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F O U R T H E D I T I O N

THE PSYCHOLOGY MAJOR CAREER OPTIONS AND STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS

R. Eric Landrum Boise State University

Stephen F. Davis Morningside College

Prentice Hall Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River

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The Psychology Major: Career Options and Strategies for Success, Fourth Edition, by R. Eric Landrum and Stephen F. Davis. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka

joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka 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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Landrum, R. Eric.

The psychology major : career options and strategies for success / R. Eric Landrum, Stephen F. Davis. — 4th ed.

p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978–0–205–68468–7 ISBN-10: 0–205–68468–8

1. Psychology—Vocational guidance. I. Davis, Stephen F. II. Title.

BF76.L36 2009 150.23’73––dc22 2009002678

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN-13: 978-0-205-68468-7

ISBN-10: 0-205-68468-8

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CONTENTS

Preface to the Fourth Edition v

Chapter 1 Why College? 1 Who Goes to College 1 � Public Expectations Concerning College 1 Student Expectations about Going to College 2 � Desirable Skills and Abilities 3 The Covert Curriculum 4 � The Civic, Liberal Arts Value of a College Education 6 The Financial Value of a College Education 7 � Oh, You Don’t Have to Go to College . . . 8

Exercise #1: Should I Stay in College? 9

Chapter 2 Why Psychology? 11 Thoughts about the Psychology Major 11 � Areas of Specialization within Psychology 12 � Who Majors in Psychology 17 � Desirable Skills and Abilities for the Psychology Major 18 � The Importance of Advising and Mentoring 19 � Why the Psychology Major Is a Good Choice 22

Exercise #2: Psychology Survey 23

Chapter 3 Careers with a Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology 25 The Undergraduate Curriculum 25 � What Employers Want, and What They Pay 26 � Careers with a Bachelor’s Degree 28 � Career Options, Job Descriptions, and the Amazing O*NET 30 � What About the Associate’s Degree? 31 � Becoming a Freshman Again 37

Exercise #3: The O*NET System 39

Chapter 4 Pursuing Bachelor’s-Level Options 45 The Complexity of Finding a Job 45 � Preparing Your Resume, with Samples 47 � Letters of Recommendation, with a Sample 54 � Interview Skills, Questions, and Knockout Factors 58 � What If You Are Not Initially Successful in Your Job Search? 60 � You Got the Job, Now How to Keep It (or Not Lose It) 61

Exercise #4: Job Ads 63

Chapter 5 Career Options with a Master’s Degree or Doctoral Degree 65 Why Graduate Training? 65 � Types of Graduate Training and Graduate Degrees 68 � Sample Job Descriptions, Work Locations of Graduate Degree Recipients 70 � Occupational Opportunities with the Master’s Degree 72 Occupational Opportunities with a Doctoral Degree 74 � What Is a Postdoc? 77

Exercise #5: Reading APA Monitor Ads 80

Chapter 6 The Graduate Admissions Process 83 The Popularity and Competitiveness of Graduate Admissions 83 � Overview: The Application Process 85 � Primary and Secondary Selection Criteria, with Caveats 88 � Grades, Transcripts, and the GRE 90 � Letters of Recommendation, with Faculty Examples 93 � The Personal Statement, with Student Examples 95 � A Student’s Guide to the Curriculum Vita (CV), with Examples 103 � Research Experience, and Match and Fit with Your Program of Interest 110 � Strategies to Consider If You Do Not Get In 111

Exercise #6: Letter of Recommendation Request Worksheet 113

Chapter 7 Research and Teaching Assistantships 115 What Is a Research Assistantship? 115 � Presenting Research at Conferences 118 What Is a Senior Thesis? 121 � Becoming a Teaching Assistant 122

Exercise #7: Outside-of-Class Activities Plan 123

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iv Contents

Chapter 8 Getting Involved: Internships and Organizations 125 Field Experiences and Internships 125 � What Interns Do 126 � Other Internship Opportunities 128 � Organizational Involvement 129 � The American Psychological Association 129 � The Association for Psychological Science 130 � Psi Chi 130 � Regional Associations 132

Exercise #8: Time Management 134

Chapter 9 Sharpening Library and Research Skills 135 Generating Research Ideas 135 � The Literature Review 136 � The Special Role of References 137 � Library Research Strategies 137 � Books 137 Journal Articles 139 � The Internet 140 � More Literature Search Strategies 142 � Library Skills Psychology Majors Should Have 143

Exercise #9: PsycINFO Author Search 144

Chapter 10 An APA Format Primer 145 Writing Psychology Papers 146 � The Parts: Introduction, Method, Results, and Discussion 146 � A Brief Note on Plagiarism 152 � Sample Paper 152

Exercise #10: Proofreading APA Format 163

Chapter 11 Doing Well in Psychology Classes: Study Tips 165 General Study Tips 166 � Developing Effective Study Habits 168 � Improving Your Reading 169 � Getting More Out of Lectures 170 � Improving Test- Taking Strategies 170 � Math Anxiety 172 � Behaviors to Avoid 173

Exercise #11: Locations for Studying 175

Chapter 12 Ethical Issues for Psychology Majors 177 The Ethics of Being a Student 177 � The Ethics of Research 180 � The Development and Use of APA Ethical Principles 180 � The Role of Informed Consent and the Institutional Review Board 182

Exercise #12: Ethics Scenarios 189

Chapter 13 Psychology and Other Options: Nurturing Your Career 191 The Psychology Major, Revisited 191 � Diversity in Psychology 195 � Other Related Options 197 � Self-Reflection, Self-Assessment, and Career Development 198 � More Resources 201

Exercise #13: Attitudes and Options 203

References 204

Author and Subject Index 213

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PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

We originally wrote this book because we saw a need for a resource for our stu- dents, a resource that was not available elsewhere (demonstrating, once again, that necessity is the mother of invention). Our goal for this text was and continues to be to provide strategies for success that will allow students to achieve their career goals, whatever they may be. Also, we wanted to provide some fundamental tips and advice that can be useful to all students, but especially useful for psychology majors.

So why did we revise this book again? Thanks to colleagues and students around the country, the book has been modestly successful, and thus there was an opportunity for a fourth edition. With the continuing growth in the popularity of psychology, a chance to update the resources and statistics is always welcome. Also, a revision gives us a chance to continue to add the base of knowledge about these important topics, hopefully making this book more valuable to the students and to our colleagues.

Our basic approach to writing this book was to provide immediately useful and helpful information to students majoring in psychology or thinking about ma- joring in psychology. The approach of this book is applied—to provide students with practical, timely, up-to-date information that helps them. This text standardizes and catalogs much of the practical advice that professors often give to students on a one-to-one basis—this book does not replace that interaction, but it helps to sup- plement it. We provide tips on how to do well in all classes, how to find research ideas, and how to write papers in APA format. Also, the book contains up-to-date career information that faculty might not normally have at their fingertips, including the latest salary figures for a number of psychology-related jobs and occupations. Other benefits include the coverage of ethics for undergraduate students, sections on self-reflection, and an overview of disciplines related to psychology. These fea- tures are important perspectives that may not often be shared with the new or prospective psychology major.

• We continue to update the book thoroughly as new information becomes available. Consider the reference section. The third edition contained 220 ref- erences. For the fourth edition we deleted 28 references, but added 53 new references for a total of 245 references. Of these 53 new references, over 85% are from the year 2005 or later. We try to stay on top of this rapidly changing landscape so that faculty and students don’t have to.

• We significantly enhanced the usefulness of this book for students by in- cluding examples. For instance, we often encourage students to work hard and garner strong letters of recommendation, but do students know what a good letter looks like? We have included sample letters for recommendation for those applying for good jobs as well as those applying for graduate school. We also have included a sample resume and a sample curriculum vita for students. Additionally, we have included a sample personal state- ment so students can see an example of how the principles presented in this book can be put into practice.

This book will be helpful for: (1) any course that requires students to conduct research and write papers in APA format, (2) any course that discusses potential ca- reers and earnings in psychology, and (3) any course that covers the opportunities for psychology majors and the ethical implications for being a psychologist. Specifically, this book makes a good supplemental text for research methods/ experimental psychology courses, any capstone course, introductory courses, careers courses, etc. The unique mix and coverage of topics makes this text useful in a variety of teaching situations.

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, Fourth Edition, by R. Eric Landrum and Stephen F. Davis. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka joka

vi Preface to the Fourth Edition

Projects such as this one do not occur in a vacuum. We would like to thank Jessica Mosher at Prentice Hall for seeing the value and potential in a fourth edition of the book. We would also like to thank Amanda Bacher for all of her hard work. We also want to thank our colleagues who have helped shape the direction of this fourth edition—whether through formal reviews, e-mails, conversations at conferences, etc.—you have greatly helped confirm the value and necessity of such a book. We would like to thank the following reviewers: Douglas Engwall, Central Connecticut State University; Erinn Green, Wilmington College; Katherine Hooper, University of North Florida; Andrea Lassiter, Minnesota State University, Mankato; Greg Loviscky, Penn State ; Mary Anne Taylor, Clemson University; Patti Tolar, University of Houston & UH-Downtown.

Finally, we dedicate this book to our students—past, present, and future—our students are the reason we wrote the book, and it continues to be our honor and priv- ilege to teach and profess in a manner that positively influences others’ lives. Thank you for allowing us to maximize the opportunity.

R.E.L. & S.F.D.

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C H A P T E R 1

Why College

Because you are reading this book, the odds are that you are in an elite group. We wrote this book primarily for two audiences: (a) college students thinking about majoring in psychology; and (b) college students who have already declared psychology as their major. Not only do we present up-to-date information about careers in psychology (both with a bachelor’s degree and with graduate training), but also we provide you with valuable strategies to get the most out of your under- graduate experience and maximize your chances for success in college and beyond.

WHO GOES TO COLLEGE

The demand for a college education continues to grow. In 1970, 52.3% of adults (aged 25 and over) had obtained a high school diploma (or more—some started college but did not finish), and 10.7% had obtained a bachelor’s degree or more. By 2000, 80.4% had obtained a high school diploma (or more), and 24.4% had obtained a bachelor’s degree (or more) (Bauman & Graf, 2003). There are ample opportunities to meet these goals, with 4,314 degree-granting institutions in the United States. However, there appears to be a growing demand for these opportunities—total enrollment in degree-granting institutions for 2005 was 17.5 million students (Snyder, Dillow, & Hoffman, 2008). This book is designed to help you make the most of your undergraduate education to maximize your opportunities for future success, whatever that route may be. With this number of people attending and completing college, how will you stand out? If you follow the advice in this book, you will know what to do to stand out from the crowd!

PUBLIC EXPECTATIONS CONCERNING COLLEGE

Students clearly have multiple goals they want to accomplish when going to college, but the public has high expectations about what students should learn. A 2003 survey conducted by the Chronicle of Higher Education identified the public’s views on higher education, as well as highlighted the important roles for a college to perform. For instance, 91% of those surveyed agreed or strongly agreed with the statement “colleges and universities are one of the most valuable resources in the U.S.” When presented with the statement “college graduates today are well prepared for the work force,” 56% agree or strongly agreed. Interestingly, when presented with the statement “a graduate-school or professional-school degree will soon be more important than a four-year degree for success in the U.S.,” 64% agreed or strongly agreed with that statement. If you believe that your future may include graduate school, many chapters of this book will be particularly helpful to you.

It is clear that the public expects much, not only from college graduates but from the colleges also. It is interesting to note that the public expects colleges and universi- ties to succeed in many areas. In the same Chronicle of Higher Education (2003) survey,

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respondents rated the importance of the various roles colleges fulfill. Table 1.1 presents the results of that portion of the survey. Whereas career concerns top the list, we also expect college graduates to be well-rounded citizens who can make important contribu- tions, such as learning about the world through research or helping teach our children. No wonder obtaining a college degree takes at least four years! Before exploring the college experience specific to psychology, let’s look at why students choose to go to college, how they choose a college, and their expectations after they get to college.

One reason that society might expect so much from colleges and their students is because there are benefits to society. Because higher levels of education are associ- ated with lower unemployment and poverty rates, college graduates in the workplace help the earnings potential of workers who do not have a college degree (Baum & Ma, 2007). Moreover, college graduates have lower smoking rates, better perceptions of personal health, and healthier lifestyles. Additionally, higher levels of education are related to higher levels of civic engagement, including volunteerism and voting. If you agree that these items are good (and most would), you can appreciate the positive benefits that society reaps from its investment in higher education.

STUDENT EXPECTATIONS ABOUT GOING TO COLLEGE

In a survey of fall 2005 freshmen (Hurtado & Pryor, 2006), the top five reasons for de- ciding to go to college were (a) to learn more about things of personal interest; (b) to be able to get a better job; (c) to be able to make more money; (d) to get training for a specific career; and (e) to gain a general education and appreciation of ideas. Psychology is an excellent choice! As you will see throughout this book, psychology majors can get good jobs with a bachelor’s degree; they learn about human behavior (what could possibly be more interesting than our own behavior?); they can prepare

TABLE 1.1 Importance Ratings for Roles Colleges Are Expected to Perform

Survey Item

Percentage Rating “Very Important” or “Important”

Prepare its undergraduate students for a career 92%

Provide education to adults so they qualify for better jobs 90%

Prepare future leaders of society 88%

Offer a broad-based general education to undergraduate students 88%

Prepare students to be responsible citizens 85%

Prepare undergraduate students for graduate or professional school 85%

Discover more about the world through research 84%

Help elementary and high schools do a better job teaching children 83%

Teaching students how to cope with a rapidly changing world 83%

Teach students to get along with people from different backgrounds 80%

Help students develop good values and ethical positions 81%

Prepare students from minority groups to become successful 77%

Conduct research that will make American businesses more competitive 70%

Enroll students from all parts of the country 70%

Help local businesses and industries in the area be successful 63%

Help attract new business to local region 62%

Provide useful information to the public on issues affecting their daily lives 62%

Improve the image of the state in which it is located 60%

Promote international understanding by encouraging students to study in other countries 56%

Provide cultural events to the community 60%

Play athletics for the entertainment of the community 35%

Source: The Chronicle of Higher Education (2003)

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Success Stories

Dr. Anita Rosenfield

Yavapai College

One Thanksgiving I decided to volunteer at the local Salvation Army rather than go to friends or relatives. Tables were set up with nice linen cloths, and volunteers picked up the food from various food centers to serve to those who came to eat. I was at a condi- ment table with a young lady who was majoring in child development at a community college where I had taught. One of her brothers was also with us. Her parents and other brother were at the dessert table. The young man told me that he and his brother were both high school dropouts—however, a few years back their father had decided to sell his business and go to college. When he got his AS, he went on to major in business and computers at Cal Poly Pomona, and his sons were so impressed they decided to enroll at the same community college. They were both going to graduate in the spring and had al- ready been accepted into four-year programs, and their father was planning to get his master’s in International Business at LaVerne University.

As the evening moved on, the three siblings walked back and forth from the condi- ment table to where their parents were. Then the father came over to me. He put his hand on my shoulder and said he hadn’t recognized me—but I was the first professor he had when he started at the community college. We had had several long talks about what he had done and what he planned to do and his fears about whether he could succeed. I had en- couraged him to continue with his studies, telling him that he was doing extremely well (which he was!). That night, he told me he had thought about dropping out, but because of my encouragement, he decided to continue with his studies. Because of that, his sons and his daughter were successfully getting through college, and he was going on for his mas- ter’s. It seems that his motivation and my encouragement changed the course of a family.

That’s my favorite success story!

to go on to graduate school so that they can receive training for additional careers. In general, college graduates do make more money than nongraduates (more on this later), and psychology at the undergraduate level tends to focus on general education and the appreciation of ideas, particularly from a critical thinking perspective.

As a recipient of a college degree, you will be in an elite group, but you are not alone. In 2005–2006 there were 1,485,000 bachelor’s degrees awarded in the United States. In the same year (the latest data available at the time of this writing), 88,134 bachelor’s degrees in psychology were awarded (Snyder et al., 2008). You will hear more about this in Chapter 3.

DESIRABLE SKILLS AND ABILITIES

Indeed, graduates need to be ready for a variety of work situations and experi- ences. Chen (2004) reports that the average college graduate will have eight dif- ferent jobs that will require work in three different professions or occupations. What types of skills and abilities will lead to success during a lifetime of work and career change? Table 1.2 presents the workplace competencies and foundation skills iden- tified by the Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) report as presented by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (2004).

However, even though we want college graduates to come away with these skills and abilities (and apparently so does the public), there is more to a college education than vocational training. An undergraduate education fosters lifelong learning and a sense of civic responsibility. Perhaps Chen (2004) says it better:

Put simply, the objective of liberal education is to produce thinkers, not workers; the education should be useful—but not utilitarian. It is there- fore not so much a question of what is taught but of how it is taught. The question is not so much about subjects, but about processes. (p. 3)

We will revisit this idea before the end of this chapter.

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TABLE 1.2 Necessary Skills for Workplace Know-How

Workplace competencies

Effective workers can productively use: • Resources—they know how to allocate time, money, materials, space, and staff

• Interpersonal skills—they can work in teams, teach others, serve customers, lead, negotiate, and work well with people from culturally diverse backgrounds

• Information—they can acquire and evaluate data, organize and maintain files, interpret and communicate, and use computers to process information

• Systems—they understand social, organizational, and technological systems; they can monitor and correct performance; and they can design or improve systems

• Technology—they can select equipment and tools, apply technology to specific tasks, and maintain and troubleshoot equipment

Foundation skills

Competent workers in the high-performance workplace need: • Basic skills—reading, writing, arithmetic and mathematics, speaking, and listening

• Thinking skills—the ability to learn, to reason, to think creatively, to make decisions, and to solve problems

• Personal qualities—individual responsibility, self-esteem and self-management, sociability, and integrity

Source: National Centre for Vocational Education Research (2004)

THE COVERT CURRICULUM

Drew Appleby writes about the two distinct curricula of an undergraduate education (Appleby, 2001). The curriculum of coursework to complete toward the undergraduate degree is called the overt curriculum. When a college or university describes their classes, prerequisites, and other requirements, they are describing the overt curriculum. However, Appleby and others (e.g., Hettich, 1998) discuss the less obvious or covert curriculum. According to Appleby (2001):

Colleges and universities often call these ‘lifelong learning skills’ because they refer not to the specific information that students acquire during their formal education (i.e., the contents of their education), but to how successfully they can continue to acquire information after their formal education has ended (i.e., the processes they developed as they acquired the contents of their education). (p. 28)

In other words, the covert curriculum addresses how to learn, as opposed to what to learn. The skills (with brief descriptions) presented in the following list should be useful in the lifelong pursuit of knowledge.

Reading with comprehension and the ability to identify major points. People employed in management positions are constantly in search of new ideas and methods to help them perform their jobs more success- fully. They understand they must keep up with the current literature and innovations in their profession and obtain relevant information from other sources.

Speaking and writing in a clear, organized, and persuasive manner. The ability to communicate in a clear, organized, and persuasive manner is one of the most crucial characteristics of successfully employed peo- ple. The inability to do so leaves others confused about what we have written or said (because we are unclear), convinced that we do not know what we are talking or writing about (because we are unorgan- ized), and unlikely to do what we ask them to do (because we are not persuasive).

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Chapter 1 • Why College 5

Writing in a particular style. Not only do you need to be able to write clearly, but be able to write in a particular style. Psychologists use the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Although future employers may not require writing in this particular style, the abil- ity to follow the format guidelines of businesses and clients and the ability to follow precise instructions is an important ability—remember, attention to detail is important!

Listening attentively. Successful employees listen carefully and attentively to their supervisors’ instructions, understand what these instructions mean (or ask for clarification to improve their understanding), and then carry out these instructions in an accurate and complete manner.

Taking accurate notes. Employees must often listen to others and accurately remember what they hear. This process can take place in a one-on-one situation or in groups. Unless the amount of information provided is small or the employee’s memory is large, it is wise to take notes.

Mastering efficient memory strategies. All jobs require employees to re- member things (e.g., customer’s names, meeting dates and times, locations of important information, etc.). Memory refers to the ability to select, store, and use information, and these skills are vital to effective and efficient workplace behavior. The results of a lack of memory skills are confusion and disorganization.

Developing critical thinking skills. Employees must not only be able to remember vital information (i.e., retention), they must comprehend it so they can communicate it to others in an understandable manner. They must apply the information they comprehend in order to solve problems in the workplace. They must analyze large, complex problems or sources of infor- mation into smaller, more manageable units. They must locate, gather, and synthesize (i.e., combine) information from a variety of different sources into new and creative ideas. Finally, they must evaluate ideas and methods by applying appropriate criteria to determine their value or usefulness.

Submitting work on time and in acceptable form. Employers pay their employees to perform jobs accurately, completely, and in a timely manner. Employees are terminated if they cannot perform their jobs (i.e., their work is incorrect, incomplete, and/or late).

Behaving in a responsible, punctual, mature, and respectful manner. Employees who fail to show up for work (or often late), or whose behaviors are immature or disrespectful are seldom employed for long.

Managing stress and conflict successfully. Employees are often exposed to stressful working conditions and must work with less-than-perfect fellow employees. Stress and conflict management are essential skills that success- ful employees possess.

Organizing the physical environment to maximize efficiency. Employees must be able to organize their physical environments so they can perform their jobs competently and efficiently. Poor organizational skills often result in appearing confused, making mistakes, and losing important information.

Observing, evaluating the attitudes and behaviors of role models. Successful employees quickly learn the culture of their organization by observing their supervisors and other successful employees. Learning which behaviors to avoid and learning which behaviors to imitate is a crucial skill for an employee who wishes to remain with an organization, receive above-average salary increases, and earn promotions.

Maintaining an accurate planner or calendar. Successful employees in today’s fast-paced world must be capable of managing their time and controlling their complicated schedules. Forgetting meetings, neglecting

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appointments, and missing deadlines are not the signals you want to send to your employer.

Working as a productive member of a team. Employers pay employees to perform complex tasks that almost always require some degree of teamwork—very few people work alone. The ability to work as a produc- tive member of a successful team and to be seen as a “team player” re- quires a set of crucial skills and characteristics that must be acquired through practice.

Interacting successfully with a wide variety of people. The working world is filled with people who differ in many ways. Successful employ- ees are those who have developed the ability to interact in a congenial and productive manner with a wide variety of people (e.g., a supervisor who is older, a client of a different race, or a coworker with a different sexual orientation).

Seeking feedback about performance and using it to improve future performance. Employees are hired to perform certain duties. Successful employees gain rewards such as promotions, raises; unsuccess- ful employees remain at lower positions and pay levels or are termi- nated. Savvy employees understand that their performance must satisfy not only their own standards of quality, but also the standards of their supervisor(s).

Accepting responsibility for your own behavior and attitudes. Being able to act in a responsible manner is the cornerstone of personal growth and professional maturity in any occupation. College is the perfect time to learn how to take responsibility for your own actions (rather than blaming your failures on others), and to understand that it is the way you interpret external circumstances that determines how you will respond to them, not the circumstances themselves.

Utilize technology. Future employees need to be technologically sophisti- cated in order to qualify for many jobs. The ability to word process, use spreadsheets, understand databases, work with statistical programs, and do library searches using bibliographic databases (not just Wikipedia) are important aspects of technological literacy.

As you can see, no one course could accomplish all of those goals. However, by carefully examining this list, you might better understand why college teachers structure their courses the way they do. Over the span of your undergraduate education, hopefully you will have multiple chances to develop and sharpen these skills and abilities from the covert curriculum.

THE CIVIC, LIBERAL ARTS VALUE OF A COLLEGE EDUCATION

Earlier we indicated that your college education is not all about the accumulation of skills and abilities to get you a job. There are larger goals of an undergraduate edu- cation. All universities attempt to produce better-educated citizens who are capable of using higher order critical thinking skills.

One of the major characteristics of a liberal or liberal arts education is that it is not focused on a specific career, but aims instead to provide an environment both within the curriculum and outside it that helps students to learn how to think, how to be creative, how to be flexible, how to get on with others—and how to go on learning for the rest of their lives. (Chen, 2004, p. 2)

Over 150 years ago, John Henry Newman (1852) communicated this idea quite well (see Table 1.3).

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TABLE 1.3 The Aim of a University Education

If then a practical end must be assigned to a University course, I say it is that of training good members of society. Its art is the art of social life, and its end is fitness for the world. It neither confines its views to particular professions on one hand, nor creates heroes or inspires genius on the other. Works indeed of genius fall under no art; heroic minds come under no rule; a University is not a birthplace of poets or of immortal authors, of founders of schools, leaders of colonies, or conquerors of nations. It does not promise a generation of Aristotles or Newtons, of Napoleons or Washingtons, of Raphaels or Shakespeares, though such miracles it has before now contained within its precincts. Nor is it content on the other hand with forming the critic or the experimentalist, the economist or the engineer, although such too it includes within its scope. But a university training is the great ordinary means to a great but ordinary end; it aims at raising the intellectual tone of society, at cultivating the public mind, at purifying the national taste, at supplying true principles to popular enthusiasm and fixed aims to popular aspiration, at giving enlargement and sobriety to the ideas of the age, at facilitating the exercise of political power, and refining the intercourse of private life. It is the education which gives a [person] a clear, conscious view of their own opinions and judgements, a truth in developing them, an eloquence in expressing them, and a force in urging them.

Source: John Henry Newman (1852)

THE FINANCIAL VALUE OF A COLLEGE EDUCATION

We have already explored many of the reasons for coming to college, whether it is to obtain a good job, to improve yourself, to become a better citizen, to gain critical thinking skills, or to master the covert curriculum. These are all appropriate motiva- tions, but so is the motivation to improve your financial standing. Money is not everything in life, but it sure helps. We would be remiss if we did not address this important issue.

In later chapters of this book we will discuss the specifics of what you can earn with the various degrees in psychology, including specialty areas. For now, let’s focus on the general benefit of staying in college. The U.S. Census Bureau has completed some fascinating work looking at one’s level of educational attain- ment and earnings, both an average year’s earnings and a projected level of earn- ings over a 40-year career (from ages 25 to 64). These latter projected earnings over a working career are called synthetic earnings, and they are based on 1999 dollars. How much more money can you expect to make with a college degree compared to a high school diploma? Is there much financial advantage to getting a master’s degree compared to a bachelor’s degree? These types of questions are answered in Table 1.4.

Again, it is important to reiterate that financial reasons alone should not dictate your life decisions—do you really want to be quite miserable while making a good income? However, these data are useful as one component of your decision-making

TABLE 1.4 Estimates of Average Annual Earnings and Synthetic Work-Life Earnings for Full-Time, Year-Round Workers by Educational Attainment

Educational Attainment Average Annual Earnings Synthetic Work-Life Earnings

Doctoral degree $ 89,400 $3.4 million Professional degree $109,600 $4.4 million Master’s degree $ 62,300 $2.5 million Bachelor’s degree $ 52,200 $2.1 million Associate’s degree $ 38,200 $1.6 million Some college $ 36,800 $1.5 million High school graduate $ 30,400 $1.2 million Not high school graduate $ 18,900 $1.0 million

Notes: Professional degrees include M.D. (physician), J.D. (lawyer), D.D.S. (dentist), and D.V.M. (veterinarian). Synthetic work-life earnings are estimates of total earnings spanning 40 years (ages 25 to 64), adjusting for age and experience over time.

Source: Day & Newburger (2002)

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Success Stories

Dr. Salvador Macias, III

University of South Carolina–Sumter

I am a second generation Mexican American . . . my grandparents moved to New Mexico, then on to California in the 1920s just before my father was born. He was one of eight children, only a few of whom (especially the younger ones) graduated high school (my father earned his GED in the Army). I am the first one in our extended fam- ily to have graduated college (though some older cousins did attend a year or two). I believe that one of my younger cousins has a master’s degree (some 35 grandchildren in the family, I have lost touch with some!), and there are a few in the next generation who have earned baccalaureate degrees (I’m proud to say that two of my three children have, one is now in a Ph.D. program in Chemistry, and the youngest is a senior in col- lege this year!).

My parents just “assumed” that I would attend college, so I pretty much grew up with that plan. When I was 15, my father died unexpectedly; I was the oldest of nine children . . . and our future was in some doubt, but it was still assumed that I would attend college. In my senior in high school (Catholic school, southern California) I applied to UCLA . . . but in March! Obviously, my application was too late, and was forwarded on to UC Riverside, probably the best thing that ever happened to me! At that time it had about 5,000 students, classes beyond the freshmen level were fairly small, and I got to know many of my professors on a personal level.

One professor in particular, Austin H. Riesen (who became my advisor and un- dergraduate mentor), was especially important to my academic development. I first came to know him in a somewhat circuitous fashion. A friend of mine worked in his lab observing monkeys . . . they were short of help, this work was absolutely fascinat- ing to me . . . and I was brought into the research team. At that time I was a biology major, but quickly added psychology, stayed in Riesen’s lab for a couple of years, branched out into a few other labs as volunteer, paid assistant, received academic credit, etc. I am convinced that had my application to UCLA been accepted I would have, at best, floundered along, maybe eventually graduating . . . but would not have had the opportunity or courage to approach a professor and ask to participate in an ongoing research program! Having had such easy access to my professors, even playing on some softball teams with a few, having it become normal that they would know my name . . . etc., I’m sure is what is responsible for me discovering a passion for psychol- ogy, and the opportunity to develop sufficient academic skills to handle (even wish for) graduate school.

process. Also, if you are in the middle of your sophomore year in college and having a hard time staying motivated, the information in Table 1.4 might be helpful. For instance, you might think about getting your associate’s degree (an intermediate degree that can typically be earned in 2 years) if you are too burned out to finish the bachelor’s degree. And remember, there are over 4,300 colleges and universities in the United States—if you drop out and then decide to drop back in, there will be opportunities to do so.

OH, YOU DON’T HAVE TO GO TO COLLEGE . . .

Better pay typically comes with more education. However, to be fair, if pay is your primary consideration, we should to point out that you can have a top-paying job without a bachelor’s degree at all. Banerji (1998) reported the median salaries of occupations that do not require a degree: millwrights ($60,000), electrical equipment/household appliance repairers ($52,000), tool-and-die makers ($50,000), advertising and business salespeople ($45,000), and rail-and- water-transportation workers ($45,000). More recently, Knight (2007) reported about the salaries of good paying jobs that do not require a degree: paralegals ($39,130), insurance sales agents ($41,720), yoga instructors ($25,470), police officers

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($46,398), and interpreters ($33,620). We probably all know of some individuals who have done quite well without a college education. In fact, we often hear success stories about older individuals who did quite well without finishing high school. However, these stories seem to be the exception and not the rule. Banerji points out that although most of these occupations do not require an advanced degree, some do require formal training beyond a high school education. One way or other, additional education and training is probably in a high school grad- uate’s future, whether it is through higher education, the military, or the profes- sional trades.

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EXERCISE #1: Should I Stay in College?

We assume that you are reading this book because you are already in college. However, you should know that a great many students start college but never finish. Even though this first chapter (and the rest of this book) will make persuasive argu- ments for continuing your college education, some students do drop out. The table below presents two types of information based on previous research: (a) campus characteristics that helped to keep students in school and (b) campus characteristics that did not help students stay in school. For this exercise, circle the items in both categories that you think would affect you—both positively and negatively. Being familiar with the items on this list may alert you to positive situations to pursue and negative situations to avoid.

Positive Campus Characteristics Negative Campus Characteristics

Caring attitude of faculty and staff Inadequate academic advising Consistent high quality of teaching Conflict between class schedule and job Adequate financial aid programs Inadequate financial aid Consistent high quality of advising Inadequate counseling support system

Positive Campus Characteristics Negative Campus Characteristics

Encouragement of student involvement in campus life

Inadequate personal contact between students and faculty

Excellent career planning services Inadequate curricular offerings Admissions practices geared to recruiting

students likely to persist to graduation Inadequate part-time employment

Overall concern for student-institutional congruence or “fit”

Inadequate academic support services, learning centers, and similar resources

Excellent counseling services Lack of faculty care and concern System of identifying potential dropouts (early

alert system) Inadequate extracurricular activities

Inadequate opportunity for cultural and social growth

Lack of staff care and concern for students Unsatisfactory living accommodations Inadequate career planning services Insufficient intellectual stimulation or

challenge Quality of teaching not consistently high Restrictive rules and regulations governing

student behavior

Source: Cowart (1987)

Knowing about these factors may help you to anticipate negative situations and increase your chances for success during your undergraduate education. Be sure to take advantage of the services available on your campus.

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C H A P T E R 2

Why Psychology?

Are you the type of person who might be interested in any of the following?

• Would you like to study the mental processes that help us acquire and remem- ber information so we can improve our everyday memory?

• Would you like to help people with behavioral disorders help themselves to achieve a better quality of life?

• Would you like to work with communities and neighborhoods to help them plan for the future?

• Would you like to understand those factors that facilitate teaching so that teachers can be taught techniques to improve student learning?

• Would you like to use the information we have about health and behavior to promote wellness and prevent illness? Would you like to improve the coping strategies of persons under stress?

• Would you like to study the brain and begin to understand the changes that occur with the use of drugs or the onset of traumatic brain injury?

• Would you like to better understand why people behave differently in a group compared to how they behave when alone and why personal decisions are af- fected by the context in which they are made?

If any of these questions interest you, then the psychology major may be a good fit! A general interest in and a passion for understanding of human behavior go a long way in motivating people to explore whether psychology is the major for them. In fact, interest in majoring in psychology is often driven by the first introduc- tory psychology course, or even completing a high school psychology course (Rajecki, Williams, Appleby, Jeschke, & Johnson, 2005).

THOUGHTS ABOUT THE PSYCHOLOGY MAJOR

At the undergraduate level, many students select psychology as a major because of their interest in becoming a psychologist. If you study this book carefully, talk to students majoring in psychology, and listen to your psychology professors, you will quickly understand that you will not be qualified to be a psychologist at the conclu- sion of your undergraduate training. It is best to think of your undergraduate educa- tion in psychology as learning about psychology, not learning “to do” psychology. McGovern, Furumoto, Halpern, Kimble, and McKeachie (1991) made this point clear when they stated that “a liberal arts education in general, and the study of psy- chology in particular, is a preparation for lifelong learning, thinking, and action; it emphasizes specialized and general knowledge and skills” (p. 600). A quality un- dergraduate education in psychology should prepare you to be a citizen and a crit- ical thinker (qualities mentioned in Chapter 1)—the professional functioning of a psychologist comes after specialized work and training at the graduate level.

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A guide written by students for students suggested the following about choos- ing a major:

If you choose a major that truly interests you and pushes you to learn, you’ll gain a huge set of skills that you can then use in any career. It sounds so idealistic, but it’s true. Employers don’t expect you to start your first job knowing exactly how to do it—on-the-job training is a core learning component that almost all careers offer. But employers do ex- pect you to be a well-rounded person, have solid writing and communi- cation skills, and the ability and training to learn new things and excel at them. (Natavi Guides, 2002, p. 17)

Even though the bachelor’s degree in psychology is not a professional degree, it is still a good choice to produce a well-rounded, well-educated citizen and person. Why? Although psychology departments at colleges and universities differ, McGovern et al. (1991) identified common goals for undergraduate students to accomplish. These goals include:

A knowledge base—there is a wide array of information in psychology that you need to understand to be a student of human behavior.

Thinking skills—critical thinking and reasoning, analysis of outcomes through experimental methods and statistics give psychology students tools to make reasoned decisions.

Language skills—as scientists, psychologists must be able to communicate findings to the broader scientific community; students must develop reading, writing, and presentation skills.

Information gathering and synthesis—psychology students need to be able to gather information from a number of sources (e.g., library, computer- ized databases, the Internet) and be able to synthesize this information into coherent lines of reasoning.

Research methods and statistical skills—the development of quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis and interpretation is central to the dis- cipline.

Interpersonal skills—psychology students need to be sensitive to the diver- sity of the environment in which they live and be able to use this increased sensitivity and self-knowledge to monitor their own behavior.

History of psychology—psychology majors need to understand the contexts out of which popular ideas and people have emerged—George Santayana once said, “Those who do not know history are doomed to repeat it.”

Ethics and values—psychology majors need to understand the ethical treatment of research participants, to understand conflicts of interest, and to generate options that maximize human dignity, human welfare, and the main- tenance of academic and scientific integrity.

AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION WITHIN PSYCHOLOGY

The skills and abilities that a student can attain with a psychology major are impres- sive. These skills and abilities help to explain, in part, the growing popularity of this major. Students seem to be initially attracted to psychology by courses in the areas of abnormal psychology, personality, developmental psychology, and educational psychology. Students are also attracted to the major because of the applicability of the subject matter—human behavior! For instance, although some students enter college declaring psychology as their major, often psychology departments see in- creases in the number of majors following completion of the introductory/general psychology course. Introductory psychology is a challenging course, and many de- partments have very talented instructors teaching the course. Talented instructors

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can make interesting subject matter come alive—perhaps another reason for the popularity of psychology.

In the introductory course, students are introduced to the various areas and specializations in psychology; the options are staggering. As a psychology major, you will receive a good grounding in the basics of psychology, taking courses that em- phasize the development of skills and abilities (e.g., research methods and statistics) while also accumulating a knowledge base (e.g., developmental psychology, social psychology, history and systems). Even if you recently completed an introductory course, it is hard to remember all the options. To our knowledge, there is no “offi- cial” list of the major areas of psychology; we compiled our list from a number of sources. Within most of these areas, there are opportunities to specialize even further—more on this later. Technically speaking, though, the American Psychological Association (APA) recognizes only four “specialties”—clinical, counsel- ing, school, and industrial/organizational psychology (APA, 1997a). All the remaining areas are considered subfields or areas of concentration. For the sake of clarity, how- ever, we will just call the specializations with psychology “areas.” Some of the major areas, with brief descriptions, are listed below (APA, 1996, 1997b; Lefton, 1997).

Success Stories

Dr. Sophia Pierroutsakos

Furman University

I majored in Psychology in college with a clinical future in mind. I finally decided that wasn’t for me, and for whatever reason, didn’t explore other options within the field. So, as graduation approached, I spent more time with my political science minor, did an in- ternship in political science, and planned to go to grad school in political science. That next fall, I was taking a few graduate night courses in international relations and had a huge stack of graduate school information packets and applications at home. It suddenly became clear to me that political science was NOT it for me, and that I really needed to finish exploring psychology. After all, I knew there was much more to it than clinical, so why didn’t I spend some time learning more about the options? I talked to some of my un- dergraduate Psych professors, looked through lots of journals, and began to realize that developmental psychology was a better fit for me. I will never forget the day I took this huge stack of political science grad applications and materials to the recycling bin. It was difficult to go back to some of my letter writers and ask them to write me a NEW set of let- ters, for psychology this time. I am sure some of them thought I was flaky.

