Chapter 2 (2)

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CULTURAL DIFFERENCES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON

STUDENT LEARNING EXPERIENCES IN

AMERICAN SCHOOLS

by Darlene Grayson

A Capstone Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Education

South College, Knoxville, TN

Graduation 2026

APPROVED BY:

Dr. Matthew Johnson, Ed.D., Capstone Chair

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Table of Contents CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................3

Overview..................................................................................................................................... 3

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework.................................................................................4

Culturally Relevant Pedagogy: Origins and Evolution 4

The Three Principles of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 5

Sociocultural Learning Theory as a Supporting Conceptual Framework 8

Relationship Between the Frameworks and the Proposed Study 10

Literature Synthesis.................................................................................................................13

Culturally Responsive Teaching: Definitions, Principles, and Evolution 13

Student Engagement in Middle School 17

Characteristics of Middle School Learners 22

Classroom Climate, Belonging, and Student Engagement 25

Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices 29

Teacher Preparation and Professional Development 35

Challenges to Implementing Culturally Responsive Teaching 38

Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Middle School Education 42

Social-Emotional Learning and Student Engagement 44

Research Gap........................................................................................................................... 46

Action Research in Educational Settings 53

Summary...................................................................................................................................58

References.................................................................................................................................60

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW Overview

As the middle-grade classroom becomes more culturally and linguistically diverse,

studies on practices that promote student engagement have become increasingly critical

(Ladson-Billings, 2021). Teaching practices that facilitate student engagement go beyond

providing information and materials to include interactions with students and consideration of

their identities and backgrounds in instruction (Gay, 2021; Hammond, 2021). Student

engagement, in turn, has been conceptualized as a multidimensional construct that includes a

student’s behavioral, emotional, and cognitive response to relationships in the classroom,

relevance, and belonging (Fredricks et al., 2023). Each of these areas has been shown to be

particularly salient in middle-grade education, as students begin to grapple with questions of

identity, navigate complex social groups, and seek a sense of belonging (Byrd, 2019; Wang et al.,

2020). Therefore, this literature review aims to provide an integrated synthesis of the research on

culturally responsive teaching and student engagement by combining the findings, theories, and

methodologies of prior works rather than treating them as individual studies (Booth et al., 2021;

Snyder, 2019). While much research has centered on culturally responsive pedagogy as a

potential solution to the challenges of teaching diverse middle-grade classrooms, most have

focused on theoretical underpinnings and teacher perspectives, leaving teaching practices and

student experiences understudied (Anyichie et al., 2023; Franco et al., 2024). Thus, this literature

review will serve as a foundation for the study by providing theoretical and conceptual

background while also identifying the research gap that the proposed study will address.

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Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

A theoretical framework is an integral component of a study, as it helps situate the

phenomenon of research within the scholarly context and ensures that the research questions,

analysis, and conclusions align with the existing knowledge. It guides the interpretation of

findings, provides a conceptual basis for the study, and connects the new research to the broader

academic field while preventing theoretical or ideological biases (Mertler, 2024). Culturally

Relevant Pedagogy (CRP) has been selected as the primary theoretical framework of this study

because it provides a comprehensive understanding of how culturally responsive instruction

promotes student engagement while advancing equity by taking into account students’ diverse

cultural backgrounds and worldviews (Ladson-Billings, 2021). A sociocultural learning theory

serves as another theoretical framework for the study because it views learning as a socially

mediated and socially patterned process, thus supporting the CRP-informed instruction’s focus

on interactions between students and teachers (Vygotsky, 1978).

Culturally Relevant Pedagogy: Origins and Evolution

CRP is grounded in the scholarship of Gloria Ladson-Billings who identified that

successful teachers could facilitate positive learning outcomes for African American students

using culturally responsive practices, despite the social and economic disadvantages these pupils

faced (Ladson-Billings, 2021). By shifting the focus from why culturally diverse students were

not meeting grade-level expectations to how students could succeed academically while

embracing their cultural identity, Ladson-Billings moved away from “deficit thinking” and began

asking more equitable questions about the role of curriculum, instruction, and classroom

interactions in learning (Gay, 2021). As such, CRP is more than just a set of strategies; it is an

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educational worldview that champions inclusiveness and celebrates diversity, which has broader

pedagogical implications (Ladson-Billings, 2024).

Since its initial conceptualization, the focus of CRP has expanded to include ways in

which educators can go beyond merely enhancing academic outcomes to also ensuring equitable

pedagogy that promotes cultural responsiveness in the classroom as well as broader educational

engagement (Franco et al., 2024). Culturally responsive pedagogy is therefore both a process and

a practice that draws on classroom interactions and relationships, as well as reflective

self-inquiry, in an effort to transform teaching and learning (Franco et al., 2024). Although

inconsistent in its implementation, CRP has been associated with improved instructional support

practices, classroom management, and increased indicators of student engagement (Debnam et

al., 2024). This has occurred despite the complexity associated with implementing

comprehensive, multidimensional CRP across different educational settings and contexts. In

general, the research presented highlights the relevance of CRP as an overarching theoretical

framework for interrogating the engagement of culturally and linguistically diverse students in

middle-grade learning (Debnam et al., 2024).

The Three Principles of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy

Culturally Relevant Pedagogy rests on three principles, namely, academic success,

cultural competence, and critical consciousness (Ladson-Billings, 2021). These principles inform

CRP’s emphasis on creating learning environments that promote student academic success while

affirming cultural identities and encouraging critical understandings of the sociohistorical

contexts in which education takes place (Gay, 2021). The three principles that define Culturally

Relevant Pedagogy are interconnected while also informing distinct aspects of teaching and

learning that must be present for students to experience success in school. They represent a more

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holistic view of education that goes beyond simply acknowledging the learning needs of students

from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds to transforming teaching and learning

environments in ways that validate students’ identities while also empowering them to transform

society for the better (Ladson-Billings, 2021; Gay, 2021; Lozano Castillo, 2024).

Academic Achievement Through Culturally Relevant Pedagogy

The principle of academic success is concerned with providing high academic

expectations while also ensuring relevance whereby learning is contextualized in ways that

connect it to students’ personal aspirations and cultural beliefs (Ladson-Billings, 2021). In

general, CRP rejects the notion that high expectations lead to low achievement for culturally and

linguistically diverse students and argues that these learners can achieve positive learning

outcomes when provided with the resources and support they need (Gay, 2021). Research

indicates that culturally responsive pedagogy facilitates higher levels of engagement, persistence,

and hope as well as positive academic expectations, with learners being more likely to participate

actively in the learning process when they recognize the relevance of what is being taught to

their lives (Hammond, 2021). These findings are especially pertinent in middle-grade education

where identity formation and affiliative social connections are key developmental concerns that

influence students’ affective and behavioral responses to school and learning (Eccles & Roeser,

2023). From a similar perspective, learners who perceive school lessons as irrelevant become

disengaged and subsequently have poorer overall educational experiences (Byrd, 2019).

Cultural Competence Through Culturally Relevant Pedagogy

The principle of cultural competence emphasizes the importance of validating students’

cultural identities and supporting them to become more successful in mainstream society

(Ladson-Billings, 2021). By helping learners to embrace their own cultures and encouraging

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them to operate in a manner that affirms their identities, CRP challenges the notion that

assimilation into mainstream culture is necessarily a good outcome (Gay, 2021; Hammond,

2021). Student engagement research highlights the motivational role of identity affirmation in

promoting educational success, particularly in adolescence when students begin navigating

complex social dynamics that affect their sense of belonging (Byrd, 2019; Eccles & Roeser,

2023). As such, CRP encourages teachers to become more conscious of how their attitudes and

actions can be used to affirm students’ cultural identities, with benefits accruing to all parties

involved as learners are then more likely to meaningfully engage in teaching and learning

(Ladson-Billings, 2021; Gay, 2021).

Critical Consciousness Through Culturally Relevant Pedagogy

The tenets of CRP encourage educators to move beyond academic success and cultural

competence to challenge learners to become critically conscious (Ladson-Billings, 2021). In this

regard, CRP calls on teachers to facilitate students’ critical analyses of the sociohistorical factors

that contribute to unequal educational outcomes and learning opportunities (Gay, 2021). Asking

these “big questions” allows learners to become more empowered because they begin to

understand the mechanisms that create and sustain social inequities and how these relate to their

own lived realities (Lozano Castillo, 2024). In particular, critical consciousness helps students to

recognize social, historical, and political contexts in their communities and connect them to

classroom learning (Lozano Castillo, 2024). Discussing social justice issues in the classroom can

help facilitate more meaningful educational experiences for middle-grade students who are

interested in activism and community improvement, as engaging in such activities makes

classroom learning more relevant to them (Eccles & Roeser, 2023)

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Sociocultural Learning Theory as a Supporting Conceptual Framework

Although the proposed study focuses on Culturally Relevant Pedagogy as its theoretical

backdrop, another conceptual framework that supports the mechanisms by which CRP can

promote positive outcomes in the classroom is Sociocultural Learning Theory (Vygotsky, 1978).

The theory by Vygotsky highlights the learning mechanism that takes place among students in

culturally diverse classrooms (Vygotsky, 1978). It has been a foundational background in which

learning is argued to take place through social interactions among students in a classroom. The

theory has been applied extensively by modern researchers since learning is inherently social and

takes place in a specific cultural background (Kilag et al., 2024). Sociocultural Learning Theory

is related to the proposed study since students’ learning processes involve the interaction with the

content as well as teachers and peers to gain knowledge (Osher et al., 2020).

Furthermore, sociocultural learning theory suggests that learning takes place through

dialogue as well as participation as well as collaboration between the student and peers

(Vygotsky, 1978). The student’s mind is constructed by the interactions of people with different

backgrounds and perspectives (Alkhudiry, 2022). Language plays a pivotal role in learning as it

is used for sharing information and facilitating the assimilation of new concepts (Daniels, 2023).

Therefore, communication in the classroom is key to engaging students and influencing their

interactions (Hammond, 2021). Communication becomes more relevant in a classroom with

students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds where each one brings in their

communication styles and linguistic competence (Gay, 2021). The premise is relevant to the

current proposed study since it focuses on middle school where students come with a variety of

social interactions and communication styles.

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Moreover, sociocultural theory postulates that there is a zone of proximal development

that is relevant when a student is interacting with a more knowledgeable member of society.

Vygotsky (1978) argued that scaffolding in the context of learning takes place when teachers or

peers help students learn and develop concepts. In addition, scaffolding is relevant in a CRP

context since it involves leveraging on the strengths of the students and using their linguistic and

cultural backgrounds to promote education, highlighting the strengths-based approach used in

CRP (Hammond, 2021). Indeed, evidence shows that students with strengths-based teaching are

more likely to participate than when teachers focus on their gaps in learning (Anyichie et al.,

2023; Gay, 2021).

Additionally, sociocultural learning theory highlights that culture and cognitive

development are deeply intertwined. Students interact with knowledge using the cultural tools

they use in their lives to navigate the different aspects of life. Therefore, if a teacher fails to use

appropriate context, they might fail to engage the student in learning (Vygotsky, 1978).

