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10The Ethics of HRD and Corporate Social Responsibility

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

• Summarize the issues of ethical HRD.

• Describe HRD’s social responsibility.

• Explain social responsibility at the operational level.

• Evaluate work–life balance issues.

• Examine the critical perspective of HRD through the social history of training.

It takes 20 years to build a reputation and five minutes to ruin it. —Warren Buffet

Introduction Chapter 10

Pretest 1. Using a one-size-fits-all model of employee training contradicts ethical principles for

human resource development. a. true b. false

2. Organizations with dedicated corporate social responsibility programs tend to rank lower and report less return on investment than other companies. a. true b. false

3. The glass ceiling that can keep qualified women and minorities out of leadership posi- tions often manifests as a lack of access to training development. a. true b. false

4. Multitasking is a focusing strategy that allows employees to accomplish more and reduce stress. a. true b. false

5. Rather than simply supporting workers, historically training programs have often served as means of oppression. a. true b. false

Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

Introduction In this, our final chapter, we now change our focus from HRD as the interdisciplinary field with the processes and goals to enhance employee performance through learning, to HRD’s impact on, and responsibilities to, the environment in which it operates, both internal and external. Specifically, as discussed in Chapter 1, we will recall Swanson’s metaphor for HRD as a three-legged stool—psychological, economic, and systems—which sat on a base of ethics.

We will discuss HRD not only in the context of ethics, but also as an extension of social respon- sibility known as corporate social responsibility (CSR), which includes organizational issues such as work–life balance, equal opportunity, and access to career-advancing training and development.

Although the field of human resource development (HRD) is dedicated to the activities and processes that influence organizational and individual learning and development, HRD has not ignored or overlooked ethics. As early as 1978, there was an awareness and recommenda- tions of ethical practice for training and development professionals (Clement, Pinto, & Walker,

Ethical Human Resource Development Chapter 10

1978). Currently, there exists the Academy of Human Resource Development’s Standards on Ethics and Integrity (http://www.ahrd.org).

Recently, however, an emerging theme in HRD surrounds how human resource development is increasingly expected to facilitate ethics and corporate social responsibility; that is, organiza- tions are taking the initiative to assess and assume responsibility for the organization’s effects on the environment and impact on social welfare (Ardichvili, 2013; Bierema & D’Abundo, 2004; Hatcher, 2003; Hatcher, 2002; MacKenzie, Garavan, & Garbery, 2012). This expanding responsibility extends HRD stakeholders to include not only the individual, group, and orga- nization, but also society (Ardichvili, 2013; Bierema & D’Abundo, 2004; McLean, 2004).

By placing this CSR lens onto HRD, we focus in on the so-called triple bottom-line approach (Savitz, 2013); that is, a balanced attention to both the economic aspects of organizational performance and the organization’s impact on the environment and attention to social justice (Bierema & D’Abundo, 2004; Kim, 2012a; MacKenzie et al., 2012; Marquardt & Berger, 2003).

10.1 Ethical Human Resource Development Not unlike other disciplines, HRD affirmed early on how the field’s effectiveness and credibil- ity depended on ethical practice (Clement et al., 1978; Hatcher, 2010; McLagan & Suhadolnik, 1989; Russ-Eft & Hatcher, 2003; Swanson & Holton, 2001). The initial practice of HRD dealt with ethical issues that were relatively straightforward, including maintaining confidentiality, striking a balance between organizational and individual needs, and using influence appro- priately (Jerling, 1996; McLagan & Suhadolnik, 1989). McLagan et al. (1989) put forth 13 ethical issues a training and development professional needs to consider:

1. Maintain appropriate confidentiality. For example, do not reveal a trainee’s deficien- cies to other organizational members.

2. Decline inappropriate training requests. For example, decline a manager’s request to create training that is not really needed or to conduct the training at an unnecessarily expensive venue when more economical venues are adequate.

3. Respect copyrighted sources and intellectual property. For example, acknowledge the work of an original author whose work is used, and ask permission to use copy- righted training materials.

4. Ensure truth in any claims, data, and recommendations. For example, do not falsify training results to make them appear better, including the training’s ROI.

5. Balance the organization’s needs with the employee’s training and development needs. For example, avoid only looking at cost as the sole factor for training effectiveness or not favoring certain employees for training over others.

6. Ensure that all customers and users have an opportunity to participate and take owner- ship. For example, be sure to involve line management in the assessment of training needs.

7. Avoid conflicts of interest. For example, do not promote nepotism (favoring family members) in the marketing to vendors of training programs.

8. Manage personal biases. For example, guard against using training techniques or modalities that only satisfy the trainer rather than the trainees.

9. Be guided by the trainees’ needs. For example, ensure that training objectives are guided by the assessment performed in the needs analysis phase of ADDIE.

http://www.ahrd.org

Ethical Human Resource Development Chapter 10

10. Regarding diversity, show respect for, interest in, and representation in the workplace. For example, treat trainees equally and avoid discrimination based on sex, race, eth- nicity, or age.

11. Be aware of the direct and indirect effects of intervention and act to rectify negative consequences. For example, consider trainee expectations and even the unintended effects on the trainees.

12. Price and cost products or services fairly. For example, ensure that training programs are not overpriced and provide the organization a fair return on investment.

13. Do not use power inappropriately. For example, avoid using personal power to influ- ence training processes to favor certain groups or departments.

Werner and DeSimone (2011) further extended the awareness of ethical HRD practice by including warnings about the use of deception, as well as the pressure to produce positive ROI results. For example, a trainer may state some other reason why she is observing the employ- ees in a department rather than the truthful reason of observing to see if they are applying (level 3) the training they received weeks earlier.

Also, with the growing need for organizations to show competitive advantage, organizations may tend to focus more on transactional (performance-driven) versus transformational (developmentally based) outcomes (Rousseau, 1989). Doing so puts additional pressure on HRD ethical practice. As a result, HRD professionals might feel compelled to show that a train- ing program was effective, especially at times when the HRD professional is the person who purchases or designs, develops, and implements the training. The implication is that if the evaluation of that training is shown to be ineffective, the HRD department may lose funding and support (Werner & DeSimone, 2011).

