BGMT/HR
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resources. Third, managers must provide useful feedback indicating whether employees
are exceeding, meeting, or failing to meet expectations. The feedback must also guide
employees toward better performance. Fourth, managers must set appropriate
consequences, which means rewarding effective performance and, if necessary, punishing
ineffective performance. The fifth and sixth factors, individual capacity and required
knowledge and skill, are the only two factors that HR professionals have much control
over. Ineffective performance on the part of any one employee, then, may be largely a
function of a manager’s failure to ensure that one or more of these factors are in place.
HR professionals can influence employees’ job performance by working with managers to
ensure that employees have the individual capacity (generally through recruitment and
selection) and the required knowledge and skill (generally through training and
development) to do the job. So the HR function does play an important role, but even in
this role, there must be a partnership. If what HR professionals offer as training seems
worthless to managers, then they will tell their employees to disregard training and
instead do their work as it should “really be done.”
SYSTEMATIC PROCESS
The second fundamental practice used to ensure learning and transfer is to develop
training systematically. There are many possible ways to develop training, but almost all
have three fundamental components:
1. Needs assessment to determine who should be trained and what the training should
include.
2. Design and delivery to ensure that training maximizes learning and transfer.
3. Evaluation to determine how training can be improved, whether it worked as
intended, and whether it should be continued.
Two different forms of this three-component process are diagrammed in Figure 9.2. Part
a depicts a circular process. This is the traditional model of instructional design,
and it suggests beginning with a needs assessment that is followed by design and delivery
and then by evaluation. Of course, the process is never complete because training needs
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are always changing, so after evaluation there will eventually be another needs
assessment.
Traditional model of instructional design
A process used to create training programs in which needs assessment is followed by
design and delivery and then by evaluation.
Figure 9.2: Two Approaches to Designing Training Programs.
Part b of the figure shows the rapid model of instructional design. Organizations
may use this version of the process when they need to speed up the time from identified
need to delivery of training. In the rapid model,
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1.
2.
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training design begins while the needs assessment continues, as indicated by the overlap
in the bars. Just as important, training begins before the program design is completely
finished, and evaluation is used to modify the training as it is developed.
Rapid model of instructional design
A process used to create training programs in which assessment, design and delivery, and
evaluation overlap in time.
Whether the traditional or rapid model is appropriate depends on the nature of the
training being designed. Training that must be right the first time—either because there is
only one opportunity to train particular employees or because the cost of employees doing
the wrong thing is too high—should not use the rapid model. For example, training for
employees who operate expensive and dangerous equipment (airplanes, cranes,
bulldozers, and tanks, for example) should not be delivered to trainees unless it has been
examined in great detail for accuracy and safety. Product training for retail sales
employees, in contrast, could be delivered before it was perfected, and this would ensure
that employees had at least some knowledge of new products as they arrived.
CONCEPT CHECK
What is transfer of training?
What are the two different systematic approaches to designing training programs?
How are they similar, and how are they different?
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LEARNING OBJECTIVE 3: How Are Training Needs Determined?
How does an organization determine what training to offer and who should be trained?
This process is called needs assessment, and it occurs in two different ways. First,
needs assessments may be done on a regular basis as training programs are planned and
budgets are set. This planning process requires a proactive approach to determining
training needs and developing training plans. Second, needs assessments may also be
done in a reactive fashion in response to requests for particular training programs. The
reactive and proactive approaches are described in more detail below.
Needs assessment
A process for determining what training to offer and who should be trained.
PROACTIVE NEEDS ASSESSMENT
Proactive needs assessment is a systematic process for determining and prioritizing
the training programs to be developed and delivered by an organization. It generally has
three distinct steps—organization analysis, task analysis, and person analysis. Each step
requires different types of data.
Proactive needs assessment
A systematic process for determining and prioritizing the training programs to be
developed and delivered by an organization.
Organization Analysis
Organization analysis requires information about the organization’s strategic goals,
environment, resources, and characteristics. With this information, an organization can
determine whether certain types of training would be useful for employees and for the
organization as a whole. As noted earlier,
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the organization’s strategy is relevant to decisions about training because different
strategies require different knowledge, skills, and attitudes on the part of employees.
Organizations that seek to differentiate themselves from their competitors with excellent
service, for example, are more likely to benefit from service-related training courses than
organizations with a cost-reduction strategy. The organization’s labor orientation helps to
determine whether training will be seen as an appropriate way to build employee
knowledge and skill.
Organization analysis
A process used to identify characteristics of the organizational environment that will
influence the effectiveness of training.
Organization analysis also requires an understanding of the environment within which the
organization functions. Many facets of the environment, including the technical and legal
environments, influence the type of training that an organization should offer. The
technical environment includes the current and future technologies that employees will
use to perform their work. For example, if an organization is planning to upgrade its
computer systems, it will need to plan for training to assist in the transition and will also
need to change its existing training to be consistent with the new systems.