The regular GRE testing dates had passed, so I had to drive six hours to a central testing site and pay a large fee to be tested. I stopped at one of the grad schools I was in- terested in along the way. I walked in, talked to the graduate dean, described my interests, and he sent me down the hall to meet the person who ended up being my advisor for my master’s and Ph.D. (but I didn’t know that then). I applied to several schools, got into sev- eral, got a great offer from one of the top programs in developmental psych, and worked with the person I met on the way to take my GREs! Now, I am a faculty member at a lib- eral arts university and I teach and do research with the help of undergraduates. I love working with all kinds of students, but I especially enjoy seeing a student discover their love of developmental psychology as somewhat of a surprise, like I did.

As I was finishing up undergrad, I don’t think any of my professors would have guessed I would end up being a developmental psychologist. (I was going to be a political scientist, remember?) But, I have realized since that it makes a lot of sense giving my inter- ests up until then. I just had to be patient about finding a good career path for me, and be willing to talk to lots of people, and ask myself some deep questions. It wasn’t easy telling my letter writers that I had completely changed my mind. But, it was the right thing to do!

How has this experience affected my advising of psychology majors? I encourage them to keep talking through things, with as many different people as they would like, be- cause those conversations are essential to finding and making a good choice. But I also re- mind them that they can change their mind as they go, so they don’t feel paralyzed by their fear of making the WRONG choice. Political science wasn’t right for me, but I had to walk a bit down that road before I realized it.

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Clinical psychologists assess and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral dis- orders. These disorders range from short-term crises, such as difficulties resulting from adolescent rebellion, to more severe, chronic conditions, such as schizo- phrenia. Some clinical psychologists treat specific problems exclusively, such as phobias or clinical depression. Others focus on specific populations: youngsters, ethnic minority groups, gays and lesbians, and the elderly, for instance.

Cognitive psychologists are interested in thought processes, especially re- lations among learning, memory, and perception. As researchers, they focus primarily on mental processes that influence the acquisition and use of knowledge, as well as the ability to reason, the process by which people gen- erate logical and coherent ideas, evaluate situations, and reach conclusions.

Community psychologists strengthen existing social support networks and stimulate the formation of new networks to effect social change. A goal of community psychologists is to help individuals and their neighborhoods or communities to grow, develop, and plan for the future. Community psycholo- gists are concerned with behavior in natural settings, such as the home, the neighborhood, and the workplace, and they seek to understand the factors that contribute to normal and abnormal behaviors in these settings.

Counseling psychologists help people accommodate to change or make changes in their lifestyle. For example, they provide vocational and career as- sessment and guidance or help someone come to terms with the death of a loved one. They help students adjust to college and help people to stop smok- ing or overeating. They also consult with physicians on physical problems that have underlying psychological causes. Counseling psychologists provide as- sessment of and counseling for personal, career, and educational problems, and often use research to evaluate the effectiveness of treatment.

Developmental psychologists study the psychological development of the human being that takes place throughout life. They are interested in the descrip- tion, measurement, and explanation of age-related changes in behavior: stages of development, universal traits and individual differences, and abnormal changes in development. Until recently, the primary focus was on childhood and adolescence—the most formative years. However, as life expectancy in this country approaches 80 years, developmental psychologists are becoming in- creasingly interested in aging, especially in researching and developing ways to help elderly people stay as independent as possible.

Educational psychologists concentrate on the conditions under which ef- fective teaching and learning take place. They consider a variety of factors, such as human abilities, student motivation, and the effect on the classroom of the diversity of race, ethnicity, and culture. Educational psychologists help to design the methods and materials used to educate students of all ages.

Engineering psychologists conduct research on how people work best with machines. For example, how can a computer be designed to prevent fatigue and eye strain? What arrangement of an assembly line makes production most efficient? What is a reasonable workload? Most engineering psychologists work in industry, but some are employed by the government.

Environmental psychologists examine the relation between psychology and the physical environment, including homes, offices, and urban or rural areas. Although some environmental psychologists do basic research examining peo- ple’s attitudes toward different environments or a person’s sense of personal space, others do applied research, such as evaluating a new office design or as- sessing the impact of building a new power plant in a particular environment.

Experimental or general psychologists use the experimental approach to un- derstand basic elements of behavior and mental processes. They focus on basic research, and their interests often overlap with fields outside psychology (e.g., bi- ology, computer science, mathematics, sociology). Areas of study include motiva-

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tion, thinking, attention, learning and memory, sensory and perceptual processes, physiology, genetics, and neurology. Experimental psychologists study the basic processes by which we encode, store, retrieve, express, and apply knowledge.

Forensic psychologists apply psychological principles to legal issues. Their expertise is often essential in court. They can, for example, help a judge de- cide which parent should have custody of a child or evaluate a defendant’s mental competence to stand trial. Some forensic psychologists are trained in both psychology and the law.

Health psychologists are interested in how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness. They identify the kinds of medical treat- ment people seek and get, how patients handle illness, why some people do not follow medical advice, and the most effective ways to control pain or to change poor health habits. They also develop health care strategies that foster emotional and physical well-being. Health psychologists also investigate is- sues that affect a large segment of society, and they develop and implement programs to deal with these problems.

Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologists apply psychological prin- ciples and research methods to the workplace in the interest of improving pro- ductivity and the quality of work life. An I/O psychologist’s research interests might include organizational structure, worker productivity and job satisfac- tion, consumer behavior, selection, placement training, and development of personnel, and human–machine interactions. Many I/O psychologists serve as human resources specialists, who help organizations with staffing, training, and employee development and management in such areas as strategic plan- ning, quality management, and coping with organizational change.

Neuropsychologists explore the relations between brain systems and be- havior. For example, neuropsychologists may study how the brain creates and stores memories, or how various diseases and injuries of the brain affect emo- tion, perception, and behavior. Neuropsychologists frequently help design tasks to study normal brain functions with new imaging techniques, such as positron emission tomography (PET); single photon emission computed to- mography (SPECT); and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Neuropsychologists also assess and treat people.

Quantitative and measurement psychologists focus on methods and tech- niques for acquiring and analyzing psychological data. Some of these profession- als develop new methods for performing analyses; others create research strate- gies to assess the effect of social and educational programs and psychological treatment. They develop and evaluate mathematical models for psychological tests, and propose methods for evaluating the quality and fairness of the tests.

School psychologists work directly with public and private schools. They assess and counsel students, consult with parents and school staff, and con- duct behavioral interventions when appropriate. School psychologists help educators and other school personnel promote the intellectual, social, and emotional development of children. School psychologists are also involved in creating environments that enhance learning and positive mental health. Social psychologists study how a person’s mental life and behavior are shaped by interactions with other people. They are interested in all aspects of interpersonal relationships, including both individual and group influences; they seek ways to improve such interactions. For example, their research helps us understand how people form attitudes toward others, and when these attitudes are harmful—as in the case of prejudice—they suggest ways to change them. Social psychologists study individuals as well as groups, observ- able behaviors, and private thought.

As you can see, it is quite a list! Typically, you will not specialize in a particu- lar area at the undergraduate level. There may be “tracks” or “concentrations” for

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you, but your bachelor’s degree will be in psychology; it will not be a bachelor’s de- gree in experimental psychology or neuropsychology. Your area of specialization becomes much more important if you elect to attend graduate school. In fact, if you decide to pursue a graduate degree in psychology, not only will you probably spe- cialize in one of the areas presented, but your degree may come from a program that specializes even further. For a sense of those different levels of specialization, Table 2.1 presents a listing of master’s degrees and/or doctoral degrees that can be earned in psychology programs in the United States.

Table 2.1 also shows there are specializations within specializations in psy- chology. For instance, if you have always wanted to become a clinical psychologist, which type? Will it be clinical, clinical mental health counseling, clinical neuropsy-

TABLE 2.1 Master’s and Doctoral Degrees Obtainable from Psychology Programs

Adolescence and youth Counseling—secondary school Marriage and family therapy Adult development Counseling—vocational Mathematical Aging Curriculum and instruction Medical psychology AIDS intervention or research Developmental Mental health Applied Developmental psychobiology Mental retardation Applied developmental Developmental—comparative Minority mental health Applied social Developmental—exceptional Neuropsychology Art therapy Doctoral preparation Neuroscience Behavior therapy Early childhood education Organizational Behavioral analysis Ecological Parent education Behavioral genetics Educational Pastoral counseling Behavioral medicine Educational administration Pediatric psychology Behavioral neuroscience Educational measurement Personality Behavioral science Educational policy analysis Personnel and guidance Behavioral science—applied Educational research and evaluation Phenomenological Child development Engineering Physiological Child psychopathology Environmental Preclinical Clinical Evolutionary/sociobiology Primate behavior Clinical assessment Experimental psychopathology Professional Clinical neuropsychology Experimental—animal behavior Program evaluation Clinical respecialization Experimental—general Psychobiology Clinical—child Forensic Psycholinguistics Clinical—community General Psychological assessment Clinical—school Group psychotherapy Psychology of women Cognitive Health psychology Psychometrics College counseling Helping services Psychopharmacology College counseling, administration History and systems Psychotherapy and psychoanalysis College teaching Human development/family studies Public policy Community Human factors Quantitative (measurement) Community rehabilitation counseling Human relations Quantitative methods Community—clinical Human services Reading Community—rural Human services administration Rehabilitation Community—school Human sexuality Research methodology Comparative Humanistic School Computer applications Industrial/organizational School psychometry Conditioning Interdisciplinary psychology Sensation and perception Consulting psychology Law and psychology Social Consumer Learning Sociocultural perspectives Counseling and guidance Learning disabilities Special education Counseling Learning—animal Sports Counseling psychology Learning—human Statistics Counseling—colleges, universities Life-span development Substance abuse Counseling—elementary school Marriage and family Supervision Counseling—marriage and family

Source: American Psychological Association (2000)

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chology, clinical child, clinical community, or clinical school? (Clinical respecializa- tion is a special degree for those who already have a Ph.D. but want to go back to school to get a degree in clinical psychology.) Even areas such as developmental, education, and experimental psychology have subspecialties. At this point, it is not necessary to know exactly which area of psychology you want to study—what is important is that you begin to understand the vast opportunities and diversity that psychology has to offer. With all of the choices available you may ask, “Where do I begin selecting courses as a psychology major, and what can I do with a bachelor’s degree?” Those questions sound like ones that you might ask of your academic advisor or your mentor—more on these important roles later.

WHO MAJORS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology continues to be an extremely popular choice, both for students enrolled in its courses and psychology majors. Departments offering degrees in psychology are readily available. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (Snyder, et al., 2008), for the 2005–2006 academic year, there were 166 departments offering as- sociate’s degrees, 1,347 departments offering bachelor’s degrees, 642 departments of- fering master’s degrees, and 283 departments offering doctoral degrees in psychology. These psychology departments generate a great deal of student interest. For instance, during the 2003–2004 academic year, 147,000 students were enrolled at 2-year institu- tions, 400,000 students were enrolled at 4-year institutions, and 69,000 students were enrolled in graduate programs in psychology. Psychology is a popular choice!

The number of students choosing to major in psychology also continues to grow. There have been over 70,000 bachelor’s degrees in psychology awarded every year since 1994–1995 (Snyder et al., 2008). In 1985–1986, United States colleges and univer- sities awarded 40,628 bachelor’s degrees in psychology. Ten years later (1995–1996), that number had risen to 73,416, and by 2005–2006 (the most current data) the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded in the United States was 88,134. To graphically see the historical trend in the awarding of bachelor’s degrees in psychology, see Figure 2.1.

FIGURE 2.1 Bachelor’s Degrees Awarded in Psychology Since 1950

Note: For clarity in the figure, the odd-numbered years from 1967 to 1999 have been omitted. Data are from Snyder et al. (2008).

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18 Chapter 2 • Why Psychology?

One of the recurring themes that you will be asked to consider throughout this book is this: What will you do, as an undergraduate, to make yourself competitive with 88,000+ graduates in psychology each year? It doesn’t matter if you go the good job route or the graduate school route—the competition will be heavy for pre- mium opportunities. Multiple sections of this book are dedicated to alerting you to the opportunities available, and preparing you to maximize those opportunities. We also focus on skills and abilities that you can develop while you are still an under- graduate.

DESIRABLE SKILLS AND ABILITIES FOR THE PSYCHOLOGY MAJOR

So what are those skills, abilities, and traits that employers want you to acquire en route to your baccalaureate degree (with a special emphasis on a bachelor’s degree in psychology)? The listing below, assembled from many sources (Appleby, 1998b; Butler, 1997; Edwards & Smith, 1988; Lloyd, Kennedy, & Dewey, 1997), should start to give you some idea of the skills and abilities you are expected to possess.

Utilizing resources: scheduling, using a budget, assigning space, and man- aging a staff

Working effectively with others: demonstrating teamwork, teaching new skills to others, fulfilling customer needs, leadership, negotiation, sensitivity to diversity

Acquiring and using information: acquiring, interpreting, organizing, maintaining, and evaluating information; knowing how to learn

Utilizing technology to solve problems: familiarity with new and emerging technologies, awareness of applications to work use

Communication: reading and comprehending complex materials, clear writ- ing, listening carefully and accurately, speaking articulately and persuasively

Computation/numeracy: ability to perform mathematical operations, meas- urement skills; possess analytical skills, ability for word processing, e-mail, Internet

Problem-solving: decision-making, learning, reasoning; understanding sym- bols, tables, and graphs

Personal qualities/traits: responsibility, self-esteem, appropriate social skills, self-management and awareness, integrity, hard working, tolerance for stress and ambiguity, outgoing personality

Flexibility: use of creative thinking, adaptable, ability to be a critical thinker

Proficiency in field of study: good grades, understand psychological ideas and how they are applied

What is the benefit of knowing this information? As you pursue your under- graduate career, try to arrange your curriculum choices to give yourself the oppor- tunity to acquire as many of these skills and abilities as possible. You will not be able to master every one of them—at least not during your undergraduate years. These are skills and abilities you aspire to—design your undergraduate coursework so that, as you complete the coursework, you acquire proficiency in many of the above areas. Realize, however, that some of these items are more “teachable” or “learnable” than others. With the right coursework, a teacher can improve your computational/statistical ability, but a teacher is less able to influence your traits (e.g., your personality).

This list of skills and abilities is impressive. As an undergraduate, it would be difficult to achieve all of those skills and abilities to any significant level of profi- ciency. So which ones are the most important? If you have to choose certain skills and abilities to concentrate on, what should they be? First, you want to honestly

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evaluate your current strengths and weaknesses; seek out opportunities to improve on your weaknesses. We sometimes tell students: You need to have good oral com- munication skills before you leave this university. Where and with whom do you want to hone this skill—with us, where the absolute worst thing that can happen in a supportive environment is that you get one bad grade, or on the job, where a bad performance might cost you your job, your security, your home, your car, etc.? College is a place that provides a safety net for you to explore your strengths and weaknesses. College is the place to improve what you are not good at—not the place to avoid your weaknesses altogether. Students who fear math courses often take the minimum number of credits required when they should be working to strengthen their math skills. A similar pattern often occurs with writing. If you have difficulty in writing, or are not confident in your writing ability, the last thing you need to do is avoid all courses that involve writing. You might be able to graduate that way, but you may not be very employable.

THE IMPORTANCE OF ADVISING AND MENTORING

At some universities, advising is divided into categories: academic advising and ca- reer advising. Academic advising focuses on the curricular demands of the major and addresses such issues as course scheduling and availability, student success in aca- demic courses, meeting prerequisites, and graduation requirements. Career advising emphasizes the student’s short- and long-term goals and takes the form of multiple discussions between the student and advisor over the course of an academic career. It is during these career-advising sessions that much of the information provided in this book would be imparted. For example, questions about employment opportuni- ties with a bachelor’s degree and graduate school options are often discussed during career advising. Advising provides faculty members with valuable teaching moments (Foushee, 2008), such as correcting misperceptions about psychology, helping de- velop realistic career goals, enhancing your strengths, and getting to know the real you. This book helps provide resource information to the psychology major and will help you prepare for meetings with your academic advisor.

Lunneborg and Baker (1986) described four types of advising models that exist on college campuses:

Central model: centralized, all-campus advising office completes advising for all majors; no psychology faculty formally involved in advising

No-faculty model: Undeclared majors are advised at a centralized office; after declaring a major, majors are advised in the psychology department in the de- partmental advising office; advised in department, but not by faculty (e.g., peer advisors).

Part-faculty model: Undeclared majors advised at centralized office; then majors declaring psychology are assigned to all psychology faculty members.

All-faculty model: Almost all psychology faculty advise majors from the first year through the last year.

There are other models of advising. For instance, Sullivan (2005) described prescriptive advising as outcome-oriented, using a one-way flow of information; the advisor directs and makes decisions for the student, and the student is a passive re- cipient of advising. In the collaborative model, advising is process oriented with a two-way flow of information, with a more question and answer approach where the student is an active participant.

It is important to determine the model used in your psychology department. Academic and career advising-based decisions are ultimately your responsibility; the institution shares some responsibility in providing accurate information about aca- demic and career choices, satisfaction with the major, progress toward the degree, and interest in the profession. It is hard to imagine a psychology department in any

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college or university where you will not be able to find someone to help you—the key may be in finding out whom to ask. If by chance you are “stuck” with the pre- scriptive advisor, try to find someone else who can provide more helpful collabora- tive advisement, even if this person is not your “official” advisor. By the way, Lunneborg and Baker (1986) found that students preferred the all-faculty model with smaller numbers of majors.

In order to maximize your gain when meeting with your advisor, Appleby (1998a) suggests the following:

• Learn your advisor’s name, office location, office hours, phone number, and e-mail address.

• Meet with your advisor regularly to plan next semester’s schedule (academic advising) and to discuss future plans and how to accomplish them (career ad- vising).

• For academic advising sessions regarding registration, be aware of the courses you have to take, the courses you have already taken, and the courses offered for next semester. Have prepared a tentative schedule of classes you think is feasible.

• Be open and honest about your career goals with your advisor. • Consult with your advisor when you are in academic difficulty, when you

want to add or drop a class, when you might be thinking about changing your major, or when you might be thinking about withdrawing from school or transferring to another college or university.

• Accept responsibility for the academic and career decisions that you make.

At times, you may be surprised by the reactions of your advisor(s); he or she has your best interests at heart. That is, if your best option is to withdraw from school, your advisor will probably not try to talk you out of it. In making that big a decision, however, an advisor may suggest that you seek additional input, such as from trusted friends, a career guidance center, counseling center, etc. Thinking about pursuing an online graduate program—consult your advisor! Did you know that only one online program in the nation (at the time of this writing) has APA accreditation—Fielding Graduate University (Bendersky, Issac, Stover, & Zook, 2008). You advisor can help you with this type of important information. If you are miserable as a psychology major, why remain in the major? As academics, we really do have your best interests in mind—we want you to be successful and satisfied with your college experience. Many students fail to take advantage of the advising opportunities afforded to them—be sure that you are not one of those students!

The role of the mentor has long been acknowledged as important at the grad- uate student level, but there is increasing emphasis on mentoring for undergraduate- level students. Hammer (2003) recently highlighted the importance of being mentored for undergraduate students in psychology:

A strong mentor serves as a guide for your professional development and challenges you to take advantage of important opportunities. A mentor has your best interests at heart, puts time and effort into you as an individual, and is someone you can trust. A mentor is the first person you think of when you need a letter of recommendation, some advice on an academic decision, or direction on a research project. You can think of a mentor as your “go-to” professor. (p. 4)

Not only is effective mentoring good for you, but it’s good for faculty mem- bers as well. Effective mentoring helps faculty become better teachers, leads to better productivity with student collaborators, and creates an environment that promotes student involvement (Schultz, 2001).

More specifically, what would you expect a mentor to do for you? In a national survey of graduate students in a mentoring relationship, the items in Table 2.2 were evaluated using an agreement scale. Not only does this table provide specific func- tions of mentors, but it also communicates the relative importance of these tasks.

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Is a mentor the same as an advisor? Not necessarily. They could be the same person, or not. The mentor is more of a long-term guide who helps you to succeed and fulfill your goals. Your mentor might very well also be your academic advisor. However, you might have one faculty member be an academic advisor, and another your mentor. There are some advantages to this approach. First, you would gain multiple perspectives on issues relevant to you. Second, it would allow you to build important relationships with multiple faculty. Third, it would allow you to cultivate relationships with professionals that might lead to letters of recommendation, which will be important for pursuing either a good job or graduate school.

You can begin to see how important a mentor can be in your professional de- velopment. In selecting a mentor, you may wish to use the information provided in Table 2.3 that indicates the most frequently mentioned personality characteristics of mentors. Although this study was completed with clinical students enrolled in a doctoral program, we believe these are desirable characteristics of all mentors. The more matches between the top of the list and potential faculty mentors, the better your chances (we think) of developing a mutually beneficial relationship.

TABLE 2.2 Mean Ratings of Mentoring Functions

Mentor Function Mean

Provided direct training or instruction for me 4.50 Offered me acceptance, support, and encouragement 4.46 Served as a role model for me 4.26 Sponsored me for desirable positions such as

assistantships, practica, or internship 3.86

Proved opportunities for me to engage in research 3.76 Helped me to gain greater exposure and visibility 3.61 Served to protect me 3.46 Provided personal guidance and counsel for me 3.46 Served as a friend 3.36

Notes: Each statement began with “My mentor . . .” Responses were based on a 5-point Likert-type scale, from 1 � strongly disagree to 5 � strongly agree.

Source: Clark, Harden, and Johnson (2000)

TABLE 2.3 Most Frequently Mentioned Personality Characteristics of Mentors

Characteristic Frequency

Supportive 111 Intelligent 104 Knowledgeable 73 Ethical 56 Caring 54 Humorous 50 Encouraging 49 Honest 39 Empathic 39 Approachable 38 Accepting 35 Warm 33 Available 33 Genuine 33 Dedicated 30

Note: Clinical psychology doctoral students with mentors (N � 521) were asked to list the three most important personality characteristics of their most significant faculty member. Frequency represents the number of times each characteristic was mentioned.

Source: Clark, Harden, and Johnson (2000)

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WHY THE PSYCHOLOGY MAJOR IS A GOOD CHOICE

Completion of a rigorous undergraduate program in psychology affords students with a host of developed and honed skills that they can apply to the marketplace (with a bachelor’s degree) or to graduate school (for a master’s degree or a doctor- ate). Successful graduates of undergraduate psychology leave with many of these skills and abilities:

• Scientific literacy in reading and writing • Strong analytical skills and statistical/computer familiarity • Interpersonal awareness and self-monitoring/management skills • Communication skills and the ability to work in groups • Problem-solving and information-finding skills • Critical thinking and higher order analysis capabilities • Research and measurement skills

More than likely, the opportunities to acquire these skills exist in your psy- chology department. Some of these skills will be honed and sharpened in the class- room and by performing class-related tasks, but others are better learned outside the classroom from experiences gained as a research assistant, internship, or teach- ing assistant. This book is designed for one primary purpose—to help you get the most out of your undergraduate psychology major experience. If you don’t take ad- vantage of the opportunities that surround you, someone else will.

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Chapter 2 • Why Psychology? 23

Please circle one answer for each question

Survey Items Strongly Disagree

Moderately Disagree Neutral

Moderately Agree

Strongly Agree

I feel prepared for any type of post-B.A./B.S. career 1 2 3 4 5 I know the information necessary to apply for graduate

programs in psychology 1 2 3 4 5

I am certain I will be able to work in a psychology- related job

1 2 3 4 5

I understand the course requirements for the psychology major at this university

1 2 3 4 5

I am familiar with the jobs a B.A./B.S.-level psychologist can attain

1 2 3 4 5

I feel prepared to apply for graduate school 1 2 3 4 5 I understand the course requirements for the

psychology minor at this university 1 2 3 4 5

I know about the opportunities in psychology that I can experience outside of the classroom

1 2 3 4 5

I am committed to the psychology major 1 2 3 4 5 I know how to find information about psychology on

the Internet 1 2 3 4 5

I understand the importance of math and science in psychology

1 2 3 4 5

I know how to find information about psychology using PsycINFO

1 2 3 4 5

I have a good understanding of the study skills needed for success in college

1 2 3 4 5

I am familiar with the type of careers graduates from this program have attained

1 2 3 4 5

I understand the ethical implications of studying psychology and doing psychological research

1 2 3 4 5

Letters of recommendation are an important part of the post-B.A./B.S. process

1 2 3 4 5

I understand some of the disciplines related to psychology

1 2 3 4 5

After this course, I think I’ll still be interested in majoring in psychology

1 2 3 4 5

I want a career that is psychology-related 1 2 3 4 5

Which term best reflects your current feeling toward being a psychology major? (Circle one)

Very negative

Somewhat negative Uncertain

Somewhat positive

Very positive

EXERCISE #2: Psychology Survey

Below is a survey from Dillinger and Landrum (2002) that your first author uses when teaching the “Introduction to the Psychology Major” course at Boise State University. This survey addresses many of the topics in this book. Before reading any further, complete this survey now, and at the end of the book (or the end of the course) you can revisit this survey and see if there have been any changes.

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C H A P T E R 3

Careers with a Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology

Early in your undergraduate career, it is important to think about your future career goals—those goals may influence the decisions you make today. If there is a particular area in psychology that you would like to work in after graduation, the coursework you take now should be related to the skills and abilities you will need on the job. This chapter is about the options you have as a bachelor’s-level psychology graduate. You may be surprised at the opportunities that are available, but you also need to recognize the challenges and limitations.

THE UNDERGRADUATE CURRICULUM

As you think about selecting a particular college or university, or as you ponder the decision you have already made, how much did the curriculum (the courses required and recommended by the psychology department and the university) influence your decision? Although the overall reputation of the institution probably influenced your decision, your choice of psychology as a major was probably not made on the basis of a particular course offered by the department. You may be surprised, but psychologists care deeply about the undergraduate curriculum! This interest has a long history (Holder, Leavitt, & McKenna, 1958; Menges & Trumpeter, 1972; Messer, Griggs, & Jackson, 1999; Task Force on Strengthening the Teaching and Learning of Undergraduate Psychological Sciences, 2006; Wolfle, 1947), and psychologists continue to study and tweak the curriculum to meet the needs of students and employers (Perlman & McCann, 1998a, 1998b). Although students may not give the curriculum much thought, it provides the intellectual foundation on which you can achieve an education in psychology. A good curriculum meets the needs of students who want to work as a bachelor’s-level psychology graduate, as well as students who go on to graduate school.

While in school, however, it is important to be thinking ahead to the transitions to be made at the conclusion of your undergraduate training (more on this at the end of the chapter). The transition from college to work continues to receive scrutiny by researchers. Consider this idea offered by Holton (1998), as cited in Hettich (2004):

The paradox is that although the knowledge acquired in college is critical to graduates’ success, the process of succeeding in school is very different from the process of succeeding at work. Many of the skills students developed to be successful in education processes and the behaviors for which they were rewarded are not the ones they need to be successful at work. Worse yet, the culture of education is so different that when

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seniors continue to have the same expectations of their employers that they did of their college and professors, they are greatly disappointed with their jobs and make costly career mistakes. Despite their best attempts to make adjustments, they cannot adjust for educational conditioning because they are not conscious of it. (p. 4)

Serious consideration has been given to the learning goals and outcomes of psy- chology majors. An APA task force designed to explore and articulate these learning goals and outcomes developed a list of 10 goals and outcomes that describe the knowl- edge, skills, and abilities developed within the psychology major and enhanced by the psychology major. These learning goals and outcomes are presented in Table 3.1.

As you can see, this is an impressive list! Given a thoughtful curriculum, by the time you have completed your undergraduate education you should be improving in all of these areas.

WHAT EMPLOYERS WANT, AND WHAT THEY PAY

Researchers continue to study those job skills that employers who hire bachelor’s degree psychology majors value. Three sources of information demonstrate a convergence in what employers are looking for—social and personal skills, the ability to work in groups, flexibility, etc. Table 3.2 presents three perspectives on employer-desired job skills and highlights the convergence. Given the differing methodologies used to draw conclusions, the emphasis on communication skills, flexibility/adaptability, interpersonal dynamics, ability to work as a team, and other skills and abilities emerge across the studies. It is important for students and faculty alike to understand the importance of this list, and to ensure that faculty members strive, in part, to design curricular experiences that allow students to acquire and hone many of the skills presented in Table 3.2.

O’Hare and McGuiness (2004) offer a helpful organizational view of the types of skills and abilities that psychology majors should possess. One category of skills is known as “thinking skills,” it includes such items as interpreting and evaluating

TABLE 3.1 Undergraduate Psychology Learning Goals and Outcomes

Knowledge, Skills, and Values Consistent with the Science and Application of Psychology

Knowledge, Skills, and Values Consistent with Liberal Arts Education That Are Further Developed in Psychology

1. Knowledge base of psychology—students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology

6. Information and technological literacy—will demon- strate information competence and the ability to use computers and other technology for many purposes

2. Research methods in psychology—students will understand and apply basic research methods in psychology, including research design, data analysis, and interpretation

7. Communication skills—students will be able to communi- cate effectively in a variety of formats

3. Critical thinking skills in psychology—students will respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solve problems related to behavior and mental processes

8. Sociocultural and international awareness—students will recognize, understand, and respect the complexity of sociocultural and international diversity

4. Application of psychology—students will understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues

9. Personal development—students will develop insight into their own and others’ behavior and mental process and apply effective strategies for self-management and self-improvement

5. Values in psychology—students will be able to weigh evidence, tolerate ambiguity, act ethically, and reflect other values that are the underpinnings of psychology as a discipline

10. Career planning and development—students will emerge from the major with realistic ideas about how to implement their psychological knowledge, skills, and values in occupational pursuits in a variety of settings

Source: American Psychological Association (2007).

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TABLE 3.2 What Employers Want from Those with a Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology

Jobweb (2001)—What Employers Want—Top 10 Qualities Employers Seek

Communication skills (verbal and written) Strong work ethic Honesty/integrity Analytical skills Teamwork skills Flexibility/adaptability Interpersonal skills Computer skills Motivation/initiative Self-confidence

Appleby (2000)—Job Skills Valued by Employers Who Interview Psychology Majors

Social skills Information gathering/processing skills Personal skills Numerical/computer/psychometric skills Communication skills

Landrum and Harrold (2003)—Employer’s Perception of Importance—Top 10 Skills and Abilities

Listening skills Focus on customers/clients Ability to work with others as part of a work team Interpersonal relationship skills Getting along with others Adaptability to changing situations Desire and willingness to learn Ability to suggest solutions to problems Willingness to learn new, important skills Problem-solving skills

information, testing and formulating hypotheses, analysis, information gathering and handling, evaluation, using research methodology, referencing, writing, and so on. A second category is labeled “self-management skills,” and includes items like time management, self-discipline, presentation skills and public speaking, self- confidence, responsibility, and self-assessment. The third category of skills is “corporate management skills.” These skills involve managing people and re- sources, negotiation, adaptability, networking, leadership, teamwork, assertiveness, and so on. This organizational scheme may be helpful as you think about what you want to achieve during your undergraduate career.

We have already mentioned in Chapter 1 the overall value of a bachelor’s de- gree. But what about a bachelor’s degree in psychology? You should note that this information is difficult to come by, and the information that is available comes from various sources, such as the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) and the Bureau of Labor Statistics. According to Murray (2002a), the NACE average starting salary for psychology majors in 2001–2002 was $29,952. Gelhaus (2007–2008) reports that the average starting salary for psychology majors in 2007 was $31,857. First, it is important to note that these are average starting salaries. Second, the diverse employment opportunities for psychology graduates compounds the difficulty in collecting accurate salary information. Lastly, as in all professions, you will most likely start at the bottom and have to work your way up. So, although these salary figures may be a bit disappointing, remember that they are average start- ing figures—it will be up to you to make them go up! Of course these starting salaries will vary by region of the country, job demands, experience, etc. We do not present these numbers to lower your enthusiasm for psychology; however, we feel it is important that you make an informed decision about majoring in psychology.

Hopefully, we have convinced you of the importance of the curriculum and its connection to what employers want. Next, see if there is a career course available at your institution. For example, at Boise State University, one course that orients the student to the major, as well as career opportunities, is called “Introduction to the Psychology Major.” At Emporia State University, the course is called “The Professional Psychologist.” Buckalew and Lewis (1982) called for such courses to be made avail- able to let students know about the career opportunities and choices available to them. Kennedy and Lloyd (1998) completed an evaluation of Georgia Southern University’s “Careers in Psychology” course and found that students in the course clarified career goals and were most satisfied with the topics tied to careers andIS

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graduate school. Dodson, Chastain, and Landrum (1996) also evaluated a psychology seminar course at Boise State and found that students changed their way of thinking about psychology because of the course. For instance, students often changed the terminal degree they were planning to pursue (e.g., from a doctorate to a master’s degree), and they changed their strategies for seeking financial aid for graduate edu- cation (they became aware of more opportunities for funding). If your university has a careers course, seriously consider taking it—if it is not available, suggest it to a student-friendly faculty member (perhaps it can be taught as a special topics course or one-time offering). Also, your local Psi Chi chapter or Psychology Club might con- sider inviting faculty members to give talks about career opportunities in psychology.

CAREERS WITH A BACHELOR’S DEGREE

You may be surprised to discover the variety of opportunities available to you with a bachelor’s degree in psychology. For some reason, faculty sometimes present this career path as a bleak alternative (as compared with going to graduate school); the majority of most graduates, however, do not pursue graduate training. However, we do want to be realistic about the opportunities. You will not be able to be a practicing psychologist without an advanced degree in psychology. With your bachelor’s de- gree, you can obtain jobs both within psychology (usually in a support staff-type of role) and related to the discipline of psychology. There are also a number of oppor- tunities to apply your undergraduate training in psychology in areas that are not directly related to psychology but that involve some components of human behavior. If you stop to think about it, there are very few, if any, jobs or careers that do not involve or would not benefit from a greater understanding of human behavior.

What can you do with a bachelor’s degree in psychology? Before we address some of the specific job opportunities available, let us review the primary work ac- tivities of bachelor’s degree holders. According to the American Psychological Association (2003) Research Office, 44% work in management sales and administra- tion; 24% in professional services; 13% in teaching; 11% in computer applications; and 8% in research and development. These data are based on the results of a 1999 survey of bachelor’s-level degree recipients. Where do they work? This same survey found that 48% work for for-profit companies, 13% work for educational institu- tions, 12% work for nonprofit organizations, 11% work for state or local govern- ment, 6% work for universities and colleges, 6% are self-employed, and 4% work for the federal government. As you can see, the variety of tasks and settings is vast, in- cluding many business applications. We will make these opportunities even clearer later in the chapter when potential job descriptions are presented.

Employers have different expectations about what you can do based on your level of education. Pinkus and Korn (1973) found that bachelor’s level employers expect their applicants to be generalists, with favorable personality traits and some type of field experience, preferably a supervised situation. Experience is important! You need to take advantage of the opportunities available to you in your psychology department. Even at the bachelor’s level (and especially if you have intentions of going to graduate school), being a good (or even great) “book-student” is not enough. Straight A’s and a 4.0 GPA are not enough to convince an employer to hand you a job. Although people will be somewhat interested in what you know, they also want to know what you can do and what you have done.

What are the careers related to psychology that are available to the bachelor’s- level psychology major? As you explore your opportunities for employment with a bachelor’s degree, it would be helpful to know some of the choices available and what some of the job titles are Table 3.3 presents a sampling of job titles relevant to students with a bachelor’s degree in psychology. However, you should know that no listing of possible jobs will be completely accurate—why? Even if you receive your bachelor’s degree in psychology, you are not required to go into a psychology related field. You may find something outside of psychology that interests you, and you decide to pursue it. On the other hand, it could be that you are having difficulty

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TABLE 3.3 Occupations of Interest to Students with a Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology

Activities director Dietician Polygraph examiner Admissions evaluator Elementary school teacher Preschool teacher Advertising sales representative Employee health maintenance program

specialist Probation/parole officer

Alumni director Employee relations specialist

Psychiatric aide/attendant Animal trainer

Employment counselor Psychiatric technician

Applied statistician Employment interviewer

Psychological stress evaluator Benefits manager

Financial aid counselor Public health director

Career information specialist Fund-raiser

Public relations representative Caseworker

Group worker Purchasing agent

Child developmental specialist Health care facility administrator

Real estate agent Child welfare/placement caseworker

High school teacher Recreation leader

Claims supervisor Human resource advisor

Recreation supervisor Coach

Information specialist Recreational therapist

Community organization worker Job analyst

Research assistant Community worker

Labor relations manager Retail salesperson

Computer programmer Loan officer

Social group worker Conservation officer

Management analyst Social services aide

Correctional treatment specialist Market research analyst

Substance abuse counselor Corrections officer

Mental retardation aide Systems analyst

Criminal investigator Newswriter

Technical writer Customer service representative supervisor

Occupational analyst Veterans contact representative

Database administrator Patient resources and reimbursement agent

Vocational training teacher Database design analyst

Personnel recruiter Volunteer coordinator

Delinquency prevention social worker Police officer

Writer Department manager

finding a job and you end up taking any job, regardless of it being related to psy- chology. Rajecki (2008) has suggested that some job lists may be misleading in that psychology majors looking at these job lists are either under qualified or overquali- fied for the position. Thus, in providing a broad look at job opportunities, students may be mismatched with occupations.

So what’s the bottom line—an undergraduate education in psychology is good preparation for gainful employment, but that employment may not be psychology-re- lated. If that’s what you want, then you should complete narrow job searches to ensure that your qualifications match the jobs you are looking for. If you are open to broad search of the possibilities, then do not limit your job search to just psychology-related positions. Ultimately, the decision is yours! Table 3.3 provides some sample occupa- tions for psychology majors that do not require a graduate degree (Appleby, 2006).

CAREER OPTIONS, JOB DESCRIPTIONS, AND THE AMAZING O*NET

O*NET stands for Occupational Information Network, which is a comprehensive database of work attributes and job characteristics. O*NET incorporates much of the information that was formerly available from the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (which is no longer published). Quite simply, O*NET is an amazing tool that anyone with Internet access (http://online.onetcenter.org) can use. Covering over 1,000 occu- pations, O*NET provides detailed information about each job, including knowledge, skills, and abilities needed, interests, general work activities, and a work context. It also provides links to salary information.