Different Ethical Frameworks

According to Northouse (2012), in an organizational context, applying business ethics out- comes can be framed from a shareholder to stakeholder continuum. Let us review a few frame- works for organizational ethics:

• Ethical egoism. In this ethical framework, organizations act to create the greatest benefits they can for themselves. An organization and its employees therefore make decisions to achieve the organizational goal of maximizing profits. Here is a case in point from Clemson University’s Institute for the Study of Capitalism: Although Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, and Sam Walton greatly benefited humanity by provid- ing it with lightbulbs, cheap automobiles, or cheap consumer retailing, each was motivated by self-interest and his own satisfaction and fulfillment. With such an ethical framework, the most efficient and productive businesses can earn the most profit while simultaneously providing consumers with affordable goods and services (Clemson University, 2014). From a training and development standpoint, this frame- work supports the resource-based view of human capital described in Chapter 9; that is, leveraging the economic benefits of a highly trained and developed workforce towards achieving competitive advantage.

• Utilitarianism. In this ethical framework, organizations balance their self-interest with the interests of society. Specifically, they try to benefit the greatest number and maximize social benefits while minimizing social costs. An example of an organiza- tion that practices this is the ice cream maker Ben and Jerry’s™, whose social mission

Ethical Human Resource Development Chapter 10

statement articulates such a utilitarian framework (visit http://www.benjerry.com/ values to read the company’s mission statement). Ben and Jerry’s actively seeks out and financially supports causes that the company feels will have a positive impact on the community at large. For example, Ben and Jerry’s promotes the Refinery Efficiency Initiative, whose goal is to reduce refinery accidents to prevent the release thousands of pounds of toxins into the air; and ETC Group, which strives to promote biodiversity, democratic technology assessment, and just and sustainable food security and liveli- hood systems for the benefit of society.

Panera Bread Company, too, has its Panera Cares program, in which customers who are going through a difficult financial time can “pay whatever they can afford” (“Panera Cares,” 2013) for food. The training of Panera employees also reflects this ethical framework, and it is a job requirement that all employees at a Panera Cares location understand or critically reflect on being a good corporate citizen. Panera Cares workers are specifically trained to deal with a population that is in need. “What they told us to do is just to smile at every customer, so even if they don’t want to make eye contact with us, the fact that we’re smiling is a sign that we’re here and that we care. The smile is everything that will make their day,” (“Panera Cares,” 2013) says employee Yetunde Bankol.

• Altruism. In this ethical framework, actions are moral if their primary purpose is to promote the best interest of society; naturally, many nonprofit organizations adopt this framework as part of their mission. Recently, Entrepreneur magazine spotlighted five organizations considered to be exceptionally altruistic. Included on the list was the Salesforce.com Foundation, whose a philanthropic approach is to leverage not only technology and resources, but also its people to build collective knowledge—a core component of strategic human resource development (Swart, Mann, Brown, & Price, 2012)—to take action to improve communities throughout the world.

Did You Know? Altruism for Generation Y Employees

According to an article from Forbes on the new generation of employees entering the workforce, the millennial generation—the so-called generation Y—recent research from the Center for Work-Life Policy shows that ambition, dedication and, above all, concern for social welfare are alive and well among this cohort.

Author Sylvia Hewlett writes:

Perhaps it’s not surprising that the children of the Me generation are developing into a We generation. The baby boomers wanted to stop war and promote peace; the echo boomers have equally ambitious goals to connect cultures and save the planet. What’s new is that they not only want their employers to recognize their enthusiasm, they expect them to support it. Corporate social responsibility isn’t just talk for Gen Ys. They volunteer extensively, care deeply and seek employers who feel the same: 88% of Gen Y women and 82% of Y men believe it’s important to be able to give back to community through work.

Source: Hewlett, S. A. (2009, July). The altruistic gen Y employee. Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/2009/07/07/gen-y-volunteer-mentor- forbes-woman-leadership-communit y.html

http://www.benjerry.com/values

http://www.forbes.com/2009/07/07/gen-y-volunteer-mentor-forbes-woman-leadership-community.html

Ethical Human Resource Development Chapter 10

Globalization Means Global HRD

Consider, too, that the practice of ethical HRD may become more complex because many organi- zations continue to expand globally. For example, of McDonald’s $24 billion in revenue in 2013, 66% was from overseas markets, the majority of its revenue from Europe and Asia (about 400 stores in China alone!). About 315 (45%) of the 700 hotels Marriott is developing will be located outside North America (Newman, 2014; International Trade Administration, 2014).

Clearly, one HRD framework will not fit all organizations (or countries). As organizations become more global and diverse, global HRD must adapt its practices. A notable example is found in Gary McLean, Professor Emeritus of HRD at the University of Minnesota and CEO of McLean Global Consulting. McLean introduces a general HRD framework to his international initiatives (such as assessing the gap between the present state and the desired future state), but then adapts it to the international community and social projects, including projects in Pakistan, Thailand, and Morocco (McLean, 2004). In Pakistan, for example, McLean and his colleagues, under a grant from the U.S. Agency for International Development, worked with a group of Pakistani consultants from social development agencies and nongovernmental agen- cies (NGOs) to develop their organization development consulting competencies. In Thailand, McLean and his colleagues used HRD processes for the purposes of moral, social, and commu- nity development; HRD tools identified and assessed leadership development, training, and social and moral development through retreats and instruction.

These and other projects underscored McLean’s and other HRD practitioners’ assertion that the field of HRD can ultimately serve all of humanity (Kim, 2012b). McLean particularly has promoted HRD practice to assist with the UN’s Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for 2015. As articulated by United Nations Secretary-General, Ban Ki-Moon, the UN’s MDGs include:

Eradicating extreme poverty continues to be one of the main challenges of our time, and is a major concern of the international community. Ending this scourge will require the combined efforts of all, governments, civil society organizations and the private sector, in the context of a stronger and more effective global partnership for development. The Millennium Development

Goals set time-bound targets, by which progress in reducing income poverty, hunger, disease, lack of adequate shel- ter and exclusion—while promoting gender equality, health, education and environmental sustainability—can be measured. They also embody basic human rights—the rights of each per- son on the planet to health, education, shelter and security. The Goals are ambitious but feasible and, together with the comprehensive United Nations development agenda, set the course for the world’s efforts to alleviate extreme poverty by 2015. (as cited in United Nations, n.d.)

Comstock/Stockbyte/Thinkstock

Maintaining ethical practices becomes more com- plex as companies expand globally.

