d ma n an d tha t o f th e goo d citize n ar e identical o r different—o r i n what sens e the y ar e identica l an d in what sense they are different .

C H A P T E R 5

There is a further question relating to citizenship, 'Can mechan- ics and labourers be citizens, and if they cannot be citizens, how are they to be described?' They should not be citizens, because they cannot achieve the excellence of the good citizen, though they are necessary to the existence of the city. But the answer

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P O L I T I C S in. 5 9 5 varies from one kind of constitution to another: in an aristocratic constitution, mechanics and labourers cannot be citizens; in an oligarchy, a rich mechanic may.

I277b33 Ther e i s still a question whic h remains to b e consid - ered i n regar d t o th e citizen . I s th e citize n i n th e tru e sens e one wh o i s entitled t o shar e i n office , o r mus t mechanics * b e also include d i n th e rank s o f citizens ? I f w e hol d tha t those , who hav e n o shar e i n publi c offices , ar e als o t o b e included , we shal l hav e som e citizens wh o ca n neve r achiev e th e excel - lence o f th e goo d citize n (fo r thi s ma n wil l also b e a citizen). If, o n th e othe r hand , someon e o f this sor t i s not a citizen , i n what clas s i s h e t o b e placed ? H e i s no t a residen t alien , neither i s he a foreigner . O r shal l w e say that thi s poin t doe s not involv e us in any absurdity? For th e same is true o f slaves and freedmen . The trut h i s that w e cannot includ e a s citizen s all wh o ar e necessar y t o th e city' s existence. * Similarly , too , children ar e no t citizen s i n th e sam e sens e a s adul t males . Adults ar e citizen s absolutely ; childre n ar e citizen s onl y i n a qualified sense—the y are citizens but undevelope d ones . Ther e were some places, i n ancient times , where the class of mechan - ics wa s actuall y compose d o f slave s o r foreigner s only , an d this explain s wh y a grea t numbe r o f mechanic s ar e slave s o r foreigners eve n today. I278a8 Th e bes t for m o f cit y wil l no t mak e th e mechani c a

citizen. Wher e mechanic s ar e admitte d t o citizenshi p we shall have t o sa y tha t th e citize n excellenc e o f whic h w e hav e spoken canno t b e attaine d b y ever y citizen , b y al l wh o ar e simply fre e men , bu t ca n onl y b e achieve d b y thos e wh o ar e free fro m th e necessar y task s o f life . Thos e wh o d o th e necessary task s ma y b e divide d int o tw o classes , slaves , wh o do them fo r individuals , an d mechanic s an d labourers , wh o do them for the community. I278ai3 I f w e start fro m thi s basis , an d carr y ou r inquir y a

little further , th e positio n o f thes e mechanic s an d labourer s will soo n becom e evident ; i n fact , enoug h ha s alread y bee n said* t o mak e i t clear , onc e th e bearin g o f th e argumen t i s grasped. Constitution s ar e various: ther e mus t thus be various kinds o f citizens; more especially , ther e must b e various kind s

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96 P O L I T I C S in. 5

of citizen s wh o ar e subjects . I n on e variet y o f constitutio n i t will b e necessar y tha t mechanic s an d labourer s shoul d b e citizens: i n othe r varietie s i t wil l b e impossible . I t wil l b e impossible, fo r example , wher e ther e i s a constitutio n o f th e type termed 'aristocratic' , with offices distribute d o n the basi s of wort h an d excellence ; fo r on e wh o live s th e lif e o f a mechanic or laboure r canno t pursu e the thing s which belon g to excellence . Th e cas e i s differen t i n oligarchies . Eve n there , it i s true , a laboure r canno t b e a citize n (participatio n i n office dependin g o n a hig h propert y qualification) ; bu t a mechanic may , fo r th e simpl e reaso n tha t craftsme n ofte n become rich. Yet in Thebes ther e was a law that no on e could share i n offic e wh o ha d no t abstaine d fro m sellin g i n th e market fo r a period o f ten years. On the othe r hand, ther e ar e many constitution s wher e the law goes to the lengt h o f admit- ting aliens to citizenship. There are, for example, som e democ- racies wher e someone who has onl y a citizen mother i s admit- ted; an d ther e ar e man y citie s wher e th e sam e privileg e i s given to those o f illegitimate birth. Bu t the policy of extending citizenship s o widely is [generally ] due t o a deart h o f genuine citizens; an d i t i s only shortag e o f population whic h produce s such legislation . Whe n the y hav e sufficien t number s the y gradually disqualify suc h people: first sons of a slave father o r slave mothe r ar e disqualified ; the n thos e wh o ar e bor n o f a citizen mothe r bu t a n alie n father ; an d finall y citizenshi p i s confined t o those who are of citizen parentage o n both sides. *

1278*34 Thes e consideration s prov e tw o things : tha t ther e are severa l differen t kind s o f citizens , an d tha t th e nam e o f citizen i s particularl y applicabl e t o thos e wh o shar e i n th e offices an d honour s o f th e city . Homer accordingl y speak s in the Iliad of a man being treated

like an alien man, without honour;*

and i t i s tru e tha t thos e wh o d o no t shar e i n position s o f honour i n th e cit y ar e just lik e resident aliens . Whe n restric - tions ar e impose d b y subterfug e thei r onl y objec t i s to hood - wink those inhabitants who are not citizens.