All occupations are organized using O*NET-SOC codes (SOC stands for standard occupational classification). In the example job descriptions included in this chapter, we have also included the O*NET-SOC codes so that if you want more information about a particular job, you can use that code at online.onetcen- ter.org to instantly access detailed information. This system is well designed and user-friendly. What kind of detailed information is available about each job? In the exercise at the end of this chapter, we include a complete sample listing for

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Success Stories

Candace Brown

Boise State University Alumnus

I’ve been interested in Forensic Psychology ever since I decided to major in Psychology (about 8 years ago). I had planned on getting my doctorate in Forensic Psychology, but after moving to Boise from Minnesota, decided I wasn’t ready to move across the country again (most of the decent Forensic Psychology colleges were back East). While in school, I tried to learn as much as I could about different positions in the Boise area regarding hours, type of work, pay, qualifications, etc.

When I graduated in 2000, I started applying places and realized that a B.S. in Psychology isn’t going to get you much pay—at least if you want to work in the field! I took a job as a Vocational Evaluator, where I administered different types of tests to peo- ple with physical, mental, and/or emotional disabilities. The work itself was very interest- ing and I gained wonderful skills, but unfortunately, the company wasn’t running very well and there was a great lack of respect for our manager and a lack of organization among my office members. I thought long and hard about what I wanted to do as a career and thought I would pursue a corporate training degree. I knew corporate trainers made a lot of money and I started a graduate program at Boise State. That lasted one semester, when I realized that doing something just for the money is a bad idea! I had become frus- trated at making so little and at the time, I was willing to sacrifice my true interests. I had also always been interested in law (though I didn’t want to be an attorney) and thought it sounded very interesting—maybe I could work in criminal law and satisfy that craving! Having my bachelor’s degree helped me get into the program and I graduated with my Paralegal certificate in May of this year. I love working as a Paralegal and without my bachelor’s degree, I wouldn’t have gotten many of the opportunities I have—my current job, for one! I feel that the opportunities are endless.

I wish when I was obtaining my degree that I had done an internship. It wasn’t re- quired when I was in the Psychology program and because I had to work to pay all my own bills, I didn’t feel it would be worth it to take time out from work to do it. I think it would have been well worth it—to gain some job skills and make connections. If an in- ternship is not possible because of work duties, I would work extra hard at talking to as many people as you can in the field and learn about various types of jobs. When I thought of Psychology, I thought in a very narrow scope, so it’s important to check things out and keep an open mind!

I feel like employers really value someone with a degree because it shows a sense of commitment and the ability to follow through. Many jobs today require some sort of de- gree, no matter what it’s in, so don’t ever feel that it’s a waste of time. One thing I suggest, though, is to maybe try to be somewhat specific in your career goals. I graduated not re- ally knowing what I wanted to do and because the major is so general, it can be hard to set yourself apart from all the other graduates out there. Even if you do volunteer work, make yourself unique and network, network, network!

The best advice I can give on finding a good job is to keep an open mind. Even if you want to stay in a specific area, like Boise, check out what’s going on in other parts of the country! It will help you know what the trends are, what salaries are like and may give you some ideas of certain companies, organizations, etc. to look at when job searching. I think the most important thing is to not get frustrated, but also be realistic. You’re proba- bly not going to make $40,000 per year fresh out of school, or maybe I was just looking in the wrong places! For me, once I got into a more specific career field, things started falling into place. Just focus on what’s important and what your interests are and go for it! Sometimes our priorities change, but it’s important to always do something you enjoy!

a recreational therapist. What is that? As you will see from the sample, a great deal of detail is available. You can examine not only the tasks of that job, but the knowledge required, skills necessary, abilities used, typical work activities, the context of work, training expected, and general interest of those in the job, work styles, work values, related occupations, and a link to wage information!

Although it is rather long, in the following pages we present some of the job titles and brief descriptions of over 100 jobs that are related to psychology, related

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to business, and other jobs. Our feeling is that if you want to explore your career options, you need to know a bit about the actual careers. You will note that we have also included the O*NET-SOC code with each occupation—if you want to ob- tain complete data about a particular job (as with the example in Exercise #3)—you can visit http://online.onetcenter.org and directly enter this code.

WHAT ABOUT THE ASSOCIATE’S DEGREE?

At some colleges and universities, students can graduate with an associate’s degree in psychology. Unfortunately there is very little national information about this de- gree, jobs available to associate’s degree holders, salaries, etc. A comprehensive re- view found few published works (e.g., APA, 1986; Kerchhoff & Bell, 1998; Taylor & Hardy, 1996). Taylor and Hardy’s (1996) study was of associate’s degree holders from one university. They found that the types of jobs held with this degree in- clude “human resources worker, crisis intervention associate, rehabilitation worker, child welfare worker, psychiatric technician, correctional officer, police officer, child care assistant, mental health technician, aide to geriatric clients, and social welfare worker” (p. 960). In a careers pamphlet from APA (1986), the occupations typical for an associate’s degree recipient were described in these categories:

Human services—training to work in social welfare agencies, correctional facilities, or agencies serving special populations, such as the elderly, the physically handicapped, and the mentally handicapped.

Mental health—training for employment in mental hospitals, mental health clinics, community mental health centers, counseling centers, and crisis inter- vention units.

Drug and alcohol rehabilitation counseling—training to work under su- pervision as a counseling aide or paraprofessional counselor to people under treatment for abusing drugs or alcohol.

Early childhood education—training for a job as a teacher’s aide or a child care assistant in a preschool, day-care center, Head Start program, or other service for young children.

The information about salary levels of associate’s degree holders is extremely limited, also coming from the Taylor and Hardy (1996) study of one institution’s asso- ciate’s degree graduates. They found that entry-level salaries for holders of the associ- ate’s degree ranged from $9,600 to $14,000, with salaries $4,000–$8,000 higher in the eastern and western coastal states. Although the associate’s degree is a popular option for some students, unfortunately there is very little national data collected on this topic that might be helpful for students considering this option. It does seem clear that “peo- ple employed in these settings with associate degree training are supervised by a psy- chologist, social worker, or teacher” (APA, 1986, p. 19). At the end of the 2005–2006 year, 1,944 associate’s degrees in psychology were awarded (Snyder et al., 2008).

In Table 3.4 we present possible careers as organized by psychology related, business related, and other. But remember, a psychology degree is not necessarily required for many of these careers, and for some, you may be overqualified or under qualified (Rajecki, 2008).

BECOMING A FRESHMAN AGAIN

At the beginning of this chapter we alluded to the challenges in making the transi- tion from college to the world of work. In the next chapter, we will explore the strategies you can use to land that good job with a bachelor’s degree. But for now, it’s worth considering the challenges you have ahead. Paul Hettich has studied this issue of transitions, and not only clearly identifies the parameters, but also offers tips for how to deal with this challenge. Table 3.5 (page 37) highlights the differences between college and the workplace.

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TABLE 3.4 Career Options and Occupational Descriptions

Psychology-Related Job Titles, Brief Descriptions, and O*NET-SOC Codes 11-3042.00—Training and Development Managers—Plan, direct, or coordinate the training and development activities and staff of an organization. 11-9031.00—Education Administrators, Preschool and Child Care Center/Program—Plan, direct, or coordinate the academic and nonacademic activities of preschool and child care centers or programs. 11-9111.00—Medical and Health Services Managers—Plan, direct, or coordinate medicine and health services in hospitals, clinics, managed care organizations, public health agencies, or similar organizations. 11-9151.00—Social and Community Service Managers—Plan, organize, or coordinate the activities of a social service program or community outreach organization. Oversee the program or organization’s budget and policies regarding participant involvement, program requirements, and benefits. Work may involve directing social workers, counselors, or probation officers. 13-1071.01—Employment Interviewers, Private or Public Employment Service—Interview job applicants in employment office and refer them to prospective employers for consideration. Search application files, notify selected applicants of job openings, and refer qualified applicants to prospective employers. Contact employers to verify referral results. Record and evaluate various pertinent data. 13-1073.00—Training and Development Specialists—Conduct training and development programs for employees. 19-4061.00—Social Science Research Assistants—Assist social scientists in laboratory, survey, and other social research. May perform publication activities, laboratory analysis, quality control, or data management. Normally these individuals work under the direct supervision of a social scientist and assist in those activities that are more routine. 19-4092.00—Forensic Science Technicians—Collect, identify, classify, and analyze physical evidence related to criminal investigations. Perform tests on weapons or substances, such as fiber, hair, and tissue to determine significance to investigation. May testify as expert witnesses on evidence or crime laboratory techniques. May serve as specialists in area of expertise, such as ballistics, fingerprinting, handwriting, or biochemistry. 21-1011.00—Substance Abuse and Behavioral Disorder Counselors—Counsel and advise individuals with alcohol, tobacco, drug, or other problems, such as gambling and eating disorders. May counsel individuals, families, or groups or engage in prevention programs. 21-1012.00—Educational, Vocational, and School Counselors—Counsel individuals and provide group educational and vocational guidance services. 21-1014.00—Mental Health Counselors—Counsel with emphasis on prevention. Work with individuals and groups to promote optimum mental health. May help individuals deal with addictions and substance abuse; family, parenting, and marital problems; suicide; stress management; problems with self-esteem; and issues associated with aging and mental and emotional health. 21-1015.00—Rehabilitation Counselors—Counsel individuals to maximize the independence and employability of persons coping with personal, social, and vocational difficulties that result from birth defects, illness, disease, accidents, or the stress of daily life. Coordinate activities for residents of care and treatment facilities. Assess client needs and design and implement rehabilitation programs that may include personal and vocational counseling, training, and job placement.

21-1091.00—Health Educators—Promote, maintain, and improve individual and community health by assisting individuals and communities to adopt healthy behaviors. Collect and analyze data to identify community needs prior to planning, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating programs designed to encourage healthy lifestyles, policies, and environments. May also serve as a resource to assist individuals, other professionals, or the community, and may administer fiscal resources for health education programs. 21-1092.00—Probation Officers and Correctional Treatment Specialists—Provide social services to assist in rehabilitation of law offenders in custody or on probation or parole. Make recommendations for actions involving formulation of rehabilitation plan and treatment of offender, including conditional release and education and employment stipulations. 21-1093.00—Social and Human Service Assistants—Assist professionals from a wide variety of fields, such as psychology, rehabilitation, or social work, to provide client services, as well as support for families. May assist clients in identifying available benefits and social and community services and help clients obtain them. May assist social workers with developing, organizing, and conducting programs to prevent and resolve problems relevant to substance abuse, human relationships, rehabilitation, or adult daycare. 25-1194.00—Vocational Education Teachers Postsecondary—Teach or instruct vocational or occupational subjects at the postsecondary level (but at less than the baccalaureate) to students who have graduated or left high school. Includes correspondence school instructors; industrial, commercial, and government training instructors; and adult education teachers and instructors who prepare persons to operate industrial machinery and equipment and transportation and communications equipment. Teaching may take place in public or private schools whose primary business is education or in a school associated with an organization whose primary business is other than education.

(continued)

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25-3011.00—Adult Literacy, Remedial Education, and GED Teachers and Instructors—Teach or instruct out-of-school youths and adults in remedial education classes, preparatory classes for the General Educational Development test, literacy, or English as a Second Language. Teaching may or may not take place in a traditional educational institution. 25-3021.00—Self-Enrichment Education Teachers—Teach or instruct courses other than those that normally lead to an occupational objective or degree. Courses may include self-improvement, non-vocational, and nonacademic subjects. Teaching may or may not take place in a traditional educational institution. 25-9031.00—Instructional Coordinators—Develop instructional material, coordinate educational content, and incorporate current technology in specialized fields that provide guidelines to educators and instructors for developing curricula and conducting courses. 25-9041.00—Teacher Assistants—Perform duties that are instructional in nature or deliver direct services to students or parents. Serve in a position for which a teacher or another professional has ultimate responsibility for the design and implementation of educational programs and services. 29-1122.00—Occupational Therapists—Assess, plan, organize, and participate in rehabilitative programs that help restore vocational, homemaking, and daily living skills, as well as general independence, to disabled persons. 29-1125.00—Recreational Therapists—Plan, direct, or coordinate medically approved recreation programs for patients in hospitals, nursing homes, or other institutions. Activities include sports, trips, dramatics, social activities, and arts and crafts. May assess a patient’s condition and recommend appropriate recreational activity. 29-2053.00—Psychiatric Technicians—Care for mentally impaired or emotionally disturbed individuals, following physician instructions and hospital procedures. Monitor patients’ physical and emotional well-being and report to medical staff. May participate in rehabilitation and treatment programs, help with personal hygiene, and administer oral medications and hypodermic injections. 29-9011.00—Occupational Health and Safety Specialists—Review, evaluate, and analyze work environments and design programs and procedures to control, eliminate, and prevent disease or injury caused by chemical, physical, and biological agents or ergonomic factors. May conduct inspections and enforce adherence to laws and regulations governing the health and safety of individuals. May be employed in the public or private sector. 29-9091.00—Athletic Trainers—Evaluate, advise, and treat athletes to assist recovery from injury, avoid injury, or maintain peak physical fitness. 31-1013.00—Psychiatric Aides—Assist mentally impaired or emotionally disturbed patients, working under direction of nursing and medical staff. 31-2011.00—Occupational Therapist Assistants—Assist occupational therapists in providing occupational therapy treatments and procedures. May, in accordance with state laws, assist in development of treatment plans, carry out routine functions, direct activity programs, and document the progress of treatments. Generally requires formal training. 33-3012.00—Correctional Officers and Jailers—Guard inmates in penal or rehabilitative institution in accordance with established regulations and procedures. May guard prisoners in transit between jail, courtroom, prison, or other point. Includes deputy sheriffs and police who spend the majority of their time guarding prisoners in correctional institutions. 33-3021.03—Criminal Investigators and Special Agents—Investigate alleged or suspected criminal violations of federal, state, or local laws to determine if evidence is sufficient to recommend prosecution. 33-3021.04—Child Support, Missing Persons, and Unemployment Insurance Fraud Investigators—Conduct investigations to locate, arrest, and return fugitives and persons wanted for nonpayment of support payments and unemployment insurance fraud, and to locate missing persons. 39-9011.00—Child Care Workers—Attend to children at schools, businesses, private households, and child care institutions. Perform a variety of tasks, such as dressing, feeding, bathing, and overseeing play. 39-9021.00—Personal and Home Care Aides—Assist elderly or disabled adults with daily living activities at the person’s home or in a daytime nonresidential facility. Duties performed at a place of residence may include keeping house (making beds, doing laundry, washing dishes) and preparing meals. May provide meals and supervised activities at nonresidential care facilities. May advise families, the elderly, and the disabled on such things as nutrition, cleanliness, and household utilities. 39-9041.00—Residential Advisors—Coordinate activities for residents of boarding schools, college fraternities or sororities, college dormitories, or similar establishments. Order supplies and determine need for maintenance, repairs, and furnishings. May maintain household records and assign rooms. May refer residents to counseling resources if needed. 43-4061.01—Claims Takers, Unemployment Benefits—Interview unemployed workers and compile data to determine eligibility for unemployment benefits. 43-4061.02—Welfare Eligibility Workers and Interviewers—Interview and investigate applicants and recipients to determine eligibility for use of social programs and agency resources. Duties include recording and evaluating personal and financial data obtained from individuals; initiating procedures to grant, modify, deny, or terminate eligibility for various aid programs; authorizing grant amounts; and preparing reports. These workers generally receive specialized training and assist social service caseworkers.

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TABLE 3.4 Career Options and Occupational Descriptions

43-9111.00—Statistical Assistants—Compile and compute data according to statistical formulas for use in statistical studies. May perform actuarial computations and compile charts and graphs for use by actuaries. Includes actuarial clerks.

Business-Related Job Titles, Brief Descriptions, and O*NET-SOC Codes 11-1021.00—General and Operations Managers—Plan, direct, or coordinate the operations of companies or public and private sector organizations. Duties and responsibilities include formulating policies, managing daily operations, and planning the use of materials and human resources, but are too diverse and general in nature to be classified in any one functional area of management or administration, such as personnel, purchasing, or administrative services. Includes owners and managers who head small business establishments whose duties are primarily managerial. 11-2011.00—Advertising and Promotions Managers—Plan and direct advertising policies and programs or produce collateral materials, such as posters, contests, coupons, or giveaways, to create extra interest in the purchase of a product or service for a department, an entire organization, or on an account basis. 11-2021.00—Marketing Managers—Determine the demand for products and services offered by a firm and its competitors and identify potential customers. Develop pricing strategies with the goal of maximizing the firm’s profits or share of the market while ensuring the firm’s customers are satisfied. Oversee product development or monitor trends that indicate the need for new products and services. 11-2022.00—Sales Managers—Direct the actual distribution or movement of a product or service to the customer. Coordinate sales distribution by establishing sales territories, quotas, and goals and establish training programs for sales representatives. Analyze sales statistics gathered by staff to determine sales potential and inventory requirements and monitor the preferences of customers. 11-2031.00—Public Relations Managers—Plan and direct public relations programs designed to create and maintain a favorable public image for employer or client; or if engaged in fund-raising, plan and direct activities to solicit and maintain funds for special projects and nonprofit organizations. 11-3011.00—Administrative Services Managers—Plan, direct, or coordinate supportive services of an organization, such as recordkeeping, mail distribution, telephone operator/receptionist, and other office support services. May oversee facilities planning and maintenance and custodial operations. 11-9141.00—Property, Real Estate, and Community Association Managers—Plan, direct, or coordinate selling, buying, leasing, or governance activities of commercial, industrial, or residential real estate properties. 13-1031.01—Claims Examiners, Property and Casualty Insurance—Review settled insurance claims to determine that payments and settlements have been made in accordance with company practices and procedures. Report overpayments, underpayments, and other irregularities. Confer with legal counsel on claims requiring litigation. 13-1031.02—Insurance Adjusters, Examiners, and Investigators—Investigate, analyze, and determine the extent of insurance company’s liability concerning personal, casualty, or property loss or damages, and attempt to effect settlement with claimants. Correspond with or interview medical specialists, agents, witnesses, or claimants to compile information. Calculate benefit payments and approve payment of claims within a certain monetary limit. 13-1032.00—Insurance Appraisers, Auto Damage—Appraise automobile or other vehicle damage to determine cost of repair for insurance claim settlement and seek agreement with automotive repair shop on cost of repair. Prepare insurance forms to indicate repair cost or cost estimates and recommendations. 13-1071.00—Employment, Recruitment, and Placement Specialists—Recruit and place workers. 13-1071.02—Personnel Recruiters—Seek out, interview, and screen applicants to fill existing and future job openings and promote career opportunities within an organization. 13-1072.00—Compensation, Benefits, and Job Analysis Specialists—Conduct programs of compensation and benefits and job analysis for employer. May specialize in specific areas, such as position classification and pension programs. 13-1121.00—Meeting and Convention Planners—Coordinate activities of staff and convention personnel to make arrangements for group meetings and conventions. 13-2021.01—Assessors—Appraise real and personal property to determine its fair value. May assess taxes in accordance with prescribed schedules. 13-2021.02—Appraisers, Real Estate—Appraise real property to determine its value for purchase, sales, investment, mortgage, or loan purposes. 13-2031.00—Budget Analysts—Examine budget estimates for completeness, accuracy, and conformance with procedures and regulations. Analyze budgeting and accounting reports for the purpose of maintaining expenditure controls. 13-2041.00—Credit Analysts—Analyze current credit data and financial statements of individuals or firms to determine the degree of risk involved in extending credit or lending money. Prepare reports with this credit information for use in decision-making.

13-2051.00—Financial Analysts—Conduct quantitative analyses of information affecting investment programs of public or private institutions.

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13-2053.00—Insurance Underwriters—Review individual applications for insurance to evaluate degree of risk involved and determine acceptance of applications. 13-2061.00—Financial Examiners—Enforce or ensure compliance with laws and regulations governing financial and securities institutions and financial and real estate transactions. May examine, verify correctness of, or establish authenticity of records. 13-2072.00—Loan Officers—Evaluate, authorize, or recommend approval of commercial, real estate, or credit loans. Advise borrowers on financial status and methods of payments. Includes mortgage loan officers and agents, collection analysts, loan servicing officers, and loan underwriters. 19-3021.00—Market Research Analysts—Research market conditions in local, regional, or national areas to determine potential sales of a product or service. May gather information on competitors, prices, sales, and methods of marketing and distribution. May use survey results to create a marketing campaign based on regional preferences and buying habits. 41-1011.00—First-Line Supervisors/Managers of Retail Sales Workers—Directly supervise sales workers in a retail establishment or department. Duties may include management functions, such as purchasing, budgeting, accounting, and personnel work, in addition to supervisory duties. 41-2031.00—Retail Salespersons—Sell merchandise, such as furniture, motor vehicles, appliances, or apparel in a retail establishment. 41-3011.00—Advertising Sales Agents—Sell or solicit advertising, including graphic arts, advertising space in publications, custom-made signs, or TV and radio advertising time. May obtain leases for outdoor advertising sites or persuade retailers to use sales promotion display items. 41-3021.00—Insurance Sales Agents—Sell life, property, casualty, health, automotive, or other types of insurance. May refer clients to independent brokers, work as an independent broker, or be employed by an insurance company. 41-4011.03—Sales Representatives, Electrical/Electronic—Sell electrical, electronic, or related products or services, such as communication equipment, radiographic-inspection equipment and services, ultrasonic equipment, electronics parts, computers, and EDP systems. 41-4011.05—Sales Representatives, Medical—Sell medical equipment, products, and services. Does not include pharmaceutical sales representatives. 41-9022.00—Real Estate Sales Agents—Rent, buy, or sell property for clients. Perform duties, such as study property listings, interview prospective clients, accompany clients to property site, discuss conditions of sale, and draw up real estate contracts. Includes agents who represent the buyer. 43-1011.01—First-Line Supervisors, Customer Service—Supervise and coordinate activities of workers involved in providing customer service. 43-1011.02—First-Line Supervisors, Administrative Support—Supervise and coordinate activities of workers involved in providing administrative support. 43-4051.00—Customer Service Representatives—Interact with customers to provide information in response to inquiries about products and services and to handle and resolve complaints. 43-4161.00—Human Resources Assistants, Except Payroll and Timekeeping—Compile and keep personnel records. Record data for each employee, such as address, weekly earnings, absences, amount of sales or production, supervisory reports on ability, and date of and reason for termination. Compile and type reports from employment records. File employment records. Search employee files and furnish information to authorized persons.

Other Job Titles, Brief Descriptions, and O*NET-SOC Codes 13-1041.01—Environmental Compliance Inspectors—Inspect and investigate sources of pollution to protect the public and environment and ensure conformance with federal, state, and local regulations and ordinances. 13-1041.02—Licensing Examiners and Inspectors—Examine, evaluate, and investigate eligibility for, conformity with, or liability under licenses or permits. 13-1051.00—Cost Estimators—Prepare cost estimates for product manufacturing, construction projects, or services to aid management in bidding on or determining price of product or service. May specialize according to particular service performed or type of product manufactured. 15-1081.00—Network Systems and Data Communications Analysts—Analyze, design, test, and evaluate network systems, such as local area networks (LAN), wide area networks (WAN), Internet, intranet, and other data communications systems. Perform network modeling, analysis, and planning. Research and recommend network and data communications hardware and software. Includes telecommunications specialists who deal with the interfacing of computer and communications equipment. May supervise computer programmers. 15-2031.00—Operations Research Analysts—Formulate and apply mathematical modeling and other optimizing methods using a computer to develop and interpret information that assists management with decision making, policy formulation, or other managerial functions. May develop related software, service, or products. Frequently concentrates on collecting and analyzing data and developing decision support software. May develop and supply optimal time, cost, or logistics networks for program evaluation, review, or implementation.

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TABLE 3.4 Career Options and Occupational Descriptions

15-2091.00—Mathematical Technicians—Apply standardized mathematical formulas, principles, and methodology to technological problems in engineering and physical sciences in relation to specific industrial and research objectives, processes, equipment, and products.

17-2111.01—Industrial Safety and Health Engineers—Plan, implement, and coordinate safety programs, requiring application of engineering principles and technology, to prevent or correct unsafe environmental working conditions. 17-2111.03—Product Safety Engineers—Develop and conduct tests to evaluate product safety levels and recommend measures to reduce or eliminate hazards. 19-3051.00—Urban and Regional Planners—Develop comprehensive plans and programs for use of land and physical facilities of local jurisdictions, such as towns, cities, counties, and metropolitan areas.

19-4091.00—Environmental Science and Protection Technicians, Including Health—Performs laboratory and field tests to monitor the environment and investigate sources of pollution, including those that affect health. Under direction of an environmental scientist or specialist, may collect samples of gases, soil, water, and other materials for testing and take corrective actions as assigned. 21-2021.00—Directors, Religious Activities and Education—Direct and coordinate activities of a denominational group to meet religious needs of students. Plan, direct, or coordinate church school programs designed to promote religious education among church membership. May provide counseling and guidance relative to marital, health, financial, and religious problems. 25-4011.00—Archivists—Appraise, edit, and direct safekeeping of permanent records and historically valuable documents. Participate in research activities based on archival materials. 25-4012.00—Curators—Administer affairs of museum and conduct research programs. Direct instructional, research, and public service activities of institution. 25-4013.00—Museum Technicians and Conservators—Prepare specimens, such as fossils, skeletal parts, lace, and textiles, for museum collection and exhibits. May restore documents or install, arrange, and exhibit materials. 25-4031.00—Library Technicians—Assist librarians by helping readers in the use of library catalogs, databases, and indexes to locate books and other materials; and by answering questions that require only brief consultation of standard reference. Compile records; sort and shelve books; remove or repair damaged books; register patrons; check materials in and out of the circulation process. Replace materials in shelving area (stacks) or files. Includes bookmobile drivers who operate bookmobiles or light trucks that pull trailers to specific locations on a predetermined schedule and assist with providing services in mobile libraries. 27-2012.03—Program Directors—Direct and coordinate activities of personnel engaged in preparation of radio or television station program schedules and programs, such as sports or news. 27-2012.05—Technical Directors/Managers—Coordinate activities of technical departments, such as taping, editing, engineering, and maintenance, to produce radio or television programs. 27-3021.00—Broadcast News Analysts—Analyze, interpret, and broadcast news received from various sources. 27-3022.00—Reporters and Correspondents—Collect and analyze facts about newsworthy events by interview, investigation, or observation. Report and write stories for newspaper, news magazine, radio, or television. 27-3031.00—Public Relations Specialists—Engage in promoting or creating goodwill for individuals, groups, or organizations by writing or selecting favorable publicity material and releasing it through various communications media. May prepare and arrange displays, and make speeches. 27-3041.00—Editors—Perform variety of editorial duties, such as laying out, indexing, and revising content of written materials, in preparation for final publication. 27-3042.00—Technical Writers—Write technical materials, such as equipment manuals, appendices, or operating and maintenance instructions. May assist in layout work. 27-3043.04—Copy Writers—Write advertising copy for use by publication or broadcast media to promote sale of goods and services. 29-2051.00—Dietetic Technicians—Assist dietitians in the provision of food service and nutritional programs. Under the supervision of dietitians, may plan and produce meals based on established guidelines, teach principles of food and nutrition, or counsel individuals. 29-2071.00—Medical Records and Health Information Technicians—Compile, process, and maintain medical records of hospital and clinic patients in a manner consistent with medical, administrative, ethical, legal, and regulatory requirements of the health care system. Process, maintain, compile, and report patient information for health requirements and standards. 31-1011.00—Home Health Aides—Provide routine, personal health care, such as bathing, dressing, or grooming, to elderly, convalescent, or disabled persons in the home of patients or in a residential care facility.

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31-1012.00—Nursing Aides, Orderlies, and Attendants—Provide basic patient care under direction of nursing staff. Perform duties, such as feed, bathe, dress, groom, or move patients, or change linens. 31-9096.00—Veterinary Assistants and Laboratory Animal Caretakers—Feed, water, and examine pets and other nonfarm animals for signs of illness, disease, or injury in laboratories and animal hospitals and clinics. Clean and disinfect cages and work areas, and sterilize laboratory and surgical equipment. May provide routine post-operative care, administer medication orally or topically, or prepare samples for laboratory examination under the supervision of veterinary or laboratory animal technologists or technicians, veterinarians, or scientists.

33-9021.00—Private Detectives and Investigators—Detect occurrences of unlawful acts or infractions of rules in private establishment, or seek, examine, and compile information for client. 33-9032.00—Security Guards—Guard, patrol, or monitor premises to prevent theft, violence, or infractions of rules.

39-9032.00—Recreation Workers—Conduct recreation activities with groups in public, private, or volunteer agencies or recreation facilities. Organize and promote activities, such as arts and crafts, sports, games, music, dramatics, social recreation, camping, and hobbies, taking into account the needs and interests of individual members. 43-4111.00—Interviewers, Except Eligibility and Loan—Interview persons by telephone, mail, in person, or by other means for the purpose of completing forms, applications, or questionnaires. Ask specific questions, record answers, and assist persons with completing form. May sort, classify, and file forms. 43-6011.00—Executive Secretaries and Administrative Assistants—Provide high-level administrative support by conducting research, preparing statistical reports, handling information requests, and performing clerical functions such as preparing correspondence, receiving visitors, arranging conference calls, and scheduling meetings. May also train and supervise lower- level clerical staff.

43-9011.00—Computer Operators—Monitor and control electronic computer and peripheral electronic data processing equipment to process business, scientific, engineering, and other data according to operating instructions. May enter commands at a computer terminal and set controls on computer and peripheral devices. Monitor and respond to operating and error messages.

53-6041.00—Traffic Technicians—Conduct field studies to determine traffic volume, speed, effectiveness of signals, ade- quacy of lighting, and other factors influencing traffic conditions, under direction of traffic engineer.

Source: National O*NETTM Consortium (2001, May).

TABLE 3.5 Graduates Perceived Differences Between College and Workplace

College Workplace

Frequent and concrete feedback Feedback infrequent and not specific

Some freedom to set a schedule Less freedom or control over schedule

Frequent breaks and time off Limited time off

Choose performance level “A” level work expected continuously

Correct answers usually available Few right answers

Passive participation permitted Active participation in initiative expected

Independent thinking supported Independent thinking often discouraged

Environment of personal support Usually less personal support

Focus on personal development Focus on getting results for organization

Structured courses and curriculum Much less structure, fewer directions

Few changes in routine Often constant and unexpected changes

Personal control over time Responds to supervisor’s directions

Individual effort and performance Often, team effort and performance

Intellectual challenge Organizational and people challenges

Acquisition of knowledge Acquisition and application of knowledge

Professors Supervisors

Source: Hettich (2004, April).

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The challenges are numerous! In thinking about how to prepare for this tran- sition, Hettich (2004, pp. 8–9) provides concrete advice on strategies you can pur- sue while still an undergraduate student. His suggestions include:

• Complete courses that focus directly on specific organizational aspects of the workplace, such as management, leadership, communication and group skills, organizational behavior, the sociology of organizations, career planning, and human resources.

• Enroll in workshops, seminars, or courses that focus on self-development, leadership, conflict management, team building, interpersonal communi- cation, time management, stress management, and similar professional skills.

• Join clubs, sports, and campus organizations where collaboration, team- work, conflict, communication, and leadership are practiced as constructive tools.

• Complete internships and perform volunteer work. • Collect evidence of curricular and cocurricular achievements, including pa-

pers, projects, awards, and performance evaluations, and organize them in an electronic portfolio that monitors personal progress and serves as a tool in job searches.

• Recognize that grades, test scores, and GPAs are often skewed predictors of intelligence in the workplace.

• Remember that teachers cannot give students all the answers because we do not know them.

There are multiple opportunities for success in the workplace, but there are matching challenges as well. We hope this chapter has alerted you to some of the opportunities; Chapter 4 provides strategies for how to pursue the career that you want. If financial considerations are your primary objective, many areas of psychol- ogy may not satisfy your needs. Serious career exploration and an understanding of your own value system will help you find a suitable career match. Other chap- ters of this book also help you to find where your “niche” might be. Our sugges- tion—be as honest as you can with yourself from the start, and you will probably have less grief in the long run. You are employable with a bachelor’s degree in psychology! Combs (2000, p. 14) bluntly summarizes the relationship between se- lecting your major and getting a good job: “No matter what you major in, if you can’t answer the phone, make a presentation, do a spreadsheet, or write a business letter, nobody needs you.”

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EXERCISE #3: The O*Net System

Previously in this chapter we presented brief job descriptions of over 100 potential occupations of interest for psychology majors. This information comes from the O*NET system (Occupational Information Network). For each occupation, there is actually detailed information available, covering numerous job-related areas. Below we have re-created the information available for one position, recreational therapist. For this exercise, visit the O*NET Web site (http://online.onetcenter.org) and explore job occupations that interest you. There are even tools available to help you explore what your career interests are.

Updated 2003

Related Links

Summary Report for:

29-1125.00—Recreational Therapists

Plan, direct, or coordinate medically approved recreation programs for patients in hospitals, nursing homes, or other institutions. Activities include sports, trips, dra- matics, social activities, and arts and crafts. May assess a patient’s condition and rec- ommend appropriate recreational activity.

TASKS

• Observe, analyze, and record patients’ participation, reactions, and progress during treatment sessions, modifying treatment programs as needed.

• Develop treatment plan to meet needs of patient, based on needs assessment, patient interests, and objectives of therapy.

• Encourage clients with special needs and circumstances to acquire new skills and get involved in health-promoting leisure activities, such as sports, games, arts and crafts, and gardening.

• Counsel and encourage patients to develop leisure activities. • Confer with members of treatment team to plan and evaluate therapy pro-

grams. • Conduct therapy sessions to improve patients’ mental and physical well-being. • Instruct patient in activities and techniques, such as sports, dance, music, art

or relaxation techniques, designed to meet their specific physical or psycho- logical needs.

• Obtain information from medical records, medical staff, family members, and the patients themselves to assess patients’ capabilities, needs, and interests.

• Plan, organize, direct, and participate in treatment programs and activities to facilitate patients’ rehabilitation, help them integrate into the community, and prevent further medical problems.

• Prepare and submit reports and charts to treatment team to reflect patients’ re- actions and evidence of progress or regression.

KNOWLEDGE

Psychology—knowledge of human behavior and performance; individual differences in ability, personality, and interests; learning and motivation; psy- chological research methods; and the assessment and treatment of behavioral and affective disorders.

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Customer and Personal Service—knowledge of principles and processes for providing customer and personal services; this includes customer needs as- sessment, meeting quality standards for services, and evaluation of customer satisfaction.

Therapy and Counseling—knowledge of principles, methods, and proce- dures for diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of physical and mental dys- functions, and for career counseling and guidance.

Sociology and Anthropology—knowledge of group behavior and dynamics, societal trends and influences, human migrations, ethnicity, cultures and their history and origins.

Education and Training—knowledge of principles and methods for curricu- lum and training design, teaching and instruction for individuals and groups, and the measurement of training effects.

English Language—knowledge of the structure and content of the English language including the meaning and spelling of words, rules of composition, and grammar.

Fine Arts—knowledge of the theory and techniques required to compose, produce, and perform works of music, dance, visual arts, drama, and sculpture.

SKILLS

Social Perceptiveness—being aware of others’ reactions and understanding why they react as they do.

Active Listening—giving full attention to what other people are saying, tak- ing time to understand the points being made, asking questions as appropri- ate, and not interrupting at inappropriate times.

Writing—communicating effectively in writing as appropriate for the needs of the audience.

Speaking—talking to others to convey information effectively.

Reading Comprehension—understanding written sentences and paragraphs in work-related documents.

Monitoring—monitoring/assessing performance of yourself, other individu- als, or organizations to make improvements or take corrective action.

Service Orientation—actively looking for ways to help people.

Coordination—adjusting actions in relation to others’ actions.

Time Management—managing one’s own time and the time of others.

Learning Strategies—selecting and using training/instructional methods and procedures appropriate for the situation when learning or teaching new things.

ABILITIES

Oral Expression—the ability to communicate information and ideas in speaking so others will understand.

Oral Comprehension—the ability to listen to and understand information and ideas presented through spoken words and sentences.

Inductive Reasoning—the ability to combine pieces of information to form general rules or conclusions (includes finding a relationship among seemingly unrelated events).

Problem Sensitivity—the ability to tell when something is wrong or is likely to go wrong; it does not involve solving the problem, only recognizing there is a problem.

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Speech Clarity—the ability to speak clearly so others can understand you.

Near Vision—the ability to see details at close range (within a few feet of the observer).

Written Expression—the ability to communicate information and ideas in writing so others will understand.

Deductive Reasoning—the ability to apply general rules to specific prob- lems to produce answers that make sense.

Originality—the ability to come up with unusual or clever ideas about a given topic or situation, or to develop creative ways to solve a problem.

Written Comprehension—the ability to read and understand information and ideas presented in writing.

WORK ACTIVITIES

Assisting and Caring for Others—providing personal assistance, medical attention, emotional support, or other personal care to others, such as coworkers, customers, or patients.

Scheduling Work and Activities—scheduling events, programs, and activi- ties, as well as the work of others.

Getting Information—observing, receiving, and otherwise obtaining infor- mation from all relevant sources.

Thinking Creatively—developing, designing, or creating new applications, ideas, relationships, systems, or products, including artistic contributions.

Monitor Processes, Materials, or Surroundings—monitoring and review- ing information from materials, events, or the environment, to detect or assess problems.

Organizing, Planning, and Prioritizing Work—developing specific goals and plans to prioritize, organize, and accomplish your work.

Identifying Objects, Actions, and Events—identifying information by cate- gorizing, estimating, recognizing differences or similarities, and detecting changes in circumstances or events.

Communicating with Supervisors, Peers, or Subordinates—providing information to supervisors, coworkers, and subordinates by telephone, in writ- ten form, e-mail, or in person.

Making Decisions and Solving Problems—Analyzing information and eval- uating results to choose the best solution and solve problems.

Documenting/Recording Information—Entering, transcribing, recording, storing, or maintaining information in written or electronic/magnetic form.

WORK CONTEXT

Face-to-Face Discussions—How often do you have to have face-to-face discussions with individuals or teams in this job?

Work with Work Group or Team—How important is it to work with others in a group or team in this job?

Contact with Others—How much does this job require the worker to be in contact with others (face-to-face, by telephone, or otherwise) in order to per- form it?

Physical Proximity—To what extent does this job require the worker to perform job tasks in close physical proximity to other people?

Deal with Physically Aggressive People—How frequently does this job re- quire the worker to deal with physical aggression of violent individuals?

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Structured versus Unstructured Work—To what extent is this job struc- tured for the worker, rather than allowing the worker to determine tasks, pri- orities, and goals?