Culturally relevant pedagogy aims to leverage the students’ social backgrounds to facilitate

conceptual learning (Gay, 2021; Hammond, 2021). Recent findings indicate that CRP leads to

more engagement, especially for learning-oriented culturally diverse students (Anyichie et al.,

2023; Franco et al., 2024). Therefore, these findings can be used to argue that sociocultural

learning theory has merit in classroom interactions.

Finally, sociocultural learning theory is relevant in understanding the mechanisms that

influence student engagement in learning in the middle school context where the students are

navigating complex social relationships while building their identities. Thus, the interactions in

classrooms and school settings need to be conducive to promoting healthy relationships and a

safe learning environment (Byrd, 2019; Osher et al., 2020). In addition, engagement is not only a

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product of the student or teacher’s attributes, but rather it is argued to be a dynamic process

whereby the interactions between them are key to influencing student engagement (Alkhudiry,

2022). Sociocultural learning theory perspective is relevant and provides a theoretical

background for the proposed study because it can help argue that in attempting to address the

student engagement issue, teachers’ behavior and the students’ cultural backgrounds must be

considered (Byrd, 2019; Osher et al., 2020).

Relationship Between the Frameworks and the Proposed Study

The choice of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy and Sociocultural Learning Theory as the

theoretical framework is justified by their emphasis on the role of the context of learning in

student engagement (Gay, 2021; Hammond, 2021). The two theories are similar in that they do

not view engagement as an exclusive characteristic of students but as something that emerges

through the relationships between students, teachers, curricula, and the classroom environment

(Ladson-Billings, 2021; Vygotsky, 1978). The two theories are relevant to the proposed study

because they view engagement as a consequence of instruction that recognizes cultural contexts

and encourages meaningful interactions (Osher et al., 2020). Therefore, the aim of this paper is

to explain the relationship between the proposed study and the chosen frameworks.

CRP is the preferred framework for analyzing the problem because it highlights the

importance of learning environments that promote student engagement through culturally

relevant teaching practices. CRP suggests that teachers can increase student engagement by

providing academic rigor while also validating students’ cultures and worldviews (Gay, 2021;

Ladson-Billings, 2021). This approach is appropriate for the current study because it helps

understand how teachers can use their instructional interactions to create classroom

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environments that recognize students’ identities and encourage behavioral, emotional, and

cognitive engagement (Hammond, 2021; Byrd, 2019).

Sociocultural Learning Theory complements CRP by providing an explanation of how

classroom relationships influence student engagement. Unlike CRP, which focuses on the goals

of culturally relevant teaching, Sociocultural Learning Theory highlights the mechanisms by

which engagement emerges. It views learning as a socially mediated process, which means that

students engage with the curriculum through interactions with teachers and peers (Vygotsky,

1978). This perspective is relevant to the current study because it explains how teachers can

facilitate engagement by building relationships with students and encouraging collaborative

learning (Alkhudiry, 2022; Eccles & Roeser, 2011). Both theories are integral to understanding

the research problem because they demonstrate how teachers can use culturally relevant practices

to build relationships with students and thereby increase their engagement. Such an approach is

appropriate for the current study because it acknowledges the role of interactions in engagement

while also recognizing the importance of validating students’ cultural identities (Gay, 2021).

The two frameworks also contribute to the understanding of student engagement in the

proposed study. They help expand the perspective on student engagement beyond attendance and

participation because they highlight the importance of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive

engagement (Fredricks et al., 2019). According to CRP, students are more likely to be

behaviorally and emotionally engaged when they see their cultures reflected in the curriculum

(Ladson-Billings, 2021). At the same time, Sociocultural Learning Theory suggests that

cognitive engagement emerges from instruction that facilitates positive interactions and

encourages students to build on their cultural worldviews (Vygotsky, 1978). Therefore, analyzing

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the study through the lens of these frameworks can provide a more comprehensive understanding

of student engagement.

Finally, the chosen frameworks are integral to the current study because they align with

the proposed methodology. Action research is appropriate for this study because it allows for

examining how teachers can use CRP to facilitate student engagement (Mertler, 2024). This

approach is consistent with the two frameworks because they both emphasize the teacher’s role

in instruction while also acknowledging the importance of students’ cultural contexts (Gay,

2021; Mertler, 2024). As a result, the current study can rely on these frameworks to ensure that

the action research methodology is appropriate for examining how teachers can use CRP to

increase engagement.

In conclusion, the integration of CRP and Sociocultural Learning Theory is essential for

this study because it allows for examining how teachers can use culturally relevant practices to

build relationships with students and thereby increase their engagement. While CRP emphasizes

the importance of validating students’ cultures, Sociocultural Learning Theory highlights the role

of relationships and interactions. The combination of these perspectives is crucial for the current

study because it recognizes the complexity of the relationship between student engagement and

culturally responsive teaching practices. Overall, the proposed study aims to contribute to the

discussion of student engagement in culturally and linguistically diverse middle school

classrooms by demonstrating how CRP can be implemented in actual teaching practices. This

study will complement previous research on student engagement and CRP, which primarily

consists of conceptual discussions and quantitative studies, by generating qualitative insights into

how teachers can implement culturally relevant practices (Franco et al., 2024; Gay, 2021).

Indeed, while CRP has been shown to be a useful framework for understanding student

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engagement, most of the discussion centers on its theoretical and policy implications (Anyichie

et al., 2023). The current study will fill this research gap by generating qualitative data on how

CRP can be used in actual classrooms to facilitate student engagement in culturally and

linguistically diverse middle school classrooms.

Literature Synthesis

The reviewed literature in this chapter is related to each other in a number of ways. First,

they are all concerned with culturally responsive teaching, student engagement, classroom

relationships, and equity. Second, the literature reviewed here have focused their studies on

understanding how instruction, students’ lived experiences, classroom practices, and contexts

influence students’ engagement in learning. Third, all the reviewed literature agree that culturally

responsive teaching is more likely to contribute to student engagement among linguistically and

culturally diverse students (Gay, 2018; Osher et al., 2020). Additionally, the reviewed literature

has identified both the areas where there are convergence and contention in the research findings.

Lastly, the literature highlights the limitations in the studies conducted so far, which form the

basis of addressing the research gap proposed in this study (Anyichie et al., 2023;

Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). The discussion examines how these practices relate to student

engagement and the broader middle school learning environment.

Culturally Responsive Teaching: Definitions, Principles, and Evolution

Culturally responsive teaching (CRT) has emerged as one of the most promising new

frameworks for addressing the needs of an increasingly diverse classroom. However, researchers

have used it interchangeably with other terms, and it has evolved significantly over time (Gay,

2021; Hammond, 2021). The main concepts are similar but were developed by different scholars

who approached the problem from different angles. Overall, CRT is a broad term that includes a

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number of related approaches to teaching that acknowledge and account for cultural differences

among students (Ladson-Billings, 2021).

Gay (2018) was one of the first researchers to formally propose the concept of CRT. She

defined it as using students’ cultural knowledge, experiences, communication styles, and

preferences to improve learning outcomes. In her view, diversity was an asset that could be

leveraged to improve education, as opposed to a characteristic to overcome (Gay, 2018).

Hammond (2021) later added that incorporating cultural considerations into teaching actually

capitalized on years of cognitive science research about the role of culture in developing trusting

relationships and promoting higher-level thinking. Gay and Hammond used different frameworks

to describe CRT, but both agreed that culture played a critical role in learning.

Gay (2018) and Hammond (2021) are not the only voices in the conversation about

culturally responsive teaching. Ladson-Billings (2021) developed the concept of culturally

relevant pedagogy, which later evolved into CRT. She argued that teachers needed to be aware of

the need to help students achieve academic success while also embracing their culture and

empowering them. Unlike previous approaches to multicultural education, culturally relevant

pedagogy did not require students to renounce their cultural identities to conform to the dominant

one. The need to balance these objectives has remained at the forefront of discussions about

CRT, with researchers such as Pathak et al. (2024) noting that it has become increasingly

complex in the context of classrooms with multifaceted diversity.

The evolution of CRT has been nonlinear. Early initiatives such as multicultural

education were largely superficial, only scratching the surface of necessary changes (Banks,

2008). The initial emphasis was on ensuring that the curriculum included materials and subjects

relevant to diverse groups of students (Byrd, 2019). Sleeter (2018), however, pointed out that

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multicultural education often failed to question or change the status quo in education, making it

difficult to address systemic issues. Researchers therefore began looking for ways to go beyond

representing diverse groups in the curriculum and start transforming classroom relationships and

instruction in ways that acknowledged diversity (Gay, 2018). These ideas eventually led to

culturally relevant pedagogy and then to the current understanding of CRT.

Another important development in the discussion of culturally responsive teaching was

the emergence of the concept of culturally sustaining pedagogy. Paris & Alim (2017) argued that

educators should acknowledge and sustain the linguistic and cultural diversity of their students as

opposed to trying to assimilate them into the existing monolith. Researchers have since begun

advocating for nurturing diverse cultures within the school environment (Pathak et al., 2024).

Paris & Alim (2017) proposed that education must evolve to meet the needs of minorities as

opposed to the other way around. It is important to note that most scholars, including Pathak et

al. (2024), agree that culturally sustaining pedagogy is an extension of the earlier concepts of

multicultural education and CRT.

Regardless of the variations in definitions, several themes relating to principles appear to

be common to most discussions of culturally responsive teaching. Byrd (2019) and Hammond

(2021) highlight the importance of building good relationships with students since trust and a

sense of belonging promote engagement and learning outcomes. Scholars such as Gay (2018),

Hammond (2021), and Pathak et al. (2024) all stress the importance of making learning relevant

to students’ cultural lives and community experiences. Similarities can also be drawn in their

emphasis on encouraging student voice, collaboration, reflection, and high expectations.

Hammond (2021) explicitly states that successful CRT is teacher-centered but promotes

academic rigor. Researchers therefore seem to agree that CRT entails making learning accessible

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and inclusive while also maintaining high standards of achievement (Camiring-Picpican et al.,

2025; Pathak et al., 2024).

While several studies describe the general principles of CRT, scholars differ significantly

in their views on what constitutes its successful implementation in practice. Some researchers

such as Gay (2018) focus on classroom practices, suggesting that educators can enhance learning

outcomes by incorporating more culturally relevant materials and methods into instruction.

Others argue that successful CRT requires teachers to undergo a long-term introspection about

their role and responsibility in education (Ladson-Billings, 2021). Hammond (2021) takes a

different angle and proposes that implementation should be informed by recent neuroscience

research that examines how culturally responsive relationships enhance learning readiness and

engagement. Cantrell & Powell (2021), on the other hand, emphasize the need for leadership to

be involved in the process of reviewing the school’s culture, learning environment, and related

aspects. Overall, researchers seem to agree that teaching and learning within a culturally

responsive framework require a multifaceted approach but differ in their views on the specific

steps that need to be taken (Hammond 2021; Ladson-Billings, 2021).