The legal environment includes both legislative and regulatory mandates. HR
professionals should know how training can assist in compliance and reduce the risk of
legal problems. As an example, U.S. courts have determined that the degree of an
organization’s liability for discrimination depends on whether managers were trained in
nondiscriminatory hiring practices. Consequently, managerial training covering laws
related to discrimination is useful for organizations covered by employment laws like the
Civil Rights Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act, discussed in Chapter 3.
Organization analysis should determine which laws are applicable.
Organization analysis also measures characteristics of the work environment, such as how
much the organization supports its employees in attending training and using what they
learned in training back on the job. Such support may take the form of policies, reward
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systems, management attitudes and actions, and peer support. Organizations that support
training are considered to have a positive training climate. Thus, they are more likely to
have employees who use learned skills back on the job, because employees are much more
likely to succeed in transfer if they perceive that their organization has a supportive
climate. If trainees will be returning to a work environment that is not supportive, they
should be prepared in training with strategies that will help them overcome the lack of
support. Alternatively, it may be necessary to change the climate before investing in the
training. Of course, this is easier said than done, because changing climate is a difficult
process that unfolds over time only with the commitment of top management.
Training climate
Environmental factors that support training, including policies, rewards, and the
attitudes and actions of management and coworkers.
It is important to note that organization analysis need not be repeated every time a
proactive needs assessment is conducted, but it should be repeated if the organization or
its environment changes. Changes in competitors’ practices, in internal management
structure, and in labor laws can alter training needs, as can mergers, acquisitions, and
alliances. HR professionals should constantly monitor the environment for such changes
and conduct a formal organization analysis when changes are noted.
Task Analysis
Task analysis is a form of job analysis that involves identifying the work activities
performed by trainees and the knowledge and skill necessary to perform the tasks
effectively (see Chapter 4). The methods used in task analysis vary
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depending on the task being analyzed. The most common process used when the task
analysis is being done to help design training is the following:
1. Groups of job incumbents develop lists of the tasks performed.
2. HR professionals group tasks into clusters based on similarity.
3. Groups of managers generate knowledge and skill statements for each task cluster.
4. Surveys, given to a new sample of incumbents, verify the task, task cluster,
knowledge, and skill lists.
Task analysis
A process used to describe the work activities of employees, including the knowledge and
skill required to complete those activities.
To avoid bias in the data collection, it is generally suggested that multiple groups and
multiple incumbents be involved. Of course, in smaller organizations or for jobs that
don’t exist yet, it may be impossible to get information from people already doing the job.
In this case, a few of the individuals who will be responsible for the work to be done can
participate. Whoever is involved, it is important to use more than one person in order to
get high-quality data; any one individual may not have a complete or accurate perspective
on the tasks.
There are three common variations of task analysis: competency modeling, cognitive task
analysis, and team task analysis.
1. Competency modeling is similar to task analysis but results in a broader, more
worker-focused (as opposed to work-focused) list of training needs. The process was
described in Chapter 4. Competency modeling is most frequently used with
managerial jobs. One benefit of using a competency model for needs assessment is
lower cost, because this type of analysis does not involve determining specific
competencies for a particular job. A related drawback is that the result of competency
modeling may not have sufficient detail to guide training for any one particular job.
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2. Cognitive task analysis examines the goals, decisions, and judgments that employees
make on the job. While traditional task analysis focuses on observable tasks and
behaviors, cognitive task analysis delves into the thought processes that underlie
effective performance of a task. Experts are asked to think out loud while they
perform each step of the task. Later, the transcripts of their words are analyzed to
identify the knowledge and skills that were necessary at each step.
3. Team task analysis involves examining the task and coordination requirements of a
group of individuals working together toward a common goal. It is important to use
team task analysis in situations where the performance of interest to the organization
is largely determined by coordinated efforts. Research on nuclear power plant
operations, for example, indicates that operating teams must exchange information
and share key tasks in order to perform effectively. Team task analysis will identify
the knowledge and skills that underlie these exchanges. Then, training will focus on
knowledge and skills identified in the team task analysis as well as the required
technical skills.
Person Analysis
Person analysis involves answering three questions:
1. Is training necessary to ensure that employees can perform tasks effectively?
2. If training is needed, who needs the training?
3. Are potential trainees ready for training?
Person analysis
A process used to identify who needs training and what characteristics of those
individuals will influence the effectiveness of training.
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First, person analysis should determine whether training is necessary by determining
whether employees’ knowledge and skill are relevant to improving their performance. If
employees lack knowledge and skill required for performance, then training is
appropriate. There are, however, many other reasons why employees may not perform
effectively, including unclear expectations, lack of necessary support in the form of
resources and equipment, lack of feedback about performance, inappropriate
consequences, and lack of capacity. You may recall this list from Table 9.2.