Freedom to Make Decisions—How much decision-making freedom, with- out supervision, does the job offer?

Telephone—How often do you have telephone conversations in this job?

Exposed to Disease or Infections—How often does this job require expo- sure to disease/infections?

Time Pressure—How often does this job require the worker to meet strict deadlines?

42 Chapter 3 • Careers with a Bachelor’s Degree in Psychology

Job Zone

Title Job Zone Four: Considerable Preparation Needed

Overall Experience

A minimum of two to four years of work-related skill, knowledge, or experience is needed for these occupations. For example, an accountant must complete four years of college and work for several years in accounting to be considered qualified.

Job Training Employees in these occupations usually need several years of work-related experience, on-the-job training, and/or vocational training.

Job Zone Examples

Many of these occupations involve coordinating, supervising, managing, or training others. Examples include accountants, chefs and head cooks, computer programmers, historians, pharmacists, and police detectives.

SVP Range (7.0 to 8.0) Education Most of these occupations require a four-year bachelor’s degree, but some

do not.

Interests

Social—Social occupations frequently involve working with, communicating with, and teaching people. These occupations often involve helping or pro- viding service to others.

Artistic—Artistic occupations frequently involve working with forms, designs, and patterns. They often require self-expression and the work can be done without following a clear set of rules.

Realistic—Realistic occupations frequently involve work activities that in- clude practical, hands-on problems and solutions. They often deal with plants, animals, and real-world materials like wood, tools, and machinery. Many of the occupations require working outside, and do not involve a lot of paper- work or working closely with others.

Work Styles

Concern for Others—Job requires being sensitive to others’ needs and feel- ings and being understanding and helpful on the job.

Self-control—Job requires maintaining composure, keeping emotions in check, controlling anger, and avoiding aggressive behavior, even in very diffi- cult situations.

Cooperation—Job requires being pleasant with others on the job and dis- playing a good-natured, cooperative attitude.

Integrity—Job requires being honest and ethical.

Social Orientation—Job requires preferring to work with others rather than alone, and being personally connected with others on the job.

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Adaptability/Flexibility—Job requires being open to change (positive or negative) and to considerable variety in the workplace.

Dependability—Job requires being reliable, responsible, and dependable, and fulfilling obligations.

Innovation—Job requires creativity and alternative thinking to develop new ideas for and answers to work-related problems.

Stress Tolerance—Job requires accepting criticism and dealing calmly and effectively with high stress situations.

Leadership—Job requires a willingness to lead, take charge, and offer opin- ions and direction.

Work Values

Achievement—Occupations that satisfy this work value are results oriented and allow employees to use their strongest abilities, giving them a feeling of accomplishment. Corresponding needs are Ability Utilization and Achievement.

Relationships—Occupations that satisfy this work value allow employees to provide service to others and work with coworkers in a friendly noncompeti- tive environment. Corresponding needs are Coworkers, Moral Values, and Social Service.

Related Occupations

O*NET-SOC Code O*NET-SOC Title Reports (Help)

21-1021.00 Child, Family, and School Social Workers Summary Details Custom 29-1122.00 Occupational Therapists Summary Details Custom 29-1123.00 Physical Therapists Summary Details Custom

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C H A P T E R 4

Pursuing Bachelor’s-Level Options

If you have been following along until now, you know something about the oppor- tunities afforded to you by your undergraduate education. You also know that a college-to-career transition may be more difficult than expected. Most undergraduate psychology majors do not go to graduate school, but they pursue a good job with their bachelor’s degree in psychology. This chapter is dedicated to providing you with tips and ideas on how to facilitate your job search. Here you will find tips on preparing your resume, interviewing skills and potential questions, and strategies for securing strong letters of recommendation. We did not design these materials to pro- vide comprehensive information on every job application situation—there are plenty of good resources available, both in print, at the Career Development/Counseling Center on your campus, and on the Internet.

THE COMPLEXITY OF FINDING A JOB

At first glance, the job search may seem overwhelming. There are many compo- nents to the job search, each with its own level of importance, and each having con- sequences if not satisfactorily completed. In this chapter we are going to take you through, step by step, the basic components you need for the job application process. It appears that this process is one that you will revisit from time to time. According to Chen (2004), college graduates will have eight different jobs during their lifetime, which will require work in three different professions or occupations. As an undergraduate, you can start to build toward your future career searches. You can start a resume. You can participate in activities that not only help you build a re- sume, but also help you build mentoring relationships that can lead to strong letters of recommendation. You can also take classes and participate in class projects that help build interpersonal skills (highly valued by employers, by the way) that will lead to success on interviews. What do we mean by interpersonal skills? Yancey, Clarkson, Baxa, and Clarkson (2003) articulated a cogent list of interpersonal com- petencies: (a) effectively translating and conveying information, (b) being able to accurately interpret other people’s emotions, (c) being sensitive to other people’s feelings, (d) calmly arriving at resolutions to conflict, (e) avoiding gossip, and (f) being polite. Focus on these interpersonal skills while you are an undergraduate, and you’ll be well on your way to success.

In some situations, you will be asked to fill out a job application. Be sure to take every step of this process seriously. Your application tells the employer about (a) your work habits, (b) how well you follow instructions, (c) your character,

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Success Stories

Dr. Edie Woods

Madonna University

[A story from one of Edie’s students.] May 1, 2004 was one day that I will never forget because it was the day that I finally graduated with high honors and received my B.S. in Psychology! I emphasized the word finally because it took me approximately 20 years to complete my undergraduate years.

My childhood was filled with overwhelming loneliness. By the time I was 15 years old I became a teenage runaway. I tried to go back to school to finish high school. I can remember as far back as being in first grade and feeling that I was lost. By the time I was half way through my senior year in high school I was placed in a tenth-grade math class. I walked out of that math class, and I walked out of the high school. I never went back to that high school and no one ever asked me why. I did find the strength to go back to night school a few years later and I was able to complete my high school education. I began classes at a local community college and by the time I was 19 I was married. Within the first year of my marriage I was being physically abused and I eventually dropped out of college. I was missing too many classes because of the abuse. I was divorced and became a single mother to two children that were both under the age of five. I was in the process of slowly trying to rebuild my life. I started taking classes again at the local college that I had previously attended. I was remarried at the age of 28 and had my third child a few years later. I was in the process of going back to college, but I unexpectedly became a full-time stepmother to my husband’s three young children.

I spent most of my days during the spring and summer of 2000 helping my mother who was dying from cancer. I remember looking at my mother one day and I thought about how rapidly her life had changed when her cancer came out of remission. I thought about how I would want to look back on my life if I was in my mother’s place. I knew without a doubt that I wanted to go back and finish working on my degree. It was a very exciting time for me when I walked back into Madonna University as a full-time student. Within that first month back at school my father had a massive heart attack and passed away in the snow in his backyard. I was devastated by his unexpected death. Nineteen days later the man who called me “his bride” for 20 years filed for divorce and I never saw it coming. I really wasn’t sure how I was going to continue with my classes, but with my own inner determination and strength, and with the support and understanding of some of my professors I was encouraged to continue.

As I was walking up to the stage on the day of my graduation, three of my professors that I have a tremendous amount of respect for were all standing at the bottom of the stage. Each person in his or her own unique way had helped me make it to that day. My children were all there to see me graduate, too. I am currently working on my masters in clinical psy- chology. I do know that it’s never too late and one is never too old to follow one’s dream.

(d) your personal achievements, (e) your job performance, and (f) your potential (Idaho Department of Labor, 1998). Neatness counts! You also need to be completely accurate and honest, double-check your application, and notify those persons whom you plan to use as references. The information available about psychology baccalaureates in particular suggests that the three most successful methods of finding jobs were through classified advertisements (21%), a family member or friend (9%), or submitted unsolicited resumes (7%) (Waters, 1998). Be sure to tap into connections that you might already have. Former employers, family connec- tions, and others can be extremely helpful in getting your “foot-in-the-door.” Internships often lead to possible job opportunities after graduation; you get a look at how it would be to work in that environment, and the employer gets a sneak peek at your work habits, skill, and potential. It is also important to remem- ber that you are not going to get the perfect job with the perfect salary the first time you apply. You need to be patient as you build your own set of skills and abilities, establish your track record, hone your work ethic, and develop your work history.

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PREPARING YOUR RESUME, WITH SAMPLES

Because there are many resume preparation books on the market and Web sites dedicated to this process, we will provide some general tips and ideas to help you prepare a superior resume. A resume should answer two important questions for a potential employer: (1) what can you do for me (answered in career objectives) and (2) why should you be considered for this job (answered in educational history and work experience) (La Sierra University, 2000). The resume continues to be an im- portant tool in determining whether a job applicant gets an interview with an em- ployer (Coxford, 1998). Lore (1997) found that only one interview is granted for every 200 resumes received by the average employer. Lore goes on to suggest that resumes are typically scanned in 10 to 20 seconds, and not thoroughly read. Thus, an employer’s decision is going to be made on the first impression of the resume, which means that the top half of the first page is critical. If the first few lines do not catch the interest of the reader, then the opportunity is lost. Also, be aware that for larger corporations, you may need to provide a technology-friendly resume; this could be a scanned resume (PDF file) or in ASCII/rich text format. Always check to see what the submission requirements are for your employment materials; follow those instructions!

Lore (1997) suggests two general sections of the resume. In the first section, make the claims and assertions about your abilities, qualities, and achievements. In the second section, present the evidence in support of the statements you made in the first section. Within these two sections, you will have multiple parts of the resume. Some of these parts (Coxford, 1998) should include the sections given in Table 4.1.

If you have just received your bachelor’s degree in psychology, you may have a relatively short resume. That’s OK—take that opportunity to go into some detail about the experiences you have had. Table 4.2 contains a list of action verbs you can use to accurately describe the types of duties and responsibilities you held as an undergraduate (and before, if applicable). A number of resources are available that provide tips on resume preparation. Taken from CareerMosaic (1997) and JobWeb (2001), Table 4.3(p. 49) offers some of the most common resume tips. These are the basics that must be mastered prior to sending out your resume to anyone.

Some of these suggestions are based on the practice of companies that scan resumes; you do not want to do anything on paper that will make it more difficult for companies to read scanned copies of your resume. In fact, if you really want to be prepared, scan a copy of your resume yourself, and then print the file on your computer. Can you read all of the print? Is the font readable, or too small? Making sure your scanned resume is readable would demonstrate an impressive level of at- tention to detail to any employer. The practice of sending a resume via e-mail is a requirement that is becoming much more prevalent. It is the obligation of the per- son sending the resume to make sure that his or her computer system/program is

TABLE 4.1 Potential Resume Sections

Name, address, city, state, phone number, and e-mail address where you can be reached Position objective statement and summary of qualifications Employment and education history, including professional training and affiliations Military service history (if applicable) Licenses and certificates (if applicable) Knowledge of foreign languages Publications and professional presentations Special accomplishments Statement that references and work sample are available upon request

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TABLE 4.2 Action Verbs

accelerated acclimated accompanied accomplished achieved acquired acted activated actuated adapted added addressed adhered adjusted administered admitted adopted advanced advertised advised advocated affected aided aired allocated altered amended amplified analyzed answered anticipated appointed appraised approached approved arbitrated arranged ascertained asked assembled assigned assumed assessed assisted attained attracted audited augmented authored authorized

automated avail awarded balanced bargained borrowed bought broadened budgeted built calculated canvassed capitalized captured carried out cast catalogued centralized challenged chaired changed channeled charted checked chose circulated clarified classified cleared closed co-authored cold called collaborated collected combined commissioned committed communicated compared compiled completed complied composed computed conceived conceptualized concluded condensed conducted conferred

consolidated constructed consulted contracted contrasted contributed contrived controlled converted convinced coordinated corrected corresponded counseled counted created critiqued cultivated cut debugged decentralized decided decreased deferred defined delegated delivered demonstrated depreciated described designated designed determined developed devised devoted diagrammed directed disclosed discounted discovered dispatched displayed dissembled distinguished distributed diversified divested documented doubled

drafted earned eased edited effected elected eliminated employed enabled encouraged endorsed enforced engaged engineered enhanced enlarged enriched entered entertained established estimated evaluated examined exceeded exchanged executed exempted exercised expanded expedited explained exposed extended extracted extrapolated facilitated familiarized fashioned fielded figured financed fit focused forecasted formalized formed formulated fortified found founded

framed fulfilled functioned furnished gained gathered gauged gave generated governed graded granted greeted grouped guided handled headed hired hosted identified illustrated illuminated implemented improved improvised inaugurated indoctrinated increased incurred induced influenced informed initiated innovated inquired inspected inspired installed instigated instilled instituted instructed insured interfaced interpreted interviewed introduced invented inventoried invested

investigated invited involved isolated issued joined judged launched lectured led lightened liquidated litigated lobbied localized located maintained managed mapped marketed maximized measured mediated merchandised merged met minimized modeled moderated modernized modified monitored motivated moved multiplied named narrated negotiated noticed nurtured observed obtained offered offset opened operated operationalized orchestrated ordered organized

oriented originated overhauled oversaw paid participated passed patterned penalized perceived performed permitted persuaded phased out pinpointed pioneered placed planned polled prepared presented preserved presided prevented priced printed prioritized probed processed procured produced profiled programmed projected promoted prompted proposed proved provided publicized published purchased pursued quantified quoted raised ranked rated reacted read

received recommended reconciled recorded recovered recruited rectified redesigned reduced referred refined regained regulated rehabilitated reinforced reinstated rejected related remedied remodeled renegotiated reorganized replaced repaired reported represented requested researched resolved responded restored restructured resulted retained retrieved revamped revealed reversed reviewed revised revitalized rewarded routed safeguarded salvaged saved scheduled screened secured simplified

(continued)

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TABLE 4.3 Resume Preparation Tips

• Make the first impression count. A good resume may get you to the next stage of the process. A poor resume may stop you from going anywhere.

• Keep your resume current. Make sure it has your new phone number, e-mail address, etc. • Make sure others proofread your resume before you show it to potential employers.

Typographical and grammatical errors are unacceptable. Mistakes in your resume will cost you the opportunity to advance in the employment process.

• Have your resume reviewed and critiqued by a career counselor, and also have your mentor in psychology review your resume for you.

• Run a spell check and grammar check on your computer before showing your resume to anyone.

• Find a competent friend (an English major would be handy here) to do a grammar review of your resume.

• Then ask another friend to proofread it. The more sets of eyes that examine your resume, the better.

• Be concise—try to limit yourself to 1–2 pages. If the employer sets a page limit, follow it exactly.

• Use white or off-white paper. • Use standard size, 8.5� � 11� paper.

• Print on one side of the paper, using a font size between 10 and 14 points. • Use a nondecorative font (like Arial or Times New Roman), choose one font, and stick to it. • Avoid italics, script, and underlined words. • Don’t use horizontal or vertical line, or shading. • Don’t fold or staple your resume; if you must mail it, mail it in a large envelope. • Electronic resumes have different formatting demands. Many Web sites can assist you in

the process of preparing a Web-friendly resume. It probably is worth noting that it is your responsibility to make sure that the company’s equipment is compatible when sending an electronic resume.

Source: TMP Worldwide (1998).

compatible with that of the company (generally speaking, Microsoft Word is the dom- inant word processor today—avoid WordPerfect or Microsoft Works files). If the com- pany cannot open a resume on the first try, there typically will not be a second try.

On the following pages, you will find some sample resumes from undergraduate psychology majors (Figure 4.1). Note that the identities of the actual persons have been changed. You will note that these two resumes are from students in different parts of their careers. You would be surprised at the variability of resumes submitted to organizations.

By the way, never, ever, fabricate information on your resume. Odds are, it will come back to haunt you eventually, even if you get away with it for a while. Read on page xx for a very public example of this type of mistake.

sold solved spearheaded specified speculated spoke spread stabilized staffed staged

standardized steered stimulated strategize streamlined strengthened stressed structured studied submitted

substantiated substituted suggested summarized superseded supervised supplied supported surpassed surveyed

synchronized synthesized systematized tabulated tailored targeted taught terminated tested testified

tightened took traced traded trained transacted transferred transformed translated transported

traveled treated tripled uncovered undertook unified united updated upgraded used

utilized validated valued Verified viewed visited weighed welcomed widened witnessed

won worked wrote

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FIGURE 4.1 Sample Resumes from Undergraduate Psychology Majors

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FIGURE 4.1 (continued)

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FIGURE 4.1 Sample Resumes from Undergraduate Psychology Majors (continued)

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FIGURE 4.1 (continued)

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U. of Notre Dame Football Coach Quits After Résumé Fabrications Are Disclosed

By Welch Suggs

George J. O’Leary, hired December 9 to coach the University of Notre Dame’s football team, resigned late Thursday after admitting that he had lied about his academic and ath- letic background.

Mr. O’Leary’s résumé and profiles of him published by Notre Dame and by the Georgia Institute of Technology, where he had coached since 1994, said that he had earned a master’s degree in education at New York University in 1972. But officials there said they had no record of his receiving any degrees. Mr. O’Leary also claimed to have played foot- ball for three years at the University of New Hampshire, but a spokesman there said he was never on the team’s roster.

After The Union Leader of Manchester, N.H., published an article on Thursday say- ing he had never played at New Hampshire, Mr. O’Leary tendered his resignation. On Friday, he released a statement confirming that at the beginning of his coaching career, he had lied about the matter and about his master’s degree.

“Many years ago, as a young married father, I sought to pursue my dream as a foot- ball coach,” Mr. O’Leary said. “In seeking employment, I prepared a résumé that contained inaccuracies regarding my completion of course work for a master’s degree and also my level of participation in football at my alma mater. These statements were never stricken from my résumé or biographical sketch in later years.”

Mr. O’Leary began his college coaching career at Syracuse University, in 1980. A 1986 biographical sketch of him in the university’s football media guide claims he earned three varsity letters at New Hampshire but does not mention an NYU degree. In 1987, he moved to Georgia Tech to be the Yellow Jackets’ defensive coordinator, and in 1992 he and Georgia Tech’s head coach, Bobby Ross, were hired by the San Diego Chargers, of the National Football League. In 1994, he returned to Georgia Tech as the head coach, a job he retained until Notre Dame hired him this month.

The biographies also say that Mr. O’Leary graduated from New Hampshire in 1968, when in fact he graduated in 1969, according to the spokesman.

Notre Dame’s athletics director, Kevin White, had moved very quickly to hire Mr. O’Leary after firing the previous coach, Bob Davie, less than a week before. Mr. White re- portedly contacted several other coaches, including Mike Bellotti of the University of Oregon and Tyrone Willingham of Stanford University, before coming to terms with the Georgia Tech coach.

“I understand that these inaccuracies represent a very human failing,” Mr. White said in a statement released Friday. “Nonetheless, they constitute a breach of trust that makes it impossible for us to go forward with our relationship.”

Mr. White said he would resume the coaching search immediately.

Source: The Chronicle of Higher Education, Monday, December 17, 2001.

LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION, WITH A SAMPLE

In many job application situations, you may be asked for one or more letters of recom- mendation (and letters of recommendation are a more typical requirement for gradu- ate school applications, covered later). Plous (1998a) suggests that you should ask for recommendations from people who (a) have worked closely with you; (b) have known you long enough to know you fairly well; (c) have some expertise; (d) are sen- ior and well known, if possible (e.g., department chair); (e) have a positive opinion of you and your abilities; and (f) have a warm and supportive personal style. When you ask a faculty member or other professional for a letter of recommendation, ask for a strong letter of recommendation. Most faculty members would rather not write a letter than write a weak letter of recommendation. How do you ask for a strong letter—just like that—“Would you be willing to write me a strong letter of recommendation?”

Plous (1998a) also recommends that you give your letter writers plenty of lead time, at least 3 or 4 weeks. Then, about 1 week before the deadline, give your let- ter writer a gentle reminder about the upcoming due date for the letter of recom-

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TABLE 4.4 Items to Be Included in Your Request for Letters of Recommendation

Current copy of your academic transcript; usually an unofficial or “student” copy is fine. Copy of your academic vita that lists your achievements and accomplishments in the discipline (see Chapter 6) or a resume that summarizes your job history, skills, and abilities (see this chapter). Pre-addressed (stamped) envelope for each letter, whether it goes back to you (the student), or goes directly to the place of employment (or graduate school). Does this envelope need to be signed on the back? Remind your letter writers if it needs to be sealed and signed. Any forms that the letter writer might be asked to submit with the letter. Be sure to sign the form where you need to, and sign the waiver. Cover sheet to the letter writer that includes contact information if your letter writer needs to reach you, when you will submit your application (you don’t want the letters to arrive before your application), the deadline for each letter, your career aspirations (i.e., personal statement will do), and information you would like emphasized in the letter.

Source: Plous (1998a).

mendation. You will want to provide your letter writers with a complete packet of materials—this packet needs to be well organized in order for all the letters to get where they need to go and get there on time. Table 4.4 includes some of the items you might be asked to provide.

How do you secure those strong letters of recommendation? You must be more than a good book student. Being involved outside of the classroom gives you well-rounded experiences; it also gives your letter writers something to write about. Future chapters highlight many of the ways you can become involved in your psychology education outside of the classroom. Table 4.5 from Appleby (1998) lists, in order of importance, ideas on how to secure a strong letter of recommendation.

When faculty members are asked to write a strong letter of recommendation, and the student is a strong student, the letter is easy (and often a pleasure) to write. However, when faculty members are pressed to write for a student who is not so strong, what is not said in the letter may be as important as what is said. Figure 4.2 (see pp. 56-57) shows a sample of an actual letter the first author has written. The names and other identifying factors have been changed. The details in this letter make it valu- able to those requesting the letter. Would you like this type of letter written about you?

TABLE 4.5 Strategies for Securing a Strong Letter of Recommendation

Deal effectively with a variety of people Display appropriate interpersonal skills Listen carefully and accurately Show initiative and persistence Exhibit effective time management Hold high ethical standards and expect the same of others Handle conflict successfully Speak articulately and persuasively Work productively as a member of a team Plan and carry out projects successfully Think logically and creatively Remain open-minded during controversies Identify and actualize personal potential Write clearly and precisely Adapt to organizational rules and procedures Comprehend and retain key points from written materials

Gather and organize information from multiple sources

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FIGURE 4.2 Sample Letter of Recommendation

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FIGURE 4.2 (continued)

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TABLE 4.6 Tips for Successful Interviewing

Dress for the interview and the job—don’t overdress, don’t look too informal. Always go to the interview alone. Find common ground with the employer, and if possible, with the interviewer. Express your interest in the job and the company based on the homework you did prior to the interview. Allow the interviewer to direct the conversation. Answer questions in a clear and positive manner. Speak positively of former employers or colleagues, no matter what. Let the employer lead the conversation toward salary and benefits—try not to focus your interest on these issues (at least not during the initial interview). When discussing salary, be flexible. If the employer doesn’t offer you a job or say when you’ll hear about their decision, ask about when you can call to follow up. Be sure to follow up at the appropriate time. Thank the employer for the interview, and follow up with a thank-you note.

INTERVIEW SKILLS, QUESTIONS, AND KNOCKOUT FACTORS

So you have written your resume, the resume did its job, and now you have landed that valuable interview. Before the interview, you need to do your homework— learn as much as you can about the company and about the job. What should you know about your potential employer? Appleby (1998b) suggests that you should know about the relative size and potential growth of the industry, the product line or services, information about management personnel and the headquarters, the competition, and recent items in the news. Also, you should know about training policies, relocation policies, price of stock (if applicable), typical career paths, and potential new markets, products, or services. Table 4.6 lists ideas on attending inter- views suggested by the U.S. Department of Labor (1991).

DeLuca (1997) suggests that before an interview, use this pre-interview checklist: (a) name and title of the person you are meeting, with correct spelling; (b) exact address and location of the organization, including accurate directions; (c) research notes regarding the organization and the position you are interested in; (d) a list of points that you want to make; (e) any questions remaining to be answered about the position; (f) your employment and educational history in case you are asked to complete an application on the spot; and (g) your business card and a recent copy of your resume. Being prepared for the interview helps to show your seriousness about the position you are applying for.

What type of questions might you be asked during an interview? Table 4.7 lists a sampling of the type of questions that interviewees have been asked. It’s a good idea to do a mock interview with someone and think about your answers to these questions. Have your practice interviewer ask you some surprise questions. Often, the type of answers you can come up with “on the fly” impresses your potential employer as to how you can handle yourself in pressure situations, such as a job interview. Think about these questions when prepping for an interview (some of these questions come from CollegeGrad, 2001).

Also, you need to be ready with questions of your own (Table 4.8) Remember, although you are being interviewed by the organization, you are interviewing them as well! You need to determine if this position is a good match or fit for you. Having your own interview questions prepared in advance will indicate your level of inter- est to the employer and help promote a balanced interview.

First impressions on the interview are vitally important. Prickett, Gada-Jain, and Bernieri (2000) found that personnel directors can make accurate decisions about an

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TABLE 4.7 Typical Questions You Might Be Asked in an Interview

What do you hope to be doing 5 or 10 years from now? What made you apply for this particular job with us? How would you describe yourself? How has your education prepared you for your career? What are your strengths and weaknesses? What do you see that you can offer to us, and what can we offer to you? What are the two or three accomplishments in your life that have given you the greatest satisfaction? Explain. Tell me about yourself. Do you work well under pressure and in stressful situations? What did you learn as an undergraduate that you think will be helpful on this job? Have you ever been in any supervisory or leadership roles? What types of activities and extracurricular interests do you have? What do you like to do in your spare time? Why should I hire you? If you don’t mind telling me, what other jobs are you applying for? Tell me something I should know about you.

Is there anything else we should know about you?

TABLE 4.8 Sample Questions to Ask Potential Employers

What are your organization’s current major challenges? May I have a copy of a current organizational chart, employee handbook, or other relevant publications? Was this job posted internally? Do you feel I have the characteristics necessary to be hired and to advance in this organization? What do you feel are the most important aspects of this position? Who will make the final hiring decision? When will you have to make a hiring decision? How long have you worked here? What do you like about this organization? Would this position lead to other job openings? Can I get a tour of the facility? How does the organization regard its employees? How many applicants have applied for this job? How long do you think it will take until you make a decision?

Source: DeLuca (1997).

applicant’s employability in the first 20 seconds of the interview! To help with that first impression, DeLuca (1997) offered his top 10 rules for every interview:

1. Be on time 2. Dress the part 3. Smile occasionally 4. Keep it conversational 5. Keep your purpose in mind 6. Accentuate the positive 7. Give details 8. Do not monopolize the conversation 9. Ask for the job

10. Follow up

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TABLE 4.9 Interview “Knockout” Factors

Lack of proper career planning—didn’t match job applying for Lack of knowledge in field—not qualified Inability to express thoughts clearly and concisely—rambling along Insufficient evidence of achievement or capacity to excite action in others Not prepared for interview—no background research on company No real interest in the organization or the industry Narrow geographical location interest—not willing to relocate Little interest and enthusiasm—indifferent, bland personality Overbearing, too aggressive, conceited, cocky Interested in only the best dollar offer Asks no questions or poor questions about the job Unwilling to start at the bottom—expects too much too soon Makes excuses, is evasive No confidence, lacks poise Poor personal appearance, sloppy dress

What if the interview does not pan out? In a recent survey, executives were asked what they think is the most common mistake applicants make during job interviews: little or no knowledge of the company (44%), unprepared to discuss career plans (23%), limited enthusiasm (16%), lack of eye contact (5%), and unpre- pared to discuss skills/experience (3%) (Lindgren, 2003). Think of each interview as a practice trial toward the next opportunity. If you can identify certain reasons why the interview did not go well, work on those problems—for example, do not ask during the initial interview “what about vacation time?” In some cases, you can contact the interviewer and ask for constructive feedback about the interview process: Was it the way that you handled yourself during the interview, or was it qualifications and experience? Appleby (1998b) expands on these potential explanations, by providing a list of 15 “knockout” factors (Table 4.9).

WHAT IF YOU ARE NOT INITIALLY SUCCESSFUL IN YOUR JOB SEARCH?

This could happen. You could follow all of the advice in this chapter and through- out this book, and you might not get the job you want. Whose fault is that? It’s not about fault, but it’s about a host of factors. For instance, the success of the econ- omy drives a large part of hiring decisions. If you happen to graduate with your bachelor’s degree in psychology at a time when the economy is not doing so well, it might take some time to find the job that you want. In this type of situation, it might be best to take a job related to what you want and continue to build your skills and abilities, therefore building your resume. Also, it’s hard sometimes for graduates to realize the size of the market and the competition. Although you might be competing with your classmates for some of the local jobs, the competi- tion is even fiercer than that. Remember, there are over 88,000 graduates with bachelor’s degrees in psychology every year. You are competing with many of them for the best jobs. You are also competing with some of last year’s grads for those good jobs, and next year a new batch of graduates will be competing for your job. If you follow much of the advice offered throughout this book and by your faculty members, we sincerely believe that you will put yourself in an advan- tageous position to get the best jobs available.

If you have the opportunity, try to obtain feedback from employers about the status of your application. What was it that prevented you from getting the job you

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wanted? Was it poorly prepared materials? Was it nervousness at the interview? Was it a lack of match or fit with the organization? If you can obtain some feedback, it might give you some insight on how to proceed and how to minimize or eliminate any weaknesses. Whatever the feedback, try to assess its accuracy. Outside help would be good here. Discuss these issues with your faculty mentor or other trusted, respected individuals. The disappointment of rejection may cloud your objective evaluation of the critiques offered; an external opinion can help. After you have de- termined any actual weaknesses, then work to resolve them. It might mean taking a workshop or class. It might mean consulting with a coach on how to better prepare and submit your materials. Be willing to invest in you—it will be the best invest- ment you ever make!

It may be difficult to obtain this information from larger corporations; however, if you interviewed with someone, your interviewer would be a good first contact to receive feedback about your unsuccessful application. Additionally, pursuing this type of information, although not the most pleasant of tasks, will impress upon the company how serious you were about your job application and how serious you are about self-improvement. Inquiries such as yours might be remembered when future opportunities arise with that organization.

Finally, be persistent. Invest in yourself and expect to reap benefits. Be persistent in your acquisition of the type of position you want, and be persistent in self-improvement. It is important to be intelligent, personable, motivated, etc.—but if you are not persistent in pursuing your goals, all the rest may be for naught. Although we do not agree with every aspect of this quote (Combs, 2000), Calvin Coolidge, the 30th President of the United States, is attributed to have said:

Nothing takes the place of persistence. Talent will not. Nothing is more common than unsuccessful people with talent. Genius will not. Unrewarded genius is almost a proverb. Education will not. The world is full of educated derelicts. Persistence alone has solved and always will solve the problems of the human race.

But just think about the possibility of this formula: talent � education � per- sistence � success!

You Got the Job, Now How to Keep it (Or Not Lose it)

We know, we know, you are just trying to get through undergraduate schooling, and you may not be worried about getting or keeping a job (yet). However, you would be surprised at how what is valued in school is also valued in the work- place. Gardner (2007) asked employers of new college hires (not just psychology majors) about the reasons that a new employee is fired, and the most frequent rea- sons for firing are:

• Unethical behavior (28%), • Lack of motivation/work ethic (18%), • Inappropriate use of technology (14%), • Failure to follow instructions (9%), • Late for work (8%), and • Missing assignment deadlines (7%).

What a fascinating list! Why? Because you get the practice avoiding these skills dur- ing your undergraduate years. You’ll need to work hard, honing your work ethic. You need to be able to pay attention to details (like APA format on papers) because that shows your ability to follow instructions. Being on time for class is practice for being on time for work. Also, your employers want you to complete assignments on time just like your instructors do. Get good at these skills and habits now; they will serve you well in your future.

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Looking at what gets you fired might be considered a negative approach, and not very motivating. Well, Gardner (2007) also examined the factors that lead to promotions and new assignments for new college hires. The top reasons employers reported for promoting new hires were:

1. Taking initiative (accepting responsibility above and beyond, volunteering for additional work, self-motivated—16%);

2. Self-management (setting priorities, time management, handling stress, ability to handle change, flexibility—13%);

3. Personal attributes (friendliness, dependability, patience, flexibility, reliability, respecting diversity—9%);

4. Commitment (positive attitude, work ethic, enthusiasm, dedication—9%); 5. Leadership (building consensus, developing management skills, recognizing

the need to develop people—8%); 6. Show and tell (presenting own ideas persuasively in written and oral forms—7%); 7. Technical competency (understand core area of study, technical skills, mastery

of current position, high competence—7%).

What is interesting about this list is that it appears that the same characteristics that your future employers want are the characteristics your college professors want too!

Simply put, college is the place to practice for the future. In college, the stakes are relatively low and the safety net is there to catch you if you fall. Practice the “what to do” list and avoid the “what not to do” list and you should be right on tar- get to get the job you want.

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EXERCISE #4: Job Ads

In this exercise, look for jobs that are appropriate for those with a bachelor’s degree in psychology. If possible, cut out newspaper ads and attach them to this page. You can also use Internet tools (such as http://www.monster.com or http://career- builder.com) to search for relevant jobs. We have included a sample that appeared in the Idaho Statesman published in Boise, Idaho.

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C H A P T E R 5

Career Options with a Master’s Degree

or Doctoral Degree

You may have decided that your interest in psychology is going to take you beyond the bachelor’s degree in psychology. You may have heard some of the juniors and seniors in the psychology department talk about graduate school. You may have heard some of your classmates complaining about all the time they spend studying for the GRE, and you do not even know what the GRE is. All you want to do is help people. Why do you need to go to graduate school to be able to do this? In this chapter we will tackle what your career options are with graduate training, and in Chapter 6 we will provide an overview on the process of applying and getting ac- cepted into graduate school.

WHY GRADUATE TRAINING?

Psychology is one of those professions for which an additional professional degree is required to practice the craft. This requirement is similar to the additional training that you need to become a doctor (i.e., physician) or lawyer. You do not get your M.D. (medical doctor, physician) or J.D. (juris doctor, lawyer) after completing your bachelor’s degree. This situation is unlike other undergraduate majors, such as teacher education or engineering, for which a bachelor’s degree (and usually some type of licensing or certification, often included as part of the undergraduate instruc- tion) is adequate preparation for employment. Here is what the Council of Graduate Schools (1989) says about graduate training in general:

If you enjoy reading, problem solving, discovering new facts, and ex- ploring new ideas, you should consider going to graduate school. Your ideas become your major asset. A graduate degree can influence how fast and how far you can advance in your career. It can increase your earning power. It can also enhance your job satisfaction, the amount of responsibility you assume, and the freedom you have to make your own decisions rather than simply following someone else’s directions. A grad- uate degree can also give you greater flexibility to change careers. By earning the degree, you demonstrate your ability to master complex top- ics and carry out projects on your own initiative. (p. 3)

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TABLE 5.1 Psychology Degrees Conferred by Gender, 2005–2006

Bachelor’s Degree Master’s Degree Doctoral Degree

Women 68,269 (77.5%) 15,691 (79.4%) 3,574 (72.6%) Men 19,865 (22.5%) 4,079 (20.6%) 1,347 (27.4%) Total 88,134 19,770 4,921

Note: Percentages apply to column totals.

Source: Snyder et al. (2008).

Even before we discuss the occupational opportunities available and the en- tire graduate school admissions process, there is much to think about when con- sidering the graduate school question. First, here is some background about who graduates. Table 5.1 presents the data for the latest academic year available, 2005–2006. Looking at graduate-school enrollments, there were 57,412 graduate students enrolled in psychology programs in 2005 (Oliver, 2007). In fact, there have been 50,000 students enrolled in psychology graduate education every year since 1992.

It is also interesting to examine the historical trends in the awarding of gradu- ate degrees in psychology. See Figure 5.1 for this data.

Examining the historical data confirms the continued popularity of psy- chology. Information from this chapter will inform you about what you can do with a graduate degree in psychology, and information from Chapter 6 will help you with information about the application and admissions process. As you think about your own decision about graduate school, consider the questions in Table 5.2.

The emphasis on graduate training in psychology exists because of the skills and abilities required to function as a professional psychologist. Although some of these skills and abilities are addressed in your undergraduate education, the idea is that you master these skills in the process of obtaining a higher degree (such as a

5,000

G ra

d u

a te

D e

g re

e s

i n

P s

y c h

o lo

g y

1 9

5 0

1 9

6 0

1 9

6 8

1 9

7 0

1 9

7 2

1 9

7 4

1 9

7 6

1 9

7 8

1 9

8 0

1 9

8 2

1 9

8 4

1 9

8 6

1 9

8 8

1 9

9 0

1 9

9 2

1 9

9 4

1 9

9 6

1 9

9 8

2 0

0 0

2 0

0 2

2 0

0 4

2 0

0 5

10,000

15,000

20,000

Master’s Doctorates

FIGURE 5.1 Number of Graduate Degrees Awarded in Psychology Since 1950

Note: For clarity in the figure, the odd-numbered years have been omitted.

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master’s degree or a doctorate). These skills include the following (APA, 1998a; Hayes, 1996):

General: Action oriented, take initiative, bright, energetic, learn quickly, un- derstand and know how to deal with people, can work on several problems at once, good team player, dependable, can negotiate effectively

Literacy: Ability to write, can write in more than one literary format, accus- tomed to writing essays that allow the exploration of issues in detail, familiar with the techniques of concise writing in a particular format

Numeracy: Statistical reasoning and analysis skills, ability to draw appropri- ate inferences from numerical data, computer literacy and familiarity with statistical software, ability to present data to nontechnical audience, seeks to understand the issue through the examination of the data rather than avoid- ing the data

Information Finding, Measurement: Can conduct literature searches, structure conversations to obtain information, avoid bias and preconceptions in information searches, design experiments (e.g., surveys, questionnaires) to obtain information, use observational techniques, prepare and deliver oral and written reports, organize program evaluations

Planning: Identify steps in a project from beginning to end, identify poten- tial problems ahead of time, identify needed resources, mobilize team members

Research, Computer Literacy: Ability to detect confound variables and design settings for appropriate comparisons and conclusions, able to con- ceptualize in terms of cause and effect, understand the limitations of par- ticular methodological approaches to the conclusions that can be drawn, understand the design of experimental and quasi-experimental research studies, knowledge of survey and sampling techniques and qualitative analysis

TABLE 5.2 Perspectives on Deciding if Graduate School Is Right for Your

DeGalan and Lambert (1995) Giordano (2004)

Is graduate school really an option for me?

Am I willing to go the extra mile to gain a wide range of skills now (as an undergrad- uate student) and as a graduate student?Are you postponing some tough decisions

by going to graduate school?

Have you done some hands-on reality testing?

Am I willing to do that without being paid to do it? Am I intrinsically motivated?