Although considerable research has been done to demonstrate the benefits of CRT, there

are still several questions that warrant further investigation. Most studies, including those by Dee

& Penner (2017) and Hammond (2021), demonstrate the potential of such an approach to

improving student outcomes. However, many of these studies are conceptual or based on surveys

and fail to analyze its long-term effects (Hammond 2021; Ladson-Billings (2021). There is a

need for more empirical, qualitative studies, particularly in the context of middle school

education, to evaluate how CRT can be successfully implemented in practice (Hammond 2021).

In particular, there is a lack of studies on students’ perceptions of CRT and its impact on their

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engagement and learning outcomes (Caingcoy, 2023). This information is critical in

understanding how culturally responsive practices affect learning in a middle school setting

where adolescents begin to develop deeper relationships with their peers and become

increasingly aware of their place within their community (Byrd, 2019). Addressing this gap in

research would help explain how teachers can benefit from adopting a more culturally responsive

approach.

The reviewed literature demonstrates that the academic field has made considerable

progress in embracing diversity by evolving from multicultural education to CRT (Hammond

2021; Ladson-Billings, 2021). Various scholars have made significant contributions to the

discussion by examining different aspects of the issue. It is apparent that diversity and cultural

awareness are critical considerations in education (Hammond 2021; Ladson-Billings, 2021). At

the same time, the literature makes it clear that there is a gap between theory and practice, with

researchers failing to sufficiently address how schools, in general, and teachers, in particular, can

successfully incorporate CRT into their practices (Caingcoy, 2023; Idrus, & Sohid, 2023).

Identifying practical solutions to this challenge is the focus of the proposed qualitative action

research study.

Student Engagement in Middle School

Student engagement has been one of the most widely researched phenomena in the field

of education since it has been proved that student engagement positively correlates with

academic achievement, school retention, class participation, and other important variables

(Fredricks et al., 2016). The term student engagement is multifaceted and context-dependent as

the majority of studies highlight the tripartite nature of engagement that simultaneously

comprises behavioral, emotional, and cognitive subtypes (Fredricks et al., 2016). Subsequent

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investigations have expanded this notion to highlight how students’ behavioral, emotional,

cognitive responses to the school environment emerge through reciprocal interactions with peers,

teachers, curriculum, and other factors (Kahu, 2013). As a result, there is a growing body of

evidence that highlights the focus of scholars’ attention to student participation in the learning

process as a context-dependent and multifaceted construct (Skinner et al., 2009).

The simplest way to conceptualize behavioral engagement is to think of it as the extent to

which a student demonstrates adherence to classroom expectations, participation in class,

attendance, persistence, and other similar behaviors (Fredricks et al., 2016). Behavioral

engagement was the focal point of a number of initial investigations into the nature of student

engagement and was frequently used as the sole indicator of students’ participation levels

(Skinner et al., 2009). However, the reliance on behavioral indicators as the sole determinant of

student engagement is now viewed with skepticism because compliance with classroom rules

does not necessarily equate with positive attitudes toward learning (Appleton et al., 2008). This

line of reasoning has gained traction in recent years as a number of scholars have noted that

behavioral compliance as a demonstration of student engagement is especially prevalent among

culturally diverse student groups (Byrd, 2019). As such, the shift has occurred in the last two

decades or so that has seen emotional engagement increasingly prioritized in the literature as a

key component of student engagement.

Emotional engagement is characterized by students’ sense of belonging, enjoyment,

interest, trust, and other similar positive emotions in the school environment (Skinner et al.,

2009). Students that feel that they are genuinely cared for by the adults in the school building

tend to report the highest levels of emotional engagement as they feel included and supported

throughout the learning process (Byrd, 2019). In contrast, students that are not viewed as

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deserving of the school’s resources often develop feelings of isolation that undermine their

emotional engagement in learning (Osher et al., 2020). Hammond (2021) stated that positive

emotional engagement plays a critical role in student learning as it lowers students’ levels of

cortisol, promotes trust between students and teachers, and facilitates deeper learning. Indeed, a

number of recent papers have argued that emotional engagement is the vital element in

determining whether culturally responsive education initiatives will gain traction among students

because students are more likely to be emotionally engaged when they see elements of their

culture in the curriculum (Anyichie et al., 2023; Wang & Hofkens, 2020).

Finally, cognitive engagement is best described as the extent to which the students utilize

higher-level cognitive processes to actively try to understand and make sense of new information

they are exposed to in the classroom (Fredricks et al., 2016). Cognitive engagement practices

typically include such behaviors as deep processing of the material, elaboration, regulation of

learning, and strategic behaviors to overcome the challenges posed by the course content

(Appleton et al., 2008). The majority of scholars have concluded that cognitive skills and

attitudes are not taught explicitly but rather emerge in contexts when learners are intrinsically

motivated to learn for the sheer joy of learning (Kahu, 2013). Hammond (2021) held that

culturally responsive teaching was uniquely suited to facilitate cognitive engagement because it

allowed the students to build upon their pre-existing cultural schemas to truly understand the

academic material.

Rather than operating independently, the three components of classroom engagement

constantly affect each other. Students who feel emotionally connected are more likely to

participate behaviorally (Byrd, 2019). In turn, the discussion and collaboration inherent in such

participation allow them to engage cognitively (Fredricks et al., 2016). On the other hand, a lack

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of emotional connection often leads to reduced behavioral and cognitive engagement over time

(Skinner et al., 2009). These connections suggest that engagement should be regarded as a

process stemming from students’ classroom experiences and not as an intrinsically formed trait

(Appleton et al., 2008). The next several paragraphs will discuss how the multidimensional

nature of student engagement can be better understood by taking developmental characteristics

into account.

The developmental stage of middle childhood is linked to increased complexity in

students’ cognitive, emotional, social, and psychological domains, and their relationships with

others (Wentzel, 2017). As such, it is a critical period for understanding how children begin to

engage in learning. For example, students who transition from elementary to middle school often

have to deal with higher academic demands, additional teachers, larger social circles, and

increased independence compared to earlier grades (Eccles & Roeser, 2011). Such changes often

create opportunities for heightened levels of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive participation

while also presenting challenges to students’ engagement with learning.

According to developmental theory, early adolescents begin to explore their emerging

identities, which in turn affects their relationships with their peers, teachers, and classrooms

(Erikson, 1968; Eccles & Roeser, 2011). During this period, students begin to think about

whether their classrooms recognize and accommodate their developing identities, which in turn

affects their behavioral, emotional, and cognitive participation (Wentzel, 2017). For instance, if

students begin to feel that their cultural identities are respected and accommodated in the

classroom, they are more likely to experience higher levels of behavioral participation, emotional

attachment, and cognitive investment (Byrd, 2019). However, an inadequate recognition of their

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cultural identities may lead to becoming disengaged later on, despite high abilities (Osher et al.,

2020).

Furthermore, peers become increasingly important for students during early adolescence

(Wentzel, 2017) and play a crucial role in their engagement. For example, when interacting with

peers in class, students will think about their social acceptance in the group, as well as what

norms of conduct and discussion are acceptable therebefore participating (Ryan & Deci, 2020).

The role of teachers remains important, as students’ relationships with them affect their

confidence and participation levels (Wentzel, 2017). Recent research also suggests that positive

peer relationships are particularly likely to develop in culturally responsive classrooms because

they make students feel welcome and encourage inclusive collaborations (Debnam et al., 2024;

Pathak et al., 2024).

According to motivation theory, students are more likely to experience enhanced

behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement when their basic psychological needs for

autonomy, competence, and relatedness are met in school settings (Ryan & Deci, 2020; Wentzel,

2017). A number of researchers have found that culturally responsive teaching can facilitate such

processes by creating the conditions needed for students to develop psychological needs and feel

supported in pursuing their goals (Hammond, 2021; Gay, 2018).

As discussed, the literature points to a general consensus among researchers that

engagement is better understood as a process stemming from relationships between students and

the classroom. However, few studies have highlighted how this idea may be particularly relevant

for middle school students. Indeed, most scholars have acknowledged the uniqueness of

adolescence while also suggesting that engagement is more complex than just observable

behavior or even students’ academic performance (Fredricks et al.,2016; Byrd, 2019).

22

Researchers note that engagement is a multi-faceted concept best understood through the

interaction of developmental characteristics, classroom behavior, instruction, and students’

perceptions in culturally responsive classrooms (Byrd, 2019). Nonetheless, few studies have

attempted to examine how such processes operate within the contextual reality of culturally and

linguistically diverse middle school classrooms (Caingcoy, 2023; Carey et al., 2018). This gap in

the literature highlights the need for the current qualitative educational action research study

seeking to understand student engagement from a multidimensional perspective, which takes

developmental characteristics into account.

Characteristics of Middle School Learners

It is common knowledge that middle school is a period of profound cognitive, relational,

and identity exploration (Barksdale et al., 2021). Researchers note that students entering early

adolescence begin to construct a sense of self while also becoming more concerned about how

they are perceived by others (Eccles & Roeser, 2023). Such developmental patterns impact both

social and classroom behavior since students start to interpret teacher behaviors and classroom

conduct through a personal lens (Skinner & Pitzer, 2012). In this regard, contemporary studies

highlight the role of middle school as a context within which student engagement should be

examined (Wang et al., 2020; Wang & Hofkens, 2020).

Student identity plays a critical role in classroom dynamics in middle school, as

adolescents begin to negotiate their social, cultural, and academic identities (Eccles & Roeser,

2011). Accordingly, researchers note that students start to critically evaluate how their classroom

experiences affirm or negate their cultural identity (Eccles & Roeser, 2023). For instance, a study

by Gay (2021) shows that students who feel affirmed in the classroom have positive academic

identities, whereas those who are dismissed have negative academic identities. In addition,

23

findings indicate that adolescents who do not see their cultures reflected in the classroom

environment have lower self-concept and participate less in class (Hammond, 2021). Identity

affirmation is vital to promoting engagement as a social outcome and a process. Jagers et al.

(2025) and Andrews & Wright (2024) note that identity affirmation has a positive role in

encouraging academic persistence, confidence, and participation among culturally diverse

adolescents.

Peer relationships is another critical aspect of student engagement and is especially

relevant in early adolescence. At this stage, students begin to focus on developing friendships,

and peer norms increasingly influence their behavior (Wentzel, 2017). For example, adolescents

may be encouraged or deterred from participating or even attending school based on interactions

with peers (Andrews & Wright, 2024). Research indicates that culturally responsive classrooms

foster peer connections while also highlighting cultural differences as assets (Gay, 2021).

Therefore, such classrooms encourage collaborative approaches that allow students to participate

more actively in learning (Andrews & Wright, 2024; Eccles & Roeser, 2023). Overall, the topic

of peer relationships is considered by researchers to be an essential engagement mechanism that

is influenced by culturally responsive teaching (Hammond, 2021).

Motivation is a critical factor in student engagement since it impacts students’

perceptions of classroom experiences (Eccles & Roeser, 2023). The traditional view of

motivation held that it was an individual phenomenon, but researchers note that it may also be

collective (Ryan & Deci, 2020). As such, students’ motivation is dependent on classroom

context, peer relations, teacher feedback, and perception of relevance among other factors (Ryan

& Deci, 2020). According to Self-Determination Theory, motivation is enhanced through

autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Such themes are reflected by

24

culturally responsive teaching, which emphasizes affirming students’ identities, collaborating

with them to enhance learning, and sharing power (Gay, 2021). Culturally responsive classrooms

may motivate students to learn since they feel heard and respected in the classroom (Aronson &

Laughter, 2020). Furthermore, since such classrooms emphasize relevance, they also increase the

possibility of enhancing engagement by making students connect course material to their

experiences (Hammond, 2021).