HRD and Social Responsibility Chapter 10

With global HRD, cross-cultural understanding of the meaning and goals of HRD will vary from country to country, as will the way HRD is viewed as national policy around the world (McLean, 2004). For example, how is HRD practiced in India? (See India’s National HRD Net- work, https://www.nationalhrd.org/about-nhrdn/overview.) Consider that, unlike in the United States, India has a collectivist culture with a historical focus on the group versus the individual (Hofstede, 1984; Hong & Lee, 2014). As a result, it is possible that decisions regard- ing who gets access to career-advancing training in India is influenced by whether or not the employee is in the in-group. Compare this to the United States, where those decisions are supposed to be based on qualifications with equal access guided by labor laws (Gelfand, Chiu, & Hong, 2010). Wang and McLean (2007) suggested discussions be ongoing regarding the practice of international HRD because the field of HRD still struggles over the meaning of the term; specifically, they assert that there exists a dilemma in defining international and cross-national HRD.

Although culture differences make it difficult to operationalize global, homogeneous HRD practice, Russ-Eft & Hatcher (2003) assert there is a rationale for an international HRD code of ethics, with the AHRD Standards on Ethics and Integrity providing a good first step, albeit still tied to a North American view.

10.2 HRD and Social Responsibility Like other social sciences, HRD invokes at a minimum a do no harm principle, a primary ethi- cal obligation to avoid doing harm to employees of the organization (Bierema & D’Abundo, 2004; Fenwick & Bierema, 2008; Hatcher, 2010; Porter, 2008) and the community from which they operate. Corporate social responsibility includes organizations who choose to assess and take the initiative and responsibility for how the organization affects the environment, as well as social justice and welfare (Ardichvili, 2013; Bierema & D’Abundo, 2004; Hatcher, 2003; Hatcher, 2002; Kopp & Desiderio, 2009; MacKenzie et al., 2012).

This perspective extends HRD stakeholders to include not only the individual, group, and organizational levels, but also society (Ardichvili, 2013; Bierema & D’Abundo, 2004; McLean, 2004). Corporate social responsibility itself has evolved and is typically divided into four eras (Frederick, 1998):

• Corporate social stewardship, 1950s–1960s • Corporate social responsiveness, 1960s–1970s • Corporate and business ethics, 1980s–1990s • Corporate and global citizenship, 1990s–21st century

Although the field of HRD continues to demonstrate increasing concern with ethics, integ- rity, and sustainability, moving away from a strict performance model and evincing a “greater attention to power relations, equity, social justice and reflexivity in HRD” (Fenwick & Bier- ema, 2008, p. 26), HRD’s focus on social responsibility is still evolving (Garavan & McGuire, 2010). Some might even contend that it is getting off to an inauspicious start; in reviewing 600 articles from 1996 to 2000, Bierema and Cseh (2003) concluded that “HRD focuses little on issues concerning social justice in the workplace or larger social context” (p. 23). Addition- ally, Hatcher (2002) considered that HRD professionals were part of the problem because so little was done to enhance the human spirit or protect the environment. As discussed, with

https://www.nationalhrd.org/about-nhrdn/overview

HRD and Social Responsibility Chapter 10

CSR, organizations focus on the triple bottom-line approach (Savitz, 2013). Furthermore, the employee relations component of CSR is a significant part of the corporate citizen scoring, tied for the highest component at 19.5%.

The 100 Best Corporate Citizens list from Corporate Responsibility Magazine ranks firms according to how well they perform in these eight categories: shareholders, community, governance, diversity, employees, environment, human rights, and product. Their scores reflect financial information, as well as measures of corporate social performance; the Global Reporting Initiative also developed guidelines to enable organizations to comparably report on the social impact of a business.

According to Gatewood and Carroll (1981), organizations fall on a spectrum as they adopt certain responses to societal demands. They range from being proactive, where the organi- zation actively takes social initiatives, to obstructive, where the organization denies social responsibility Carroll (Gatewood & Carroll, 1981) (see Figure 10.1). Therefore, where an organization operates will determine where its HRD practice and philosophy fall.

Specifically, within the context of HRD, corporate social responsibility can be framed as how organizational activities affect an employee’s physical and mental health and well-being—in short, how the stress of work practices affect human systems (Fenwick & Bierema, 2008; Pfef- fer, 2010). This consideration includes avoiding direct and immediate harm and implies an obligation to weigh carefully how the decisions, future consequences, and impacts of training affect others from both the internal and external environments (Kotler & Lee, 2011). This pri- mary obligation, therefore, should supersede the outcomes of training and performance for society’s macro goals (Fenwick & Bierema, 2008; Garavan & McGuire, 2010; Hatcher, 2003). Examples of practice could include aspects of work–life balance or ethical mentoring.

Figure 10.1: Spectrum of corporate social responsibility standard

Levels of CSR vary among organizations. Depending on their philosophy, organizations may be proactive, seeking out inequities; or obstructionist, taking the view that social responsibility is not the role of business.

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• Obstructive— Organization denies all social responsibility

• Defensive— Organization does only what is legally required

• Accomodative— Organization accepts ethical responsibility

• Proactive— Organization takes social initiatives

Developed

Developing

High Low

Source: Adpated from Gatewood, E., & Carroll, A. B. (1981). The anatomy of corporate social response. Business Horizons, 24, 9–16.

HRD and Social Responsibility Chapter 10

Nurturing Corporate Social Responsibility Within the Organization

According to Kash Rangan, a professor at Harvard Business School, in many companies, “There’s always a marketing strategy, an operations strategy, an HR strategy, but what is the CSR strategy?” (as cited in Filtz, 2013). Within his executive leadership courses, Rangan teaches organizational leaders to integrate CSR aspects into their corporate strategies by adopting these practices:

• Align social responsibility strategies and goals with organizational objectives. • Sustain the CSR strategy over the long term by embedding CSR within the business

culture. • Use hiring and partnerships to build CSR expertise; for example, recently, the Silicon

Valley Community Foundation (SVCF) and YourCause, both leaders in CSR, teamed up to create a corporate social responsibility center where organizations can look for and develop their CSR acumen (http://ef.siliconvalleycf.org/blog/silicon-valley- community-foundation-and-yourcause-announce-partnership-create-csr-center).

• Integrate social responsibility metrics into general performance management sys- tems; for example, in addition to accessing the so-called triple bottom line, organiza- tions are mindful of the CSR metrics of community, governance, diversity, employees, environment, and human rights.

• Share information about CSR policies throughout the organization. • Demonstrate how CSR practices continue to affect individuals and departments. • Communicate the impact of social responsibility to capital markets, shareholders, and

other stakeholders. Accurate and timely communication is key to CSR efforts. Interest- ingly, unless corporations communicate their CSR achievements accurately, they risk being accused of “greenwashing,” a new term that, according to communications pro- fessor Laura Illia (Illia, Zyglidopoulos, Romenti, Rodríguez-Cánovas, & González del Valle Brena, 2013), refers to the use of environmentalism to suggest that a company’s policies and products are environmentally friendly. More broadly, the term describes public relations aimed at giving the false impression that a corporation is genuinely engaged in CSR and has green credentials.