I278a40 Tw o conclusion s als o emerg e fro m ou r discussion * of th e question , T s th e excellenc e of th e goo d ma n identica l

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P O L I T I C S m . 6 9 7 with that o f the goo d citizen , o r differen t fro m it?' The first is that ther e ar e som e citie s i n whic h th e goo d ma n an d th e good citize n ar e identical , an d som e i n whic h the y ar e differ - ent. Th e secon d i s that, i n cities of the forme r type, i t is not al l good citizen s who ar e als o goo d men , bu t onl y thos e amon g them wh o hol d th e positio n o f statesmen—i n othe r words , those who direct or are capable o f directing, eithe r alon e o r in conjunction wit h others, the conduct o f public affairs .

B: Constitutions and their Classificatio n (Chapters 6-8)

C H A P T E R 6 The definition of a constitution. The classification of constitu- tions depends on ( 1 ) the ends pur sued by cities, and (2) the kind of rule exercised by their governments. The true end of a city is a good life, and it is the common interest to achieve this: the right kind of rule is authority exercised in the common interest. We may thus distinguish 'right ' constitutions, which are directed to the common interest, and 'wrong' or 'perverted' constitutions directed to the selfish interest of the ruling body.

I278b6 Havin g determine d thes e matter s w e hav e nex t t o consider whethe r ther e i s a singl e typ e o f constitution , o r whether ther e ar e a number o f types. I f there ar e a number of types, wha t ar e thes e types; how many o f them ar e there ; an d how d o the y differ? A constitution [o r politeia] ma y b e defined as 'th e organizatio n o f a city [o r polis], i n respec t o f it s office s generally, bu t especiall y i n respec t o f tha t particula r offic e which is sovereign i n all issues'.* The civi c body i s everywhere the sovereig n o f the city ; in fac t the civi c body i s the constitu - tion itself . I n democrati c cities , fo r example , th e peopl e [demos] i s sovereign: * i n oligarchies , o n th e othe r hand , th e few [o r oligoi] hav e tha t position ; an d thi s differenc e i n th e sovereign bodie s i s the reaso n wh y we say tha t th e tw o type s of constitutio n differ—a s w e ma y equall y appl y th e sam e reasoning to other type s besides these. I278bi5 W e mus t firs t ascertai n tw o things : th e natur e o f

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98 P O L I T I C S in. 6

the en d fo r whic h a cit y exists , an d th e variou s kind s o f rul e to whic h mankin d an d it s association s ar e subject . I t ha s already bee n stated , i n ou r firs t boo k (wher e w e wer e con - cerned wit h the management o f the household an d th e contro l of slaves) , tha t 'ma n i s a politica l animal'. * Fo r thi s reaso n people desir e t o liv e a socia l lif e eve n whe n the y stan d i n n o need o f mutua l succour ; bu t the y ar e als o draw n togethe r b y a commo n interest , i n proportio n a s eac h attain s a shar e i n the goo d life . Th e goo d lif e i s th e chie f end , both fo r th e community as a whol e and for eac h of us individually . But people als o com e together , an d for m an d maintai n politica l associations, merel y for the sak e of life ; for perhap s ther e is some elemen t of th e goo d eve n in th e simpl e fac t o f living , so long as the evils of existence do no t preponderat e to o heavily. It i s an eviden t fact tha t mos t peopl e cling hard enoug h t o lif e to b e willing to endur e a good dea l o f suffering, whic h implies that lif e ha s i n i t a sor t o f health y happines s an d a natura l quality of pleasure. I278b30 I t i s easy enoug h t o distinguis h the various kind s of

rule o f whic h peopl e commonl y speak ; an d indee d w e hav e often ha d occasio n to defin e the m ourselve s in works intended for th e general public.* The rule of a master i s one kind;* and here, thoug h ther e i s reall y a commo n interes t whic h unite s the natural maste r an d th e natural slave, the fact remain s that the rul e i s primaril y exercise d wit h a vie w t o th e master' s interest, and onl y incidentally with a vie w to tha t o f the slave, who mus t b e preserve d i n existenc e i f th e rul e i s t o remain . Rule over wife an d children, and ove r the household generally , is a secon d kin d o f rule, which we have calle d b y th e nam e o f household management. * Her e th e rul e i s eithe r exercise d i n the interes t o f the rule d o r fo r th e attainmen t o f som e advan - tage common t o both rule r and ruled . Essentially it is exercised in th e interes t o f th e ruled , a s i s als o plainl y th e cas e wit h other art s besides that of ruling, such as medicine and gymnas - tics—though a n ar t ma y incidentall y b e exercise d fo r th e benefit o f it s practitioner , an d ther e i s nothin g t o preven t (say) a traine r fro m becomin g occasionall y a membe r o f th e class h e instructs , i n th e sam e sor t o f wa y a s a steersma n i s always one of the crew . Thus a trainer o r steersma n primaril y

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P O L I T I C S in. 7 9 9

considers th e goo d o f thos e wh o ar e subjec t t o hi s authority; but whe n he become s one of them personally, he incidentally shares i n th e benefi t o f tha t good—th e steersma n thu s being also a membe r o f th e crew , an d th e traine r (thoug h stil l a trainer) becomin g als o a membe r o f th e clas s whic h h e instructs.