Another theme recurring in the reviewed literature is the developmental characteristics

typical of the middle grades (Nelemans et al., 2018). Transitions to higher levels of education

often involve challenges such as increased school size, multiple teachers, and changing social

and academic expectations, which may lower students’ engagement and sense of belonging

(Andrews & Wright, 2024). The literature confirms that adolescents tend to become less

motivated and involved if their teachers do not provide sufficient social and emotional support

during the transition to a higher grade (Nelemans et al., 2018; Wang & Eccles, 2013).

Instructional strategies are especially important in middle school since learners are faced with

new challenges while also dealing with questions of identity (Andrews & Wright, 2024; Osher et

al., 2020). Therefore, by focusing on responsiveness to individual needs and promoting positive

relationships, culturally responsive instruction can become a protective factor for adolescents

facing developmental challenges (Cantrell & Powell, 2021).

The he literature further suggests that developmental needs should not be viewed

separately from instructional practice because the two continually influence one another (Boat et

al., 2025). Since different cultures often involve varied approaches to learning, communication,

and socialization, culturally responsive teaching is essential in meeting the diverse needs of such

a heterogeneous group of students (Gay, 2021). Researchers note that developmental science and

25

culturally responsive pedagogy are similar in several aspects, including an emphasis on

relationships, identity, and participation rather than discrete practices (Hammond, 2021).

However, there is limited research investigating developmental characteristics in relation to

classroom practices, with few articles providing action research or qualitative analysis to explore

the connection (Andrews & Wright, 2024; Yelder-Stovall, 2026). Therefore, the proposed study

on developmental issues and instructional strategies fits into the existing scholarly conversation

by attempting to fill this gap, as it examines whether and how culturally responsive practices

affect student engagement.

Classroom Climate, Belonging, and Student Engagement

Student engagement is influenced by both learning processes and their contexts

(Monteiro et al., 2021). Educational researchers increasingly conceptualize classroom climate as

a critical contextual factor associated with students’ motivation, perseverance in the face of

challenges, and general willingness to participate (Wang & Degol, 2016). Engagement is not

defined by internal characteristics alone but is instead produced through reciprocal relations

between students’ learning processes and the classroom context including teachers, peers, and

the overall environment (Monteiro et al., 2021). Such an approach to studying student

engagement is particularly relevant for investigations centered on culturally and linguistically

diverse populations since students’ experiences within classrooms are often directly linked to

their perception of schools as welcoming, inclusive, and conducive to learning (Gay, 2021). The

extant literature provides varying conceptualizations of classroom climates, yet most agree that

positive relationships within classrooms benefit students’ academic engagement compared to

hostile and impersonal settings (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020; Kondo, 2022).

26

Teacher-student relationships are often highlighted as an essential part of classroom

climate and student engagement (Boat et al.,2025). Contemporary researchers increasingly

acknowledge the critical role of students’ perspectives on educators, including their perception of

support, care, and respect (Lawson & Lawson, 2020; Roorda et al., 2011). Teacher-student

relationships become especially important in middle school, where adolescents begin to actively

seek acceptance, recognition, and respect from various social groups while also exploring

options for their adult lives (Eccles & Roeser, 2023). Students who feel understood and

supported by their teachers are more likely to actively participate in classroom discussions, turn

to them for help, and persist in facing challenging academic tasks (Barksdale et al., 2021;

Wentzel, 2017). The reviewed literature highlights several mechanisms through which educators

can enhance such classroom relationships, including demonstrating cultural humility and

acknowledging children’s experiences as valid and relevant to instruction (Gay, 2021;

Hammond, 2021). Researchers who investigated teacher-student bonds in middle school settings

generally agree on their strong association with student engagement, though the long-term nature

of such relationships within culturally responsive practices is poorly understood (Anyichie et al.,

2023; Franco et al., 2024).

The concept of psychological safety is closely linked to teachers’ ability to foster positive

student engagement trajectories (Chang & Viesca, 2022). The term generally refers to the extent

to which students feel safe in sharing their ideas, asking questions, and making mistakes inside

and outside the classroom (Edmondson, 2018). The concept was originally advanced by

organizational behavior scholars who documented its links to innovation and productivity

(Edmondson, 2018). Since then, psychological safety has been increasingly operationalized

within educational contexts, as scholars note that students benefit immensely from the

27

opportunity to take risks and make mistakes while studying (Edmondson, 2018). Multiple

researchers note that culturally responsive classrooms contribute to a sense of psychological

safety by validating students’ identities and encouraging open and honest discussions

(Hammond, 2021). Students who feel psychologically safe tend to be more willing to participate

in class, study challenging subjects, and express their perspectives (Jagers et al., 2025). The

reviewed literature rarely discusses opportunities for educators to build psychological safety

within their classes, though such a phenomenon may be linked to students’ cultural

responsiveness to classroom relationships.

The examined literature highlights student belonging as an essential source of

psychological and academic support for students (Allen et al., 2021). The concept generally

refers to students’ feelings of being valued, respected, and accepted by their classmates and

school staff. Most researchers agree that such an aspect of the classroom climate is strongly

associated with students’ behavioral, emotional, and academic engagement (Lawson & Lawson,

2020). For instance, studies have shown that children who feel they belong in school tend to

actively participate in educational activities while those who feel like outsiders are less likely to

engage (Allen et al., 2021; Lawson & Lawson, 2020). One literature source note that students’

feelings of belonging are particularly salient for culturally and linguistically diverse populations

since such children often value inclusion and representation in their academic settings (Osher et

al., 2020). Gay (2021) notes that educators can foster such an inclusive school culture by

emphasizing their students’ cultural backgrounds in all teaching practices, including

communication and curriculum choices. Similarly, Hammond (2021) notes that such inclusivity

often leads to better cognitive outcomes for students since they do not need to constantly worry

about their acceptance in the classroom. The reviewed research literature generally agrees that

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classroom belonging is an essential source of academic and psychological support for students,

though most scholars note that such a feeling is often cultivated through comprehensive,

long-term cultural responsiveness efforts rather than a few carefully selected classroom

interventions (Chang & Viesca, 2022; Hernández et al., 2025).

Another theme that emerged in the literature is inclusive classroom environments and

classroom trust as factors that influence student engagement (Anyichie et al., 2023). Inclusive

classrooms are characterized by instructional practices that recognize, acknowledge, and validate

students’ diverse cultural perspectives (Gay, 2021). Within such settings, trust is manifested

through teachers’ practices, expectations, communication, and opportunities for sharing (Bryk &

Schneider, 2002). While Bryk and Schneider’s work was focused on the reform of schools, other

researchers have noted that trust is integral to CRP since students are likely to interact with

greater autonomy if they perceive teachers’ conduct as fair (Hammond, 2021; Muñiz, 2020). In

turn, inclusive practices promote students’ willingness to share varied perspectives, participate in

collaborative activities, and boost their confidence in achieving academic success since

differences are reframed as resources (Anyichie et al., 2023). Nevertheless, there are reports that

most institutions have adopted formal strategies to inclusiveness while neglecting to implement

substantive measures to foster trusting relationships necessary for achieving

relationship-centered instruction (Aguayo et al., 2023).

Overall, the reviewed articles reveal that classroom climate, belonging, psychological

safety, and trust, as well as teacher–student relationships, are part of the processes by which

engagement is manifested and should not be considered as independent influencing factors

(Anyichie et al., 2023). This is because students are only able to become actively engaged in

learning when they feel that they are being treated with respect and dignity (Osher et al., 2020).

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In other words, most studies have reported that CRP fosters student engagement by creating the

necessary conditions for building relationships, which in turn enable interactive participation in

classroom activities (Gay, 2021; Hammond, 2021). However, there is a need for more qualitative

action research exploring how educators can integrate relational practices to engage middle

school students in instruction. Such studies are rare in the reviewed literature, making the

proposed research both relevant and integral to addressing existing gaps. The next section will

discuss the instructional practices utilized by teachers to achieve culturally responsive teaching

practices.

Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices

The need for transforming culturally responsive teaching theory into practice in a

classroom has become the focal point in research recently (Anyichie et al., 2023). The

researchers allude to Gay’s (2018) view that culture should be regarded not as a peripheral aspect

of instruction but rather as a resource for learning. While Gay (2018) views culturally responsive

education as the use of students’ culture, experience, and communicative habits, Ladson-Billings

(2021) aims to respond to the tripartite educational needs of empowering students academically,

culturally, and intellectually. In turn, the recent works claim the need to address classroom

relationships, adaptability, and responsiveness (Anyichie et al., 2023; Hammond, 2021;).

Overall, all cited works tend to agree, despite some differences, that responsive education should

be regarded as extensive and prolonged processes rather than discrete practices of multicultural

education (Paris & Alim, 2017).

One of the strongest areas of agreement within the literature concerns the importance of

instructional strategies that actively connect curriculum to students' lived experiences (Gay,

2018). Indeed, scholars claim that the critical element of culturally responsive instruction is the

30

teacher’s ability to connect academic subjects with students’ cultural knowledge, community,

languages, and experiences (Gay, 2018). Hammond (2021) states that such instructional

strategies enhance students’ cognitive engagement as they enable them to connect to cultural

knowledge, which, in turn, assists them in acquiring new information. In other words, culturally

responsive instruction does not undermine intellectual rigor; instead, it empowers students with

tools to learn academic material, which is not the case for traditional approaches (Hammond,

2021). Indeed, recent studies confirm that students are more likely to participate, be motivated to

learn, and discuss academic concepts if they can relate it to their experiences (Evans et al., 2020;

Franco et al., 2024). Still, several scholars argue that the concept of relevance cannot apply to

particular lessons by inserting examples that might resonate with some students (Anyichie et al.,

2023). To achieve responsiveness, teachers need to reflect on how much the lesson includes

cultural knowledge and whose voices they amplify or fail to amplify (Anyichie et al., 2023; Boat

et al., 2025). Thus, although the majority agree that instruction should be culturally relevant and

integrated, it is complicated by various factors, including teachers’ and students’ voices in the

classroom.

Another common theme is the issue of curriculum relevance (Paris & Alim, 2017).

Earlier studies on multicultural education attempted to address the lack of representation by

assigning different days/months to cultures, bringing more diverse authors, politicians, and

historical figures into the syllabus (Banks, 2019). Scholars believe that while acknowledging the

value of increasing representation, its impact on classroom learning is limited since

representation is just one element of responsive education (Paris & Alim, 2017). Gay (2018) and

Ladson-Billings (2021) argue that for curriculum to be relevant to students, it needs to build on

their cultural knowledge, perspectives, and experiences. In other words, a responsive curriculum

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focuses on students’ exploration of complex realities and their reflections on that exploration

(Ladson-Billings, 2021)). Recent studies also note that learners achieve higher rates of classroom

participation, confidence, and belonging when the education is relevant to their lives (Boat et al.,

2025). However, researchers also stress the difficulty of the task due to the absence of

educational policies that allow more flexibility and responsiveness in education (Anyichie et al.,

2023). Indeed, standardization resonates with the theme of the absence of student voice in

education as students are unable to shape their study schedules/contents and are constantly held

accountable for meeting the same goals (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Once again, the

scholars agree that curriculum content should include students’ cultural knowledge, but it is

unclear how this inclusion should be implemented.