Do you need an advanced degree to work in your desired field or would a bachelor’s degree do?

Do I like being a student? Do I really, really like it? Am I able to work independently?

Have you compared your expectations of what graduate school will do for you compared to what it has done for alumni of the program you are considering?

Am I a good time and stress manager? How well do I take criticism? Can I live with the feeling that I may not be able to accomplish all that I am expected to accomplish?Have you talked with people in your field to

explore what you might be doing after graduate school?

Do I have some “street smarts” or practical intelligence?

Are you excited by the idea of studying the particular field you have in mind?

Am I willing to live without some of the luxuries of life for a while?

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Interpersonal Awareness: Knowledge of the capabilities/limitations of peo- ple from many viewpoints (cognitive, perceptual, physical, motivational, social, developmental, personality, emotional)

Problem Solving: Identify central issues and key questions, experience in identifying the most important problem(s) to be addressed from ambiguous information, can solve general problems and focus on details, understand that there may be more than one method for solving the problem, understand that there can be more than one right answer

Critical Evaluation, Higher-Order Analysis: Read critically, synthesize and summarize information from multiple sources, interpret qualitative and quantitative data, deal with inconsistent/uncertain information, extract key pieces from information in a rapid manner, impose structure on ambigu- ous, messy data, translate information into meaningful conclusions and recommendations

Perspectives: Understand that people trained in different disciplines may see the same problem differently, understand the advantage to understanding dif- ferent perspectives, understand the perspectives of others (i.e., empathy), co- ordinate or facilitate action among people with different perspectives

These are the goals of a graduate education. These are not obtained s, but slowly over time. As you can start to understand, graduate school is a major com- mitment not only to your own education but also to the discipline of psychology. Emanuel Donchin, Chair of the Psychology Department at the University of South Florida, summarizes the overall goals of graduate school quite well (Murray, 2002a, p. 36):

What we’re striving to produce in graduate education are well-rounded individuals with habits of thought and approaches and perceptions that allow them to change with the field and engage in lifelong learning, rather than ossify around a particular set of practice roles.

When faculty members are asked about the most successful graduate school stu- dents, the descriptions presented in Table 5.3 emerge.

TYPES OF GRADUATE TRAINING AND GRADUATE DEGREES

In psychology, there are basically three broad career paths or models that most graduate school students pursue: the scientist model, the practitioner model, and the scientist-practitioner model. Under the scientist model (sometimes called the re- search model), graduate students receive training in a specific content area, as well as intense instruction in research methods statistics, and those methods of basic and applied research that further our understanding of human behavior. The trainee under the scientist model typically has a teaching or research emphasis, advancing our knowledge of human behavior. In the scientist model, the graduate receives a Ph.D. (doctor of philosophy).

In the scientist-practitioner model, the graduate student receives similar rigorous training in the creation and comprehension of scientific information but re- ceives additional training in the helping professions. Thus, the student in the scientist- practitioner model typically has the goal of becoming a therapist (or a psychologist, in the strict licensing sense of the word). This person is trained in various thera- peutic theories, conducts therapy under supervision, and completes an internship prior to receiving a Ph.D. This approach to training is called the Boulder model, named after a conference held in Boulder, Colorado, in 1949. This conference formalized the approach of equal weight given to the development of both

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TABLE 5.3 Top Characteristics for Graduate School Success

Role Description Mean Importance Rating

Working hard 5.60 Getting along with people 5.17

Writing ability 4.83

Clinical/counseling skills 4.81 Doing research 4.74

Handling stress 4.72

Discipline 4.64 Good grades 4.61

High intelligence 4.53 Empathy 4.48

Establishing a relationship with a mentor 4.39 Getting along with peers 4.00 Broad knowledge of psychology 4.00

Specialized knowledge in one or two areas of psychology 3.88

Reflecting program values 3.78 Being liked by faculty 3.69

Creativity 3.67

Obtaining master’s degree as quickly as possible 3.60 Visibility in the department 3.45

Competitiveness 3.29 Relating to professors on a personal level 3.24

Teaching 2.81

Attractive physical appearance 2.53

Serving on student committees 1.95

Serving on department and university committees 1.62

Note: Items were rated on a scale from 1 � not important to 6 � very important.

Source: Descutner and Thelen (1989).

research skills and clinical skills. Thus, clinical psychologists trained in the scientist- practitioner model are prepared for work in both academia and practice (Norcross & Castle, 2002).

The newest of these three career paths is the practitioner model. In the prac- titioner model, there is less emphasis on the science side of psychology, but there is additional training on the practitioner side. In this model, the person is trained to become a full-time practitioner. In this program, the graduate receives a Psy.D. (doctor of psychology). Training in a Psy.D. program is modeled after other pro- fessional degrees (M.D., J.D.) in that it is oriented toward being a practitioner in the field rather than the researcher (Keith-Spiegel, 1991). This approach to train- ing is called the Vail model, named after a conference held in Vail, Colorado, in 1973. The general notion that emerged from this conference was that psychologi- cal knowledge had developed far enough that an explicitly professional degree was possible (similar to professional degrees in law, medicine, and dentistry). Also, it was proposed that different degrees be used to distinguish between the practitioner role (Psy.D.—doctor of psychology) and the scientist role (Ph.D.— doctor of philosophy). Clinical psychologists trained in this later approach fo- cused primarily on clinical practice and less on scientific research. The Vail model also broadened where practitioner-modeled training could be delivered—those settings include a psychology department at a university, in a university-affiliated psychology school, and in an independent, freestanding psychology school (not

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affiliated with a university) (Norcross & Castle, 2002). APA (1997a) provides this summary of degree options:

The Ph.D., then, is usually the degree granted by university-based psy- chology departments that train in the research or scientist-practitioner models, although some professional programs award the Ph.D. as well. The Psy.D. is usually granted by a university-based or freestanding profes- sional school of psychology that trains with the professional model. The Ed.D. is a psychology Ph.D. that is granted by a university-based education department, as opposed to a psychology department, and, like the Ph.D., reflects either the research or the scientist-practitioner model. (p. 52)

By the way, there continues to be varied opinions about the Psy.D. and the Vail model—see Peterson (2003) and the ensuing articles for more on this topic.

If you are confident that your future is in becoming a practitioner, then it is a safe bet to consider a Psy.D. program. The only disadvantage may be if you earn the Psy.D. and then apply for jobs in research or academic settings. For the helping professions, the Psy.D. appears to lead to successful training, and Scheirer (1983, as cited in Keith-Spiegel, 1991) suggests that the Psy.D. may offer a slight advantage in the service delivery job market. However, there are fewer Psy.D. training programs available, and they tend to be more expensive compared to Ph.D. training pro- grams. Norcross and Castle (2002) succinctly summarize the difference between the two training approaches: “Boulder programs aspire to train producers of research; Vail programs train consumers of research” (p. 23).

It is important to note that the American Psychological Association (APA) ac- credits both Ph.D. and Psy.D. degrees, as well as some predoctoral and postdoctoral programs. Accreditation asserts that a graduate program operates under certain practice and training principles that are believed to be beneficial to the training of future psychologists. Accreditation does not guarantee that you will have a good ex- perience in the program, and many good graduate programs are not accredited. Accreditation is APA’s seal of approval. APA does not accredit master’s degree or un- dergraduate degree programs. The doctoral degree is recognized by APA as the cre- dential for psychologists and the entry-level degree for the profession. Many jobs, as well as licenses to practice, require a doctorate. Terminal programs are those in- tended to prepare a person for a specific occupation that requires only a master’s degree for entry-level employment. Choosing between the master’s degree and the doctorate? The master’s option is less daunting because it requires a smaller invest- ment of both time and money, and it affords the flexibility of part-time study in some cases. The master’s degree offers a testing ground if a person is not com- pletely sure that the doctoral degree is appropriate. If, as a master’s degree student, you think you might eventually go on further for a doctorate, here are some sugges- tions that you can pursue while still earning your doctorate that should enhance your ability to gain admission into a doctoral program (APA, 1997a):

• Get as much research experience as possible. • Establish good relationships with professors, who can later support your doc-

toral ambitions. • Get the broadest training possible, and get a good foundation in core subjects. • Maintain good grades. • Obtain practical experiences in the areas on which you wish to concentrate.

SAMPLE JOB DESCRIPTIONS, WORK LOCATIONS OF GRADUATE DEGREE RECIPIENTS

Educational attainment of a graduate degree in psychology allows a great deal of flex- ibility for employment settings. Moreover, as careers change and evolve, the basic skills acquired through graduate education allow for adaptation to new work environ- ments. To appreciate the diversity of potential work environments, see Table 5.4.

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TABLE 5.4 Typical Work Settings for Psychology Graduates

Academic Settings University Two-year college

Academic department University-affiliated professional school

Management or administrative office Freestanding professional school Professional school Adult education program Research center or institute Elementary or secondary school

Four-year college School system administrative office

Academic department Special education or vocational school

Management or administrative office Research center or institute

Human Service Settings Outpatient clinic Independent practice

Community mental health center Individual private practice

Health maintenance organization Group psychological practice Hospital Medical/psychology group practice

Public general hospital Other Private general hospital Health service for specific groups

Public psychiatric hospital Non-university counseling and guidance centers

Nonprofit private psychiatric hospital

University/college counseling and guidance Centers

For-profit private psychiatric hospital Nursing home or other skilled-care facility

Military hospital Training centers for people with mental retardation

VA hospital

Business Settings Business or industry

Consulting firm Independent research organization or laboratory

Industrial/organizational psychology practice

Associations

Self-employed

Government and Military Settings

Armed services

Civil service

Criminal justice system

Elected office

Federal, state, or local government agency Government research organization

Source: American Psychological Association (1997c).

Due to the more specialized training at the graduate levels, there are actually fewer formal job descriptions available from O*NET (see Chapter 3 for more on this impressive resource). However, the skills and abilities attained through graduate training give these individuals a greater range of employment options. Some of the sample job titles and descriptions that are available on O*NET are presented in Table 5.5.IS

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OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES WITH THE MASTER’S DEGREE

In this section, we discuss the options and opportunities you will have with a mas- ter’s degree (M.A. or M.S.). Some of the areas that we will cover include the outlook for the future of these positions, perceptions of the future, actual employment fig- ures, different work settings, and relative salaries. The diversity of opportunities with a graduate degree is reflective of the diversity in psychology.

According to the Occupational Outlook Handbook (2004a):

. . . overall employment of counselors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2012, and job opportunities should be very good because there are usually more job openings than graduates of counseling programs. In addition, numerous job openings will occur as many counselors retire or leave the profession. (no page number)

When master’s degree recipients are asked about their perceptions of the job mar- ket, 36.0% percent report that it is fair, 32.4% report good, and 10.2% report excel- lent (American Psychological Association, 2003). In the 2002 employment survey of master’s specialist, and related degrees (Singleton, Tate, & Kohout, 2003), 67% of re- spondents were employed, 21% were enrolled in further graduate study, 9% were unemployed and seeking work, while 3% were employed and not seeking work.

Where are master’s-level psychologists employed? According to the APA 2002 survey of master’s degree recipients, full-time employment occurred in these pro- portions: 14.6% university and college settings, 23.6% in schools or other educational

TABLE 5.5 Sample Job Descriptions with a Master’s or Doctoral Degree (with O*NET-SOC codes)

Child, Family, and School Social Workers (21-1021.00)—Provide social services and assistance to improve the social and psychological functioning of children and their families and to maximize the family well-being and the academic functioning of children. May assist single parents, arrange adoptions, and find foster homes for abandoned or abused children. In schools, they address such problems as teenage pregnancy, misbehavior, and truancy. May also advise teachers on how to deal with problem children.

Clinical Psychologists (19-3031.02)—Diagnose or evaluate mental and emotional disorders of individuals through observation, interview, and psychological tests, and formulate and administer programs of treatment. Counseling Psychologists (19-3031.03)—Assess and evaluate individuals’ problems through the use of case history, interview, and observation and provide individual or group counseling services to assist individuals in achieving more effective personal, social, educational, and vocational development and adjustment.

Educational Psychologists (19-3031.01)—Investigate processes of learning and teaching and develop psychological principles and techniques applicable to educational problems.

Industrial-Organizational Psychologists (19-3032.00)—Apply principles of psychology to personnel, administration, management, sales, and marketing problems. Activities may include policy planning; employee screening, training and development; and organizational development and analysis. May work with management to reorganize the work setting to improve worker productivity.

Mental Health and Substance Abuse Social Workers (21-1023.00)—Assess and treat individuals with mental, emotional, or substance abuse problems, including abuse of alcohol, tobacco, and/or other drugs. Activities may include individual and group therapy, crisis intervention, case management, client advocacy, prevention, and education.

Mental Health Counselors (21-1014.00—Counsel with emphasis on prevention. Work with individuals and groups to promote optimum mental health. May help individuals deal with addictions and substance abuse; family, parenting, and marital problems; suicide; stress management; problems with self-esteem; and issues associated with aging and mental and emotional health.

Psychology Teachers, Postsecondary (25-1066.00)—Teach courses in psychology, such as child, clinical, and developmental psychology, and psychological counseling.

Substance Abuse and Behavioral Disorder Counselors (21-1011.00)—Counsel and advise individuals with alcohol, tobacco, drug, or other problems, such as gambling and eating disorders. May counsel individuals, families, or groups or engage in prevention programs.

Source: National O*NETTM Consortium (2001, May).

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Success Stories

Tony Mayo

Georgia Military College

When I was a senior in high school I became sick with an illness that damaged my optic nerves and left me legally blind. Although I did not plan to attend college, being legally blind changed my plans.

My part-time job in a grocery store became full-time, but only lasted for a few months. I worked 7 years in a garment factory, and less than a year as a hospital and police depart- ment dispatcher. For several years, I received social security disability because of my limited vision and lack of skills which prevented me from obtaining employment. It was during these years, I became frustrated and realized the importance of furthering my education. I was always encouraged by my family and friends to continue my education, but I had to ex- perience some difficulty gaining employment before I acted on this advice. I taught myself to read Braille through a correspondence course and contacted a vocational rehabilitation counselor for information about Braille equipment. This conversation led to a discussion about school and 13 years after graduating from high school, I was a freshman in college.

Six years later, I had earned a B.S. degree in Psychology and Political Science, and an M.S. in Psychology. Within months after graduation, I became an adjunct instructor of Psychology in the department where I graduated. I also started teaching part-time at a com- munity college. I taught at both schools for 5 years before becoming full-time at the commu- nity college. I have been teaching Psychology at this college for 7 years. Since graduation, I received the Outstanding Recent Alumnus Award from the college I attended, and was se- lected Outstanding Faculty Member at the college where I teach.

My college years were wonderful and opened doors I never thought possible. I tell my story to all my classes and encourage my students to continue their education.

settings, 19.1% in hospitals and clinics, 3.0% in independent practice, 19.3% in other human services, and 20.4% in business, government, or other related settings (Singleton et al., 2003).

Unfortunately, the master’s degree in psychology is widely misunderstood and undervalued. To avoid believing common myths about the master’s degree, we rec- ommend the excellent article by Actkinson (2000).

The differences between a master’s-level psychologist and a master’s-level counselor are subtle. Master’s-level psychologists probably received their education in a department of psychology, and although their degree is from a psychology de- partment, they may call themselves a counselor depending on the state rules and regulations concerning the title. (For instance, in some states “psychologist” is a legally protected term, often reserved for persons with a Ph.D. or Psy.D. who have also passed a licensing examination.) Master’s-level counselors may or may not have received their degree from a psychology department; they may have earned the degree in a counseling department, guidance department, educational psychol- ogy department, etc. In many states, the term “counselor” is not legally protected; hence in some situations almost anyone can advertise as a counselor.

How much do master’s-level counselors and psychologists earn? The most recent data available are presented in Table 5.6. Remember, these are average starting salaries.

Master’s-level counselors and psychologists help people in a number of ways, such as evaluating their interests, abilities, and disabilities, and dealing with personal, social, academic, and career problems. You should know that there are related disci- plines that also address some of these similar issues—included in this category are professions such as college and student affairs workers, teachers, personnel workers and managers, human services workers, social workers, psychiatric nurses, clergy members, occupational therapists, and others (OOH, 1998). In fact, Walsh (2006) highlights an alternative master’s degree program for psychology majors by present- ing information about master’s in social work programs, master’s degrees in allied

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health professions (like occupational therapy and physical therapy), master’s pro- grams in marriage and family, and master’s programs in student affairs. There are a variety of options available for helping those who need help; more on this topic is presented in the later chapters of this book.

Although not of concern now to undergraduates majoring in psychology, we thought you might be interested in what master’s degree recipients report being the most effective means of a job search. We present these job search methods in Table 5.7, with their frequency of use. You will note that one of the items is advertise- ments in APA Monitor. Although not a highly used strategy for master’s degree stu- dents, those newly minted Ph.D.’s with an interest in academia use this resource often in their job searchers. For additional exposure to APA Monitor ads, see the exercise at the end of this chapter.

OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES WITH A DOCTORAL DEGREE

The doctoral degree in psychology (e.g., Ph.D. or Psy.D.) is generally required for employment as a licensed clinical or counseling psychologist. (Some states have limited licensure for master’s-level psychologists. So you need to check the laws carefully.) Interestingly, over 25% of all psychologists are self-employed, nearly four

TABLE 5.6 Starting Salaries for Full-Time Employment Positions Among 2001 and 2002 Master’s, Specialist’s, and Related Degree Recipients in Psychology

Master’s Degree-Level Positions Mean Standard Deviation

Direct Human Service setting: Clinical Psychology (all settings) $31,623 $ 7,230

Direct Human Service setting: Clinical Psychology (Community Mental Health Clinic) $29,711 $ 3,784

Direct Human Service setting: Counseling Psychology (all settings) $33,854 $ 8,162 Direct Human Service setting: Counseling Psychology (Secondary School) $35,890 $ 5,351

Direct Human Service setting: Counseling Psychology (Elementary School) $33,813 $10,392

Direct Human Service setting: Counseling Psychology (Outpatient Clinic) $36,600 $ 8,504

Direct Human Service setting: Counseling Psychology (Community Mental Health Clinic) $31,286 $ 4,804 Direct Human Service setting: Counseling Psychology (Other Human Services setting) $28,800 $11,433 Direct Human Service setting: Counseling Psychology (Other Nonprofit Organization) $33,417 $ 8,913

Direct Human Service setting: School Psychology (all settings) $40,980 $ 9,765 Direct Human Service setting: School Psychology (Secondary School) $37,460 $ 7,620

Direct Human Service setting: School Psychology (Elementary School) $41,462 $ 9,978

Direct Human Service setting: School Psychology (Special Education) $45,500 $ 7,159

Direct Human Service setting: Other, in Psychology (all settings) $32,335 $ 3,943

Direct Human Service setting: Other, in Psychology (Community Social Service Agency) $30,250 $ 1,605

Administration of Human Services (all settings) $35,741 $10,595

Administration of Human Services (Other Human Service settings) $38,100 $15,994

Applied Psychology (all settings) $50,121 $21,703

Research (all settings) $36,065 $10,348

Faculty Positions (all settings, 9- or 10-month calendar) $42,069 $13,914

Faculty Positions (Secondary School, 9- or 10-month calendar) $31,739 $ 5,636

Other Administration Positions (all settings) $36,701 $15,502

Other Types of Positions (all settings) $43,633 $19,177

Other Types of Positions (Business/Industry) $46,907 $14,022

Overall (all Settings) $34,080 $ 8,320

Source: Singleton et al. (2003).

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Chapter 5 • Career Options with a Master’s Degree or Doctoral Degree 75

TABLE 5.7 Job Search Methods Most Commonly Used by Master’s Degree Recipients

Frequency Job Search Methods

25.0% Informal channels (for example, colleagues or friends)

15.0% Internet/electronic resources

15.0% Newspaper advertisements

9.8% Met employer through former job

9.3% Other methods

8.8% Faculty advisors

6.2% Received an unsolicited offer

6.2% Sent an unsolicited vita

1.4% Filled out civil service application

1.0% Regional convention placement service

0.7% Advertisements in Chronicle of Higher Education or other professional newsletter

0.7% National convention placement service

0.7% Used employment agency

0.2% Not specified

0.0% Advertisements in APA Monitor 0.0% Professional journals or periodicals

Source: Singleton et al. (2003).

times the average for all professional workers (OOH, 2004b). The employment out- look appears good.

Overall employment of psychologists is expected to grow faster than av- erage for all occupations through 2012, due to increased demand for psychological services in schools, hospitals, social service agencies, mental health centers, substance abuse treatment clinics, consulting firms, and private companies. Clinical, counseling, and school psycholo- gists will grow faster than average, while industrial-organizational psy- chologists will have average growth. (OOH, 2004b, no page number)

What degrees are being awarded? In the 2005 Doctorate Employment Survey of new doctorates conducted by Wicherski and Kohout (2007), Ph.D.s accounted for 72% of the degrees awarded, Psy.D.s accounted for 27%, and Ed.D.s (doctor of education) accounted for 1% of the degrees awarded. In the same survey of doctoral degree holders, 60.5% were employed full time, 8.2% were employed part time, 25.6% were working on postdoctorates (more on postdoctorates a bit later), 3.1% were unemployed and seeking employment, and 2.5% were unem- ployed but not seeking employment. This type of result speaks to the diversity of employment opportunities and the value of the skills attained by the completion of the doctoral degree. Although the doctorate is more difficult to obtain, persons who obtain it provide themselves more opportunities for employment in a variety of settings.

What are some of the diverse employment settings? Table 5.8 (p. 76) presents the data on the primary employment setting for 1999 doctoral graduates.

What about the salaries for doctoral-level psychologists? The APA has com- pleted the most recent surveys of doctoral employment and salaries in its 1999 doctorate employment survey (Kohout & Wicherski, 2003). Table 5.9 (p. 77) presents median starting salaries for full-time employed doctorates in 2005— note the diversity of work settings and variations of job titles for doctoral-level psychologists.

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Success Stories

G. Reynaga Abiko

Correctional Medical Facility—Vacaville, CA

I do not know when I decided to go to college, but I am quite certain it was directly related to life events during my early childhood. When I was 6 years old, my parents got divorced and gave my sister and me to our grandparents to live. Then, when I was 13, my father died of AIDS. I soon decided that I must become a doctor so that I could understand everything about my world. I convinced myself that if I read enough books and got good enough grades in school, I could fix all of the heartache in my family. College seemed the best way to gain access to more information, so I decided at a young age to pursue an advanced de- gree, even though many of my family members never even graduated high school!

I am a second generation Mexican American, born to a very poor family. More detri- mental to my academic success than the material disadvantages of being poor was the men- tality of my family that college was a luxury. Everyone was more concerned with paying the bills than reading books, even though everyone in my family was very intelligent. My mother told me when I was 15 that she could not help me pay for my education and that, if I wanted to go, I would have to figure out how to pay for it by myself. I had already deter- mined that I was meant to be a doctor, so I learned about college admissions and financial aid, eventually securing sufficient student loans to finance my education. Even though it was hard to figure out, I navigated through these procedures on my own, since my family did not know anything about it.

The road from high school graduate to Psy.D. graduate was far more challenging than I ever imagined! Academic affairs always came easily to me, but financial concerns quickly became a predictable source of stress. I was forced to work at various part-time jobs through- out my education just to make ends meet. I worked hard, taking extra courses each semester, and graduated one year early with my B.A. in order to save money on living expenses. Even though it was often difficult to juggle working with a full-time schedule of classes, I was able to maintain high grades. I went straight into graduate school, because I wanted to get out into the work force as soon as possible. I completed my M.A. before moving on to a Psy.D. I ended up graduating from my doctoral studies with the highest GPA in the class!

Although I eventually accrued enough student loan obligation to buy a home, I feel extremely fortunate to be the first person in three generations of my family to have gradu- ated college! I now watch as my younger cousins consider higher education as an option and enjoy helping them through the process. I also volunteer my time mentoring others, especially women and students of Color, because I do not want them to struggle through the process in the same ways I did. I have never regretted my decision to be a doctor (psy- chologist), though I learned long ago that I would never know everything! I enjoy helping people and am grateful to the strong work ethic I seemed to inherit from my immigrant family members. Although the process was incredibly challenging at times, my childhood goal of becoming a doctor was the best career choice for me!

TABLE 5.8 Primary Employment Setting for 2005 Doctoral Graduates

Frequency Employment Setting

18.8% Business, government, other settings (self-employed, consulting)

19.6% University settings

11.3% Other human service settings (counseling center, clinic)

13.7% Hospitals

7.1% Managed care settings

11.1% Schools and other educational settings (elementary, secondary)

7.1% Independent practice

4.0% Four-year colleges

3.5% Medical school

2.8% Other academic settings (professional school, community college)

0.6% Not specified

Source: Wicherski and Kohout, 2007.

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Chapter 5 • Career Options with a Master’s Degree or Doctoral Degree 77

TABLE 5.9 Starting Salaries for Full-Time Employment Positions, 2005 Doctorate Recipients in Psychology

Position Type and Employment Setting Mean Starting

Salary Standard Deviation

Assistant Professor (all settings)* $49,091 $ 9,120 Assistant Professor: University psychology department* $48,000 $ 7,911

Assistant Professor: Education department* $55,000 $ 7,530

Assistant Professor: 4-year college psychology department* $43,500 $ 6,607

Adjunct/Visiting Faculty (all settings)* $42,000 $ 8,452

Adjunct/Visiting Faculty: University psychology department* $42,000 $ 7,598

Lecturer/Instructor (all settings)* $45,818 $ 8,910

Educational Administration (all settings) $67,000 $24,893

Research Positions (all settings) $55,000 $16,152

Research Positions: University research center or institution $50,000 $11,871

Research Positions: Business, government $68,000 $16,699

Research Administration (all settings) $52,000 $14,298

Direct Human Services, Clinical Psychology (all settings) $52,000 $12,452

Direct Human Services, Clinical Psychology: University/college counseling center* $37,636 $ 6,417

Direct Human Services, Clinical Psychology: Elementary/secondary school* $48,250 $ 7,533

Direct Human Services, Clinical Psychology: Public general hospital $54,000 $ 9,451

Direct Human Services, Clinical Psychology: Private general hospital $60,000 $14,782

Direct Human Services, Clinical Psychology: Public psychiatric hospital $56,000 $ 9,834

Direct Human Services, Clinical Psychology: Private mental hospital $53,500 $ 2,411

Direct Human Services, Clinical Psychology: VA hospital $62,000 $ 6,375

Direct Human Services, Clinical Psychology: Individual private practice $50,000 $14,618

Direct Human Services, Clinical Psychology: Group practice $50,000 $17,643

Direct Human Services, Clinical Psychology: Community mental health center $43,700 $ 8,135

Direct Human Services, Clinical Psychology: Criminal justice system $55,000 $ 9,060

Direct Human Services, Counseling Psychology (all settings) $51,000 $18,658 Direct Human Services, Counseling Psychology: University/college counseling center* $38,045 $ 5,378

Direct Human Services, Counseling Psychology: Independent practice $54,000 $10,283

Direct Human Services, School Psychology (all settings) $61,172 $14,842 Direct Human Services, School Psychology: Elementary/secondary school* $52,000 $12,308

Direct Human Services, School Psychology: School system district office $55,500 $11,904

Administration of Human Services (all settings) $60,000 $11,409

Administration of Human Services: Managed care $54,500 $12,259

Applied Psychology (all settings) $68,000 $26,090

Applied Psychology: Business, government, and other settings $69,800 $25,908

Applied Psychology: Consulting firm $71,500 $25,012

Applied Psychology: Business/industry $75,000 $27,913

Other Administrative Position (all settings) $66,000 $18,267

Other Administrative Position: Business, government, and other settings $65,000 $15,544

Other Type of Position (all settings) $60,000 $20,299

Note: *These salaries are typically based on a 9- or 10-month contract—the data here have not been corrected for a 12-month salary.

Source: Wicherski and Kohout (2007).

WHAT IS A POSTDOC?

You might think that after having completed your doctorate, you are done with your formal education. For some, that is not the case. The term “postdoc” is short for postdoctorate or postdoctoral study. Technically, it means just what it implies— additional education post (after) receiving the doctorate. Postdoctoral study is fairlyIS

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common for clinical psychology students, but students from other areas of psychol- ogy also pursue the postdoctorate. In fact, in a 2005 survey of new doctorates (Wicherski & Kohout, 2007), 25.6% of recipients were pursuing or had completed postdoctoral study. By the way, no degree is associated with the postdoc (thus, no “Ph.D.” or other letters attached to this additional education).

Clinical psychology students typically need a year of postdoctoral supervised clinical experience before they can be licensed in states. However, most third-party payers will not reimburse fees for unlicensed psychologists (Clay, 2000). Walfish (2001) reported that significant percentages of interns were not aware of the details of postdoctoral requirements for licensure within the state where they intended to become a licensed psychologist. This is an essential detail that cannot be over- looked. What is the point of doing additional postdoctoral study? Clay (2000) pro- vides this background:

. . . the requirement for supervised postdoctoral experience was originally put in place because of the limited clinical experience many psychology students received in graduate school. It was believed that an additional year of supervised experience after graduation would enhance their readiness for independent practice and protect the public. But with the tremendous growth of predoctoral training and the rise of the profes- sional school movement, many psychologists are convinced that the extra year has become outdated. (p. 2)

However, some, such as Walfish (2001), recognize the potential long-term benefits of postdoctoral study:

. . . in clinical areas, postdoctoral fellowships allow the new doctorate to specialize in one particular area of work. Although predoctoral intern- ships tend to be generalized (inpatient and outpatient, child and adult, assessment and therapy), postdoctoral fellowships tend to be extremely focused. The fellowships tend not to pay much and are very intensive. However, the intensity of the learning experience can lead to the devel- opment of specialized and marketable skills, which may pay rich divi- dends for a long time to come. (p. 390)

Are postdocs just for clinical psychology students? Not at all. Walfish nicely summarizes the benefits for those interested in a research career:

. . . for those seeking a career in research, doing a postdoctoral intern- ship can be an important stepping-stone to developing a specific area of future study. These positions are usually grant-funded opportunities with faculty members who already have an established research project. The new doctorate typically joins the research team and collaborates with team members, while being mentored by the senior faculty mem- ber. (p. 390)

In Wicherski and Kohout’s study of doctorate recipients from 2005 (Kohout & Wicherski, 2007), those with full-time postdoctoral appointments identified a list of reasons for postdoctoral study, presented in Table 5.10.

At this point in your undergraduate career, you do not need to worry about a postdoc. We just wanted you to know what it is and why it exists. The bottom line is this—to become a psychologist, you will need additional training beyond the bachelor’s degree. How much additional training may depend on the area of psy- chology you want to specialize in and the type of employment settings in which you will work. You do not need to think about all the combinations and permutations

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Chapter 5 • Career Options with a Master’s Degree or Doctoral Degree 79

TABLE 5.10 Reasons for Postdoctoral Study, 2005 Doctorate Recipients with Full-Time Postdoctoral Appointments

To complement research knowledge and skills in same subfield as doctorate

To obtain research knowledge or training in another field

To work with a particular scientist or research group

To obtain specialized clinical training

To obtain supervised postdoctoral hours to take the licensing exam

To switch from research to practice

To become more employable

Employment not available

Source: Wicherski and Kohout (2007).

available right now—that will all work itself out. For now, try to follow the sugges- tions in this book for what you can do as an undergraduate to maximize your opportunities for success. It’s OK to think about the future and plan accordingly, but do not lose sight of the present and succeeding in the here and now, else that future planning may be for naught.

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EXERCISE #5: Reading APA Monitor Ads

In this exercise, carefully examine the ads re-created from the APA Monitor on Psychology. Note that there are standard parts of the ads, and search committees can require various types of documents from the applicant. Some positions are more re- search oriented, while others focus more on teaching. Some are for postdocs, and others are for temporary positions. These are actual job ads taken from APA job/ca- reer Web site, www.psyccareers.com, on July 10, 2004. Look at the diversity of posi- tions available, and this is just a nonrandom sample. Read these ads carefully, and determine (a) what sounds good to you, and (b) what parts of the ads you do not understand. Every discipline has its own jargon, including psychology. Asking a po- tential faculty member or professor about the peculiarities of these job ads might be a nice conversation starter.

Department of Psychology at the University of Vermont seeks to fill a tenure-track position at the Assistant Professor level in Adult Psychopathology to begin August 2005. Candidates will teach courses that may include graduate Adult Psychopathology, graduate Adult Behavior Therapy, undergraduate Abnormal Psychology, and an advanced undergraduate course in clinical psychology. Applicants must have a doctorate in clinical psychology, a strong record of publication, demonstrated excellence in teaching, and the ability to develop a funded research program in adult psychopathology. Applicants with additional skills in health psychology or family psychology are welcomed. Candidate should be able to provide clinical and research supervision, and be license eligible. Review of applications will begin on October 1, 2004. Submit vitae, representative publications, statements of research and teaching interests, and three letters of recommendation to: Professor Esther Rothblum, Psychology/Dewey Hall, University of Vermont, 2 Colchester Avenue, Burlington, VT 05405-0134. The University of Vermont is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer. The Department is committed to increasing faculty diversity and welcomes applications from women and underrepresented ethnic, racial, and cultural groups, and from people with disabilities.

One-year visiting Assistant Professor beginning August 31, 2004. Primary responsibilities include: teaching Introduction to Psychology, upper-level courses in cognitive and exper-imental psychology, and directing undergraduate research and practica. Applicant must have a Ph.D. (ABD considered), demonstrate a strong commitment to undergraduate teaching at both the introductory and advanced levels and research ability. All relevant documents must be received by July 15, 2004 for full consideration. Applications will be received until the position is filled. Applicants should send a curriculum vitae, transcripts, teaching evaluations, and three letters of recommendation to: Ellen S. Wilson, Division of Social Sciences, Ohio Northern University, Ada, OH 45810; [email protected]; (419) 772-2094. This position will be advertised Fall 2004 as “tenure-track, nine-month appointments at the rank of Assistant Professor” for the Fall of 2005.

Argosy University, Atlanta, has two full-time faculty position openings at the rank of Assistant/Associate Professor. One position begins in September, 2004 and involves coordination responsibilities in the MA Clinical Psychology Program as well as teaching in both the MA and PsyD programs. The second position begins January, 2005 with preference given to individ-uals with expertise in child and adolescent assessment and intervention. Duties include teaching, clinical supervision, dissertation supervision, student advisement, faculty governance, and contributions to clinical psychology as a science and a profession. The positions require a doctorate in clinical psychol-ogy from an APA-accredited program and license or license-eligibility in the State of Georgia. GSPP is an APA-accredited program in Clinical Psychology representing a practitioner-scholar training model. Administration and faculty are dedicated to maintaining an environment that supports effective teaching and learning. GSPP at Argosy University/Atlanta is an equal opportunity employer. Review of applications will continue until the positions are filled. Applicants should submit a letter of interest, curriculum vitae, and three letters of recommen-dation to: Virginia L. Goetsch, Ph.D., Chair, Search Committee, Georgia School of Professional Psychology at Argosy University/Atlanta, 990 Hammond Drive, Atlanta, GA 30328.

Sheppard Pratt Health System–Towson, Maryland Inpatient Adolescent Neuropsychiatry Unit: Sheppard Pratt is seeking a full-time doctoral level psychologist with a behavioral background and experience in IQ testing, to provide individualized behavioral assessment and treatment of complex patients with a psychiatric diagnosis, developmental disability, and/or genetic condition and oversee a unit wide behavior management program as part of the Neuropsychiatry Program at Sheppard Pratt. Qualified candidates must have three plus years of relevant experience in behavior therapy, current license to practice in Maryland, and be eligible for listing in the National Register of Health Service Providers in Psychology To explore this opportunity, contact and send curriculum vitae in confidence to: Sheppard Pratt Health System, Attn: Ms. Krista Keehn, Unit Manager A-7, 6501 North Charles Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21204. Phone: 410/938-4734; Fax: 410/938-4431. E-mail: [email protected]. An Equal Opportunity Employer. Sheppard Pratt a not-for-profit behavioral health system.

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Chapter 5 • Career Options with a Master’s Degree or Doctoral Degree 81

A postdoctoral research fellowship position is available for competitive applicants in the Compulsive, Impulsive and Anxiety Disorders Program at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine, under the direction of Eric Hollander, M.D. This research-training grant prepares psychologists for careers in psychopharmacology and outcomes research. The research facilities and faculty of the Department of Psychiatry at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine serves as the site and resource for this training program. The program consists of three primary components: (1) mentored research, (2) didactic curriculum, and (3) basic science and clinical research electives. Research populations include individuals with OCD, binge-eating disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, compulsive gambling, and other impulse control disorders). Collaborations are available with associated researchers in neuroimaging, molecular neuropharmacology, and neurobehavioral genetics. Applicants must have completed their Ph.D. and must have research experience. Salaries are competitive with excellent benefits. Positions are available starting June 30, 2004 and will remain open until filled. Send curriculum vitae and three letters of recommendation to: Eric Hollander, M.D. Director, Compulsive, Impulsive and Anxiety Disorders Program Department of Psychiatry, Box 1230 Mount Sinai School of Medicine One Gustave L. Levy Place New York, N.Y. 10029, Fax: (212) 987-4031, Phone: (212) 241-3623, E-mail: [email protected].

The Research and Development Department at PAR is continuing to expand to meet excellent customer response to our rapidly growing product base. This expansion includes the addition of a Project Director position. The successful applicant will be a dynamic, entrepreneurial Psychologist and will have the following qualifications: Ph.D. degree in clinical, school, or educational psychology, or a closely related field, with experience and interest in psychometrics, measurement, and test development; a minimum of two years post-doctorate work experience; an excellent work ethic; very strong writing and editing skills; and meticulous attention to detail. PAR is a major psychological test developer/publisher located in Tampa, Florida. We have experienced consistent growth since our inception, and we are pursuing additional expansion of existing areas, as well as establishing new test development markets. We offer Project Directors the opportunity to work in a stimulating, business-oriented environment that supports professional growth and development. Specifically, Project Directors review submitted proposals and work with authors of accepted projects to ensure their reliability, validity, quality, and utility. Project Directors coordinate a multidisciplinary development team, guide product design, formulate and manage project budgets and schedules, develop assessment items and forms in accordance with APA and PAR standards, direct ongoing test development projects, plan and conduct statistical and psychometric analyses, prepare and edit test manuals for publication, and provide input on software design and testing. Established skills in tests and measurement, statistics, writing, and editing are a necessity. Experience in project management is a plus. PAR offers a highly competitive salary and benefits, a generous relocation package, and an attractive work/residential setting in the Tampa Bay metropolitan area. To apply, mail, fax, or e-mail your vitae to: Travis White, Ph.D., Director of Product Development, Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc., 16204 N. Florida Ave., Lutz, FL 33549; Phone: (813) 968-3003; Fax: (813) 968-4684; E-mail: [email protected].