HRD in Practice: Unethical Mentoring

In a recent blog, business coach Catherine Day reflected on the ethics of mentoring:

I am passionate about mentoring and cannot understand why some organizations allow behaviors from mentors that are destructive or corrosive. Not only do these behaviors undermine the mentee and diminish their trust with the organization, they send a message that the mentor’s behavior is condoned. The following is a recent example shared with me by a senior executive I am now mentoring.

”A mentor was appointed by the organization to address perceived gaps in the experience of the newly appointed executive. This was the first mistake— arbitrarily appointing a mentor without giving a choice to the person being mentored. It’s so important for a rapport to develop between the two for the mentor to be effective.

(continued)

http://ef.siliconvalleycf.org/blog/silicon-valley-community-foundation-and-yourcause-announce-partnership-create-csr-center

http://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/communicating-corporate-social-responsibility-to-a-cynical-public/

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Mistake number two was not agreeing on the rules of engagement between the mentor and the company. In this case, the mentee discovered that matters discussed during a mentoring session were reported back to his superior. This was entirely unethical on behalf of the mentor, and shouldn’t have been condoned by the CEO. The probable motivation of the mentor was to ingratiate himself with the CEO to gain more business in the organization. The mentee had a discussion with the CEO and it was agreed that a new mentor would be found who would meet the gap criteria and clear guidelines would be agreed by all concerned.”

Source: Reprinted with permission from Day, C. Fellow of the Australian Institute of Management, Executive Mentor. (2014.) Unethical mentoring. Retrieved from The CDA Blog: http://cdainspired.com.au/unethical-mentoring

Consider This 1. How should the “rules of engagement” in mentor–mentee relationships be formalized? 2. Is there ever a rationale for the mentor to discuss the mentoring session with the

mentee’s supervisor? 3. How does Day’s story underscore the risks of assigning mentors versus letting this type

of relationship emerge?

Not everyone is sold on the idea that organizations should be in the CSR business. Table 10.1 reviews arguments for and against corporate social responsibility (see http://www.youtube. com/watch?v=5nRQNNidbV8).

Table 10.1: Arguments for and against corporate social responsibility

Should organizations be in the CSR business?

For Against

Social problems have resulted from the rise of the modern corporation. Therefore, the corporate world should take the lead in addressing these problems.

Confronting social and moral issues is not economi- cally feasible. Corporations should focus on earning a profit for their shareholders and leave social issues to others.

Assuming social responsibilities is in the long-term best interests of corporations. Doing so will increase the chances that corporations will have a future and will reduce the chances of increased governmental regulation.

Corporations that assume social responsibilities are at a competitive disadvantage relative to those who do not.

Large corporations enjoy the benefits of huge reserves of human and financial capital. They should devote at least some of their resources to addressing social issues.

Those who are most capable should address social issues. Those in the corporate world are not equipped to deal with social problems.

Source: Adapted from Reference for Business. (2014). Corporate social responsibility. Retrieved from http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Comp-De/ Corporate-Social-Responsibilit y.html#ixzz2LSk4PPE7

Notwithstanding the for or against arguments of CSR, it is important to note that organiza- tions can take a middle ground. Rarely is an organization’s CSR policy a binary, all-or-nothing proposition. For example, early on, Gatewood and Carroll (1981) proposed that in addition to being proactive (for) or obstructionist (against) regarding CSR, there were the midline

http://cdainspired.com.au/unethical-mentoring/

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5nRQNNidbV8

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propositions of an organization being accommodative and accepting ethical responsibility of CSR and, at the very least, complying with the legal requirements that support CSR (for exam- ple, phasing out incandescent office lightbulbs with efficiency lighting as they will be illegal to produce in 2016).

Going back to the Panera Cares example, coauthor of Understanding Business Ethics Peter Stanwick points out that the ethical framework could be a middle ground between ethical egoism and utilitarianism because it could be argued that because Panera Bread “expects that the payments needy people will make will be close to the actual cost of the food” (Stanwick & Stanwick, 2014, p. 9).

Case Study: When Job Performance Aids Attack

As discussed, job aids can be designed to assist in work or life; they give information that enables the user to know what actions and decisions a specific task requires. Instructions or directions themselves are considered forms of job aids. Consider this interesting story.

In the summer of 1905, an exasperated mother retrieved a box of Kopp’s Baby’s Friend (no relation to author) from the washroom cabinet. Inside the box was a small bottle of the elixir she had purchased through mail order. This “king of baby soothers” offered the promise of putting crying babies to sleep (Adams, 1912). Indeed, the young mother must have thought that it would make her crying, 9-month-old, colicky baby feel better. She was unclear on the dosing instructions and read the directions from the box to assist her.

A few hours after giving her infant half a teaspoon—per the dosing instructions—“the baby went into a stupor, his pupils were pin-pointed, skin cool and clammy, heart and respiration slowed” (“Poisoned a Child,” 1905, p. 24). Minutes later, her baby was dead. An autopsy later revealed the cause of death to be a morphine overdose—morphine being the elixir’s main ingredient.

Certainly, this is a dramatic example that shows that, at the detail level, we cannot always assume that job aids are giving out safe information. However, in the ethics of training and social responsibility, the larger issue is that, although job aids are—axiologically speaking— value neutral on their face, there are examples where they have historically been the means to facilitate the ends of what might be considered dubious performance. From patented medicines of the 19th and early 20th centuries to vocational training and labor methods used within the Third Reich, what emerges is how ordinary training processes, including job aids, were part of extraordinary and, sometimes, perverse contexts!

Consider This 1. Although an extreme example of a job performance aid, do you see any parallels in

today’s consumer world? 2. What, if any, role should the training and development profession take in ensuring that

training tools are used ethically by end users?

CSR and Social Justice Within the Organization Chapter 10

“Walking the Walk” of Social Responsibility

Among the organizational strategies for promoting CSR are action learning and field projects and global-service learning projects (Ardichvili, 2013; Kim, 2012b; McLean, 2004). Ardichvili (2013) gives an example of a CSR initiative at Unilever. Here, hundreds of leaders from the company’s Asian division worked together with Westerners

to create communities of learning and sharing, by completing development projects in villages, schools, and shrines in various parts of Asia. An important part of these projects was time, set aside for self-reflection, journaling, story- telling, group discussions on learned lessons, and other methods of generating and sharing individual and group insights, which could ultimately contribute to organizational learning. (p. 467)

Unilever’s Corporate Social Responsibility program has had great success in affecting com- munities, both local and global, with regular updates to its stakeholders. This program goes beyond the minimum do no harm principle, and is an example of how organizations take the initiative and responsibility for how they affect the environment, social justice, and welfare.