Another common theme is the student voice in education (Aguayo, 2024). Indeed,

culturally responsive education seeks to empower students by engaging them in instruction and

allowing them to bring their voices into the classroom (Gay, 2018). As such, the student voice

refers to both classroom participation and collaboration with the teacher in constructing the

learning process (Aguayo, 2024). Scholars find that students who can influence the educational

process develop higher levels of engagement, confidence, and willingness to participate in class

discussions/study groups (Boat et al., 2025; Chang & Viesca, 2022). However, the other authors

note that student voice is limited by the traditional teacher-centered instruction when teachers,

not students, design the course and determine student learning (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020).

In other words, students have voices, but they are muffled due to the education system that is not

set to hear and benefit from those voices. Therefore, the concept of student voice highlights the

need to transform the classroom into a place where the teacher shares responsibility for learning

32

with students (Aguayo, 2024). Such a learning environment helps achieve responsiveness and

empowerment, which are essential for student success.

Overall, the literature combines several topics addressed by scholars in the field. The

main themes are student empowerment through responsive instruction, curricula built on

students’ experiences (not just representation), and students’ voices in the educational process

(Boat et al., 2025; Chang & Viesca, 2022). All themes share the focus on student needs and the

ability of teachers to address these needs within the classroom. Most scholars agree that it is

necessary to transform the traditional roles and build more cooperative, responsive learning

settings (Chang & Viesca, 2022). However, several factors, including institutional flexibility,

hinder such transformations (Franco et al., 2024). It is also unclear exactly how such processes as

student voice, cultural responsiveness should be implemented by teachers.

Besides curriculum design and instruction, the reviewed literature highlights

relationship-centered practices as a key domain for cultivating teaching practices that respond to

cultural and other individual differences among students (Gay, 2021). Historically, scholars

focused on addressing gaps in curricula, materials, and representation (Franco et al., 2024).

Recent studies, however, highlight that CRP also involves building relationships with students

based on trust, respect, empathy, and open communication (Gay, 2021). Students need to feel

understood and appreciated by their teachers in order to be motivated to participate, question,

and pursue challenging tasks (Wentzel, 2017). Consistent with this idea, studies conducted in

culturally heterogeneous settings found that positive teacher-student relationships enhanced

students’ behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement due to their sense of classroom

belonging (Chang & Viesca, 2022; Choe, 2021). At the same time, several scholars have argued

33

that relationships are not an end in themselves but should serve to complement CRP practices

that directly address students’ cultural contexts (Franco et al., 2024).

A rising number of studies have explored CRP in the context of assessment, highlighting

its critical role and the need for innovative approaches to grading and evaluation (Chang &

Viesca, 2022). The traditional emphasis on standardized procedures and generic rubrics has been

challenged, with scholars advocating for alternatives that allow demonstrating proficiencies in

multiple formats, collaborative settings, performance-based tasks, and reflective formats

(Hammond, 2021; Walker et al., 2024). Allowing multiple modes of demonstrating competence

does not lower standards but instead creates more opportunities for students to show what they

know and do not know while addressing cultural bias and imbalances in typical assessment

practices (Nortvedt et al., 2020; Walker et al., 2024). At the same time, multiple researchers note

that standardized assessments currently dominate school settings, often with high stakes, limiting

the scope for CRP (Aguayo et al., 2023; Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Thus, there is an

inconsistency across studies in terms of the practical implementation of assessment practices that

respond to students’ cultural backgrounds.

Collaboration with families and broader communities is another important theme in CRP

that has drawn increasing attention from scholars (Gay, 2021). Earlier works highlight the

importance of building alliances with families as centers of cultural capital that can help enhance

learning and engagement (Gay, 2018). More recent studies have provided evidence in support of

this claim, demonstrating that collaborative approaches improve parent-school communication,

cultural responsiveness, and student engagement across diverse settings (Gay, 2021; Ishimaru,

2019). Notably, scholars have argued that family involvement should not be limited to

participation in formal school events but should also consider their diverse social, cultural, and

34

linguistic backgrounds (Ishimaru, 2020). By building partnerships with families and drawing on

their cultural knowledge, schools create more inclusive and equitable learning environments

where students feel genuinely engaged (Daniel et al., 2019; Herrera, 2022). At the same time, a

number of studies have argued that such collaborations are often limited by teachers’ lack of

time, preparation, and capacity (Anyichie et al., 2023).

Overall, many of the reviewed studies have demonstrated the general benefits of CRP for

engagement while also noting certain contradictions and limitations. Some works highlight the

importance of specific areas of CRP, such as culturally relevant curriculum, as the main drivers

of increased student engagement (Ladson-Billings, 2021). Others stress the importance of

building relationships with students in order to enhance trust and psychological safety

(Hammond, 2021). Finally, a number of scholars argue that CRP should not be reduced to

particular areas but should be implemented as an integrated framework where curriculum,

instruction, assessment, communication, and classroom dynamics are all considered (Anyichie et

al., 2023; Gay, 2021). Each of these perspectives provides a useful understanding of how CRP

can be used to enhance student engagement, but the cumulative evidence suggests that this

approach to instruction has a broad effect in this area (Gay, 2021). In addition, although scholars

agree on the benefits of CRP, they also highlight the need for further research on how it can be

implemented in practice.

The reviewed literature includes a number of limitations in terms of the design and scope

of the studies. First, many works provide general descriptions of CRP, such as cross-sectional

surveys or analyses of the correlation between CRP and engagement, without exploring

classroom dynamics in sufficient detail (Mertler, 2024). Second, a number of studies examine the

role of CRP at elementary and secondary levels without focusing on the specifics of middle

35

school students, who tend to be especially culturally heterogeneous (Eccles & Roeser, 2023;

Portes et al., 2018). Finally, the literature lacks in-depth qualitative action research studies that

could explore how CRP practices are implemented, perceived, and adjusted by teachers in order

to enhance engagement (Aronson & Laughter, 2016; Franco et al., 2024). Therefore, the current

literature provides a general consensus on the importance of CRP for student engagement but

does not provide sufficient details about the practical aspects of implementing such practices

with middle school students.

Teacher Preparation and Professional Development

The effectiveness of culturally responsive pedagogy relies on teachers’ beliefs about

equity and inclusivity as well as teachers’ level of preparedness to implement such beliefs in

practice (Gay, 2021). Literature highlights contradictions in teachers’ perceptions of culturally

responsive education. The majority perceive its importance but also admit uncertainty in its

application; they see the need for validating culturally diverse students’ identities but lack the

confidence to implement it (Gay, 2018). Researchers also note a gap between teachers’

recognition of the role of acknowledging their students’ cultural backgrounds and their readiness

to employ such approaches (Hammond, 2021). These contradictions are deeply embedded in

debates on culturally responsive pedagogy, making it one of the most pressing issues explored in

teacher education research (Khalifa et al., 2020).

Teacher efficacy is a critical factor in addressing the issue of contradictions between

teachers’ beliefs about culturally responsive pedagogy and their ability to employ it effectively.

Studies show that teachers who adopt culturally responsive pedagogical approaches are confident

in their capacity to deliver these approaches (Siwatu, 2007). Researchers also note that efficacy

beliefs affect teachers’ ability to engage in classroom practices that embrace cultural diversity, as

36

well as their attitudes and behaviors towards implementing culturally responsive practices

(Siwatu, 2007). Recent studies explore the connection between culturally responsive pedagogy

and teachers’ level of educational competency, finding the latter to contribute more to their

effectiveness in teaching culturally diverse student populations compared to theoretical

understanding (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). However, literature also reveals that efficacy is

not innate but rather emerges through practice and reflection (Ciampa & Reisboard, 2024). As

such, many scholars highlight the need to focus on professional learning in teacher education to

equip these professionals with the necessary skills to implement culturally responsive pedagogy

(Gay, 2018).

Professional learning is thus a key component of teacher education (Darling-Hammond et

al., 2020). Earlier literature focused on developing educators’ multicultural awareness or

provided general diversity-related professional learning (Hammond, 2021). However, later

studies highlight the significance of classroom teaching and practice and place a strong emphasis

on professional learning to facilitate teachers’ engagement with culturally responsive education

(Hammond, 2021). Researchers argue that professional learning should encourage inquiry,

collaboration, and coaching to affect sustainable changes in educators’ approaches

(Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Studies also show that teachers benefit more from ongoing and

continuous professional learning experiences, during which they can further their understanding

of students’ diverse backgrounds, rather than a one-day workshop (Anyichie et al., 2023).

Moreover, teachers state that they need continuous professional learning and collaboration to

acquire knowledge about culturally responsive education; a one-time experience does not suffice

(Nganga & Kambutu, 2024).

37

Professional learning in culturally responsive pedagogy is also closely intertwined with

reflective practices and coaching (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Researchers highlight

reflective practice as a critical aspect of educators’ experiences, during which they assess their

practices, thoughts, and beliefs about teaching (Muñiz, 2020). Reflective practice encourages

teachers to evaluate culturally responsive pedagogy, including assessing which voices are heard

in the classroom, how their perspectives affect students’ experiences, and how they can alter the

status quo (Gay, 2021). Coaching processes that promote reflective practices allow educators to

connect theory to practice and are essential in affecting sustainable changes because they enable

individuals to engage in dialogues that relate to their professional work (Lundgren et al., 2025).

However, studies note that coaching in culturally responsive pedagogy is unavailable to the

majority of educators (Lindsey et al., 2019).

Teacher Preparation is another aspect of research on culturally responsive education.

Even though most teacher preparation programs now provide appropriate classroom preparation

for students in diverse settings, many studies have shown its inadequacy for learning to teach in

culturally responsive ways (Sleeter, 2018). Researchers agree that preservice preparation focuses

too much on conceptual knowledge and not enough on practicing culturally responsive skills

(Milner, 2021). Therefore, it leaves new teachers with an optimistic view of culturally responsive

teaching but unaware of their own abilities to effectively engage in it (Darling-Hammond et al.,

2020). This study’s findings are consistent with others’ in that they show that preparation is only

a part of a much larger system that requires professional development and adequate support in

actually implementing new teachings, regardless of the setting, to promote success

(Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Teacher readiness seems to be the common theme in most of

the research conducted on culturally responsive education (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020).

38

However, despite the apparent agreement on the importance of training in implementing

culturally responsive pedagogy, few studies provide an in-depth understanding of what kind of

teacher preparation is most needed for teachers who work with culturally and linguistically

diverse students in middle school settings to promote successful learning (Franco et al., 2024).

