Statistics Report

Sample and Population

In statistics the term population is defined as whole part or group of phenomena that has something in common - the entire collection of individuals. While sample is a subset or portion of that population that containing the individuals or elements that are observed. For example, in the scenario of the author’s dissertation he defined the population as the 2053 students of the University in South Florida and as a sample 307 students that are enrolled in algebra class.

Variables

The two main variables in an experiment are the independent and dependent variable. An independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment to test the effects on the dependent variable. A dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in a scientific experiment

Hypothesis

The null and alternative hypotheses are two mutually exclusive statements about a population. A hypothesis test uses sample data to determine whether to reject the null hypothesis.

Null hypothesis (H0)

The null hypothesis states that a population parameter (such as the mean, the standard deviation, and so on) is equal to a hypothesized value. The null hypothesis is often an initial claim that is based on previous analyses or specialized knowledge.

Alternative Hypothesis (H1)

The alternative hypothesis states that a population parameter is smaller, greater, or different than the hypothesized value in the null hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis is what you might believe to be true or hope to prove true.

Bias in Research (Ex: Confounding Bias)

Bias in content of research is a proper research that must be double blinded not only for the participants; the control or experimental group should not be aware if they are receiving the placebo or the experimental variable. Bias can be the result of improper conducted experiment where the data does not reflect properly the true.

Levels of Measurement

There are four levels of measurement in statistics:

Nominal is the lower level that could be exclusive or exhaustive, is referring to a quality or attribute that is only named examples of the will be: gender, ethnicity, marital status, and medical diagnosis.

Ordinal is attribute that can be ordered, and the distance is meaningless, can also be categories, and rank. Examples of ordinals variables are: acute pain, military rank, level of preferences, and categories of the professor.

Interval the distances is meaningful, there is no absolute zero, examples of interval are: Fahrenheit scale and centigrade scale.

Ratio is the highest form of measurement, which has an absolute zero point, where zero the property is absent, examples of ratio are: blood pressure, pulse, respiration, weight, body mass index (MBI), and laboratory values.

Sampling Procedure

In this study, Alsup (2005) selected the research’s sample from the population of math’s students during the Fall Semester of 2001. The selected students were enrolled in mathematics courses in a small university of the Midwest (Alsup, 2005). The sample for the study was selected randomly; the researcher divided the participant in three groups: 27 students received Math Concept I content, 17 participant received Math Concept II, and 17 students Math Concept I represented I represent the control group (Alsup, 2005). The article does not reflect if a probability sample method was used. All the selected participants completed a 25-item scale survey that measure their level of anxiety; the abbreviation Version of the Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale (AMARS) was established by Alexander and Martray in 1989 (Alsup, 2005). The author also measures the teaching efficacy through the Mathematics Teaching Efficacy Believe Instrument (MTEBI) (Alsup, 2005).

Data Analysis

The statistical method used by the researcher was analysis of the covariance (ANOVA); ANOVA used the pretest and posttest to compare the experimental and the control group (Alsup, 2005). The teaching method was varied between the experimental and the control group; for the group under experimentation a different type of pedagogy method was used (Alsup, 2005). The instructor acted as a facilitator, while the students discussed, analyzed, and proposed solutions to the math problems. The control group was exposed to a teacher-center on a traditional lecture environment. At the end of the trial, the student’s level of anxiety [dependent variable (DV)] was determined and compared between the control and the experimental group (Alsup, 2005). The level of measurement for the DV was interval. The article includes tables that clearly display the study’s results.

Findings

The researcher found that the students exposed to the constructivist approach method of learning showed a decreased level of math anxiety, as well as an increase in the level of teaching efficacy compared with the control group (Alsup, 2005). The author openly explained the findings reflected on the tables. The study’s results correspond with the author’s expectation; Alsup (2005) described the relationship between the instructional method and the results: The students felt more confident with their ability to handle math and the instructor perceived a great degree of student’s engagement. However, Math Concept II students did not show significant difference when compared with the control group. The author attributes these results to the fact that Math Concept II group was smaller, and the students of this cohort know each other (Alsup, 2005). The outcomes of this research are significantly relevant for educators to consider the implementation of the constructivist approach on the learning setting. Based on the results of Alsup’s research the students feel less math anxiety and display teaching self-efficacy when the learning environment is student-centered. The study was led in an unbiased manner and objectively showed noteworthy results.

Protection of Human Rights

· Review the Office of Human Research Protections (OHRP) Web site. OHRP provides leadership and oversight on all matters related to the protection of human subjects participating in research conducted or supported by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. OHRP helps ensure that such research is carried out with the highest ethical standards and in an environment where all who are involved in the conduct of oversight of human subject’s research understand their primary responsibility for protecting the rights, welfare, and well-being of subjects.

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· Consult with your IRB. When your protocol is ready and you think you have done a thorough and thoughtful job of addressing the Protection of Human Subjects issues, you may want to meet informally with your Institutional Review Board (IRB) chair or administrator. Ask what the IRB has been concerned about lately. Ask for a “quick read” of the Human Subjects Protection section of your protocol. Listen more than you speak. Rework the pertinent sections as necessary!

Prospective Budget

Health research improves the quality of human lives and society which plays a vital role in social and economic development of the nation. Financial support is crucial for research. However, winning a research grant is a difficult task. A successful grant-winning application requires two key elements: one is an innovative research problem with best probable idea/plan for tackling it and appropriate planning of budget. The aim of the present paper is to give an insight on funding agencies providing funding for health research including traditional Indian medicine (from an Indian perspective) and key points for planning and writing budget section of a grant application.

References