The I/O Psychology program at George Mason University invites applications for two tenure-track faculty positions beginning Fall 2005. Candidates are expected to have a record of quality research with potential for external funding; more senior candidates should have a demonstrated record of external funding. Area of research interest is open, although we have a special interest in applicants who have expertise in statistics, measurement, selection and/or cross-cultural psychology. The Industrial and Organizational Psychology program at George Mason University is a nationally ranked program. The doctoral program has a strong research focus and currently has 25 Ph.D. students and 25 M.A. students. More information on the program can be obtained at http://www.gmu.edu/org/iopsa. For a description of the department, see http://www.gmu.edu/departments/psychology. Review of applications will begin October 1, 2004 and continue until positions are filled. A letter of application, curriculum vitae, and statement of research and teaching interests should be sent electronically to: Dr. Lois Tetrick, Director, Industrial and Organizational Psychology Program at [email protected]. In addition, mail hardcopies of these materials with selected reprints and three letters of recommendation to: Lois Tetrick, George Mason University, Department of Psychology MSN 3F5, 4400 University Drive, Fairfax, VA 22030. George Mason University is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Employer.

The Department of Psychology at California State University, Bakersfield (CSUB) seeks to fill multiple positions to teach in degree programs at the main campus of the university. One position is at the assistant professor level in quantitative psychology with primary teaching emphasis in undergraduate and graduate statistics, research methods, psychometrics, and the candidate’s expertise area. A second position, also at the assistant professor level, is in personality psychology with additional background in clinical/counseling a plus. The start date for both tenure-track positions is September 1, 2005. A third position is a one-year non-tenure-track lectureship in personality with expertise that would allow the offering of a lab in personality. Other courses for the lectureship would include, test and measurements and introductory psychology. The position start date for the lectureship is September 1, 2004. For details about all positions, see the Web pages at: www.csub.edu/psychology/PsycJobs. CSUB is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action/Title IX Employer. CSUB fosters and appreciates ethnic and cultural diversity among its faculty, students, and administrative staff. Applications from women, ethnic minorities, veterans, and individuals with disabilities are welcome.

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C H A P T E R 6

The Graduate Admissions Process

The message is clear about the benefits of receiving a master’s degree or a doctorate. These advanced degrees prepare you for a career as a professional—they afford you greater job opportunities and flexibility, as well as salary benefits. So you want to earn your master’s or doctorate in psychology—how do you get started? This chapter is ded- icated to providing an overview of the details of the graduate school application process. You will need to have some clear ideas about your short-term and long-term goals before you can start the graduate school search process in any meaningful manner.

Before you start down this long and winding road, we encourage you to seek out information from a variety of sources about your graduate education options. Like any other career, it would be helpful if you enjoy and like what you end up doing. Lord (2004) echoes this sentiment:

If you find yourself not loving research and less than thrilled about designing, conducting, and writing up research studies, one of the saddest decisions you could make is to go through the motions just to get a Ph.D. You might grudgingly continue in a Ph.D. program just to get those magic letters after your name, but you have also boxed yourself into one of life’s least pleasant corners. You have spent valuable years establishing creden- tials that qualify you to do one thing—a thing you do not enjoy. (p. 7)

Not everyone agrees with this sentiment, but the more you can understand about your own goals and desires for your future, the better choices you can make down to follow a path toward those goals.

THE POPULARITY AND COMPETITIVENESS OF GRADUATE ADMISSIONS

In general, psychology is a popular choice at the undergraduate level. As you already know, each year over 88,000 students in the United States graduate with a bachelor’s degree in psychology. Graduate education is quite popular, with continued increases in both master’s degrees and doctorates awarded, and there are over 50,000 students enrolled in graduate programs of psychology at any given time. Whereas these statistics should not dissuade you from applying to graduate school, you do need to know the ropes. What is popular right now? How many applications are received in specialty areas of psychology? What about the Ph.D. vs. Psy.D. doctoral applications?

Table 6.1 presents some of the data we have to answer the above questions (Landrum, 2004a). The data presented in Table 6.1 were compiled by the American

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Chapter 6 • The Graduate Admissions Process 85

Psychological Association (APA) Research Office. The data come from APA’s (2003) Graduate Study in Psychology, a compendium of American Departments of Psychology offering graduate education. The number of applications, number of ap- plicants accepted, and number of newly enrolled are reported verbatim from the APA Research Office; the column “Percentage of Applicants Accepted” has been added.

It is important to understand the nature of these data and its limitations. First, the data reflect the Departments of Psychology that are represented in the Graduate Study in Psychology (2003) volume. If a particular department does not participate, then its data are not included. Second, we have only presented three degrees: Ph.D., Psy.D., and master’s degree. The actual data from APA are more detailed, and include other degree options. It is important, however, not to overreact to this data. For instance, in 2001–2002 there were 18,392 applications to Ph.D. clinical pro- grams. This fact does not mean 18,392 separate students. Many students apply to many schools, sometimes at both doctoral (Ph.D., Psy.D.) and master’s levels.

The data in this table provide indirect measures for competitiveness and popularity. Look again at the clinical specialty area under Ph.D. With 18,392 appli- cations, 1,928 were accepted for an acceptance rate of 10.5%. This figure can be considered an index of competitiveness; only 10.5% of applicants to Ph.D. clinical programs get accepted. However, of those acceptances, 1,230 actually enrolled. Of course, some students receive multiple acceptances as well; so 1,930 accept- ances evolve into 1,230 students actually enrolling in 2001–2002. For a more cur- rent but slightly less detailed view of these data see Table 6.2. This table includes the same subfields but does not delineate between a Ph.D and a Psy.D.—an im- portant distinction if you are thinking about the competitiveness and popularity of clinical psychology.

The data in the “Number Newly Enrolled” column is an index of the popular- ity of a specialty area. Ph.D. clinical tends to be both competitive and popular, but not all specialty areas share those characteristics. For instance, a developmental Ph.D. program is somewhat popular (343 newly enrolled), but not as competitive (24.8% accepted). These comparisons become more meaningful when looked at across degree programs. For instance, the master’s degree in counseling (N � 2,370) is much more popular than the Ph.D. in counseling (N � 412), but the Ph.D. coun- seling programs are more competitive (14.7% accepted) than the master’s degree in counseling programs (60.7% accepted). Use the data in this table wisely—don’t let it drive your decisions about applying to graduate school, but at the same time use the data to keep informed and make reasoned decisions about your options for graduate school. See Table 6.2 (page 86) for similar data; more current but less detailed. What we like about Table 6.2 is that it provides a bit more comprehensive picture; rather than delineating between Ph.D. and Psy.D., doctorates are considered on the whole. Also, it is interesting to see the number of departments that vary by specialty field and also doctoral vs. master’s degree.

OVERVIEW: THE APPLICATION PROCESS

Before we jump into the details of the process, an overview is in order. Buskist (2002) provides a thoughtful overview of the graduate application process in his seven tips for preparing a successful graduate school application: (a) be planful; (b) develop competencies as an undergraduate; (c) settle on a specialty area; (d) involve yourself in undergraduate research; (e) do homework on potential graduate schools; (f) identify possible major professors; and (g) write an outstanding letter of intent. APA (1997a) suggests that the three keys to getting into graduate school are (a) preparation, (b) application know-how, and (c) patience. Moreover, they indi- cate that you will need to:

• Determine your chances for getting admitted to a graduate program. This chapter should be helpful in starting to determine those chances.

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• Take the Graduate Record Examination (GRE); plan to take the exam during the fall semester prior to your expected admission to a graduate program.

• When you have narrowed your program list and have taken your GRE, you are ready to apply.

Narrowing Your Program List

An excellent guide to finding information about graduate programs in psychology in the United States is the annual Graduate Study in Psychology published by the American Psychological Association. Note that this book is published (or updates) each year; when it’s your time to pursue this option, make sure you obtain the most recent edition. The 2000 edition of this book contained the following suggestions:

• Apply to a range of programs, with most offering you a reasonable chance at acceptance. It takes too much time, effort, and money to apply to programs at which you have no reasonable chance of acceptance.

• When possible, apply to programs that offer the degree that you ultimately want to obtain.

• Apply to programs that offer the specialty in which you would like to eventu- ally gain employment. It is difficult to change your major emphasis or area “midstream” in your graduate education.

TABLE 6.2 Graduate School Admissions in Departments of Psychology by Subfields, 2003–2004

Doctoral Programs Master’s Degree Programs

Subfield

Number of

Programs

Average Percentage Accepted

Total Students Enrolled

Number of

Programs

Average Percentage Accepted

Total Students Enrolled

Clinical 211 21.2 3,324 98 52.7 1,671 Clinical Neuropsychology

20 25.8 213

Community 12 31.0 43 22 53.8 416 Counseling 34 21.5 447 108 65.5 2,764 Health 12 30.9 87 3 70.3 23 School 52 37.4 392 49 48.9 682 Other Health Service Provider Subfields

49 25.7 477 64 64.5 1,395

Cognitive 88 32.4 353 10 52.8 25 Developmental 99 27.2 374 19 47.9 166 Educational 31 50.0 170 15 57.3 149 Environmental 2 39.1 10 Experimental 31 37.6 163 38 55.4 261 Industrial/Organizational 53 25.7 281 76 56.6 849 General 59 58.0 972 Neuroscience 49 26.9 148 6 32.3 50 Personality 15 19.2 45 Physiological 4 39.4 12 Psychobiology 13 25.0 34 Quantitative 14 42.6 32 5 72.7 18 Social 80 19.4 270 8 47.6 29 Other Research Subfields

76 33.2 339 41 60.7 443

Other Fields 8 22.9 36 2 33.3 12 Total 981 27.4 7,247 624 57.4 9,925

Source: Norcross, Kohout, and Wicherski (2005).

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Chapter 6 • The Graduate Admissions Process 87

• Apply to programs that match your interests and your experience. Know who the faculty members are, do your homework, and apply to programs where you believe you will be a good “fit.”

• Be informed about the issues related to career opportunities of your chosen area of psychology. Although your graduate program is responsible for your educational opportunities, you are responsible for your employment opportunities.

Understanding the Application Process

The second area of expertise that you will have to develop in this endeavor is a good working knowledge of the application process (APA, 1997a). Some concerns and activities in this area include the following:

• Contact programs to request an application, departmental information, and financial aid information (if necessary).

• Prepare the materials required by most applications (in addition to the appli- cation fee): (a) letter of intent/autobiographical statement/personal statement, (b) letters of recommendation and transcripts/grades; (c) GRE scores for- warded directly from the Educational Testing Service (ETS), (d) curriculum vita or resume (see more below), and a cover letter, and (e) personal interview (in some cases for some programs).

What is the difference between a curriculum vita (commonly called a vita) and a resume? A vita is an academic document that chronicles your accomplishments and achievements related to the discipline. A resume is more of a work history and advertisement of your skills and abilities. In general, a resume needs to be short, one to two pages, whereas a long vita means a long list of accomplishments. More on these two documents can be found later in this chapter—you can also find more in- formation about the student CV and another example in Landrum (2005). A guide to vita preparation and sample vitae of undergraduate students is also presented later in this chapter.

Diehl and Sullivan (1998) also offer additional suggestions to make this process result in a desired outcome. For example, you should send copies of your written work, such as an impressive term paper from an upper division psychology course, or a copy of some work from a senior thesis, internship, independent study, or directed research project. After you have sent off your packet of application ma- terials, make sure that the department received everything. It is your responsibility to make sure that letters of recommendation and transcripts are received. Appropriately timed telephone calls or e-mails can save an application. An incom- plete application package is an easy excuse for a graduate admissions committee to not review your materials. Note that sometimes a graduate application might not even make it past the secretary’s desk. Many graduate programs are serious about minimum GPAs and GRE scores; the remainder of the packet may be for naught if these initial hurdles are not adequately completed.

Also, when filling out applications, type everything. Be sure to fill out all forms completely, including those forms that you must give to the people who write your letter of recommendation. You usually have to sign a waiver of your rights to in- spect your documents—be sure to fill out all the information; your faculty member cannot fill this out for you, and often the document is sent directly from the faculty member to the graduate institution. Watch for more tips about the application process throughout this chapter.

Patience

The third component in this overview of the process is patience. Sometimes patience is the hardest part. The process typically works like this: (a) You will usually be no- tified of your acceptance or rejection before April 15; sometimes earlier, and some- times later (if you are on a wait list); however, you should receive some feedback byIS

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April 15. (b) Accept or reject an offer, in writing, by or on April 15; if you decide to attend, it’s good to have that decision behind you; if you decide not to attend, the school can go to the next person on the wait list and make that person an offer; although you may need some time to make your decision, it is not appropriate to delay this decision after April 15.

In the remainder of this chapter, we will look at the details of navigating through this process and finish up with some of the keys to being a successful ap- plicant and a successful graduate student. An excellent resource that you may want to consult is The Complete Guide to Graduate School Admission: Psychology, Counseling, and Related Professions (2nd ed.) by Keith-Spiegel and Wiederman (2000). Reading this book and following the advice will probably improve your per- formance in the entire admissions process.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SELECTION CRITERIA, WITH CAVEATS

What can you do to make your application more competitive? What do graduate ad- missions committees look for? How do they make these decisions about whom to admit into their program or reject? The primary selection criteria are your GPA, your GRE scores, and your letters of recommendation (Keith-Spiegel & Wiederman, 2000)—sometimes called the “big three.” Landrum, Jeglum, and Cashin (1994) exam- ined the decision-making processes of graduate admissions committee members and found that in addition to the big three, two more factors have emerged—research experience and the autobiographical statement/letter of intent. The importance of these latter two factors is also seen in Table 6.2, which presents Keith-Spiegel and Wiederman’s (2000) secondary selection criteria. Interestingly, work by Cashin and Landrum (1991) found that undergraduates understand the importance of factors such as GPA, but tend to underestimate the importance of GRE scores and letters of recom- mendation, and they overestimate the importance of extracurricular activities.

A more current look at these criteria describes a complex pattern of results. By examining the 2003 Graduate Study in Psychology, Landrum and Clark (2005) ex- tracted the importance ratings by type of graduate degree program. Table 6.3 below presents the results. Each column (doctoral and master’s) has been sorted with the most important item rated at the top of the column. Different types of programs will use application criteria differently. Knowing this, you may choose to tailor your ap- plications to your strengths; at least knowing this will give you a better feel for what graduate programs truly look for. In fact, specialized graduate school application

TABLE 6.3 Percentage “High Importance” Ratings for Doctoral and Master’s Degree Program Admission

Doctoral Programs Master’s Degree Programs

Admissions Criterion Percent Rated High Importance

Letters of recommendation 86.7% Letters of recommendation 72.8% Statement of goals and objectives

83.3% Grade point average (GPA) 68.7%

Grade point average (GPA) 70.9% Statement of goals and objectives

63.7%

Research experience 69.2% Interview 47.0%

Interview 63.1% GRE/MAT scores 39.3%

GRE/MAT scores 53.1% Research experience 30.6%

Clinically related public service 16.4% Clinically related public service 20.4%

Work experience 15.1% Work experience 19.9%

Extracurricular activity 3.8% Extracurricular activity 3.0%

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Chapter 6 • The Graduate Admissions Process 89

advice continues to emerge. Schoeneman and Schoeneman (2006) offer advice for the clinical psychology applicant, whereas Walfish and Turner (2006) offer advice for the developmental psychology applicant. With regard to clinical and counseling psychology programs, there are a number of dedicated books available specifically for applicants to these graduate programs.

After the “big” criteria are accounted for, what are those secondary selection criteria (in some cases you could think of these as tiebreakers)? Table 6.4 lists these second-order criteria from most to least important.

These conclusions are further supported by Keith-Spiegel and Wiederman’s (2000) secondary selection criteria. Imagine this scenario—a top graduate program attracts many qualified applicants, who meet the standards set with respect to GRE scores and GPA, and all applicants have excellent letters of recommendation. How

TABLE 6.4 Secondary Selection Criteria in Rank Order of Importance

Items Rated as “Very Important” • Research experience, resulting in a publication credit in a scholarly journal • Degree to which applicant’s skills and interests match those of the program • Research experience, resulting in a paper presented at a professional meeting • Degree of interest expressed by one or more of the members of the selection committee

in working with particular applicants • Clarity and focus of applicant’s statement of purpose

Items Rated as “Generally Important”

• Research assistant experience • Writing skills as revealed in the applicant’s statement of purpose • Status and reputation of applicant’s referees • Strong, supportive mentor actively involved in advocating applicant’s candidacy • Degree to which applicant possesses a knowledge of and interest in the program • Underrepresented ethnic minority membership of applicant • Number of statistics/research methodology courses taken as an undergraduate • Number of hard science courses taken as an undergraduate • Prestige and status of psychology faculty in applicant’s undergraduate department • Prestige of applicant’s undergraduate institution • Potential for success as judged by preselection interviews or some other form of

personal contact • Honors or merit scholarships awarded to applicant by undergraduate institution

Items Rated as “Somewhat Important”

• Area of undergraduate major • Relevant field/volunteer experience in placement relevant to your program • Social/personality style as revealed through preselection interview or some other form of

personal contact • Relevant paid work experience related to program • Neatness and “professional look” of the application materials • Teaching assistant experience • Level of applicant’s active participation in department activities

Items Rated as “Minimally Important” or “Not Important”

• Student affiliate status in a relevant professional organization • Gender balance in the program applied to • Psi Chi membership • Multilingual capabilities • Contribution to geographical diversity

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does the committee distinguish among applicants in this group—that is, after quali- fying on the primary selection criteria (GRE, GPA, letters of recommendation), what information does the committee now use to make its decisions (in essence, what are the tie-breakers among a group of well-qualified students where not enough graduate student slots exist to admit all applicants who qualify on the primary selection criteria)? If you are not careful, it is easy to misunderstand some of the items in Table 6.4. For example, the information about Psi Chi membership does not mean that participation in Psi Chi is not important—it means that Psi Chi membership is an unlikely factor to make or break an application—it is not a tie-breaker. However, the contacts that you make in Psi Chi, the opportunities to go to conferences, gain leadership ability, and work with faculty members one on one (that may lead to the very important letters of recommendation) are all good things that come out of Psi Chi participation. Membership itself may not be an application tie-breaker, but that does not mean that the activity is unimportant.

Your graduate school application package is bound to be a very complex se- ries of documents. Unfortunately, there is no uniform method of applying to gradu- ate schools, and each school wants each bit of information in its own format—as an applicant, you have very little power in this situation, so you need to play the game exactly by the rules set by each school. The graduate school application is not the place to ad lib and do it your own way—that strategy almost always backfires. What might be in your application package? Keith-Spiegel and Wiederman (2000) gener- ated a fairly comprehensive list (see Table 6.4). There is also current research on what not to do for the graduate school application process; what Appleby and Appleby (2006) call “kisses of death” (KODs). They identified five different areas of harm: damaging personal statements, harmful letters of recommendation, lack of program information, poor writing skills, and misfired attempts to impress. These researchers concluded that many KODs can be avoided by improvements to advis- ing and better mentoring of students.

In the rest of this chapter, we will address some of the key components of this application process (see Table 6.5, page 91), by examining (a) grades, transcripts, and the GRE, (b) letters of recommendation with faculty examples, (c) the personal statement with student examples, (d) a student’s version of a vita, (e) the importance of research experience, and (f) the importance of match or fit with your graduate pro- grams of interest. Remember these words of wisdom from Arnold and Horrigan (2002):

You can amplify your chances of gaining admission into graduate school by developing good relationships with professors and work managers (this is significant for establishing good recommendations), actively and continuously working on a research project, obtaining and expansive background in psychology and related fields (e.g., math and statistics), re- ceiving good grades (especially in upper division classes), and achieving a high score on the GRE. Maintaining a high GPA and testing well on the GRE will provide you with an advantage over the competition, but as a serious applicant you should have a combination of all these educational areas. (p. 31)

GRADES, TRANSCRIPTS, AND THE GRE

Your grades in college serve as one of the big three admissions factors. Although programs vary, as a general rule most graduate programs are going to have a mini- mum GPA cutoff of 3.0; many programs have higher minimum requirements. The best sources of information about these requirements come from the APA’s Graduate Study in Psychology published annually, and from materials received directly from your institutions of interest. Although exceptions are occasionally made about the minimum cutoff, they must be accompanied by an explanation about why an excep- tion to the rule is warranted. Given that more students want to attend graduate

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Chapter 6 • The Graduate Admissions Process 91

school than graduate school slots are available, universities can be (and must be) selective in choosing those students who have the best potential to be successful graduates of their program. A low GPA, without any accompanying information, is a predictor of your future performance. C or average work is not acceptable in most graduate programs. If you are striving for admission into a graduate program, and a 3.0 is probably the minimum requirement, think about this—every C that you earn as an undergraduate hurts your chances for admission to graduate school because every C (and of course, even lower grades) pulls your GPA down below 3.0.

If you are serious about graduate school and have modest grades (a GPA of 2.7 to 3.2 on a 4-point scale), you may want to consider the following additional strategies as suggested by Keith-Spiegel and Wiederman (2000):

Delay graduation. Take extra time to get better grades in the classes that you have left to take. If you do this, however, make sure that you earn mostly A’s in these remaining classes—low grades at a slower pace will not look good at all in your quest for graduate school.

Take selected courses over again. Check the policies at your school— does the last grade replace the first, or are the grades averaged together? What happens if the second grade is lower? Repeat courses not to hide a problem grade, but to prove that you can do better work.

Become a post-baccalaureate student at your undergraduate school. Go ahead and graduate, but stay at your school another semester or year, tak- ing selected classes, working with faculty on research and other projects, etc., doing all the things you can to strengthen your application.

Perform exceptionally well on the GRE. Very high GRE test scores may be able to compensate somewhat for a modest GPA. Sometimes a strong GRE score can make up for a weak GPA; the reverse is rarely true.

Take classes at your desired graduate institution. You can probably enroll as an unclassified graduate student (like having an undeclared major as an undergraduate), and, space permitting and as long as you meet the prereq- uisites and requirements, you may be able to take some of the classes with the first-year (admitted) graduate students. This approach can be a high-risk tactic because there is no guarantee of eventual admittance into the program; you’ve got to get into the classes and do well; you may have to relocate to take these classes, etc.

Settle for programs with lower academic requirements. With modest grades, you may not be able to gain admission to your top-tier or dream schools. You may have to go to a lesser-known school in a part of the country you do not know much about. Some schools may admit you provisionally, a type of proba- tionary status that gives you a chance to demonstrate your competency. Often a

TABLE 6.5 Potential Components of a Graduate School Application Package

• Curriculum vita or resume

• Biographical statement (sometimes called personal statement, autobiographical statement, letter of intent), including a statement of your interests and career goals

• Overall grade point average (GPA), GPA in psychology, verified by an official copy of your transcripts

• List of relevant courses you have completed in the major, and a timetable for those courses not yet completed but planned for the future

• GRE scores

• Letters of recommendation sent by you or directly to the school by the referees as directed application fee (if applicable)

• Cover letter, if necessary

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master’s degree program has lower admission requirement cutoffs, and may serve as a stepping-stone for you (see next item).

Earn a master’s degree before applying to a doctoral program. Your grades may not get you into a doctoral program, but they might get you into a master’s degree program. This program becomes your proving ground, and when you apply for doctoral programs, more emphasis is placed on your graduate work and less emphasis is placed on your undergraduate work. Great grades are important, but the bottom line is research, research, research!

Earn the master’s degree instead of the doctoral degree. As you have seen in earlier sections of this chapter, there are a number of excellent oppor- tunities for employment with a master’s degree. You may be able to have a satisfying career without the Ph.D. or Psy.D.

Your transcript is an important record of your academic accomplishments, and as Appleby (2003) suggests, it speaks volumes about your potential as a future grad- uate student. Landrum (2003) examined the effect of student withdrawals (W’s) on the transcript and its effect on graduate admissions. Based on the responses of 139 graduate admissions directors, this study found (a) graduate admissions committees carefully examine transcripts; this is typically done by two faculty members; (b) grad- uate admissions committees highly value transcripts, and either a low GPA or low GRE score may trigger a closer examination of transcripts; and (c) one withdrawal on the transcript does not seem to be a problem. Two withdrawals is probably not a problem, except for a small number of schools. For some schools, withdrawals in particular courses (such as Statistics or Research Methods) are more detrimental than withdrawals in other courses. Your transcript is one of your credentials that you will need for future opportunities—be sure your transcripts tell the story you want. We encourage you to consult with faculty mentors and academic advisors when consid- ering the effects of withdrawals on future prospects.

Another significant component of the big three is the GRE, a series of tests ad- ministered nationally by the Educational Testing Service. The GRE is administered via computer, and you take the GRE in authorized test centers located throughout the na- tion (and literally the world). This test is administered continuously October through January, from February to September you can take the test the first 3 weeks of each month. You schedule the computer-based test at your convenience; another benefit is that you know your unofficial test scores prior to leaving the test center. What does the GRE test measure? According to ETS (1998b), “the verbal measure tests the ability to analyze and evaluate written material and synthesize information obtained from it, to analyze relationships among component parts of sentences, and to recognize rela- tions between words and concepts. The quantitative measure tests basic mathematical skills and understanding of elementary mathematical concepts, as well as the ability to reason quantitatively and to solve problems in a quantitative setting” (p. 5). Graduate admissions committees often care about verbal and quantitative GRE scores because they are useful predictors of performance of some of the key tasks of graduate school, namely writing and statistical ability. In addition, a subject test is available in psychol- ogy, and some graduate schools may require psychology subject test scores. See Table 6.4 for examples of the types of analytical writing tasks used.

The range of the two traditional measures (verbal, quantitative) is from 200 points to 800 points. Each graduate school you are interested in may have different preferences in your scores. Some may want at least a 450 in both verbal and quan- titative. Some schools may just look at your total score (V�Q; your verbal score � your quantitative score). Hence, the minimum cutoff may be a V�Q of 1200, mean- ing any combination of V�Q to reach 1200 points, not necessarily 600 verbal and 600 quantitative. The psychology subject test has a range of 200 to 990 (ETS, 1998). It should be noted that many disciplines require potential graduate students to take the GRE general test, not just psychology; other disciplines also have specialized subject area tests.

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When examining all GRE general test takers from October 1994 to September 1997 (a total of approximately 1.14 million examinees), the average verbal ability score was 474, and the average quantitative score was 558 (ETS, 1998). When looking at just psychology students taking the general test during that same time frame (over 55,000 students), the average verbal score was 472, and the average quantitative score was 514.

The GRE continues to change and evolve over time, and some of these changes may directly or indirectly affect you. The direct changes involve the refor- matting of reading passages and two types of new questions. Since January 2008, the reading passages presented to test takers have been formatted differently. In the past, readers were presented with line numbers of a paragraph to respond to; now the to-be-responded-to text is highlighted on the screen. Also, beginning in November 2007, the GRE introduced a new type of verbal questions and a new type of quantitative question. The new verbal question involves the selection of multiple items to fill in multiple blanks presented in a text passage. The new quantitative type of question allows for a mathematical problem to be presented with a numeric entry made into an answer box (Educational Testing Service, 2008). You can find out more about these updates at www.ets.org.

A change that will not affect you directly is that GRE will begin to collect non- cognitive data from three or four professors who are selected by the applicant. What does non-cognitive data mean? Professors will rate GRE test takers/applicants on a rat- ing scale in six categories: (1) knowledge and creativity, (2) communication skills, (3) teamwork, (4) resilience, (5) planning and organization, and (6) ethics and integrity (Jaschik, 2008). In some ways this rating is similar to some of the forms that faculty are asked to fill out concerning graduate program applicants. The advantage of the Educational Testing Service collecting this data (called the “Personal Potential Index”) is that the data will be more standardized across different recommenders. Several sample questions from the GRE analytical writing section are listed in Table 6.6. We think it’s good for you to know all you can about the process before you leap in!

LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION, WITH FACULTY EXAMPLES

Your letters of recommendation serve as a key component of the big three. Letters of recommendation are interesting and somewhat different from the GPA or your GRE scores. Although other people certainly have some degree of influence over GRE and GPA, your professors and supervisors have direct influence over the letters of recommendation given. You are going to need to choose people who know your

TABLE 6.6 Sample Questions from the GRE Analytical Writing Section

Sample Issue Task: Present Your Perspective on an Issue

Directions: Present your perspective on the issue below, using relevant reasons people and/or examples to support your views.

Sample: “In our time, specialists of all kinds are highly overrated. We need more generalists—who can provide broad perspectives.”

Sample Argument Task: Discuss How Well Reasoned You Find This Argument

Directions: Discuss how well reasoned you find this argument.

Sample: “Six months ago the region of Forestville increased the speed limit for vehicles traveling on the region’s highways by 10 miles per hour. Since that change took effect, the number of automobile accidents in that region has increased by 15%. But the speed limit in Elmsford, a region neighboring Forestville, remained unchanged, and automobile accidents declined slightly during the same 6-month period. Therefore, if the citizens of Forestville want to reduce the number of automobile accidents on the region’s highways, they should campaign to reduce Forestville’s speed limit to what it was before the increase.”

Source: Educational Testing Service (2001).

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professional development, skills, and abilities and know them well. For a faculty member to get to know you this well, you are going to have to get involved outside of the classroom. It takes more than being a good book student to get superb letters of recommendation. In fact, Table 6.7 presents a listing of items that your letter writers might be asked to write about you. By inspecting this list carefully, you will realize that you have to interact personally with faculty members for them to recognize your talents to the degree that it benefits you in a letter of recommendation.

That’s quite a list! If you are a student in one class with a faculty member, do the bare minimum work, never speak up in class, and never have a conversation with the faculty member outside of class, then that faculty member will have a diffi- cult time with almost all of the ideas presented in Table 6.7. Whom should you ask? Keith-Spiegel and Wiederman (2000) found that the best sources for letters are from (a) a mentor with whom the applicant has done considerable work, (b) an appli- cant’s professor who is also well known and highly respected, (c) an employer on a job related to the applicant’s professional goals, and (d) the department chair.

In a survey of writers of letters of recommendation, Keith-Spiegel and Wiederman (2000) asked faculty to rate particular behaviors or attitudes that letter writers want to write about most. Examine this list carefully (see Table 6.8, page 95), and think about what your letter writer is going to write about you. The left column presents the best options, whereas the right column presents the worst options.

Letters of recommendation are sometimes stressful for both the student and the letter-writer. For more tips on how to solicit strong letters of recommendation, see the exercise at the end of this chapter. Students often wonder about their letters of recommendation. When applying to graduate school, one of the forms will ask the student if they want to waive their access to their application file (including let- ters of recommendation). However, if you do not waive your right, you will get to see your application file if you are accepted into that graduate program.

Faculty members differ on their practices of releasing letters to students. For very good students with very good letters, faculty may be inclined to give the student a copy of the letter. Other faculty members never release letters to students, no matter how good the letter (or the student). A direct conversation with the faculty member can resolve any of these concerns. Also, do not assume that the lack of access means a bad letter—faculty may be following their own personal policy, or even a departmental or university policy. To take some mystery out of the process, we include a sample letter of recommendation for a student applying to graduate school (see Figure 6.1). Think about the types of things YOU need to do to garner strong letters of recommendation.

TABLE 6.7 Possible Characteristics To-Be-Described in Letters of Recommendation

• Academic achievement • Flexibility, adaptiveness • Research ability, experience, or potential • Ability to work independently • Teaching potential or experience • Knowledge of the field • Verbal skills, public speaking ability • General knowledge base • Writing skills, level of writing proficiency • Desire to achieve, seriousness of purpose, initiative • Industriousness, motivation, perseverance, energy

level, drive • Professionalism, maturity

• Quantitative abilities • Social awareness, level of concern for others • Creativity, originality, imagination • Physical grooming, personal appearance • Analytical ability • Character, honesty, integrity, ethical and moral standards • Leadership skills, level of respect accorded by others • Ability to work with others, teamwork potential,

cooperativeness • Sociability, social skills, ability to get along with peers • Dependability, level of responsibility • Emotional stability, level of emotional adjustment • Potential as a teacher • Judgment, ability to make sound decisions, ability to reason • Potential as a practitioner

Source: Keith-Spiegel and Wiederman (2000).

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THE PERSONAL STATEMENT, WITH STUDENT EXAMPLES

Although the letters of recommendation communicate the faculty members’ per- spectives about you, you also have the opportunity to present yourself. Most grad- uate programs require applicants to submit something called a personal statement (or statement of intent, or autobiographical statement, or letter of intent). This activ- ity is becoming more and more important in the admissions process (Landrum et al., 1994). It allows you to provide valuable background information about yourself, and it also provides the graduate admissions committee with a writing sample. The requirements for completing this task are about as varied as most graduate pro- grams—there is not a uniform method or procedure to follow. Hence, you need to make sure that you completely satisfy the requirements of each school when you are preparing your personal statement. For a nonrandom sample of personal state- ment instructions, see Table 6.9 (page 99). If you note the variability, you will see that the same statement could not possibly satisfy the different instructions.

There are a growing number of sources for advice on preparing a personal statement. For instance, Bottoms and Nysse (1999) suggest that the major sections of your personal statement should be previous research experience, current research interests, other relevant experience, and career goals. Additional tips for preparing

TABLE 6.8 What Letter Writers Want and Do Not Want to Write About

Student Behavior in the Classroom

BEST WORST

• Seems very interested in the course • Usually has good answer to questions in class • Very attentive during lecture • Disagrees with opinions but in a respectful

way • Asks lots of questions in class

• Cheats on an exam • Plagiarizes a written assignment • Sleeps during lectures • Talks to neighbors during lectures • Sneers/rolls eyes during your

lecture

Student Behavior Outside of Class

BEST WORST

• Drops by office occasionally to comment on topic that has sparked some interest

• Comes to office during office hours for assistance

• Always smiles and says hi in the hallways

• Is openly hostile toward you • Is very complementary but

manipulative • Is flirtatious and seductive • Is openly critical of you

Personal Characteristics

BEST WORST

• Highly motivated to achieve • Responsible and dependable • Professional and mature manner and attitude • Very likable

• Arrogant • Always depressed • Silly • Requires considerable, structured

direction

Miscellaneous Behaviors and Characteristics

BEST WORST

• Top student in the class • Puts extra effort into term paper, class

assignment • Top 5% (GPA) in graduating class • Shows up frequently to departmental

colloquia

• Caught cheating on one exam, appeared genuinely contrite and promised to change

• Dresses and grooms very unconventionally

Source: Keith-Spiegel (1991).

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96 Chapter 6 • The Graduate Admissions Process

FIGURE 6.1 Sample Letters of Recommendation for Graduate School Applicants

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Chapter 6 • The Graduate Admissions Process 97

FIGURE 6.1 (continued )

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98 Chapter 6 • The Graduate Admissions Process

FIGURE 6.1 (continued )

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Chapter 6 • The Graduate Admissions Process 99

TABLE 6.9 Sample Instructions for a Personal Statement

Include a one- to two-page statement describing your plans for graduate study and professional career in psychology. —University of Wyoming

The statement of purpose should be 500–600 words (clinical: 900 words) in length and should contain a description of relevant work/research/volunteer activities, outline future professional goals, and state your expectations of the graduate school experience. — Arizona State University

A letter of intent describing your clinical and research interests, educational and professional goals, faculty whom you might be interested in working with, factors that you would want the admissions committee to consider in evaluating your application that are not evident from other materials, and some background information describing how you became interested in these areas. —University of Nevada–Las Vegas

On this or a separate page(s), please provide a clear, concise one- to two-page essay summarizing your background in psychology (or related field), career objectives, research experience, research interests, and why you are applying to Montana State University’s M.S. program in Applied Psychology. Please be sure to read and sign the signature page at the end of this document. —Montana State University

Clinical program: Your autobiographical sketch should answer the following questions:

What is the source of your interest in psychology?

Why do you want to pursue graduate studies in clinical rather than another area of psychology?

Why do you want a clinical Ph.D. rather than a Psy.D. degree?

Why are you applying to the University of Colorado?

Which two (2) research mentors have you selected at the University of Colorado and why?

What has been your previous research experience? Provide letter(s) of recommendation from your research supervisor(s) with their phone number(s).

What has been your previous practical experience, paid or volunteer? Provide a letter of recommendation from your clinical supervisor.

All other programs: Your autobiographical sketch should address the following items, numbering your answers as listed below:

Describe your previous research experience.

Why do you wish to pursue graduate studies in your chosen area of specialization?

Why are you applying to the University of Colorado?

Which two (2) research mentors have you selected at the UC and why?—University of Colorado

Please prepare approximately two to three pages of typewritten, double-spaced autobiographical material which will be considered confidential. If available include a copy of your vita and e-mail address. (Please be aware that the review committees may contain graduate student representatives.)

Indicate the source of your interest in psychology and the reasons why you wish to pursue graduate studies in your chosen area of specialization. If you have had practical experience (work or volunteer) in psychology, please describe it. If you have been in another areas of academic study or employment, discuss your change. When and how was your attention directed to our graduate program? Indicate how the specific features of our training pro- gram would facilitate your professional goals, and indicate which faculty’s research inter- ests represent a match with your own training goals. What are your career plans? What would you ultimately like to do? —University of Denver

Source: Landrum (2004).

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your personal statement are presented in Table 6.10, coming from both Osborne (1996) and APA (1997a).

Keith-Spiegel and Wiederman (2000) found that in the personal statement instructions that they examined, 13 themes emerged. One point to be stressed— do not write a single one-size-fits-all letter for all schools. Do your homework, and give the committee the answers it wants, not a generic statement that vaguely ad- dresses the school’s information needs. To help personalize your responses, you may wish to closely examine the 13 themes listed. Also, addressing these issues should help you focus on why you want to go to graduate school, what you want to accomplish with your degree, and how best to get from here to there.

Career plans—Tell us about your plans. What do you see yourself doing five to ten years from now?

General interest areas—What are your academic interests?

Research experiences—Have you had any research experiences? What did you do as a research assistant?

Academic objectives—Why are you interested in graduate study? What can our graduate program do for you?

Clinical or other field experience/practicum/internship—Tell us about any these experiences.

Academic background and achievements—What should we know about your academic work? Are your GRE scores and GPA representative of your ability?

What do you see in us—Why did you choose us? What can you do for our graduate program?