Challenges to Implementing Culturally Responsive Teaching

Although the notion of culturally responsive teaching has become widely recognized as

an effective way to provide education, there is a substantial amount of literature shedding light

on its inconsistent implementation (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). There is no doubt that it has

become a popular approach to improve the quality of learning and promote equality in education

(Hammond, 2021). Nevertheless, the researchers underline the fact that the failure to deliver it

consistently derives from multiple factors associated with teachers’ practice, as well as external

policies and organizational issues they face (Gay, 2018). More recent articles attempt to go

beyond the debate on whether it should be implemented and begin exploring possible reasons

why it has not been fully integrated into the educational practice yet (Hammond, 2021). Such

attention to this issue is crucial because it helps understand that not only teachers’ beliefs

influence their capacity to transform the teaching process but also the overall system within

which they operate (Khalifa et al., 2020).

To begin with, most of the reviewed articles highlight the teachers’ perception of the

conflict between standard curriculum and their desire to provide education relevant to students’

culture and lived experience (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Researchers argue that the current

tendency towards standards-based reform made teachers stick to prescriptive curricula, depriving

them of the opportunity to adjust the teaching process according to students’ needs

(Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). For instance, some participants in the study revealed the

39

pressure to comply with the standard pacing guides, benchmarks, assessments, and exams

(Anyichie et al., 2023). Despite the opportunity to make the curriculum relevant to students’

cultural backgrounds, many participants agreed that the teaching practice did not allow them

sufficient flexibility to adjust lessons and include various cultural phenomena (Gay, 2021).

Experienced teachers, however, could comment on their ability to negotiate the use of culturally

relevant pedagogies within the framework of the standard curriculum (Ciampa & Reisboard,

2024). The participants revealed that their flexibility was based on their own agency rather than

the support of the established system. Thus, the reviewed literature confirms the persistent

contradiction between standardized instructions and teachers’ need to deliver education that

respects students’ cultural backgrounds (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020).

The discussed contradiction between standard curriculum and culturally responsive

teaching could be explained by the fact that school organizational cultures play a critical role in

teachers’ willingness to transform their practice (Muñiz, 2020). Recent research has devoted

special attention to this issue, emphasizing that culturally responsive teaching requires educators

to be committed to school-level initiatives aimed at sustaining such pedagogy (Khalifa et al.,

2020). For instance, participants in the study revealed that school leadership, through its

inclusive and equitable behavior, could create the necessary environment to adjust the teaching

process according to students’ cultural backgrounds (Muñiz, 2020). On the contrary, the absence

of supportive school culture and ineffective leadership hampered the participants’ efforts to

implement culturally responsive strategies (Ciampa & Reisboard, 2024). Thus, the researchers

argue that achieving school-level organizational change plays a pivotal role in teachers’ attempts

to make the curriculum more relevant to students’ lived experiences.

40

In addition, limited resources and multiple educational policies also serve as factors

influencing teachers’ choices and behaviors (Muñiz, 2020). The reviewed articles confirm that

teachers need sufficient support, planning time, and instructional resources to provide culturally

appropriate education (Hammond, 2021). However, as the researchers note, such resources as

time and financial support are not always available, especially in marginalized communities

(Franco et al., 2024). Besides, participants argue that the tendency to address numerous

educational concerns makes it difficult to meet the students’ diverse needs (Milner, 2020).

Educational policies related to learning recovery, improvement, safety, digitalization, and

multiple other issues add to the growing demands on educators (Ciampa & Reisboard, 2024).

The researchers note that, instead of prioritizing one over the others, education policymakers

should be aware of the need to consider various aspects of learners’ experience s(Muñiz, 2020).

Another issue reviewed in the articles is the teachers’ beliefs about themselves, their

students, and the educational process. Even though most participants in the study expressed a

positive attitude towards the concept of culturally responsive teaching, the scholars argue that it

was not always easy for the teachers to embrace it (Gay, 2018). For instance, educators

mentioned multiple issues that prevented them from using the strategies that would be beneficial

for their students (Aguayo et al., 2023). Although the researchers did not indicate the details of

the discussed barriers, there is a notion that teachers were unsure of their ability to make choices

that would support both students’ cultural backgrounds and the necessity to adhere to the

standard curriculum (Gay, 2021). On the other hand, scholars underline that education

policymakers and school leaders face serious challenges addressing the issue of inequality while

complying with the idea of diversity (Ciampa & Reisboard, 2024). There is a concern that

educators are uncertain whether any adjustments to the standard curriculum should be regarded

41

as acceptable. Although the reviewed literature does not cover this topic in detail, it certainly

draws attention to the fact that most teachers feel that implementing culturally responsive

teaching is rather challenging. The majority of articles do not go beyond the idea of the need for

culturally responsive education but do not address how teachers could integrate such approaches

into the existing system, especially at the middle-school stage.

Across the literature, therefore, it should be evident that much of the research undertaken

to date highlights potential areas of difficulty in implementing culturally responsive teaching

practices, whereas limited scholarly work examines the actual instructional actions teachers take

in their teaching practice to overcome challenges and engage students in their learning in a

culturally and linguistically diverse classroom (Mertler 2024). Most of the reviewed studies

concentrate on documenting the obstacles, whereas teachers’ instructional decision-making

processes in implementing culturally responsive practices remain understudied despite the

complexity of the decisions they have to make within the confines of the school system

(Darling-Hammond et al. 2020). The relevance of the proposed study is justified by the findings

of the review, which highlight barriers that impede the adoption of culturally responsive teaching

by educators across schools, including standardized curricula, accountability, organizational

constraints, resources, leadership, and policy (Darling-Hammond et al. 2020). Concurrently, the

review highlights the need for more empirical studies on the strategies teachers use to modify

instruction and engage students in their learning processes when using culturally responsive

practices in actual classroom settings to overcome the identified barriers. This consideration is

critical for action research, which presupposes continual reflection on actions taken and their

impact on the targeted issue (Mertler 2024). Therefore, the analysis of the ways of responding to

challenges in implementing culturally responsive teaching provides an opportunity to generate

42

knowledge beyond the identification of barriers and focus on processes applicable in actual

practice.

Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Middle School Education

Diversity, equity, and inclusion have become increasingly critical areas of research in

education, as they guide both policy and practice in teaching in diverse settings (Geesa et al.,

2021). While these terms are often used interchangeably, recent studies highlight the differences

in their definitions and implementation. Diversity is manifested in the presence of students who

differ in race, culture, socio-economic status, and other characteristics, whereas equity stresses

the need for providing individualized opportunities and resources for achieving success

(Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). In turn, inclusion presupposes both physical and social aspects

of access to education, meaning that it goes beyond diversity by calling for creating positive

social environments where all members feel engaged and empowered (Osher et al., 2020). These

concepts are interrelated but cannot be separated when discussing education, since it is through

equity that diversity is promoted and inclusion is reached (Gay, 2021). Considering that middle

school is when students explore and accept their identities, it is evident that diversity, equity, and

inclusion guide their interactions and engagement.

According to the review, the majority of the researchers agree that representation can

improve student engagement, as it validates their identities and enables them to see themselves in

the curriculum (Geesa et al., 2021). Students feel more involved when they understand that their

voices matter and that the materials and resources reflect their lives and perspectives

(Ladson-Billings, 2021). Indeed, the inclusion of diverse perspectives facilitates deeper learning

by enabling students not only to accept but question different worldviews, which is linked with

enhanced learning and social acceptance (Paris & Alim, 2017). However, representation can fail

43

if it is reduced to a superficial inclusion of diverse topics and characters without addressing

related issues, such as challenging students to think critically and empathize with others

(Hammond, 2021). This is why diversity has to permeate through all levels of curricula and

teaching practices, including communication, assessment, participation, and leadership (Franco

et al., 2024). This consensus underscores the importance of incorporating diverse perspectives in

classroom practices to ensure student involvement and empowerment by affirming their

identities in learning (Hammond, 2021).

Another critical issue that affects engagement is related to language diversity, since many

students live in linguistically diverse settings and speak more than one language (Schanding et

al., 2023). While the early studies addressed language diversity as a deficit, recent research

highlights its potential to enhance learning if harnessed properly (Paris & Alim, 2017). When

teachers engage students’ linguistic diversity, they can actually promote their participation in the

learning process and encourage collaboration with peers (Hammond, 2021). Nevertheless, there

is also evidence that educational settings fail to support language diversity, which limits students’

opportunities to succeed (Caingcoy, 2023). Particularly, the tendency to follow the same

instructional practices undermines students’ opportunities to learn and participate, which is why

teachers need to develop multilingual competence and rethink their practices accordingly

(Schanding et al., 2023).

Several studies discussed in the article indicate that the factors associated with

educational inequity contribute to the lack of engagement in learning among culturally and

linguistically diverse middle school students (Schanding et al., 2023). Indeed, the differences in

disciplinary outcomes along racial lines, disparities in academic performance, unequal access to

advanced classes, and differences in attachment to schools continue to impede the progress of

44

culturally and linguistically diverse students (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Although some of

the researchers argue that student engagement is influenced by a range of factors, it is evident

that the inequities in classroom practices, including the presence of teachers’ expectations,

representation, relationships, and participation opportunities, affect students’ opportunities to

learn (Milner, 2021). At the same time, several studies question the emphasis on achievement as

the central aspect of equity, arguing that social and emotional dimensions, such as mutual respect

and responsibility, also contribute to students’ ability to participate and succeed (Osher et al.,

2020). While the reviewed articles discuss the role of diversity, equity, and inclusion in

education, few actually address how middle school teachers can incorporate these themes to

ensure successful and engaged learning in everyday practice (Aguayo et al., 2023). This is why

the next section will focus on social-emotional learning, which can build students’ skills and

competencies that will help navigate diverse settings and feel empowered.

Social-Emotional Learning and Student Engagement

Social-emotional learning (SEL) has become increasingly conflated with culturally

responsive instruction in recent years because the concepts have been found to intersect with

regards to learning outcomes (Yang et al., 2018). Students benefit from emotionally supportive

environments where their identities are recognized, accommodated, and affirmed to feel safe

(Cavioni, 2024). Studies confirm that social-emotional skills, identity, relationships, and

decision-making all combine to improve engagement and performance in school (Mahoney et al.,

2018). However, researchers note that these skills are only valuable when taught in contextually

appropriate ways that recognize students’ cultural identities (Jagers et al., 2018). Programs that

promote social-emotional learning must acknowledge students’ varied backgrounds to be truly

effective (Mahoney et al., 2018; Singha et al., 2025).

45

While the topic of culturally responsive instruction and social-emotional learning seems

to have arisen independently, the literature on both is becoming increasingly convergent (Yang et

al., 2018). Culturally responsive teaching practices prioritize learning through a cultural lens,

seeking to establish affirming, collaborative, and inclusive learning environments (Gay, 2021).

By contrast, social-emotional learning practices emphasize developing interpersonal

competencies to function effectively in society (Cavioni, 2024). Both concepts, however, have

been found to have overlapping components that promote student engagement and achievement

through identity affirmation, mutual respect, empathy, and collaborative problem-solving (Osher

et al., 2020). Classrooms that integrate both social-emotional learning and culturally responsive

strategies have been found to foster stronger connections to learning than those that employ

either method in isolation (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020; Singha et al., 2025). This synergy can

be seen as both concepts complementing each other’s strengths to create a holistic approach to

education.