I279a8 Fo r thi s reason , whe n th e constitutio n o f a cit y i s constructed o n th e principl e that it s member s ar e equal s an d peers, th e citizen s think i t proper tha t the y should hol d offic e by turns . A t an y rat e thi s i s th e natura l system , an d th e system whic h use d t o b e followe d i n th e day s whe n peopl e believed tha t the y ough t t o serv e by turns , an d eac h assume d that other s woul d tak e ove r th e dut y o f considerin g hi s benefit, jus t a s h e himself , durin g hi s ter m o f office , ha d considered thei r interest. * Toda y becaus e o f th e profit s to b e derived fro m offic e an d th e handlin g o f publi c property , people wan t t o hol d offic e continuously . I t i s a s i f they were invalids, who go t the benefi t o f being healthy by being perma- nently i n office : a t an y rat e thei r ardou r fo r offic e i s just what it woul d b e i f tha t wer e th e case. * Th e conclusio n whic h follows i s clear : thos e constitution s whic h conside r th e common interes t are righ t constitutions , judged b y the stand - ard o f absolut e justice . Thos e constitution s whic h conside r only th e persona l interes t o f the ruler s are al l wrong constitu - tions, o r perversion s o f th e righ t forms. * Suc h perverte d forms ar e despotic; * wherea s th e cit y i s a n associatio n o f freemen.

C H A P T E R 7

These two types of constitution each fall into three subdivisions on the basis of number, i.e. according as the One, or the Few, or the Many are the ruling authority in each type. We have thus, as the three subdivisions of the 'right' type, Kingship, Aristocracy, and 'Constitutional Government' or 'Polity': as the three subdivisions of the 'wrong' type, Tyranny, Oligarchy, and Democracy.

1279*22 No w tha t thes e matter s hav e bee n determined , th e next subjec t for consideration i s the number and natur e o f the

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100 P O L I T I C S I I I . 7

different constitutions . W e ma y firs t examin e thos e constitu - tions tha t ar e rightl y formed , since , whe n thes e hav e bee n determined, the different perversion s will at onc e be apparent .

I279a25 Th e ter m 'constitution ' [politeia] signifie s th e sam e thing a s th e ter m 'civi c body ' [politeuma]. Th e civi c bod y i n every city \polis] i s the sovereig n [t o kurion]', an d th e sovereig n must necessaril y b e eithe r One , o r Few , o r Many . O n thi s basis we may say that when the One , or the Few, or the Many rule wit h a vie w t o th e commo n interest , th e constitution s under whic h the y d o s o mus t necessaril y b e righ t constitutions.* O n th e othe r hand , th e constitution s directe d to th e personal interes t o f the One , o r th e Few, o r the Masses, must necessaril y b e perversions . Eithe r w e shoul d sa y tha t those who do no t shar e in the constitution ar e not citizens , o r they ough t t o hav e thei r shar e o f th e benefits . Accordin g t o customary usage , amon g monarchica l form s o f governmen t the typ e whic h look s t o th e commo n interes t i s calle d King - ship; amon g form s of governmen t b y a fe w people (bu t mor e than one ) i t i s calle d Aristocracy—tha t nam e bein g give n t o this specie s eithe r becaus e th e bes t [aristoi\ ar e th e rulers , o r because it s objec t i s what i s best [aristón] fo r th e cit y an d it s members. Finally , whe n th e masse s gover n th e cit y wit h a view to th e common interest , the for m o f government is called by th e generi c nam e commo n t o al l constitution s (o r pol - ities)—the nam e o f 'Constitutiona l Government'. * Ther e i s a goo d reaso n fo r thi s usage: i t i s possible fo r on e man , o r a few, t o b e o f outstandin g excellence ; but whe n i t come s t o a large number , w e can hardl y expec t precision i n al l the varie - ties o f excellence . Wha t w e ca n expec t particularl y i s th e military kin d o f excellence, * whic h i s th e kin d tha t show s itself i n a mass . Thi s i s the reaso n wh y the defenc e force s ar e the mos t sovereig n bod y unde r thi s constitution , an d thos e who possess arms are the ones who participate i n it.

I279b4 Th e perversions tha t correspon d t o th e constitutions just mentione d are : Tyranny , [th e perversio n of ] Kingship ; Oligarchy [th e perversio n of ] Aristocracy ; an d Democrac y [the perversio n of ] 'Constitutiona l Government ' [o r polity] . Tyranny i s a governmen t b y a singl e perso n directe d t o th e interest o f that person ; Oligarch y i s directed t o th e interes t of

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