10.3 CSR and Social Justice Within the Organization Does an employer have a social responsibility to train employees who lack basic literacy and numeracy skills? According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’s 2013 report, the U.S. skills gap appears to be getting worse. Although Americans aged 55 to 65 maintained their overall educational and skills advantage over other nations, those in the 45 to 54 age group were only average. Younger Americans again fared worse, consistently scoring in the bottom half compared to their counterparts in other countries. Such statis- tics suggest that an organization’s responsibility to its adult workers cannot be a theoretical proposition; specifically, while corporate social responsibility and ethical HRD are noble calls to action, organizations must act on them every day at the operational level. In other words, organizations must ensure that they fulfill their legal duty to train (the minimal requirement), including enabling employees to have equal access to career-advancing training and technol- ogy (Luftman, 2011; Piskurich, 2010).

An example of this is seen in the so-called glass ceiling, the unseen barriers preventing minorities and women from rising to the top of the corporate ladder, even despite their quali- fications or achievements (Blalock, 2013; Morrison, White, & Van Velsor, 1992).

If two employees—one male, one female—are equally qualified for an open promotion, should preference be given to the female? To be sure, several federal laws legally require or strongly recommend employee training. For example, the Occupational Safety and Health Administra- tion (OSHA) put forth a series of training programs; these include training in blood-borne pathogens, confined spaces, and back safety (see Did You Know? feature). Federal law also recommends companies provide training in sexual harassment, as well as ethics (U.S. Depart- ment of Labor, 2014b). Some laws, too, mandate equal treatment of minorities, women, and those accommodating trainees with disabilities; they must make training facilities readily accessible to, and usable by, individuals with disabilities. However, no laws require organiza- tions to develop their employees.

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Did You Know? Employers’ Legal Duty to Train

Complainants filed more than 95,000 complaints alleging workplace discrimination with the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) in fiscal year 2012. The EEOC obtained more than $274.4 million in awards for complainants and other parties; these awards exclude benefits gained through litigation. These 2012 statistics show the importance of providing training in the workplace to protect workers.

• Employees filed more than 32,000 sexual harassment complaints, for which the EEOC obtained $74.8 million in awards.

• Some 5,071 fatal work injuries occurred, making the rate of fatal injury for U.S. workers 3.6 fatal work injuries per 100,000 full-time equivalent workers.

• More than 4.5 million workers suffered nonfatal work injuries. Median days away from work—an important measure of injury severity —increased to 8 days. This represented the first increase in 4 years

Source: US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2013). EEOC reports nearly 100,000 job bias charges in fiscal year 2012. Retrieved from http://ww w.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/1-28-13.cfm

Access to Training: The Glass Ceiling of Training and Development

The glass ceiling keeps minorities and women from rising to the upper levels of the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or achievements (Blalock, 2013; Morrison, White, & Van Velsor, 1992 ). Many times, this barrier takes on the form of not being given access to training and development that could enable this group to advance within organization, such as leadership and management development training.

According to the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission report (McGuire, Nicolau, Trujillo, & Project, 1996; Robles, Leondar-Wright, Brewer, & Lui, 2013; Steinmetz, 2011), organizations whose organizational culture promotes a sense of social responsibility to eliminate career development barriers minorities and women face typically have a specific executive training program that would have:

• rotational and nontraditional job assignments that broaden a candidate’s base of experience and visibility;

• specific career path programs that identify objective performance, skill, and knowl- edge criteria for advancement;

• employee-sponsored networks and affinity groups; • access to specialized training, seminars and workshops; and • formal succession planning

Catalyst is a leading nonprofit organization dedicated to expanding opportunities for women and minorities. Table 10.2 presents findings from the group’s 2012 study on the state of the glass ceiling.

http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/1-28-13.cfm

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Table 10.2: Catalyst’s current state of the glass ceiling

Access to career development opportunities Statistics comparing men’s and women’s access

Access to “hot jobs” that predict advancement: high-visibility projects, mission-critical roles, and international experiences

• More men than women got “hot jobs,” particularly after being in formal leadership development programs.

• More men were promoted within a year of program completion: 51% of men vs. 37% of women.

Access to leadership experience • 62% credit high-profile assignments with influencing their careers.

• Only 10% cited formal training programs as most impactful.

Access to prestige assignments • Men led projects with budgets more than twice the size of women’s budgets

• Men led teams having more than three times as many staff as women’s teams.

• Men’s projects posed higher risk to the company: 30% of men vs. 22% of women.

• Men had more C-suite visibility or titles that started with the letter C, for chief, as in chief executive officer or chief operating officer: 35% of men vs. 26% of women.

Access to roles with critical responsibility Men had more roles with critical responsibility: • profit and loss: 56% of men vs. 46% of women, • management of direct reports: 77% of men vs. 70% of

women • budgets over $10 million: 30% of men vs. 22% of

women

Access to international assignments predicting advancement

Women get fewer international assignments than men do—but not because women will not relocate. Of those most willing to relocate: • More men than women got those assignments: 35%

versus 26%. • More women than men were never offered the opportu-

nity: 64% versus 55%.

Source: Catalyst, 2012.

In 2014 Jena McGregor and Pam Tobey published a “glass-ceiling update,” writing that “not much has changed in the years following the previous glass-ceiling studies. On average, women still hold fewer than 20 percent of leadership positions across all sectors.” Using both primary research and secondary sources, the updated report also went beyond the original glass-ceiling studies by making comparisons between the general prevalence of women at the top and the frequency with which women appear among many of the sectors’ top performers.

Access to career-advancing training is not only part of ethical HRD, but can be costly to orga- nizations who do not offer equal access. Wal-Mart recently lost an appeal on a gender-bias lawsuit that originally had been filed on behalf of six female Wal-Mart employees; the lawsuit eventually represented as many as 1.6 million employees, making it the largest private civil rights case in U.S. history. The workers claimed that Walmart discriminated against female employees by paying them less than it paid men for comparable jobs, and bypassing women for promotions.

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The Coca-Cola Company lost the largest racial discrimination settlement in U.S. history. The company had to pay $192.5 million to settle allegations that it routinely discriminated against African-American employees in pay, performance evaluations, and promotions. In 1996 Tex- aco Inc. had to pay $176 million to end a similar suit by its African-American employees.