The intersection between social-emotional learning and culturally responsive instruction

has been further advanced by the concepts’ shared emphasis on identity affirmation (Singha et

al., 2025). Students thrive when their classroom experiences reflect their cultural perspectives

and validate their identities (Ladson-Billings, 2021). In fact, researchers note that

social-emotional skills in culturally responsive classrooms only emerge as students interpret the

emotional meaning behind events in their lives (Hammond, 2015). This perspective is especially

relevant in middle school, where students grapple with questions of identity, belonging, and

self-discovery (Eccles & Roeser, 2011). As such, identity affirmation is inextricably linked to

students’ emotional well-being and ability to perform academically during this developmental

46

period (Osher et al., 2020). Students need to feel safe and supported in affirming environments if

they are to be receptive to learning and meaningfully engage with their peers (Osher et al., 2020).

The concepts of social-emotional learning and culturally responsive instruction each have

substantial bodies of supporting research, yet both have limitations in the literature. Studies

investigating both concepts mostly examine their use in isolation, with few exploring how they

combine to influence student learning (Mahoney et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2018). Meanwhile,

researchers note that the intersection between the two is understudied, particularly in terms of

how teachers can implement them together in middle school contexts (Singha et al., 2025).

Specifically, little qualitative research has investigated how students respond to lessons that

integrate both SEL and culturally responsive practices to improve engagement and learning

outcomes. The present study seeks to address this gap in the literature by investigating how

culturally responsive instruction supports student engagement through classroom relationships

and belonging in culturally diverse middle school settings.

Research Gap

The reviewed literature highlights a general agreement among researchers that

developing education using culturally responsive teaching methodologies is one of the most

effective ways to ensure the quality education of culturally and linguistically diverse

students(Gay, 2018; Ladson-Billings, 2021). In particular, over decades of research, scholars

have identified the importance of validating students’ cultural backgrounds (Gay, 2018).

Ladson-Billings (2021) suggested that learning is most effective when students achieve academic

success and develop cultural competence and critical consciousness, and Gay (2018) added that

the recognition of students’ unique cultural backgrounds facilitates the teaching-learning process.

Most recently, studies demonstrated that culturally responsive pedagogy promotes student

47

participation, belonging, and engagement (Franco et al., 2023). However, the reviewed literature

indicates that despite the scholars’ interest in exploring the concept, there are still gaps in the

understanding of what happens in real educational settings.

First, many studies focus on identifying teachers’ attitudes, beliefs, or perceptions about

implementing culturally responsive pedagogy rather than exploring actual implementation

(Parkhouse et al., 2021). For instance, studies demonstrated that teachers are generally positive

about using culturally responsive methods in education and recognize its potential benefits for

achieving equity and increasing student participation (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). However,

researchers also noted that teachers’ positive perceptions do not always translate into practice

(Anyichie et al., 2023). Scholars have acknowledged the complexity of the processes that

contribute to teachers’ decisions to adopt culturally responsive methods in their classes (Mertler,

2024; Parkhouse et al., 2021). Therefore, despite the vast amount of research indicating teachers’

positive perceptions of using culturally responsive methods, the reviewed literature highlights the

need for more research on how exactly teachers implement such strategies in real-life settings

(Franco et al., 2024).

This inconsistency between teachers’ beliefs and behaviors may explain why many

studies investigating culturally responsive pedagogy rely on qualitative methods such as

interviews, focus groups, or surveys to understand participants’ perceptions (Mertler, 2024;

Parkhouse et al., 2021). Although these methodologies have allowed researchers to gain insight

into teachers’ attitudes towards implementing culturally responsive methods, the reviewed

literature indicates that these methodologies may not be entirely accurate in depicting the current

reality. For instance, because culturally responsive pedagogy is now recognized as an essential

strategy for achieving equity in education (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020), teachers may be

48

aware of the need to promote such practices regardless of their actual implementation. Therefore,

the researchers’ reliance on quantitative methods highlights the possibility of overestimated

results, with teachers’ responses biased due to the desire to meet the researchers’ expectations

(Caingcoy, 2023). Thus, many researchers emphasize the need for more in-depth qualitative and

quantitative studies that go beyond the collection of perceptions and attitudes (Anyichie et al.,

2023).

Another gap in the reviewed literature pertains to the lack of studies focusing on the

implementation of culturally responsive pedagogy in middle school. Although the examined

studies highlight the importance of engaging both teachers and students in the process of

educating culturally and linguistically diverse students, many researchers utilized mixed samples

that combined elementary, middle, and high school teachers(Parkhouse et al., 2021). At the same

time, there are limited studies discussing the role of culturally responsive pedagogy in middle

school education. Gay (2018) demonstrated that students’ developmental stages are an essential

factor to consider when choosing the most appropriate educational approaches. The transition to

middle school is associated with students’ increased awareness of their social interactions,

relationships with peers, and roles in classrooms (Boat et al., 2025). Therefore, it is essential to

understand how students engage with teachers and learning materials at this stage in particular.

As studies demonstrated, middle schoolers face significant developmental changes that

may make it more difficult for them to participate and succeed academically (Eccles & Roeser,

2023). Researchers indicate that these shifts are related to students’ behavioral, emotional, and

cognitive engagement and suggest that middle school is one of the most critical stages in terms

of engagement development(Boat et al., 2025). Therefore, investigating culturally responsive

pedagogy in this setting is essential to ensure that it is indeed beneficial for these students. The

49

reviewed literature, however, highlights the lack of empirical research addressing this issue

specifically. Although some studies note the changes that students experience when transitioning

to middle school (Eccles & Roeser, 2023), most research includes data across K-12, making it

difficult to identify the trends specific to middle school.

Lastly, the reviewed literature indicates that most studies investigating culturally

responsive pedagogy relied on quantitative methods rather than in-depth qualitative designs. The

majority of the reviewed articles focused on studying teachers’ perceptions of culturally

responsive teaching practices (Kihwele 2026) or investigated the impact of these practices on

students’ academic and social outcomes, utilizing survey or interview data (Osher et al., 2020).

Although these methodologies are beneficial in understanding general trends associated with the

topic, they do not allow researchers to follow the process and identify the changes experienced

by teachers and students. It is important to recognize that implementing new teaching strategies,

such as those rooted in culturally responsive pedagogy, is not a short-term event (Kihwele 2026;

Mertler, 2024). Instead, it is a prolonged process that requires teachers’ continuous reflection,

revision, and adaptation of their approaches in accordance with their observations and students’

responses(Stringer & Aragón, 2020). Thus, the reviewed literature highlights the need to focus

on quantitative data that can help identify the patterns associated with the teaching-learning

process.

In particular, there is a need for more action research studies that utilize qualitative data

to explore teachers’ experiences with implementing culturally responsive pedagogy in real-life

settings. Such studies are essential for several reasons. First, action research investigates a

variety of factors that contribute to solving an education-related problem as they emerge in

practice rather than being predetermined by the researchers (Stringer & Aragón, 2020). Second,

50

it recognizes the teachers’ role as agents of change, which is particularly important for the topic

under investigation since teaching practices can only be effective if teachers choose to implement

them (Mertler, 2024). Finally, researchers utilizing this methodology focus on actual classroom

practices rather than analyzing the impact of these practices on post-intervention

outcomes(Stringer & Aragón, 2020). However, the reviewed literature indicates that few studies

utilized qualitative action research, and fewer emphasize this methodology’s significance in

understanding educational change (Caingcoy, 2023). Moreover, studies examining the

implementation of culturally responsive pedagogy rarely specify the target population, which

suggests that researchers may study the same group throughout the process and report their

results as findings applicable across educational settings(Mertler, 2024).

Another issue associated with the reviewed literature pertains to the researchers’ focus on

individual aspects of the process rather than examining the connection between teachers’

practices and students’ responses. Most studies highlight either teachers’ beliefs and attitudes

toward using culturally responsive practices or students’ outcomes, such as attendance or

engagement. Few studies attempt to address the link between these two areas, despite their

interdependence. For instance, scholars analyzing teachers’ engagement in implementing

culturally responsive pedagogy focus on identifying their beliefs and attitudes (Anyichie et al.,

2023; Darling-Hammond et al., 2020;). Similarly, many researchers highlight students’

attendance and positive attitudes towards school but do not attempt to find out how these factors

are related to their teachers’ behaviors(Byrd, 2017; Osher et al., 2020). However, there is a

growing body of evidence highlighting the importance of examining how teachers’ behaviors

affect students’ responses as well as the interactions between the two that lead to positive change

(Franco et al., 2023). Engagement, in particular, is a complex construct that encompasses a range

51

of behaviors, emotions, and cognitive processes that are affected by students’ interactions with

peers, teachers, and classrooms (Boat et al., 2025). Therefore, investigating the link between

educators’ behavior and students’ responses is essential for truly understanding the mechanisms

behind the process.

Finally, as mentioned above, the reviewed literature demonstrates that scholars pay

significantly more attention to individual components of students’ engagement in learning rather

than exploring the concepts collectively. Researchers investigating engagement often rely on the

theoretical framework in which the construct is comprised of three interrelated dimensions:

behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement (Fredricks et al., 2016). Some researchers

demonstrate that each of these components can be a predictor of students’ academic success. For

instance, studies note that behaviorally engaged students are more likely to attend classes

regularly and participate, thus enhancing their chances of achieving good grades (Chang &

Viesca, 2022), while emotionally engaged students feel more connected to their peers and

teachers, increasing their likelihood of graduating from school(Chang & Viesca, 2022). Finally,

scholars highlight that cognitively engaged students are more likely to experience academic

challenges, motivation, and higher-order thinking patterns(Fredricks et al., 2016). However, few

studies attempt to identify the impact of culturally responsive pedagogy on these areas of

engagement as they occur in actual educational settings. In addition, few studies focus on the

interactions among these components rather than analyzing them independently (Chang &

Viesca, 2022).

The reviewed literature also demonstrates that the factors associated with contexts are

poorly understood, despite there being an established consensus about the importance of

connecting culturally responsive pedagogical initiatives with their contexts (Kihwele 2026;

52

Parkhouse et al. 2021). This is evident in the fact that classroom environment, school culture,

leadership, colleague collaboration, community connections, and school demographics are

different factors that influence teachers’ use of culturally responsive practices

(Darling-Hammond et al. 2020). However, with the exception of few studies (Anyichie et al.

2023), these factors are usually considered as given circumstances against which teachers

implement their pedagogical decisions without exploring dynamic relationships that shape

implementation processes. In other words, contextual variables such as collaborative

opportunities and supportive school cultures mediate the process of reflective instructional

adaptation, which is critical to achieving the desired outcomes (Hammond, 2015; Mertler, 2024).

Therefore, it is important to conduct further studies in actual educational settings to understand

the mediating role of these factors.