Second, if training is needed, it is necessary to determine who needs training. A number of
different methods can be employed to make this determination. Two of the most common
are examining employee records and asking employees whether they think they need
training. Both can be useful, but each suffers from potential bias. Employee records may
not be sufficiently detailed or may gloss over skill deficiencies because of legal concerns
over keeping records of poor performance. As to self-assessments of training needs,
employees generally overestimate their skills and thus underestimate the need for
training. Another commonly used method is to rely on supervisors to identify those who
need or would benefit from training. Because no one method is perfect, multiple methods
should be used when possible.
Third, HR professionals must determine if those who need to be trained are ready for
training. To do this, they should examine the general mental abilities, basic skills,
motivation, and self-efficacy of the potential trainees. Research suggests that individuals
with higher levels of general mental ability, necessary basic skills, motivation to learn, and
self-efficacy are more likely to benefit from training. That does not mean that training
should be offered only to those who fit this profile. Training will, however, be more
successful if it is adjusted for particular groups of trainees, as outlined in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3: Personal Characteristics Relevant to Training Effectiveness and Implications for Design
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Personal Characteristic Definition Suggestions for Training Design
General Mental Ability
Overall ability to process information and learn
Trainees with lower general mental ability generally require more time to learn and more structure and guidance in the training environment.
Basic Skills Ability to perform fundamental tasks like reading, writing, and math
Trainees without basic skills required for a particular training program may need extra assistance during training or remediation prior to training.
Motivation to Learn
Interest in and desire to learn the material in training
Trainees with lower motivation may need to be convinced of the importance of training, either within the training environment or outside the training environment by their managers.
Self-efficacy Confidence that the skills can be learned and applied on the job
Trainees with lower self-efficacy may need extra practice opportunities and may need to have training framed in a more positive and supportive way.
As one example, consider an outsourced call center where employees in another country
answer phone calls from the United States. The center might develop two different
training programs for employees with different levels of English-language skills.
Employees with lower English-language skills may need a course that covers basic
terminology and English phone etiquette before being trained on company-specific phone
procedures. Assessing the basic
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language skills of employees will be necessary to determine whether language skill
differences exist and to help assign employees to the proper training.
REACTIVE NEEDS ASSESSMENT
The analyses we have discussed are useful for proactively determining how an
organization should allocate training resources. An alternative model deals with situations
that involve a specific performance problem, such as low sales or high turnover. This
model, reactive needs assessment, is a problem-solving process that begins with
defining the problem and then moves to identifying the root cause of the problem and
designing an intervention to solve it. Some organizations, like Rockwell Collins, have
implemented this problem-solving process by requiring managers who request training to
fill out a form. A modified version of the form used at Rockwell Collins is presented in
Table 9.4. The questions on this form are designed to help managers think through
whether the training requested is relevant to the company’s strategy and related goals and
whether training is the most efficient solution to the problem.
Reactive needs assessment
A problem-solving process used to determine whether training is necessary to fix a
specific performance problem and, if training is necessary, what training should be
delivered.
Table 9.4: Reactive Needs Assessment via Training Request Form
Your Name: _______________________
Source: Information from Cliff Purington and Chris Butler with Sarah Fister Gale, Built to Learn: The Inside Story of How Rockwell Collins Became a True Learning Organization (New York: AMACOM, 2003).
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Your Position: _______________________
Your Department: _______________________
Your Business Unit: _______________________
Best Way to Reach You: _______________________
Training Requested: _______________________
1. What business goals/objectives will this training support? 2. How does it support these goals/objectives? 3. What will the participants know or do differently (that they don’t know or
can’t do now) after training is complete? 4. How critical is this change in knowledge or skill for improving employees’
job performance? for your department or business unit’s performance? 5. Can you envision benefits to this training beyond an improvement in
participants’ job performance? Consider, for example, improved teamwork among your employees or retention of high-performing employees.
6. Do any of your current employees have the desired knowledge/skill? If so, please provide information on who these employees are and how they acquired the desired knowledge/skill.
7. Can alternatives to a training course be used to ensure employees get the desired knowledge/skill? Consider, for example, new policies, a performance support tool like a job aid, coaching, or work redesign.
8. Is your department willing to incur the full cost of the training if no other departments are able to be involved?
9. Do you have any preferences for who should deliver this training? If you have an outside vendor in mind, please provide contact information and estimated cost information here.
10. Who needs the desired knowledge/skill? Please describe who they are (positions) and how many. Then answer the following questions about the projected participants:
a. Approximately what percentage of their working time will be spent on tasks that require this knowledge/skill over the next 12 months?
b. How soon after training will they make use of the knowledge/skill gained?
Source: Information from Cliff Purington and Chris Butler with Sarah Fister Gale, Built to Learn: The Inside Story of How Rockwell Collins Became a True Learning Organization (New York: AMACOM, 2003).
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c. In your opinion, are they interested and willing to learn the new knowledge/skill?
11. What is your timeline? When would the training need to start and end?
Source: Information from Cliff Purington and Chris Butler with Sarah Fister Gale, Built to Learn: The Inside Story of How Rockwell Collins Became a True Learning Organization (New York: AMACOM, 2003).
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