Training Considerations for Speakers of Other Languages

With the ever-diverse workplace, organizations will need to better accommodate speakers of other languages. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (Robles et al., 2013), the Span- ish-speaking or Hispanic workforce increased 36% faster than other ethnic groups between 1996 and 2006; by 2050 it will make up more than 15% of the U.S. workforce. Accordingly, OSHA requires that companies make special accommodations when English is not the work- er’s native language and the worker may not yet be fluent:

According to OSHA’s training standards policy statement, if an employee does not speak or comprehend English, instruction must be provided by the employer in a language the employee can understand. Similarly, if the employee’s vocabu- lary is limited, the training must account for that limitation. According to OSHA, an employer’s responsibility to provide employees with safety information and training doesn’t go away because an employee can’t understand standard English-language training programs. When that is the case, employers must inform and train these workers in a language they can understand. (OSHA, 2010)

Trainees who are speakers of other languages present another level of consideration to train- ing design, implementation, and potential barrier. Serving this group is an additional compo- nent for those organizations who, as part of their CSR platform, proactively pursue diversity in the workplace.

Another variable to CSR is ensuring the well-being and quality of work life of the employees and the workforce, at large, in the form of work–life balance issues.

10.4 Work–Life Balance For organizations committed to corporate social responsibility, providing work–life bal- ance—designing practices to help employees balance their work lives and personal lives—is imperative both because it is ethical and because it has been shown to favorably affect the organization’s performance (Gond, Igalens, Swaen, & Akremi, 2011; Kelly, 2011). According to a study Deloitte and Touche conducted, 91% of employed adults agree that employees who have a good work–life balance are more likely to behave ethically on the job. Likewise, 60% of those surveyed believe job dissatisfaction is a significant reason for people to make unethical decisions at work (Deloitte & Touche, 2007).

Further, according to Sharon L. Allen, chair of the board at Deloitte & Touche:

Work–life balance is not only key to job satisfaction and retaining the most val- ued employees, but it is also critical in fostering an ethical workplace culture. The knowledge that work/life benefits result in more ethical behavior in this

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post-Enron and WorldCom business environment could be a huge driver for companies to create such programs. (as cited by Worthington, 2007)

A recent 2014 work–life balance study put out by the Organization for Economic Coopera- tion and Development had the United States ranked 26th out of 36 countries in percentage of workers working more than 50 hours per week (11%) and 33rd out of 36 in number of leisure hours per week.

Food for Thought: Work–Life Balance

Nigel Marsh, author of Fit, Fifty and Fired Up, speaks on work–life balance: http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=jdpIKXLLYYM.

Consider This 1. What were Marsh’s symptoms of this workaholism? 2. What were some of the challenges that Marsh found in curbing his workaholism? 3. What is the significance of Marsh’s story about the day he spent with his son?

Table 10.3 presents typical components of work–life balance practices; practices vary among organizations, but usually share at least one of these components, according to Catalyst.

Table 10.3: Typical components of work–life balance practices

Work-life balance practice Definition

Flextime Employees choose start and end times, but typically must work during “core” periods (e.g., 10 a.m. to 3 p.m.).

Flexible week A “compressed workweek” lets employees work longer hours over fewer days or fewer hours each day over a six- day workweek.

Work at home, flex place, or telecommuting Employees do some or all of their work off-site at home or at satellite offices located central to where clusters of employees live. Computers and networks connect employ- ees to the office. Insurance protection is needed when establishing a telecommuting arrangement.

Part-time work Employees work a reduced work schedule.

Job sharing Two employees share the workload of one job.

Part-time telecommuting This option combines part-time or reduced hours with an off-site working location.

Source: Catalyst, n.d.

Fuji Xerox takes a broader approach to its work–life balance program. The company views work–life balance as successfully combining work and family life, but also promotes employee awareness to transform working styles. The hope is that this transformation will elevate employee morale and enhance organizational productivity. (Figure 10.2 presents an outline

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jdpIKXLLYYM

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of their child care support system.) Since launching the New Work Way management innova- tion initiative in fiscal year 1988, Fuji Xerox has provided a working environment that lets employees combine work and family life. The company introduced a childcare leave system in fiscal 1988 and a family nursing care system in fiscal 1990. This progressive approach to work–life balance in the workplace has created a culture that supports continuing to work by taking advantage of these systems. The average length of employment at Fuji Xerox in fiscal 2011 was 19.6 years for men and 15.3 years for women.

Figure 10.2: Fuji Xerox child care support systems

Fuji Xerox has a detailed child care support system that spans and considers the employee’s work–life milestones from the pregnancy to the end of the 6th year of elementary school.

f10.02_BUS375.ai

Pregnancy Childbirth One year

old Four years

old Start of school

End of third year of

elementary school

End of sixth year of

elementary school

Maternity leave before childbirth (six weeks)

Shortened work hours • Up to two hours • During pregnancy and until the end of the child’s third year of elementary

school

Limits on late night and overtime working, until the end of the child’s sixth year of elementary school (no overtime in principle, until the end of the child’s sixth year of elementary school.

24-hour toll-free hotline providing information on childcare, child health, pregnancy, childbirth, and medical institutions available at night and during holidays.

Flex-time

Accrued paid leave can be used for nursing care for family members or for volunteer activities (up to 60 days of paid leave that has lapsed can be accumulated.)

Re-employment system for former employees who left the company due to childbirth, childcare or transfer or spouses.

Leave for child nursing care

Maternity leave after childbirth (eight weeks)

House- work assistance subsidy

Hours spent for pregnancy check-ups / The employee is deemed to be working (up to seven times)

Childcare leave / Until the child reaches one year old / Can be extended up to six months

Distribution of monthly publication, Baby and Mother

Source: Adapted from Fuji Xerox. (2013.) Initiatives for work–life balance. Retrieved from http://www.fujixerox.com/eng/company/sr/2013/stakeholder/employee/ balance.html

http://www.fujixerox.com/eng/company/sr/2013/stakeholder/employee/balance.html

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Workaholism—Performance, but at What Cost?

A factor that directly affects work–life balance is workaholism, the dysfunctional choice an employee makes to focus exclusively on work, neglecting other areas of life; the result is a poor work–life balance (Christensen & Schneider, 2010). While having a strong work ethic is distinct from being a workaholic, organizations that have a well-defined CSR plan measure employee productivity and examine the social costs of that activity (Frederick, 1998; Gond et al., 2011).