100 Chapter 6 • The Graduate Admissions Process

TABLE 6.10 Tips for Preparing Your Personal Statement

• Allow yourself ample time to write, revise, edit, and proofread. • Be willing to write as many drafts as are necessary to produce a unified, coherent essay. • Attend to the instructions carefully and discover what the program is most interested in

knowing about you. • Personal details included in the statement must seem relevant to your ability to be a

successful graduate student. • Follow the instructions to the letter, adhere to length limitations, and answer everything

that is asked. • Do not repeat information that is already in your application, such as your GRE scores or

your GPA. • Use the essay as an opportunity to highlight your uniqueness and your strengths. • Describe yourself honestly and realistically, acknowledging your weak points (if

requested) and stress your good points without exaggerating. Try to connect these good points to your aspirations in psychology.

• Demonstrate that you have taken the time to familiarize yourself with the program. Emphasize the match between your goals and those of the program.

• Reveal characteristics of your “self” that reflect maturity, adaptability, and motivation. • Use formal language and a serious tone; avoid slang, clichés, and colloquialisms. Pay

attention to spelling and grammar. Mistakes here seriously detract from your overall statement.

• Avoid jargon. It is more important to use the right word than the complex word. • Be careful in using superlative language, such as all, every, always, and never. • Read your essay out loud to help find trouble spots. • Have someone else help edit and proofread your work. • Convey a convincing portrayal of my abilities to succeed in this school’s graduate

program.

Sources: American Psychological Association (1997a); Osborne (1996).

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Motivation—Why did you choose graduate study? What events shaped your current career aspirations?

Personal material—Tell us about yourself. What do you think we should know about you?

Autobiography—Provide a brief biographical sketch. Tell us a bit about your background.

Specific graduate faculty of interest—Cite two faculty members who most closely represent your own interests in psychology. Whom would you like to work with in our graduate program?

Anything else we should know?—This can be a dangerous question—do not offer too much!

Special skills—Languages known, mathematics, or computer skills.

One final note on this topic—be sure to answer the questions exactly. Graduate admissions committee members will actually read your personal statement, so make sure that you answer the questions that you are asked. Answer completely and concisely. To help visualize this process, see Figure 6.2 which contains a sample personal statement from a former student who successfully entered graduate school.

Sample #1

The field of psychology has always been very interesting to me. It all began with an Introduction of Psychology class when I was a junior in high school. In that class, I was intro- duced to human development, human assessment, and psychological disorders. I recall thinking that psychology can serve a purpose, especially in the aspect of counseling people and helping them with their problems and concerns. It turned out to be one of my favorite classes of high school.

Unfortunately, I reentered college late starting up again when I was 27 years old. When I had decided to go back to college, I chose the field of psychology as my major. This choice was influenced by my previous experiences that I had while I was a junior in high school. Also, many people had told me that I had a talent for listening to them, and helping them solve their issues and concerns. I thought that becoming a psychologist would be an excellent way to help others, and was something that I could be happy with as a career.

My interest and knowledge of psychology really grew as I continued my studies as an undergraduate. I was amazed at all the fields of study that psychology had to offer. Even though there were so many to choose from, I always knew that I wanted to become a ther- apist so I would be able to help others with their needs. Also, research has become a large part of my life. Part of my research was to develop and distribute a survey in the community where I currently live. Through this research I was able to see the benefits of statistics in telling my group what people liked and disliked about their community. As it turns out, the local government used the results of the study to see what was needed for improvements in the community. Another research project that I was involved in was an analysis of what graduate schools valued as important for graduate admissions. What I learned from that ex- perience was what schools I would like to attend, and what they required for admission. This research is in review now for publishing, and it is my hope that others may benefit from my work on the project. Through it all, I have come to love psychology, and I want to be able to use research and the skills learned from psychology to create a better world for oth- ers and myself.

To continue on with my studies, I have chosen to pursue a Ph.D. in Counseling Psychology. I really feel that a Ph.D. in Counseling Psychology will give me the skills and the knowledge to become a source of help for many people. With the research experience that I will gain, it is my great desire to publish my research through textbooks and novels that can be available to the public. I am also interested in the ability to teach at the university level. I feel that the Ph.D. program offered by the New Mexico State University can provide all of these.

I can see that the program at New Mexico State University can provide many oppor- tunities for me. I am especially interested in the focus of cultural diversity in our society. I

FIGURE 6.2 Sample Personal Statements (continued)

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lived in Spain for two years, and am fluent in Spanish. Therefore I am very interested in working with Dr. Luis A. Vázquez in his bilingual counseling. I feel that I could be a great service to my community if I had bilingual skills in counseling. It is my concern that there are many Spanish-American people that does not receive the help they need due to a lan- guage barrier. Along the same lines, I am interested in working with Dr. Rod J. Merta due to his expertise in addictions and multicultural counseling. Some of the research con- ducted by Dr. Charles H. Huber on family and marriage holds great interest for me. The family is the cornerstone of society. I am very interested in working with younger people. Therefore, I would be interested in working with Dr. Peggy Kaczmarek in her study of child and adolescent therapy. Any and all of these professors would be great mentors for my goals as a professional.

It is easy to see that New Mexico State University has much to offer for a Ph.D. in Counseling Psychology. I am very impressed with the focus of research that the professors are conducting. I feel that the university holds the goals that I am looking for. My favorite is rule #13 which states, “Students will be expected to integrate the roles of psychologist, counselor, and researcher, to assess their own strengths and weaknesses, and to remain open and committed to both personal and professional growth.” I strongly feel that this says it all. I know that I can be a great asset to New Mexico State University. Thank you.

Sample #2

To Whom It May Concern: I believe psychology is intended to help individuals through careful examination of

human behavior, cognition, and neurological development. The development of the field yields two important branches, psychotherapy and research. I believe the two branches rely heavily upon one another. The research branch investigates the nature of human behavior, tests theories, and provides a vast knowledge base from which new ideas can grow. The psychotherapy branch provides an outlet for the application of theories and reciprocates new ideas to be tested and investigated by researchers. The concept of a scientist- practitioner is the primary reason why I want to study clinical psychology. The combination of the two paths yields a great ability in improving mental health and further expanding the field of psychology. The flexibility of applied research, psychotherapy, and assessment has drawn me to the field of clinical psychology. Through my experiences as an under- graduate student I have come to appreciate the intensity and skill in conducting clinical services and research.

As I started my college education career I knew I wanted to join the field of psychol- ogy. I performed well as a student in high school and continued to do well into college. Unfortunately, during my first year and a half in school I never heard of any opportunities to be a part of a research staff. I did not even know that research existed at my university. Then at the end of my second year of school I transferred to Boise State University. Boise State University clearly and explicitly explained the importance of research to the field of psychol- ogy as well as the benefits I would receive in interacting with professors in conducting re- search. This was a rude awakening; at that moment I felt I had wasted the first years of my undergraduate education.

Once I realized the time and opportunity I had wasted, I immediately sought after a professor who would accept me as a research assistant. I was fortunate enough to work with Dr. Keli Braitman. The project I was assigned to involved the media’s impact on male body image. I initially started the project collecting data, data entry, and data analysis. As the project continued, I found myself in a lead role of the research project. I earned the re- sponsibilities of leading a focus group, participating in a focus group, collaborating on ex- perimental method and design, development of questionnaires, data collection in both large group settings and on an individual basis, debriefing of participants, data entry into statistical analysis program (SPSS), item analysis, and presentation of the research at a local and regional conference. Dr. Braitman excelled in allowing her students to take the lead role in the development of the project, conducting the research, and presenting the results. Not only did I gain knowledge and experience from the research, I became excited about re- search. I was eager to learn more about research methodology, psychological measure- ment, and quantitative methods. I elected to enroll in all the classes I could that explored the field of psychological research.

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I graduated the summer after working with Dr. Braitman, but I felt I did not have ad- equate research experience, especially with my goals of graduate study. I contacted Dr. R. Eric Landrum, a professor who inspired and educated me about the importance of research when I first attended Boise State University. I wanted to complete another research project prior to entering graduate school, in which Dr. Landrum was generous enough to supervise an individual project.

I was interested about the theory of self-efficacy initially proposed by Albert Bandura, particularly in an academic setting. My project is comparing the levels of aca- demic self-efficacy between the different groups of higher education. The groups include associate/technical students, undergraduate students, and graduate students. I am in the process of completing the project and I am anticipating presenting the research at a re- gional conference.

Dr. Landrum took the role of an advisor very seriously. I am very thankful for the position that he established in our working relationship. Dr. Landrum left all of the decision-making and organization to me, allowing me to learn from the process of completing an individual project. I have truly learned a vast amount from this experience. I have had a direct en- counter with an Institutional Review Board, which has taught me the importance of an- ticipating any risks to human subjects, as well as the need to explore and explain the research design to the smallest detail. I have learned to appreciate the time and energy involved in establishing the logistics of collecting data from large multiple groups. The experience I have received in participating in the research projects has better prepared me for study at graduate school.

I am interested in UAA clinical program for a number of reasons. One reason is the flexibility of the program. My future career goal is to earn a doctorate in clinical psychology with an emphasis in quantitative methodology. The program structure of UAA will help fa- cilitate my goals. If I was given the opportunity to attend the UAA program, I will choose to place my educational emphasis in both the research and clinical tracks. The second reason for my interest in the program is the available resources to the program and the graduate students. The primary resource that attracted me is the large faculty size and relatively few graduate students. The Psychological Services Center seems to be an excellent resource for students in the masters program. Plus, there are definite advantages with having the de- partment located in the same building as the university library.

I do have one relevant piece of information is in regards to my transcript. The summer of 2002 I initially enrolled in Psychology 351 Personality. I never attended the course due to financial reasons, and I expected to be administratively dropped. I have never dropped a course prior to this point in my educational career. However, I was not dropped from the class and received an ‘F’ in the course. I did appeal the outcome with supporting documen- tation from the professor, Dr. Tedd McDonald, however the Office of Appeals chose to dis- regard the information and I was forced to accept the grade. I did take the course of my own volition in the spring of 2003 and earned an ‘A’.

The primary interest in my education and my future career is in clinical psychology. The flexibility of the discipline, the scientist-practitioner approach, and the use of applied re- search is what I find appealing about the field. Attendance to the UAA clinical psychology program would make my goals possible, as well as furthering my knowledge and experi- ence in clinical psychology. Thank you.

A STUDENT’S GUIDE TO THE CURRICULUM VITA (CV), WITH EXAMPLES

Another component of this arduous graduate school application process involves the preparation of a curriculum vita (CV), which literally means “academic life.” Although related to the resume, the vita chronicles your accomplishments, whereas the resume is a brief introduction to your skills, abilities, and employ- ment history. A goal in resume writing is keeping the resume short, one or two pages. A CV is usually a longer document that tracks your entire history of aca- demic performance, not just a summary of employment positions. In a bit, we offer some sample student CVs—first, here are some ideas on how to organize

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your CV (see also Table 6.11). Some general suggestions come from Hayes and Hayes (1989, no page number):

(a) Write up your vita now. No matter how puny. From acorns giant oaks grow, and you might as well begin. It will also get you thinking about your career development; (b) Keep a vita development file. (If you aren’t keeping any kind of files yet, start). Throw notes into this file regarding the kinds of things you are doing on your assistantships, special talks you gave, activities you performed that were noteworthy, committee as- signments, papers presented, associations joined, everything you need to update your vita; (c) Set goals for your career and work toward them. Design a reasonable strategy to reach those goals. Use the periodic up- dates of your vita as an opportunity to assess the development of your career; (d) Revise your vita at least once a year or more often if the need arises; and (e) Have your advisor and others go over your vita before you send it out.

There is much good advice about preparing a vita, including what do to and what not to do (however, much of the available advice is aimed at faculty members and their CVs). Lord (2004) suggests using a beginning CV as an inspirational document:

At first, you might find it depressing to construct an academic vita, be- cause many of the headings will be followed by blank lines. Do not worry about it. Everyone starts that way. One reason for constructing an academic vita is to remind you that it is empty. Write in your appoint- ment book a time once a month when you will print your vita and think about how you could improve it. (p. 10)

Henry Roediger, former President of the American Psychological Society, of- fered this advice concerning vita preparation (2004, no page number):

You should put your educational and occupational history on the first page of your vita and try to make it complete enough to explain any gaps. If you worked in industry for 4 years between the bachelor’s de- gree and your graduate education, list your work experiences here, along with other experiences, in chronological order. Do not let the reader guess what you might have been doing, as readers might assume the worst (were those the drug rehab years?).

Table 6.12 lists some additional tips offered by Plous (1998b) for creating your CV.

TABLE 6.11 Suggestions for Organizing Your Curriculum Vita

Personal information (address, phone number, e-mail)

Educational history (degrees earned, when and where)

Honors and awards (list each, who awarded, and date awarded)

Association memberships (relevant clubs and societies, student affiliate status)

Professional experience (beginning with college, list jobs relevant to the major)

Research interests (if applicable and appropriate)

Current research and teaching experience (if applicable and appropriate)

Professional presentations (titles, organizations, in APA format if possible)

Publications (use APA format, be careful with “in press,” “under review”)

References (list names, titles, and addresses of three to four people whom you have asked)

Sources: Hayes and Hayes (1989); Plous (1998).

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TABLE 6.12 Tips for Preparing Your Curriculum Vita

Your vita should be a clear and concise summary of your professional qualifications. Take care in every word used. Try to obtain copies of vitae from people who are at your stage or slightly ahead of you; although a faculty member’s vita might give you some organizational ideas, some sections will be inappropriate due to your entry-level status in the discipline.

Create an inviting and elegant format. Take the time to add some style, and include white space (but, don’t overdo it).

Make absolutely sure that there are no errors in your vita. Have more than one person proofread it for you—show it to your professors to review. It must be completely error-free.

Avoid padding your vita because you feel you don’t have much to list. Do not list high school accomplishments or excessive details about activities you have completed en route to your bachelor’s degree. Do not list irrelevant personal information, such as height, weight, or general health. List hobbies only if you think they make you look like a more well-rounded individual.

Try not to list categories on your vita if you have only one accomplishment in that category (like the outlining rule, you need a B for every A.). The exception to this rule would be if you have only one publication—it is so worthy of note, the category will draw the attention to this accomplishment. Remember, publication credit is the number one secondary selection criterion for graduate admissions committees.

When using category headings and subheadings, don’t get too ambitious. This is where copying the format of a faculty member may be a bad idea; don’t have a “Grants and Contracts” section if you have neither grants nor contracts.

In Figure 6.3, you will find two sample student vitae. These vitae represent years of work by these students to build their credentials. If you are just starting out in psychology, your vita will not look like these samples. It takes time to gain experi- ence, so start as early in your career as you can. If you wait to do things like serv- ing as a research assistant or teaching assistant until your last semester of college, those experiences will not be as valuable as they could have been had they oc- curred earlier. Also, we recommend NOT using faculty CVs as examples for prepar- ing your own CV. A faculty vita is likely to have many more categories that do not apply to undergraduate students. Also, if you compare your student CV to a faculty

Success Stories

Dr. Randall E. Osborne

Texas State University—San Marcos

I was teaching at a small university in Oklahoma and had a top-notch student. She had a 4.0 GPA, had won a research award, had presented at conferences, worked for a clinician, and had stellar reference letters. I encouraged her to work hard on her personal statement but she kept putting it off. She finally sent it in just before the deadline but I never got to read it. Months went by and we did not hear from the school. I finally called the school to inquire about her status. They said, “We haven’t rejected her, we just cannot decide if she really wants to be in our program.”

What she had done was ramble on and on about her wide interests in psychology, yet she was applying for a very specialized program. They wanted to accept her but were unsure she would be happy.

In the end, I encouraged them to call her, called her myself and told her she was about to receive the most important phone call of her life. She called me 30 minutes later with the news they had decided to accept her and offer her a teaching assistantship.

The moral of the story, listen to your advisor and DO NOT take any aspect of the application lightly. You never know what one thing will make the difference either in get- ting you in—or keeping you out.

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FIGURE 6.3 Sample Student CVs

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FIGURE 6.3 (continued)

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FIGURE 6.3 (continued)

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members’ CV, you may become disappointed because it looks as if you have done so little. Remember, you are just getting started, and it has been that faculty member job to be a psychologist; they have years and years head start on building a vita. Thus, if you want to look at a faculty member’s vita, do so after you have created yours. By the way, this social comparison and dejection occurs for faculty members too—Roediger (2004) alludes to this in his interesting article.

RESEARCH EXPERIENCE, AND MATCH AND FIT WITH YOUR PROGRAM OF INTEREST

As alluded to earlier, research experience is important in the admissions process. It is at the top of the secondary selection criteria, and by serving as a research assis- tant you will gain valuable knowledge, skills, and abilities, and you will likely have enough meaningful interactions with a faculty member through the research process that he or she will be able to write you a strong letter of recommendation. Plus, psychology is an empirical science—we investigate and test our theories and hypotheses about the nature of human behavior—research skills lay at the core of this discipline. Much of Chapter 7 is devoted to demonstrating the importance and benefits of participating in research.

Additionally, you need to carefully consider your own personal goals (answer- ing the 13 themes on page XX help you) with respect to the goals and orientation of the graduate schools to which you are applying. The “match” or “fit” between you and the school is not to be underestimated. Landrum et al. (1994) asked graduate admissions committee members to describe the exact procedures and decision- making rules they followed in the selection process. Content analysis of these decision protocols indicated that the most frequent strategy used in selection was the match between the applicant and the school and faculty. On another level, al- though the prospects of gaining admission may be daunting at this point, you do not want to go to any school just for the sake of going to graduate school. You might be admitted, but if the program is not a good match or good fit, you may be miserable and drop out (this chapter started with the acceptance rates into graduate school). A disastrous first experience may impact everything you attempt to do later in psychology. We would encourage you not to underestimate the importance of the match or fit between you and the schools you are applying to. Thus, if you men- tion in your personal statement that you want to work with a particular faculty member—mean it—because it might happen. In fact, some graduate programs take an additional step to ensure match or fit—they invite applicants for an on-campus interview. If at all possible, attend, even if it costs you money out of your own pocket. Some programs, like clinical and counseling psychology programs, rely on interviews more than other specialty areas. Just like a job interview, although the program is interviewing you, you are also interviewing the program. Table 6.13 presents some possible interview questions for you to use when on-campus— Oudekerk and Bottoms (2007) also provide additional ideas for questions for you to ask during your interview.

According to Appleby (1990), there may be two general types of students in graduate school: (1) students who find the experience unpleasant, to be en- dured, survived, and eventually forgotten, and (2) students who thrive in the sys- tem, are respected by the faculty, and end up with the best employment prospects. If you would rather be in the latter group, here are some of the char- acteristics (Bloom & Bell, 1979) of those individuals who became graduate school superstars:

Visibility—highly motivated, seem to always be in the department at all hours

Willingness to work hard—seen by faculty as hard-working, persevering

Reflection of program values—seen by faculty as having professional val- ues that lead to research and scholarly success

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True interest in research—engaged in research projects in addition to the master’s thesis and dissertation; curious enough about a problem and wanted to see data on it

Development of a relationship with a mentor—listen, learn, grow, and are productive through a close working relationship with one or two faculty members

STRATEGIES TO CONSIDER IF YOU DO NOT GET IN

It is quite a process, but that is what it takes to become a psychologist. If it were easy, many people would do it, and the value of the skills and abilities learned would be lessened. It is difficult for undergraduate students to step back and get the “big picture” when you are in the process of applying to graduate schools and planning for your future. When students are unsuccessful in graduate school admission, they often forget about context. In other words, you are competing with the best and brightest students from around the nation, and often the world. Some students think that because they consistently get the top grades in their classes that they will be the top applicants. Adding to the complexity, the pool of applicants changes every year, so one year you might be quite competitive and the next year you might not make the next cut. If you are not accepted on your first attempt, what are your options?

We suggest that you seek out honest appraisals of your credentials. The first step might be able to consult with your faculty mentor or other psychology depart- ment faculty about your application package. With a high GPA, were your GRE scores a bit low? Because you transferred your senior year, were your letters of rec- ommendation not very strong? What types of experiences did your letter writers write about? Did you attend any conferences to present your research? Seek an hon- est and blunt appraisal of your credentials. If weaknesses can be identified, then try to correct them. It might mean retaking courses to raise your GPA, retaking the GRE to increase scores, or adding an extra year of your undergraduate education so that you can acquire additional experiences, such as serving as a research assistant or completing an internship.

Another strategy to consider is to contact the graduate schools that you applied to. Write to the director of graduate admissions, and ask for a sincere appraisal of your

TABLE 6.13 Questions Prospective Graduate Students Might Ask on an Interview

How is the training in this program organized? What is the typical program of study? As Appleby (1990) alluded to, none of these characteristics mention intellect, GPA, or writing ability. Perhaps those qualities are constants that the faculty member expects to see in all graduate school students. The above list constitutes qualities over and above those needed for entrance into the graduate program. Lord (2004) specifically addresses the undergraduate to graduate school transition:

The transition from undergraduate to graduate study involves a transition from student to scholar and researcher. Many of the skills that guarantee success as an undergraduate (e.g., strong test-taking skills and good grades) can be unrelated to success as a graduate student, where the ability to conduct research—both effectively and prolifically—is the strongest measure of success. For some students, this transition is difficult, and successful graduate students are those who are able to discover research areas they truly enjoy and who are able to translate this interest into publications, the holy grail of graduate work. (p. 15)

Lord’s conclusion is probably more applicable to those seeking the Ph.D. than the Psy.D., however. Concerning this transition from college to graduate school, one of the reviewers of this book mentioned that the transition “is difficult because the pond is smaller and the fish are bigger!”

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application. Try to obtain a personalized response—this may take a bit of work and persistence. However, your persistence may pay off the next year that you apply— especially if someone on the graduate admissions committee takes time to point out the weaknesses in your application and you take the next year turning those weak- nesses into strengths. Be reasonable with yourself, and don’t beat up on yourself concerning your weaknesses. But if multiple opinions emerge (faculty advisor, mul- tiple graduate program faculty) concerning areas of concern, then you should con- sider what you can do to improve in those areas. Be sure to tap into the experiences and expertise of your mentors, faculty members, and academic advisors. Persistence can pay off!

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EXERCISE #6: Letter of Recommendation Request Worksheet

In this exercise, use this form to organize the letter of recommendation process. This form can be used for employers as well as graduate school applications. There are lots of details to attend to, so use the checklist to make sure you don’t forget everything and that your letter writer has everything he or she needs to write you the strongest letter they can. The checklist has been derived in part from Bates College (2000) and Rewey (2000). Remember, paying attention to details is important; if you can’t follow the instructions for applying to graduate school, many graduate schools will figure that you couldn’t follow the instructions once you were admitted to graduate school (so why bother?).

Category Check✓ Details

Initial Contact _________ Discuss the letter of recommendation with each faculty member/letter writer face-to-face.

_________ Ask “Would you be willing to write me a strong letter of recommendation?”

_________ Make this contact as soon as possible; no later than 1 month before the first letter is due.

Demographic Information

_________ Provide the letter writer with your name, campus and permanent address, email address, and phone numbers (including cell phone).

Academic Information

_________ List your major, minor, GPAs, test scores, academic awards, honor society memberships.

_________ State the nature of the relationship, the length of time they have known you.

Experiences _________ Describe internships, independent study, directed research, senior thesis, work experiences, extracurricular activities (e.g., Psi Chi, Psychology Club).

Accomplishments_________ Give some details about your skills, talents, abilities, personal qualities, and relevant accomplishments.

_________ List relevant accomplishments with details, dates, etc. _________ List relevant scholarships, recognitions (e.g., Dean’s List).

Personal Characteristics

_________ Describe academic strengths and weaknesses, why you are qualified for graduate school.

_________ Provide concrete examples of skills, such as dependability, intellect, drive and motivation, written and oral communication skills, interpersonal skills.

Wrap Up _________ State how you can be reached by the letter writer if he or she needs more information.

_________ Clearly tell the letter writer if the letter is mailed directly or returned to you (sign on the flap?).

_________ Thank the letter writer formally with a hand-written card.

_________ Keep the letter writer informed about the progress of your efforts.

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C H A P T E R 7

Research and Teaching Assistantships

If you have carefully read the first few chapters of this book, one theme is that you should get involved outside the classroom to obtain the full range of skills and abil- ities you need to be successful in psychology. These experiences are invaluable whether you are going to graduate school or not. This chapter directly addresses opportunities such as research assistantships, a senior thesis project, and teaching assistantships.

These extracurricular activities give you an opportunity to increase your skills in applying the psychological principles you are learning in the classroom. Also, reading about research results and actually doing research are two very different learning experiences. However, you will obtain research experiences in some of your courses (Omarzu, Hennessey, & Rys, 2006; Perlman & McCann, 2005). Furthermore, by being involved, you give your psychology faculty more opportuni- ties to get to know you and become familiar with your professional abilities and po- tential. Moreover, these faculty–student collaborations can often lead to strong letters of recommendation. If you are a student (one of many) in a class, the instructor has relatively limited exposure to your skills and abilities. If you are a student in the instructor’s class and also did research with him or her for a year, did an off-campus internship, and served as a teaching assistant for another professor, your instructor will be able to write a stronger letter because you are a more well-rounded student (and because you worked with more than one faculty member, you will have addi- tional sources of letters of recommendation). Whether you are looking for a job with your bachelor’s degree or looking for admission into graduate school, you need to make yourself a competitive applicant. If you can take advantage of some of the opportunities presented in this chapter, you will be well on your way to achieving a competitive edge.

WHAT IS A RESEARCH ASSISTANTSHIP?

In an article by Clay (1998), Eugene Zechmeister, the director of the undergraduate program at Loyola University (in Illinois), said, “I know this will sound sacrile- gious, but skills are actually more important than course content” (p. 2). He is right. Courses lay the foundation for information and knowledge about psychol- ogy, but that information and knowledge will do little good without the skills needed to utilize that knowledge. Since its formal inception in 1879, psychology has been an empirical, research-based discipline. Teaching and research focus on the heart of the matter—we expand our knowledge about psychology through re- search, and it is this research that gives us the subject matter that we teach. For

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the discipline of psychology to succeed and thrive, we need a balance between teaching and research.

What is a research assistantship? It is an opportunity for undergraduate stu- dents to assist faculty members in a program of research. When you serve as a re- search assistant (RA), you will actually be involved in doing the research rather than reading about it in your textbook or journal article. There are multiple advantages to serving as a research assistant: (a) acquisition of skills and knowledge not easily gained in the classroom; (b) opportunity to work one on one with a faculty mem- ber; (c) opportunity to contribute to the advancements of the science of psychology; (d) exposure to general research techniques helpful for pursuing later graduate work; (e) opportunity to practice written and oral communication skills by preparing for and attending professional conferences and preparing and submitting manu- scripts for publication; and (f) cultivation of a mentoring relationship with a faculty member that will be helpful for acquiring letters of recommendation.

What do you do as a research assistant? This is best answered by asking the faculty member directly. Although the answer will vary from research topic to re- search topic, the list presented in Table 7.1 describes some of the general tasks and duties that you may be asked to perform—see also Sleigh and Ritzer (2007) for a much more comprehensive list.

Your commitment to serve as a research assistant is a weighty one—you have some responsibility to see that several aspects of the research process get done. It is a serious commitment that you should not take lightly. In fact, Roig (2007) suggests guidelines for a student-faculty research agreement, and Landrum (2008b) provides sample criteria for evaluating a research assistant’s performance. The faculty member you are working with will be counting on you to get things done, and done right; here is the place you want to shine. By watching you complete tasks and by observ- ing you take on more and more responsibility, your faculty mentor will have plenty of good things to write about in those letters of recommendation. However, the reverse is also true. If you don’t take the commitment seriously, if you make repeated mis- takes on important tasks, then the recommendations of the faculty member will be weakened. If you choose to take on this commitment, know what you are getting into. At many schools, research assistants can also earn course credit—with a title such as directed research, independent study, or supervised research—and these

TABLE 7.1 Typical Tasks Performed by Research Assistants (RAs)

Administer research sessions with student participants (this procedure is called data collection, or “running subjects”). Score and/or code the collected data, and enter them into a spreadsheet or statistical analysis program (such as SPSS). Conduct literature searches using resources like PsycINFO and Social Sciences Citation Index; search your local library database for books and periodicals; make copies of articles available; order unavailable resources through interlibrary loan; general library research. Work with the faculty member to develop new research ideas; often these ideas are developed from research just completed, the need that arises from a particular situation, or reviews of the existing literature. Attend lab meetings with other undergraduate research assistants, discuss research ideas, collaborate on projects. Use word processing, spreadsheet, scheduling, and statistical analysis programs to complete the research project. Work on project outcomes so they can be submitted for presentations at local or regional conferences, prepare abstracts; if accepted, work on poster or oral presentations of the research materials for presentation at professional conferences. Collaborate with faculty member to submit work to an appropriate journal to share the results with the broad scientific community.

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credits are often senior-level upper-division psychology credits. Take advantage of this opportunity; these credits make a positive impression on your transcripts. When asked about why they became involved in research, Slattery and Park (2002) found that students’ most common responses were to increase probability of graduate school admission and interested in research.

Other researchers have approached this issue from another perspective. For instance, Vittengl, Bosley, Brescia, Eckardt, Neidig, Shelver, and Sapenoff (2004) found that when predicting those students who will have higher interest in research, the key predictors are (a) viewing research as relevant to plans after receiving the bachelor’s degree, (b) a personality with high openness to experience, and (c) score higher on the ACT mathematics subscale. Said another way:

. . . . undergraduates with relatively low interest in research might be described as (a) less sophisticated, more conventional thinkers with lower intellectual curiosity than their peers; (b) students who struggle with the concepts and application of high-school-level mathematics, which is commonly used in statistical analyses; and (c) students who, accurately or inaccurately, consider research knowledge and skills to be largely irrelevant to their anticipated postundergraduate activities. (p. 94)

You must remember that these are not cause-and-effect relations, however. We en- courage all psychology undergraduates, regardless of their career plans, to pursue opportunities such as research and teaching assistantships. The benefits of such par- ticipation are highlighted throughout this chapter. Table 7.2 offers some suggestions on how to go about securing an RA position.

In a national survey, Landrum and Nelsen (2002) systematically studied the benefits of serving as an RA from the faculty member perspective. Out of a 40-item survey, faculty members ranked these benefits as most important: (a) an opportunity to enhance critical thinking skills, (b) preparation for graduate school, (c) gains en- thusiasm for the research process, (d) participates in the data collection process, and (e) improved writing ability. Although the research assistant–faculty collaboration is often a positive experience, there are times when problems arise. Slattery and Park (2002) described some of the most strategies to avoid problems in research collabo- ration: (a) meet students regularly, (b) mentor student researchers in whatever way possible, (c) train students carefully for tasks given to them, (d) involve them in faculty research, and (e) choose student researchers carefully. As stated previously,

TABLE 7.2 Suggestions for Securing a Research Assistant Position

Review the listing of the faculty in your psychology department and their research interests. You might find this information available in a pamphlet in the department, as part of advising materials, or perhaps on the department’s Web site. If there is no such list available, encourage your Psi Chi chapter or local psychology club to create one. Then, make appointments with faculty members, preferably during their posted office hours, to discuss research possibilities. If you want to impress this faculty member, do your homework. Do a PsycINFO search beforehand and be ready to talk about topics that this faculty member has already studied. When you meet with the faculty members, be yourself. Let them know that you are willing to work hard on their program of research. Ask them about the specific requirements that they expect from their research assistants. You’ll want to know about the duration of the project, what your responsibilities will be, grading practices, weekly time commitment, etc. Also, what length of commitment is the faculty member looking for? Some faculty may want RA help only for a semester, whereas other faculty will ask for a 1-year or longer commitment. If you come to an agreement with a faculty member to serve as an RA, there may be addi- tional forms that you have to fill out to register for credit.

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research is a serious commitment by both student and faculty—care should be taken to properly nurture this relationship and monitor progress toward common goals.

What research experience is the most beneficial for students? Are all research experiences of equal value? If you are planning to attend graduate school, it appears that some components of the research assistantship experience are more valuable than others. In an interesting study Kaiser, Kaiser, Richardson, and Fox (2007) sur- veyed graduate admissions directors to answer this question. The results are consis- tent with previous research. The four most important types of undergraduate research experiences (from a graduate school admissions director’s perspective) were that the student (a) published in a refereed journal, (b) published a senior thesis, (c) was the first author on a refereed journal article, and (d) made a paper presen- tation at a national conference. Other research experiences were also valuable, but these four were most important.

PRESENTING RESEARCH AT CONFERENCES

By becoming involved in research, you will give yourself a number of additional opportunities as well. For instance, you may be able to make a presentation at a local or regional professional conference, or at a more student-centered research conference. Two types of “presentations” are typically made at conferences—papers and posters. A paper presentation is usually a 12- to 15-minute talk given to an audience about your research project. You may have handouts for your audience, or use audiovisual aids (such as overhead transparencies, slides, or a PowerPoint presentation), or do both. Table 7.3 offers suggestions for oral paper presentations.

A poster presentation is substantially different from a paper presentation. In the paper presentation, you present your findings to a large audience in a relatively short time period. The method is somewhat impersonal, but it is an efficient method to present the materials to a large number of people. In a poster presentation, you

Success Stories

Dr. Kenneth A. Weaver

Department of Psychology Emporia State University

First appeared in Psiowa, the newsletter of the Department of Psychology at the University of Iowa, 2000–2001

Featured alumnus: Patty Deldin Patricia Deldin was an undergraduate psychology major at Iowa from 1981–1985,

and has become one of our more distinguished alumni. But it didn’t always seem as if it was going to turn out that way.

Patty grew up in a small town in Illinois in a blue-collar family. In high school, she was a cheerleader and ran track but gave relatively little thought to academics. In her first year at the University, her grades were mediocre at best. The turning point for her came when she met with her advisor to discuss the future. When she told him she planned to go to graduate school in clinical psychology, he told her that with her grades that goal was unrealistic. She cried for a day or two, but then she pulled herself together and resolved to study much harder and improve her grades.

Patty’s grades did, indeed, improve. By the time she was a senior, she was making mostly A’s and was conducting an Honor’s thesis with Professor Irwin Levin as well as doing research with Professors Don Fowles and Milton Rosenbaum. But when she gradu- ated, she decided to delay applying to graduate school for a couple of years to look for relevant experience that would boost her credentials.

At about that time, Professor Fowles received an announcement for a position as a research assistant in a clinical psychophysiology laboratory at the National Institute of Mental Health. Patty applied for the job and was hired. What followed were two years of extraordinary experience in the nationally prominent clinical psychophysiology lab of Connie Duncan, during which Patty distinguished herself and became a mainstay of the lab.

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TABLE 7.3 Making an Oral Presentation at a Conference

• Know your audience and gear up for your presentation. • Consider the big picture. What are the main ideas and findings of your study? • Decide on a limited number of significant ideas that you want your audience to

comprehend and remember. • Minimize the nitty-gritty details (like procedure, data analysis strategies, etc.) and

highlight the main points. • State clearly, without jargon, the point of your research, what you found, and what it

means—try to tell a good story. • Write out your presentation as a mini-lecture, with a clear outline. You may use these as

cues while you make your presentation. • Practice your presentation out loud, making sure it fits into the time restraints, and have

a small audience listen to you to give you constructive feedback. • Prepare overheads or PowerPoint slides to keep your audience engaged in your presentation. • Do not read your paper. Talk to your audience about what you did to complete the

work. At a professional conference, it is very irritating to be read to—everyone there can already read.

• Try to speak loudly and clearly enough to hold the attention of your audience. There will be distractions—people coming in, others getting up and leaving. Don’t be offended. Try to be enthusiastic enough to sustain interest over these distractions.

• State your final conclusions and end on time. Be prepared to answer audience questions if time permits. Offer to questions after the session if there is continued interest but your time expires.

• If you have handouts, be sure to include contact information on them—name, conference, and date of presentation.

• Bring copies of your paper to the conference, or provide a sign-up sheet for persons who may want copies to be sent to them.

Source: Karlin (2000); Williams-Nickelson (2007).

present your research work in a poster format for a longer period of time (11/2–2 hours). You are available to speak personally with “audience members” who are interested in your work. In the poster session, you will probably reach fewer people, but you’ll have more personal conversations with people who are gen- uinely interested in your work. Your poster is displayed on a freestanding bulletin board in a session with other posters, in a room large enough to hold the posters, the presenters, and the people who wander through the session. Usually, the size of your poster is around 30 inches � 40 inches. As for preparing the text of your poster, Sue and Ritter (2007) recommend these font sizes for different parts of your text:

• Logos and headers—5.5 inches tall • First headline, main panel—120-point font • Second headline or large bullet items—72-point font • Smaller bullet items—48–60-point font • Text blocks—30 –36-point font • Captions—18 –24-point font

Thus, nothing printed on your poster should be smaller than an 18-point font! The audience picks and chooses what posters to read; they can acquire more de- tailed information from the poster authors in this one-on-one conversation format. Table 7.4 presents tips for preparing and making poster presentations.

Professional conferences provide a wonderful opportunity to network with others. When giving advice to student attendees of conferences, Prohaska (2008) noted that you can get a sneak peek at the future of psychology by attending con- ferences, because you’ll see research results long before they appear in print. Conferences also provide an opportunity to hear distinguished psychologists (“big

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names”) speak in person, such as at Psi Chi Distinguished Lectures. Prohaska also notes that conferences provide important networking opportunities for students, which can be especially helpful to meet graduate faculty members from a program that you intend to apply to. You might also find conference programming specific to your needs, such as how to prepare a curriculum vita or personal statement, or hear the latest admissions data for graduate schools. Thorpe and Ward (2007) provide some great tips for surviving (and thriving in) your conference experience:

• Pace yourself. Going to conference sessions morning until evening can be more tiring than a full college day!

• Wear comfortable shoes. And depending on the city, perhaps bring an um- brella. The size of the conference may not be self-contained in one hotel, so you may be doing some walking.

• Take off your shy cap. The networking opportunities at a conference are too important to keep to yourself the whole time. For shy people, this is a challenge, but a skill that must be practiced. Remember that professionals are generally very supportive of students and really enjoy talking with students at conferences.

• Take advantage of the events designed for you. This is similar to Prohaska’s (2008) advice above. If there is a social hour scheduled for stu- dents, or a hospitality suite available from Psi Chi, stop by and mingle. Networking is important!