Overall, based on the discussed information, it is possible to formulate the rationale for

the study. The reviewed literature provides sufficient justification for implementing culturally

responsive practices and ample evidence of their positive impact on student engagement and

empowerment (Gay, 2018; Ladson-Billings, 2021). However, there is limited information on

how these practices are implemented in middle school settings, particularly in terms of how

teachers use reflection to adapt their approaches and how student engagement is impacted by

these processes (Franco et al. 2024; Mertler, 2024). Therefore, the current qualitative action

research will contribute to filling this gap by exploring how teachers can use reflective practices

to implement culturally responsive lessons in a middle school classroom. By focusing on actual

processes used in a classroom context and student engagement as a measure of success, the study

will complement the literature by generating new insights that could be used to improve practice.

In particular, the rationale for the research aligns with the goals of reviewing the literature to

53

identify a gap to be filled by the current study. This is evident in the connection between the need

to study contextual factors and the proposed research question related to reflective adaptation of

instruction and actual engagement processes (Kihwele 2026; Parkhouse et al., 2021). Thus, this

section highlights the importance of the study, which builds upon the findings of the review of

literature, while establishing logical connections with the following section, which discusses the

methodology used in the research.

Action Research in Educational Settings

Action research stands out among educational research methodologies by focusing on

conducting research that creates knowledge and improves practice (Mertler, 2024). Action

research takes place in real-life classroom settings where educators identify problems, take

action, evaluate the effectiveness of this action, and reflect on the entire process (Parkhouse et

al., 2021; Stringer & Aragón, 2020). Developed by Lewin who proposed a cycle of action

encompassing planning, action, observation, and reflection, the methodology has since improved

but retained its dual emphasis on the production of knowledge and improvement of practice

(Lewin, 1946; Mertler, 2024). As such, action research now recognizes the need for interventions

to take place in contexts where those interventions will occur and for educators to take the lead

in improving their practices (Stringer & Aragón, 2020). These attributes of action research make

it particularly appropriate to the classroom contexts requiring improvement of instruction or

understanding of students (Stringer & Aragón, 2020).

Firstly, action research has been conducted in classroom settings because it views

teachers as practitioners who have knowledge of their practices, and it seeks to improve

instruction based on this knowledge (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2015). In other words, it

acknowledges that teachers can contribute to research, not just be subjects of research conducted

54

by others (Mertler, 2024). As such, it empowers teachers to conduct investigations that can help

them make scientifically-sound decisions (Dana & Yendol-Hoppey, 2009). In practice, this

means that teacher researchers can take the lead in examining their instructional practices based

on their understanding of their own classrooms (Mertler, 2024). It also means that the findings

from these investigations can then inform professional decisions that improve their practice

(Mertler, 2024). This approach to research closely aligns with culturally responsive teaching

(CRT) in its recognition of the need for educators to understand their contexts better and make

decisions about teaching and learning based on this understanding (Canaras, 2022).

Secondly, reflective practice has been a key component of action research. Schön (2017)

argued that reflective practice is at the core of professional development, as it involves

questioning one's assumptions and thoughts, thus enabling the researcher-instructor to improve

their practice. Similarly, more recent reviews highlight that reflective practice helps educators to

recognize issues (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). In CRT, reflection has been emphasized as a

way for teachers to become attuned to the backgrounds and contexts of their students in order to

respond more effectively to these backgrounds and contexts (Gay, 2021). For instance, reflective

practice helps instructors to evaluate whether their pedagogy supports student engagement,

belonging, identity exploration, and inclusion and whether it allows for meaningful participation,

as opposed to marginalizing or excluding particular students by virtue of their belonging to a

certain group (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020; Gay, 2021). In this sense, reflection becomes a

strategy by which teachers can continuously enhance their understanding of their students and

their contexts. As such, action research is a reflection-driven professional learning process

(Mertler, 2024).

55

Finally, collaborative inquiry is yet another attribute of action research that makes it

relevant to CRT. Rather than relying on leadership, action research promotes the idea of

collaboration, as teachers, administrators, and stakeholders can come together to investigate

problems (Parkhouse et al., 2021; Stringer & Aragón, 2020). The collaborative nature of this

type of inquiry fosters professional learning by making teachers’ voices heard which, in turn,

supports the sustainability of the improvements being pursued to address a particular issue

(DuFour & DuFour, 2013). Collaboration has become increasingly relevant in contemporary

educational contexts where there is a need to improve the school culture and environment in

order to advance student engagement and address educational inequalities (Darling-Hammond et

al., 2020; Hine, 2013). By relying on collaboration, action research facilitates addressing of these

complex issues.

Although action research has been reviewed as an effective approach to investigation, it

is also associated with a number of limitations. To begin with, collaboration and reflection take

time, and teachers’ time is limited given the number of responsibilities they have to address

while also being accountable for meeting the needs of their students (Mertler, 2024).

Additionally, teachers may need to acquire additional skills in research and inquiry in order to

engage in action research that can actually improve their practices (Dana & Yendol-Hoppey,

2009). Finally, the school culture that does not view reflective practice as a priority may prevent

the conduct of this type of research (Fullan, 2007). Despite this, the literature highlights action

research as the best option for teachers who want to connect professional learning with inquiry

and improvement because it allows them to actually conduct investigation in their own contexts

(Parkhouse et al., 2021; Stringer & Aragón, 2020).

56

It is this emphasis on inquiry and improvement that makes action research ideally suited

for investigating culturally responsive practices. In particular, both methodologies share

reflective practice, collaborative approach to research, and responsiveness to the context rather

than reliance on the universal approach. In fact, the literature on CRT is rife with suggestions of

using action research to improve culturally responsive practices, specifically with regard to

engagement in middle school settings in particular (Parkhouse et al., 2021). The value of action

research in addressing issues specific to particular contexts is well recognized in the literature

(Mertler, 2024; Parkhouse et al., 2021). In particular, educators have argued that CRT requires

context-specific consideration due to the fact that student engagement is contingent on students’

sense of identity, belonging, and inclusion and the extent to which these aspects of experience

are supported by classroom relationships, teachers’ worldviews, school environment, and

community contexts (Gay, 2021). For this reason, researchers argue that CRT needs to be

investigated in real contexts where the same approaches may not yield the same results for

students with similar backgrounds because of differences in classrooms, teachers, and

communities (Hammond, 2021; Stringer & Aragón, 2020).

Even though action research has been suggested as the best approach for investigating

CRT, the literature makes it clear that, for it to be a viable option, there is a need for

administrative support, time to engage in this form of inquiry, a collaborative school culture, and

a willingness on the part of professionals to engage in reflective practice (Cantrell & Powell,

2021; Parkhouse et al., 2021). In other words, collaborative reflective practice is the ideal

approach for improvement, but it is only available to educators who have the luxury of time that

action research requires. Teachers who are accountable for meeting the needs of their students in

a context that is driven to meet standardized expectations and timelines cannot afford to use this

57

approach to improvement (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020; Mertler, 2024). Therefore, the

literature is limited in its discussion of how educators can investigate CRT despite these

limitations.

One of the limitations of this research agenda is the fact that, despite the focus on

investigating teachers’ reflective practice, very little attention has been paid to students’

perspectives on culturally responsive instruction. While many studies highlight the importance of

reflecting on one’s beliefs and attitudes, little is said about how students perceive CRT practices

and whether these perspectives contribute to their engagement (Cook-Sather, 2020; Parkhouse et

al., 2021). In other words, students’ identities and sense of belonging are often overlooked

(Osher et al., 2020). In fact, the literature highlights the need to pay more attention to how

students perceive their engagement, as it cannot be determined through objective measures

(Aguayo et al., 2024). This perspective on engagement closely aligns with CRT which has

recognized the value of listening to students’ voices as important contributors to instructional

improvement (Ladson-Billings, 2021).

Collaborative approaches to action research have dominated the literature on this

methodology. The literature suggests that collaborative inquiry can help educators investigate

particular issues by sharing their experiences (Parkhouse et al., 2021). Collaborative action

research can be conducted among teachers, administrators, stakeholders, and students. In other

words, collaboration allows each party to see through the eyes of others, thereby supporting

reflective practice and professional learning (Mertler, 2024). Even so, little is known about

collaborative action research in middle school education, specifically in regard to CRT (Franco et

al., 2024). In fact, much of the research on action research has focused on elementary school

contexts rather than middle and high schools, which have distinct developmental needs (Eccles

58

& Roeser, 2023). In general, the literature discusses various aspects of action research, including

its collaborative nature, but few studies have concentrated on how it can be used to investigate

CRT in the middle school setting.

Overall, the literature demonstrates that action research can be a valuable approach to

investigation in the fields concerned because it focuses on research in practice (Mertler, 2024;

Parkhouse et al., 2021). Similarly, CRT has been discussed in terms of the teacher’s need to

recognize the importance of building understanding about their contexts rather than relying on

universal approaches to instruction (Gay, 2021). However, the literature contains some

limitations regarding the discussion of both topics. Firstly, much of the discussion of action

research concentrates on the individual rather than collaborative practice, and little is said about

investigating CRT. Secondly, the literature rarely discusses both simultaneously in regard to the

middle school context, as most studies have focused on other aspects of either topic. Finally,

while the literature has addressed the reflective practice of teachers, the role of students in

investigating their own engagement in regard to CRT has received little attention. All of these

limitations present rationale for the current study and serve as a springboard for its discussion.

Summary

This chapter reviewed the literature on culturally responsive teaching, student

engagement, and middle school education to provide the background for the proposed study. The

reviewed articles revealed that culturally responsive pedagogy has emerged from multicultural

education through various forms, including culturally relevant pedagogy and sustaining

pedagogy, to demand a more inclusive approach to instruction that promotes identity affirmation

and academic excellence (Gay, 2018; Ladson-Billings, 2021; Paris & Alim, 2017). The literature

also demonstrated that student engagement is a multidimensional construct that emerges from

59

behavioral, emotional, and cognitive processes that take place in classrooms through

student-climate interactions, relationships, psychological safety, and belonging (Fredricks et al.,

2019; Osher et al., 2020). Therefore, the reviewed literature highlighted the need to promote

culturally responsive practices in classrooms to ensure that students feel included and engaged.

Furthermore, the chapter provided the theoretical and conceptual foundations of the

proposed study. Culturally Relevant Pedagogy and Sociocultural Learning Theory were reviewed

to reveal how they inform the research question. The two frameworks are foundational to the

study because they postulate that learning is a socially and culturally mediated process that takes

place in classrooms through teachers’ engagement with students’ cultural knowledge and lived

experiences (Ladson-Billings, 2021; Vygotsky, 1978). The chapter also identified various

research gaps related to the research question, including the tendency of the existing literature to

emphasize teachers’ perceptions of culturally responsive teaching practices rather than the

processes themselves. There was also a need to focus on middle school education, which was not

the case with previous studies on culturally responsive pedagogy, and utilize a qualitative

approach to examine the construct in depth (Mertler, 2024; Darling-Hammond et al., 2020;

Franco et al., 2024). Therefore, the need for this study became evident from the body of

knowledge presented in the chapter, which created a solid foundation for proposing the

qualitative action research study examined in this paper. The next section of this paper will

present the methods that will be used in the proposed action research study, including the

research design, setting, participants, procedure, data analysis plan, and ethical considerations.

60

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