Workaholism is a high risk in the United States, where Americans have the highest average productivity compared to workers in other countries (U.S. Department of Labor, 2014b). (Pro- ductivity is a figure derived by dividing the country’s gross domestic product by the number of people employed.) Workaholism can have dire consequences, as seen recently in Japan where a spate of deaths has occurred resulting from overwork—what the Japanese call “karo- shi.” Japan is at the top of the list for employees who used the least amount of their vacation days, with only 33%; the United States ranked fifth (Goldman, 2011).

In fact, in March 2014 the Japanese government introduced a bill stating that both companies and local governments have a responsibility to ensure that workers are not being so over- worked they will die from it.

Food for Thought: Workaholic Behavior: Not Limited to the Working and Middle Classes

Professional of management at Cornell University Robert H. Frank recounts his experiences with wealthy workaholics:

Last week I had dinner with a billionaire in California. During the two hours I was at his house, he took six cellphone calls, sent 18 emails, and thought up two new business ideas.… At the end of dinner he took his last sip of wine and said, “It’s so nice to be able to have a relaxing dinner at home.” I laughed. He didn’t get the joke. In short, the “leisure class” has given way to what I call the “workaholic rich.” Even when they’re sitting by the pool at their beach homes in Palm Beach and the Hamptons, they’re tapping away at their laptops and screaming into their cellphones.… But this new generation of workaholic wealthy has dramatically changed the classic equation between money and leisure time. As my billionaire friend said after our dinner: “I’m the most relaxed when I’m working.” (Frank, 2007)

Source: Williams, R. B. (2011). How workaholism may be the price we pay for productivity. Retrieved from Psychology Today website: http://www. psychologytoday.com/blog/wired-success/201104/how-workaholism-may-be-the-price-we-pay-productivit y

Consider This 1. Can a case be made that so-called “successful” people are more apt to be workaholics? 2. Frank’s friend said that he is most relaxed when he is working. Why would he still be

considered a workaholic?

http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/wired-success/201104/how-workaholism-may-be-the-price-we-pay-productivity

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According to work–life balance expert Jeff Davidson (2014) of Work-LifeBalance.com, people must manage six keys to work–life balance:

1. Self-Management. Sufficiently managing our lives means more than getting proper sleep, eating right, and exercising. When we effectively self-manage our lives, we rec- ognize that our resources, time, and lives are finite.

2. Time Management. Effectively managing our time means making the best use of our time and any resources we can summon. We keep pace by matching our challenges with our resources. We set appropriate goals and discern what is both important and urgent, versus either important or urgent. Know what you do best and when, and gather the right tools to perform the work.

3. Stress Management. Societies tend to become more complex over time. Our increas- ingly complex lives mean individual stress is inevitable. We need to figure out how to be tranquil and handle stressful situations; doing so is especially challenging when we deal with more people, distractions, and noise. Multi-tasking tends to increase our stress, rather than help us to focus on one thing at a time.

4. Change Management. In our fast-paced world, change is a constant. We must con- stantly adopt new approaches or adapt existing ones to enjoy a successful career and a happy home life. When we effectively manage change, we ensure that the volume and rate of change at work and at home does not overwhelm or defeat us.

5. Technology Management. We want technology to serve us, not abuse us. Our world has had technology since man’s first tools. Change now happens faster and faster, with vendors expanding their market share. Even when we are forced to keep up, we must rule technology, and avoid it ruling us.

6. Leisure Management. We often overlook the work–life balance area of leisure manage- ment, which acknowledges how important rest and relaxation can be. Down time is a vital to our health and well-being.

As a pracical matter, training programs, too, should complement work–life balance programs and ensure that employees ultimately are working smarter, not necessarily harder. For exam- ple, trainers must manage the attendant stress and anxiety that comes with changing to a new training program with its new procedures. As discussed in Chapter 2, the slide down the zone of proximal development during a learning curve should be efficient enough to ensure that the training time period is reasonable and finite so the trainee can still attend her son’s soccer game that weekend.

“I haven’t taken a vacation in over 2 years,” I once heard a colleague say. Indeed, the line between working hard and working too hard sometimes is not a clear one. As part of CSR, an organization must monitor its workforce to ensure that effective employee performance is not coming with the long-term costs of burnout, compromised lesiure time, and strife to the employee’s family. In the final analyis, organizations must just be empathic enough to act on situations like my workaholic colleague; that is, just because an employee can work 60 hours a week, should he?

Critical HRD and Lessons Learned From the Social History of Training Chapter 10

10.5 Critical HRD and Lessons Learned From the Social History of Training The social history of training and its implications was first addressed by Kopp and Desiderio in their seminal 2009 article, “Training’s Woeful Countenance,” which addressed how many salespeople, as late as the 1930s, were trained in the so-called folk science of physiognomy— the notion that a person’s outer appearance, especially the face, could provide insight into his or her true character or personality. For example, the following excerpt from automaker Henry Ford’s 1923 training manual contained instructions on how to vary selling techniques with prospective buyers by evaluating the size and shape of the customer’s—forehead:

We find the high headed man comparatively idealistic and should be appealed to with that thought in mind. The low-headed prospect is to be approached with a sense of the physical, through seeing the car, and through a grosser appeal. (as cited in Tedlow, 1996, p. 157)

As incredible as it may sound today, salespeople were taught to focus on the customer’s facial features, including hair and chin. People with large, clear blue eyes were said to be open, and people with small, sparkling black eyes were thought to be cunning. Additionally, “the pointed chin signifies acuteness or craft. The soft, fat double chin marks the epicure; the round chin with a dimple speaks to benevolence” (Goddard, 1889, p. 109). These physiognomic sales training manuals were prominent in the early 20th century. The Library of Congress listed more than 350 titles under the subject heading “salesmanship manuals” in 1925!

Sales training manuals that relied on physiognomy for their training techniques were, at best—by today’s standards—politically incorrect and, at worst, blatantly bigoted, exploiting historical stereotypes. Dubious training practices continued, including the vocational train- ing methods of slave labor in the Third Reich and the apprenticeship programs targeted to the negro worker (Kopp & Desidero, 2009). Even the terrorist group Al Qaeda’s training is memorialized through their official training manual with advice regarding training venue, the trainers, and the trainees, including its seemingly innocent training recommendations of “proper utilization of individuals’ unused capabilities … and small ratio of trainees to trainers and a small size that should be together during the training (7–10 individuals)” (as cited in U.S. Department of Justice, n.d.)

Such reflections fall under the critical perspective to HRD (Fenwick, 2004; Stewart, Rigg, & Trehan, 2007); specifically, critical HRD includes contemplations such as:

• the consequences of training and development to society, organizations, and individuals;

• the moral base and ethical dilemmas raised by HRD practice; • considering power differences and repressive practices; and, • the overall social responsibility of training and development practice

Part of critical HRD, and aligned with the principles of social responsibility, sustainability, and ethics, is the practice of reflecting on training practices, as memorialized by training manu- als (Kopp, 2007; Kopp & Desiderio, 2009), and specifically, the axiology of training; that is, whether training is value neutral. Clearly, while training itself may be value neutral, training programs have historically been the means to sustain stereotypes, racism, anti-Semitism, and

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prejudice, in general. Whether as part of sexist ephemera (for example, airline hostess train- ing) or fanatical cultural movements (for example, the Hitler Youth training manual) train- ing—especially vocational training has borne witness to and/or aided and abetted human events, in both triumph and in disgrace. Training materials are important, too, because they become artifacts of the organization and society at-large. What might future trainers think of the Hooters™ training material 70 years from now?

It is generally believed that the field of training and development only advances through criti- cal reflection. It’s important to question training’s role within a broader context, including social justice. While training and developing employees, we must ensure that both training outcomes and interventions are ethical.

Summary and Resources Chapter Summary

• We view HRD as a three-legged stool of psychological theory, economic theory, and systems theory, and then focus on ethics. Specific ethical issues within HRD include the pressure to produce positive return-on-training investment results and the emerging trend of corporate social responsibility. Studies have shown that organiza- tions with advanced CSR philosophies perform better and regularly are ranked as some of the best organizations.

• Organizations must act on corporate social responsibility and ethical HRD every day. They must fulfill their legal duty to train (the minimal requirement), and give employ- ees equal access to career-advancing training and technology, avoiding the so-called glass ceiling.

• Critical perspectives of HRD reflect on the consequences of training and development to society, organizations, and individuals; the moral base and ethical dilemmas raised by HRD practice; power differences and repressive practice; and the overall social responsibility of training and development practice.

• Organizations committed to corporate social responsibility are dedicated to help- ing employees achieve work–life balance—those practices designed to improve the balance between the demands of an employee’s work and personal life. Not only is this practice ethical, it has also been shown to favorably affect the organization’s performance.

• One common theme is that the field of training and development only advances through critical reflection, which includes questioning training’s role within a broader context, including issues of social justice. While training and developing employees, we must ensure that both training outcomes and interventions are ethical.

Posttest 1. Acting against one’s own self-interests in order to benefit others is part of which ethi-

cal framework? a. ethical egoism b. utilitarianism c. altruism d. pragmatism

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2. The most recent additions to the ethical guidelines for human resource development focus on . a. respecting intellectual property and copyrighted sources b. benefiting the greatest number of people by maximizing social benefits while

minimizing costs c. applying human resource development recommendations on a global scale d. avoiding the temptation to produce false positive return on investment results

3. What is the relationship between employee relations and corporate social responsi- bility (CSR)? a. Employee relations is one of the biggest factors that make up CSR. b. CSR is to large companies what employee relations is to small businesses. c. A company’s corporate citizenship ranking is based on a combination of its

employee relations and CSR ratings. d. Employee relations is at one end of an ethical spectrum, with CSR at the other end.

4. Which of the following best describes the human resource development role in corpo- rate social responsibility? a. aligning social responsibility strategies with the organization’s overall goals b. developing guidelines for reporting on the social impact of a business c. evaluating how work practices affect employees’ health and well-being d. sharing information about CSR with an organization’s employees

5. What is NOT required or strongly recommended by federal legislation? a. employee development b. accommodations for trainees with disabilities c. ethics trainings d. training sessions about sexual harassment

6. Which of the following is reported by employees to be most beneficial to their career development? a. formal training programs b. high-profile leadership assignments c. employee-sponsored affinity groups and networks d. federal nondiscrimination regulations and other workplace-related legislation

7. In addition to increasing employee satisfaction and retention, providing work–life bal- ance is important because it . a. is monitored and regulated by federal legislation b. is positively correlated with employees’ ethical behavior c. supports change management within an organization d. contributes to quasi-equilibrium, according to force-field analysis

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8. Which of the following is true about workaholism? a. It is an exaggerated concept that detracts attention from the seriousness of real

work–life balance issues. b. It is more of a problem in Japan, where employees have died from it, than in the

United States. c. It is on the decrease worldwide, with fewer employees overworking today than in

years past. d. It is a real danger in the United States, where workers have the highest productiv-

ity of any country. 9. The practice of involves considering the consequences of training for

individuals and society, including ethical dilemmas and issues of power differences. a. critical human resource development b. work–life balance c. reflective ethical training d. do no harm

10. The assessment of whether a training is value neutral or contains some bias is known as . a. physiognomy b. the critical perspective c. the axiology of training d. ethical egoism

Assess Your Learning: Critical Reflection 1. Are training and development value neutral? Explain your answer. 2. How is an organization’s goal of maximizing profits an ethical stance? 3. Beyond the legal requirements of training, such as required by OSHA, does an organi-

zation have a social responsibility to develop its employees? 4. Are there some careers where a work–life balance is not possible? 5. Explain how an organization might be complicit to an employee’s workaholism.

Additional Resources Web Resources

Social development through HRD: http://www.uf hrd.co.uk/wordpress/wp-content/ uploads/2008/06/37-1_mclean_kuo_budhwani_yamnill.pdf

India’s National HRD Network: https://www.nationalhrd.org/about-nhrdn/overview

The 100 Best Corporate Citizens 2013 list from Corporate Responsibility Magazine: http://www.thecro.com/files/100Best2013_web.pdf

For detailed news about the latest initiatives in corporate social responsibility: www.csrwire.com

JetBlue CSR blog: http://blog.jetblue.com/index.php/2012/10/11/a-day-in-the-life- corporate-social-responsibility

http://www.ufhrd.co.uk/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/37-1_mclean_kuo_budhwani_yamnill.pdf

https://www.nationalhrd.org/about-nhrdn/overview

http://www.thecro.com/files/100Best2013_web.pdf

http://www.csrwire.com

http://blog.jetblue.com/index.php/2012/10/11/a-day-in-the-life-corporate-social-responsibility/

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About countries with the most workaholics: http://www.businessinsider.com/ countries-with-the-most-workaholics-2011-2?op=1#ixzz2yoldEnvi

A “worked-to-death” bill introduced by the Japanese government: http://digitaljournal. com/life/health/japan-ruling-party-proposes-worked-to-death-bill/article/377911

For keys to work–life balance: http://work-lifebalance.com