If you have the opportunity, try to get involved as a research assistant. If you do not have the opportunity, try to create it. When you work with a faculty member on a research project, it is a mutually beneficial relationship. What does the faculty member get out of this relationship? He or she gets a hard-working, eager student to do some of the labor-intensive portions of a research project. Many faculty mem- bers, especially those at institutions that do not have a graduate program in psychol- ogy, depend on undergraduate students to help further their own research agenda. If this research culture does not exist at your school, try to develop it. Find that

TABLE 7.4 Presenting a Poster at a Conference

• Construct the poster to include the title, authors, affiliations, and a description of the research.

• Minimize the detail that is presented, and try to use jargon-free statements. • Pictures, tables, and figures are especially useful and helpful in poster presentations. If

possible, use color in your poster. • Make sure the lettering is neatly done and large enough to be read from a distance—

poster session attendees will quickly scan the content before stopping to inquire further—use fonts no smaller than 18 points; try to use 24 points or larger if possible.

• During your poster presentation, have your name badge on and placed where conference attendees can see it.

• Categorize onlookers into three types: passive, reflective, and active. Passive onlookers will take a handout and keep moving. Reflective observers will read your poster, stand back and process it, and may or may not ask you a question. Active observers will come up, introduce themselves, and ask the classic question “What did you find?”

• Do not overwhelm the viewer with excessive amounts of information; try to construct a poster display that encourages and enhances conversation.

• Be ready to pin up and take down your poster at the specified times (you may want to bring your own thumbtacks or pushpins); often poster sessions are scheduled back to back, so you want to be on time so the next session can also be on time.

• Bring 30–50 copies of your handouts to provide more information about your study and your contact information.

Sources: Karlin (2000); Stambor (2008).

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TABLE 7.5 Benefits to Faculty in Working with Undergraduate Research Assistants

Witnessing student professional growth and development—perhaps the best reward Facilitating reviews of the current literature in a particular research area, keeping current Keeping analytic skills fine-tuned and active through the design and the completion of research Generating useful and meaningful empirical data Maintaining and expanding professional networks through attending conventions, especially for students Enhancing effectiveness as a teacher through active involvement in research

student-friendly faculty member who realizes how important the research opportu- nity is to you, and chances are you will find a way to collaborate on some sort of re- search project. Many faculty members have ideas for studies that they would like to do but don’t have the time nor the assistance. A talented undergraduate student as- sisting that faculty member can make that project happen. Davis (1995) clearly artic- ulated the advantages faculty members receive from conducting collaborative research with undergraduate students (see Table 7.5).

WHAT IS A SENIOR THESIS?

At many colleges and universities, undergraduate students have the opportunity to complete a senior thesis project (at some schools, a senior thesis project is re- quired). What is the difference between a research assistant position and a senior thesis? Generally speaking, when you agree to become a research assistant, you are going to help the faculty member with his or her research. Although you might make some suggestions and eventually put your own “spin” on the research pro- gram, this research essentially “belongs” to the faculty member, and you are truly “assisting.” For a senior thesis project, the student is the principal investigator, the student “owns” the research, and the faculty member plays an advisory or consult- ing role. Often, in a senior thesis project the student gets to test his or her own re- search ideas, under the supervision and guidance of a faculty member. Note that you will have to find a faculty member willing to supervise your work—so you might be limited to the specialty areas of your faculty. The only way to find out is to consult with faculty members individually.

The senior thesis typically requires much more responsibility and independ- ence compared to the research assistantship. Faculty members have an inherent self- interest in seeing their own research succeed, for multiple reasons (including promo- tion and tenure). Note, however, that many faculty members supervise senior thesis projects with little or no compensation—so be sure to be appreciative, keep appoint- ments, and value the opportunity that the faculty member is providing. Of course, faculty members want to see students succeed in their own senior thesis research, but the stakes are lower for faculty members. Unfortunately, there is essentially no research available on the benefits of completing a senior thesis project, and the sen- ior thesis is barely mentioned in the literature. One exception—Wood and Palm (2000) utilized students enrolled in a psychology senior thesis course and examined if anxiety scores would be elevated prior to a required oral presentation; they were. This does not tell us much about the benefits of a senior thesis project, though.

We would assume that the benefits of a senior thesis project would be similar to those experienced by students serving as an RA. When the time comes, talk to faculty members at your school to see if a senior thesis option is available—and note that it could be called something else at your institution (e.g., independent study). In general, you will want to have completed your courses in statistics and experimental design/research methods prior to embarking on such an independent project. With careful planning and the right supervision, you can make this project

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into something that will help you stand out from the crowd, engage in original re- search, perhaps lead to a conference presentation, and help build rapport with a faculty member. The potential is huge!

BECOMING A TEACHING ASSISTANT

What about being a teaching assistant? Serving as a teaching assistant is usually much less involved and time-consuming than being a research assistant. Usually, a teaching assistant helps a faculty member for one semester (or term) in the adminis- tration of a specific course, such as Introduction to Psychology or Statistical Methods. You might have a number of different responsibilities as a teaching assistant, de- pending on the instructor, the course, the history of the institution in utilizing teach- ing assistants, etc. Table 7.6 presents some of the tasks you might complete.

The teaching assistantship is an excellent way to build a mentoring relation- ship with a faculty member. Also, serving as a TA is a low-risk activity. Being a TA is usually not as demanding as being an RA and the typical time commitment for TAs is one semester only. Thus, if you really don’t “bond” with that faculty member, there is no harm done (and you earned credits toward graduation).

But the benefits can be substantial. Almost certainly during the course of the semester, a situation will occur where you can step in and provide some real assistance to a faculty member teaching a course. These are the types of events that faculty members will be thankful for and may write about in a letter of recommendation. Also, many of our students tell us that sitting in on the general psychology course is a great study strategy when they prepare for the GRE Advanced Test in Psychology. You should know, however, that not all schools offer the opportunity for students to serve as undergraduate teaching assistants. If being a teaching assistant is not an opportunity at your school, you may have to be creative in finding this opportunity— perhaps seeking out an instructor who “wants help” in administering his or her course and is willing to give you independent study or internship credit. If the formal opportunity does not exist, there are creative ways of gaining the beneficial experi- ence anyway! If you are faced with a choice of serving as a research assistant or as a teaching assistant, try to do both. You will be busy, but you will gain valuable skills, abilities, and knowledge for your future.

TABLE 7.6 Potential Tasks of a Teaching Assistant (TA)

Attend class and take notes so that students have a resource available to get notes when they miss class. Hold office hours where you may conduct tutoring sessions, review notes with students, review class assignments before they are due, and answer class-related questions. Help to proctor exams, help to grade exams and/or term papers, and help to enter these scores in the instructor’s gradebook. Hold general review sessions prior to tests where groups of students can receive supplemental instruction over course-related topics. Help the instructor in the general administration and completion of the course to provide the best experience possible for enrolled students.

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EXERCISE #7: Outside-of-Class Activities Plan

Use this planning sheet below to map out your strategy for completing out-of-class activities while finishing your undergraduate degree. Try to be as specific as possible in whom you are planning to work with, making contact, duration of work, and out- comes. The shaded regions are examples of how you might use this planning tool.

Teaching

Specific Type of Activity

When Do I Make Initial Contact?

Who Do I Contact?

Duration of Time Spent on Activity Outcomes Notes to Myself

Teaching Assistant, General Psychology

November 2009 (prior to Spring 2010 semester)

Dr. Smith 1 semester • Make connection with faculty member

• Review general psychology info

If this works out, maybe I’ll ask Dr. Smith about being an RA.

Research

Specific Type of Activity

When Do I Make Initial Contact?

Who Do I Contact?

Duration of Time Spent on Activity Outcomes Notes to Myself

Research Assistant

May 2009 (at the end of Research Methods)

Dr. Davis 2 semesters • Gain research experience

• Conference presentation

Let Dr. Davis know I’ll be asking him for a letter of recommendation.

Service

Specific Type of Activity

When Do I Make Initial Contact?

Who Do I Contact?

Duration of Time Spent on Activity Outcomes Notes to Myself

Volunteer at Psychiatric Ward at Hospital

After completing Abnormal Psychology (Fall 2010)

Dr. Jones, VA Hospital

2 semesters • Make a professional connection

• Gain valuable out-of-class experience

This might turn into an internship next summer.

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C H A P T E R 8

Getting Involved: Internships and

Organizations

In Chapter 7 we focused on vital, outside-of-class activities that students need to en- gage in to make themselves more rounded and give themselves the opportunities for experience that help them stand out from the crowd. Becoming a research assis- tant or teaching assistant is certainly a way to achieve those goals, but they are not the only ways. In this chapter we present the ins and outs of internships, as well as apprise you of the opportunities to get involved in psychology via organizations. These organizations range in scope from national to regional, and range in focus from professionals to students.

FIELD EXPERIENCES AND INTERNSHIPS

Field experiences and internships are opportunities to learn about and apply psy- chological principles out of the classroom and in the field. These placements are in agencies that relate to some aspects of human behavior—hence, you can imagine that many places are possible internship sites. They also differ from teaching and research assistantships in that a non-faculty member at the placement site typically supervises field experiences. A faculty member usually serves as the campus coor- dinator of the field experience or internship program.

If you do an internship in your community, what might you do? You might be an intern at a social service agency, assisting in intake interviews, psycho- logical testing, report writing, and behavior modification. You might be an intern in a human resources department, where you learn to administer structured inter- views, write performance appraisals, and coordinate special projects and programs. The opportunities are endless. In some instances, if an internship opportunity is not available to meet your needs, you may be able to arrange your own special- ized internship.

Blanton (2001) developed an internship model for undergraduates based on the Chickering and Reisser (1993) model of college student development. The Chickering and Reisser model generates four primary tasks for undergraduate students: (a) increasing self-awareness, (b) managing emotions, (c) increasing integrity, and (d) developing purpose. In this model, increasing self-awareness is achieved by achieving the latter three tasks. How does this apply to internships?

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Blanton (2001) uses this framework and applies it to the internship environment. For instance:

. . . managing emotions relates to interns’ ability to notice, identify, accept, and control the feelings they have toward their internship site, people at their site, and themselves. Increasing integrity refers to students’ ability to clarify personal values and then align these values with their behavior. Students who are developing purpose are examining their personal in- terests, making plans for the future, and deciding on the next step as graduation nears. (Blanton, 2001, p. 218)

What are the benefits of participating in an internship? Table 8.1 was compiled from Jessen (1988), Mount Saint Vincent University (1998), and the University of Michigan at Dearborn (1998). Knouse, Tanner, and Harris (1999) found that students who had completed an internship were more likely to have a job at graduation than students who did not complete an internship. The internship provided an immedi- ate benefit to graduates.

How do you find out about field experiences and internships? There is probably a key faculty member in your department who makes sure that internship sites are suitable, establishes the policies and procedures for working with agencies, ensures that grades are submitted on time, handles inquiries from internship supervisors, etc. Find that person. Most departments have some well-established connections with agencies in and around your community; if you want to do something where the re- lation is not established, you may have to do more of the groundwork yourself. This latter approach gives you the chance to show some initiative and really demonstrate to your internship site your willingness to work hard and persevere at the task.

WHAT INTERNS DO

What will you do as an intern? Ideally, you will get a realistic glimpse of the types of tasks necessary for success in a particular office or agency. Where appropriate, you will have the opportunity to acquire new skills and hone those that you already have. Internships are not designed to provide agencies with extra office staff or gophers, although you may occasionally be asked to help pitch in when agencies are under time or budget constraints. Although you might not be running a group therapy session, you might sit in on such a session and help facilitate that session under the supervision of appropriately trained and licensed personnel. In addition to these tasks, there may be group supervisory sessions if your site has multiple in- terns, and your on-campus faculty internship coordinator will probably require that you keep a weekly journal of your intern experiences (Jessen, 1988). Grayson (n.d.) offers advice for those who administer internship programs—see Table 8.2.

TABLE 8.1 Potential Benefits from Completing an Internship

Practical, on-the-job experience Development of professional and personal confidence, responsibility, and maturity

Understanding of the realities of the work world and acquire human relations skills

Opportunity to examine a career choice closely and make professional contacts

Opportunity to test the ideas learned in the classroom out in the field

Opportunity to make contacts with potential employers

Enhancement of classroom experiences Learning what careers not to pursue

Development of skills that are difficult to learn and practice in the classroom

College credit in some, but not all circumstances

Possible earnings to help offset college expenses

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TABLE 8.2 Suggested Principles for Administering Internships

Principles for Internship Supervision Goals of Internship Supervisors to Achieve

Start small, stay small To develop professionalism

The supervisor is more important than the site

To develop critical thinking skills

Negotiate placement early To assist in the narrowing and clarifying of career goals

Be accessible To communicate love of your work

Work all year round To increase students’ self-confidence

Train and assist supervisors To help students transition into employment

Supervise students very closely To serve the community

Have alternatives for additional students To advertise the program Be prepared for anything

Although most students have an invigorating internship experience, we have known some students who come back from an internship with the conclusion “I definitely do not want to do that for my entire career.” This decision is a very valu- able outcome of the internship process. Although it is unfortunate that the student did not enjoy the internship process, it is better to have an unsatisfying 16-week internship experience than to go to a graduate program to get a degree to enter a job that leads to a lifetime of misery. Knouse et al. (1999) evaluated an internship program for business majors, and found that students with internships had higher GPAs, were a bit younger, and were more apt to be employed after graduation compared to students without internships. Thus, internships were positively re- lated to both college performance and receiving a job offer postgraduation.

Success Stories

Dr. Jeanne M. Slattery

Clarion University

One of our students had the “Internship from Hell.” She had chosen a site in her home county, so it wasn’t a site that we knew a lot of specifics about. Several weeks into the term she discovered that the staff was not respectful of their clients nor of each other, con- fidentiality was poorly maintained, and treatment goals were very rarely strength-based. Another student in her class worked in a setting where the patients seemed to be “set off” by staff, probably unintentionally, then forcibly restrained. We spent a significant amount of our class time talking about these ethical problems and what they could reasonably do there and in their future careers to make things better.

Although I no longer see many of these students on a continuing basis, I do see some. Three from this class stand out for me: these two students and a third who practices in my community. Each of these students has developed into fine clinicians who are strong individuals and also very respectful of their clients. While I cannot prove that their negative internship experiences caused their positive outcomes, I do think that their suc- cess is, in part, due to our focus on the problems as something other than the normal and status quo. The whole class profited from seeing both the successful internships and the unsuccessful ones. Seeing the unsuccessful ones helped them define what they did not want to be after they graduated. Seeing the successes helped them imagine and realize a better alternative.

In the best of all possible worlds, my students would only have successful intern- ship experiences. However, developing a professional self-image depends, in part, on identifying both who you are and who you don’t want to be. I’m very proud that these students did this so well.

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Kampfe, Mitchell, Boyless, and Sauers (1999) concluded that students perceived their internships as important, relatively nondisruptive, and that they had control over the circumstances of their internship. Close to half perceived their internship as stressful, however, and about 25% perceived very little control over the intern- ship situation. Blanton (2001) bases the evaluation of a successful internship ex- perience on these three criteria: (a) perceiving the supervisor as understanding, (b) feeling supported in the growth process, and (c) satisfaction with the level of supervision.

OTHER INTERNSHIP OPPORTUNITIES

Related to these field experiences and internships are some other options to gain practical, hands-on experiences. You might not have all these opportunities avail- able on your campus, or they might exist under different names, so look carefully. These other methods of getting involved include service learning, peer advising, and paraprofessional programs. Service learning (in some cases, called the fourth credit option) involves adding one credit to a three-credit class and providing volunteer services to the community. Supervised by the course instructor, students receive an additional one credit for completing the volunteer service.

Some psychology departments have a peer-advising program that provides academic advising services to undergraduate majors. This program is an opportunity for undergraduates to become involved in interviewing and conversational skills, and gain professional and personal confidence in dealing with the issues related to

Success Stories

Dr. Eliot J. Butter

University of Dayton

In the last several years, the University of Dayton Psychology Department has been con- tacted by many families who have children that were recently diagnosed with autism. In this time period, over 60 students have taken advantage of our elective internship in psy- chology course where they have received credit for working with these families. This has turned out to be a win–win–win situation. Our students have tremendously benefited from the experience of learning and applying skills that were taught by the family’s con- sultant and the extension of their classroom learning. The children have benefited by showing significant improvement in their behaviors; and the families have tremendously benefited as well.

One touching story is that of a male student who was working with a 4-year-old child who had never said a word. During a session, about 4 months into the student’s therapy training, the child said his first word; it was the name of the student therapist. One can only imagine the feelings and thoughts that were going through the minds of the child and the student!

What is additionally relevant is that the internship experiences that the students have participated in have led them to make career-changing decisions. Most of the stu- dents who participated in this type of internship experience had no knowledge of autism and had never worked with autistic children. As a result of their experiences, many of the students have reconsidered their career goals—and have either applied to graduate pro- grams where autism is one aspect of the training, or have found employment at clinics for autism. One of the recent students was accepted into a Ph.D. program where she is work- ing with researchers on autism. Several others have applied to or graduated from masters programs in applied behavior analysis. Others have worked with B.A. degrees at centers for autism. One current student, as a result of her experience of taking a child to occupa- tional therapy, has decided to apply to occupational therapy graduate programs.

The important lesson is that exposure to internship experiences allows one to “test the waters” and explore potential careers. For all of our students, these internship experi- ences have been personally rewarding, and for many, have opened new doors and assisted the students in solidifying career decisions.

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undergraduate education. Additionally, some psychology departments that have a counseling center affiliated with them also have a paraprofessional program. In a paraprofessional program, undergraduates receive training in some therapeutic approaches and, under the supervision of counseling faculty, practice these skills by providing workshops to other students. Check with your department to see if any of these types of outside-of-class opportunities are available for you. The bot- tom line is that internships are a great chance to expand upon your skills outside of the classroom and begin to make valuable connections in the field. Many under- graduate internship opportunities turn into job offers postgraduation. We highly recommend that you inquire about the possibility of an internship at your school.

ORGANIZATIONAL INVOLVEMENT

The opportunities discussed here and in Chapter 7 focus on developing skills and abilities. Organizational involvement also provides the chance to enhance knowl- edge about the discipline and to find opportunities to network within it. On a regional or national level you can become involved in organizations designed for students, or join organizations (as a student affiliate) designed for psychology professionals. In addition, you may have some opportunities on your own campus to get involved and gain valuable information and skills.

THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

On the national level, the flagship organization for psychologists is the American Psychological Association (APA). APA was founded in 1892. APA provides an im- pressive Web site that we both recommend, www.apa.org. “Based in Washington, DC, the American Psychological Association (APA) is a scientific and professional organization that represents psychology in the United States. With more than 150,000 members, APA is the largest association of psychologists worldwide” (APA, 2004a, ¶ 1). What are the goals of APA? According to APA (2004a):

. . . the objects of the American Psychological Association shall be to advance psychology as a science and profession and as a means of pro- moting health, education, and human welfare by

• the encouragement of psychology in all its branches in the broad- est and most liberal manner

• the promotion of research in psychology and the improvement of research methods and conditions

• the improvement of the qualifications and usefulness of psycholo- gists through high standards of ethics, conduct, education, and achievement

• the establishment and maintenance of the highest standards of pro- fessional ethics and conduct of the members of the Association

• the increase and diffusion of psychological knowledge through meetings, professional contacts, reports, papers, discussions, and publications.

thereby to advance scientific interests and inquiry, and the application of research findings to the promotion of health, education, and the public welfare. (¶ 2)

In addition to using its Web site, one of the best ways to find out about APA is to talk with your faculty. Some of them may be current members of APA. Although undergraduate students cannot be full members, undergraduates can become stu- dent affiliates. Any undergraduate taking courses in psychology can apply to become an undergraduate student affiliate of the American Psychological Association (APA).

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Currently, annual dues are $27 for undergraduates; this includes an annual subscrip- tion to American Psychologist and Monitor on Psychology. For an additional $27, undergraduates can become a member of the American Psychological Association for Graduate Students (APAGS), which includes a subscription to the gradPSYCH magazine. Additional benefits, as described by APA (APA, 2004b), include (a) net- working opportunities with other students and established psychologists, (b) access to career information, (c) a Web site tailored to the needs of students in psychology, (d) APA journals and other online products at up to 60% off nonmember rates, (e) discounts up to 30% on APA books and videos, (f) online access to any journal subscriptions, and (g) low APA convention registration fees.

THE ASSOCIATION FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Although much younger than APA, the Association for Psychological Science (APS; the original name of this organization was the American Psychological Society) has also become an important source of information for psychologists (www.psycho- logicalscience.org). According to APS (2008a):

. . . the Association for Psychological Science (previously American Psychological Society) is a nonprofit membership organization founded in 1988 to advance scientific psychology and its representation as a sci- ence on the national level. APS grew quickly, surpassing 5,000 members in its first six months. Nineteen years later, over 18,500 psychologists in the United States and abroad, whose specialties span the entire spectrum of scientific, applied, and teaching specialties, are members of the Association. (¶ 1)

APS also offers an undergraduate student affiliate program. An undergraduate student affiliate membership is open to any student who is currently enrolled as a psychology major at an accredited institution. Student members receive the same benefits as regular members. For a $35 annual fee, members receive an annual subscription to three APS journals from this list: Psychological Science, Current Directions in Psychological Science, and Psychological Science in the Public Interest, or Perspectives on Psychological Science. In addition, student members receive the monthly news publication Observer. Other benefits include a discount on registra- tion rates for the annual convention, award and grant opportunities for students, a student caucus, access to an online membership directory, and discounted subscrip- tions to psychological journals (APS, 2008b).

PSI CHI

The best-known organization explicitly designed for students is Psi Chi, the National Honor Society in Psychology (http://www.psichi.org). Psi Chi was founded in 1929 for the purpose of encouraging, stimulating, and maintaining excellence in scholarship, and for the advancement of psychology. Psi Chi membership is conferred on stu- dents who have met minimum qualifications at institutions where there is a chapter (there is an application process, and not all students can be members). If you are a student at a community or junior college (and if there is a chapter), you can become a member of Psi Beta (psibeta.org), Psi Chi’s sister honor society.

According to Psi Chi (2007), the organization:

. . . serves two major goals–one immediate and visibly rewarding to the individual member, the other slower and more difficult to accomplish, but offering greater rewards in the long run. The first of these is the Society’s obligation to provide academic recognition to its inductees by the mere fact of membership. The second goal is the obligation of each of the Society’s local chapters to nurture the spark of that accomplishment by

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offering a climate congenial to members’ creative development. For example, the chapters make active attempts to nourish and stimulate pro- fessional growth through programs designed to augment and enhance the regular curriculum and to provide practical experience and fellowship through affiliation with the chapter. In addition, the national organization provides programs to help achieve these goals, including national and regional conventions held annually in conjunction with the psychological associations, research award competitions, and certificate recognition programs. Students become members by joining the chapter at the school where they are enrolled. Psi Chi chapters are operated by student officers and faculty advisors. Together they select and induct the members and carry out the goals of the Society. All chapters register their inductees at the National Office, where membership records are preserved for refer- ence purposes. The total number of memberships registered at the National Office is now over 500,000 lifetime members. (¶s 3,5)

Psi Chi has grown into an impressive organization benefiting students on many levels. Involvement in your local chapter can lead to opportunities to develop leadership skills, and Psi Chi members are often the most involved and well- connected psychology students around. Note however, like other campus organiza- tions, that your Psi Chi chapter (and/or a psychology club) will only be as strong as the student leaders. On the regional and national levels, Psi Chi has various offer- ings. At major regional and national conferences held each year, Psi Chi has an important presence in promoting the scholarly achievements of undergraduate psychology students. Psi Chi has a long tradition of providing student-friendly pro- gramming at these conferences. Both of your authors were Psi Chi members as undergraduate psychology students! If your school does not have a Psi Chi chapter, consult with a faculty member about starting a chapter. The benefits of becoming a member (as described by Psi Chi, 2004a) are presented in Table 8.3.

TABLE 8.3 Advantages of Becoming a Psi Chi Member

Psi Chi provides national recognition for academic excellence in psychology, an honor that can be noted on employment applications, vitae, and résumés.

Through membership in Psi Chi, students gain a sense of community with others in psychology and an identification with the discipline.

Psi Chi provides a local, regional, and national forum for obtaining information and developing perspectives about the field of psychology, learning about educational and career opportunities, and forming meaningful professional networks.

On the local level, chapter membership facilitates leadership development, interaction with other students who have similar interests, and service to the department and institution sponsoring Psi Chi.

Members receive a membership card and certificate and, through chapter mailings, copies of Eye on Psi Chi. (Following graduation, members may subscribe to Eye on Psi Chi.)

Psi Chi chapter activities provide students with valuable opportunities to develop one-on-one relationships with professors who can stimulate their interest in psychology, involve them in research projects, and write meaningful letters of recommendation for them.

Psi Chi encourages student research at the regional and national as well as local levels through undergraduate and graduate research award competitions and provides opportunities for students to present research and receive certificates recognizing their accomplishments at regional and national psychological association meetings.

Psi Chi provides over $225,000 annually in awards and grants to its student members, faculty advisors, and chapters.

Psi Chi sponsors outstanding programs at regional and national psychological association meetings. Members benefit not only from the programs, but also from the opportunity to meet leading psychologists and students from other chapters.

Membership in Psi Chi meets one of the requirements for entrance at the GS-7 level in numerous professional and technical occupations in the United States government.

Membership is for life. The national registration fee of $35 is the only payment ever made to the national organization, which does not charge dues.

Source: Psi Chi (2004).

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Even if your institution does not have a Psi Chi chapter, there may be a psy- chology club on campus. Usually, these clubs are open to anyone with an interest in psychology, and members do not have to be psychology majors. Often, students who are unable to join Psi Chi (perhaps due to GPA problems) can be active and in- volved as members of the local psychology club. On campuses where both groups exist, they often coordinate activities and opportunities for the benefit of all students interested in psychology. It is important to note that not everyone can join Psi Chi. The eligibility requirements include: (a) completion of 3 semesters or 5 quarters of the college course, (b) completion of 9 semester hours or 14 quarter hours of psy- chology courses, (c) ranking in the top 35% of their class in general scholarship, and (d) having a minimum GPA of 3.0 (on a 4.0 scale) in both psychology classes and cu- mulative grades (Psi Chi, 2004b). We believe that the benefits of Psi Chi are substantial, and worth your time and investment. Others have come to the same conclusion. In a study of psychology alumni, Tarsi and Jalbert (1998) compared Psi Chi alumni with non–Psi Chi alumni on a number of measures. For instance, Psi Chi members were significantly more positive about their education than non–Psi Chi members; this may be due to the higher Psi Chi standards leading to a greater self-investment by students. Among Psi Chi members only, Tarsi and Jalbert (1998) found that the more active students were, the more worthwhile they reported their Psi Chi experience. We encourage you to continue this tradition of involvement and contribution.

REGIONAL ASSOCIATIONS

In addition to the national organizations described previously, there are a host of regional psychological associations that host annual conferences in psychology. Whereas APA and APS hold national conventions, regional associations host an annual convention as well. Oftentimes, this regional convention is more convenient and accessible for faculty members and students to attend. Each regional conven- tion also encourages student involvement. Students can present oral papers and posters of their research—in fact, Psi Chi often hosts student-centered events at regional conventions. We encourage you to discuss with your faculty members the possibility of attending a regional convention. Even if you are not presenting re- search, attending a convention can have numerous benefits. In addition to exposing you to a wide variety of psychological topics and psychologists, conventions allow students to network with other students and faculty members. If you are interested in graduate school, you might be able to meet directly with faculty members from your school of interest who are attending the convention. Making paper or poster presentations also helps build your vita and helps to acculturate you to the way scientists exchange information and present diverging viewpoints. Attending a re- gional (or national) convention does involve a small financial investment, but if you are serious about psychology and your future, it is money well spent.

There are seven loosely organized “psychological” regions in the United States. We say loosely for a couple of reasons. First, sometimes a state is claimed by more than one region. Second, even though these regions are by definition “regional,” many are more national in scope. You do not have to be from a particular region to attend that conference’s regional convention. Thus, attendees at the Midwestern Psychological Association meeting (held in Chicago each year for some time now) are from all over the country. The seven regions and their associated Web sites are presented in Table 8.4. Note that these regions are not exactly the same regional des- ignations as Psi Chi—Psi Chi divides the country into six regions, not seven.

One last recommendation is that you get involved in activities in your own de- partment! Often during the academic year your department may sponsor guest speakers, or faculty members may participate in some sort of colloquium series (sometimes held over the lunchtime, these are called “brown bags”). As a student, you want your faculty to be supportive of your efforts—you also need to be sup- portive of the faculty. Attending such presentations also gives you a chance to hear

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about faculty research, which might interest you and lead to an opportunity to serve as a research assistant. Perhaps hearing about research being conducted at a home- less shelter in your community might inspire you to think about an internship. Attending these departmental events shows your commitment to psychology and your general interest in the happenings of the department.

Taking advantage of the opportunities highlighted in this chapter should lead to a better education and give you the skills, abilities, and knowledge to make you more marketable with your bachelor’s degree or better qualified as a candidate for graduate school. It’s up to you to seize the opportunity—now make it happen!

TABLE 8.4 Regional Psychological Associations and Web Sites

New England Psychological Association (NEPA) www.nepa-info.org

Eastern Psychological Association (EPA) www.easternpsychological.org

Midwestern Psychological Association (MPA) www.midwesternpsych.org

Rocky Mountain Psychological Association (RMPA) www.rockymountainpsych.org

Southeastern Psychological Association (SEPA) www.sepaonline.com

Southwestern Psychological Association (SWPA) www.swpsych.org

Western Psychological Association (WPA) www.westernpsych.org

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EXERCISE #8: Time Management

As you are beginning to see, success after college means that you must be actively involved. Going to class and earning good grades are not enough to give you a competitive advantage. We have described a number of opportunities available to you at the undergraduate level. However, it is difficult to “do it all,” and that may not be the best goal for you. However, most students can benefit from better time management. Using the checklist below, see if you can discover new ways to use your time more efficiently.

Use a checkmark (✓) to indicate that you already use this technique. Use a plus sign (�) to indicate an idea that you need to try out or use more.

Status: ✓ or + Time Management Suggestion

________ Study difficult (or “boring”) subjects first. ________ Be aware of your best time of day. ________ Use waiting time. Go through flashcards or review notes. ________ Use a regular study area. ________ Study where you will be alert. ________ Use a library. The situation is often optimum for studying. ________ Pay attention to your attention. ________ Agree with living mates about study time. ________ Get off the phone/Internet. ________ Learn to say no. ________ Hang a “do not disturb” sign on your door. ________ Get ready the night before. Plan the tasks of the next day. ________ Call ahead. You can minimize closed stores and missed directions

by calling ahead. ________ Avoid noise distractions. ________ Notice how others misuse your time. ________ Ask: What is the one task I can accomplish toward my goal? ________ Ask: Am I being too hard on myself? ________ Ask: Is this a piano? (Does this have to be absolutely perfect?) ________ Ask: What would I pay myself for what I’m doing right now? ________ Ask: Can I do just one more thing? ________ Ask: Am I making time for things that are important but not urgent? ________ Ask: Can I delegate this? ________ Ask: How did I just waste time? ________ Ask: Could I find the time if I really wanted to? ________ Ask: Am I willing to promise it?

Source: Ellis (1997).

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C H A P T E R 9

Sharpening Library and Research Skills

Beginning with this chapter and continuing throughout the rest of this book, we focus on the skills and abilities needed to navigate the psychology major and be a successful college student. In this chapter, we focus on how to find research that has already been conducted and generate ideas for research; in Chapter 10 we address how to write about research. Before we cover how to find research that is already completed, you need to know what you are looking for. Sometimes, this task might be a paper or study idea that your instructor assigns, but you may also be asked to generate your own ideas for research projects (such as in an independent study, sen- ior thesis, or perhaps even in a research methods/experimental design course).

GENERATING RESEARCH IDEAS

Students are sometimes stumped when faculty ask them about their own ideas for research. How do you get these ideas? How do experimental psychologists get ideas for doing research? The following guidelines, based in part on Martin (1991), should give you some starting points in thinking about topics to study:

Observation. Just look at the world around you and feel free to tap into your own interests. If you enjoy people-watching, go watch and be willing to won- der about their behavior and why people behave the way they do. Remember that better questions to be asked in a research-type format are (a) repeatable, (b) observable, and (c) testable.

Vicarious observation. Vicarious observation is a sophisticated way of say- ing observe through the observations of others. Simply put, read about research that has already been done and then think about follow-up studies that are needed. Find a psychological journal in the library with articles in your fa- vorite subject area, and look for ideas and issues to explore.

Expand on your own previous ideas. Perhaps in other courses you have written a paper, done a project, studied a topic, or heard a lecture that you found especially interesting. Why not pursue that avenue of interest through a research project?

Focus on a practical problem. Many students select topics that are of practi- cal, everyday concern as opposed to theoretical, basic research. Select a facet of real life that interests you, and study it systematically as your research project.

When you work with a faculty member on a research project, you may not be able to select what you want to study. In fact, that faculty member might want you

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to generate research ideas specific to his or her research domain. In that case, much of the work is already focused for you—what will be important here (and with every project) is that you have a firm understanding of the literature. Hence, the lit- erature review is a critical component of the research project.

THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Each manuscript published in a scholarly journal reviews (to some extent) prior, rel- evant studies and develops the background to the problem of interest. This intro- ductory portion of the journal article is called the literature review. By reviewing previous research, you set the theoretical foundation for your topic. The author also discusses why the present study is valuable and states the hypotheses to be tested. This section organizes the articles you have identified as important.

Sometimes new researchers are so excited about the prospects of doing their own original research that they minimize or overlook the importance of the litera- ture search. If you try to skip this step, it could be very costly in terms of your invest- ment of time and energy to complete a research project. Also, if you have long-term goals of presenting the outcomes of your research at a professional conference or submitting a manuscript for publication, it will be necessary for you to have “done your homework,” that is, review the literature and place your current work in the context of your particular area in psychology. There are a number of benefits that accrue from reviewing the literature:

• Maybe someone has already done something very similar. Why reinvent the wheel? Although there are a number of areas in psychology that are not well un- derstood (hence ripe for new research), other areas in the field are fairly well understood. You won’t know which is which unless you review the literature.

• Other investigators might have already identified some of the key challenges to doing research in a particular area. Learn from their efforts and avoid their mistakes. Many publications end with a discussion of where future research should go—you might get an idea for your own research project just by read- ing and understanding what has already been done.

• New ideas in psychology (actually, in any science) must fit within the frame- work of existing ideas and theories. New theories can put forward new infor- mation, but those theories also must explain why former theories were wrong, inaccurate, or inappropriate. To be able to do the latter, you must be familiar with those former theories—hence the importance of the literature review. By the way, completely new and original ideas are fairly rare.

Success Stories

Dr. James H. Korn

Saint Louis University

Daria (not her real name) was a student in my General Psychology class, a freshman in her first semester of college. It may have been as early as the second week in the semes- ter when she said, “How can I get involved in research?” Most freshman want to know about the psychology major and about possible careers, but rarely about doing research, which is the key to getting into graduate school.

When I spoke with Daria, she clearly knew that research meant working in a lab, not just doing surveys. I told her about several faculty members who welcomed under- graduates into their labs, and she then spoke to two of them. She chose to work in a lab that was studying the behavioral effects of a genetically transmitted nerve disease, a very sophisticated problem. “I really don’t like rats,” she said, “but I can learn a lot about doing research.” What a great attitude! About 6 months later she presented her data on four rats at an undergraduate research conference. It was only her second semester in college.

She now is working in a cognitive lab that is studying effects of aging on memory, and is well on her way to another presentation, a publication, and an excellent graduate program somewhere.

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THE SPECIAL ROLE OF REFERENCES

The references listed at the conclusion of a research article make the cited literature accessible to the reader. This documentation enables other scientists to locate and explore firsthand the prior research or theoretical sources that constitute the frame- work for the current research. The reference section is critically important because it is a demonstration of the scholarly nature of your work. The scientist and the crit- ical thinker examine and use evidence to support ideas and contentions; you pro- vide your evidence in the reference section (as well as in the results section). When you cite a source, be sure you are familiar with the article. It can be a dangerous practice to cite references that you have never seen or read. This type of citation is called a reference from a secondary source and there are specific ways to list such references. Be careful: Your instructor just might be familiar with that reference. You should note that reference lists are not bibliographies. Bibliographies refer the inter- ested reader to additional sources for further reading that were not necessarily cited in the manuscript through paraphrasing or direct quotation, and are not used in APA-style manuscripts. Remember that the reference section contains only the arti- cles directly cited in the text of the paper, and all articles cited in the text of the paper are included in the reference list.

LIBRARY RESEARCH STRATEGIES

At some level you have to choose or select a research topic. Again, your faculty super- visor may dictate this choice, or it could be an assigned class project. Nevertheless, you will probably have some range of topics to select from within your specific areas of interest. The list in Table 9.1 (from University of California–Santa Cruz 1998; Vanderbilt University, 1996) should help in your choice of a topic. Inevitably, this choice also involves the next step, which is finding the background information.

There are numerous library research strategies that you can use to find useful information. In the remainder of this section we will cover how to (a) make the best use of books, (b) find journal articles, (c) use the Web, and (d) use other strategies with which savvy researchers are familiar. Perhaps one of the best tips we can offer is to be sure to utilize the reference librarians who are available to you. Not only can they help you determine the library’s holdings, but they can also offer addi- tional, specific search strategies for your particular library. We should also note that the Internet has become a powerful source of information, but using this resource requires caution. Later in this chapter we will offer some guidelines concerning the evaluation of Internet information.

BOOKS

With respect to books, there are at least two avenues to pursue. First, there are general reference books that can lead you to other sources, and then there are specific books in psychology that may be written about your topic. To find books

TABLE 9.1 Tips for Selecting a Research Topic

Try not to choose a topic that is too broad. Choose a topic that is of interest to you—choose an additional backup topic. Choose a topic that will enable you to read and understand the literature. Choose a topic that has resources available. Make sure that the resources are available in time for you to meet your deadlines. Read through the background information. If there is not enough information available, you may want to go to your backup topic. State your topic idea as a question—this will help you outline and frame your paper. Start making a list of key words to use in later searches.

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in the latter category, you can use the search methods for finding journal articles that we discuss in the next section.

In addition to these resources, your university library has an electronic card catalog/computer database that contains the inventory of the library. Terminals for access to this database are probably located in the library and around campus, and are probably available off-campus through an Internet/Web connection. In courses where research is time-dependent, you may want to get a jump-start on your library literature search because some of the books and journal articles that you need will probably not be available in your library. You can usually obtain these materials through interlibrary loan, but depending on where this information has to come from, your request may take some time (and more time than you have). Also, do not overlook other libraries in your community, such as the public library, other col- lege and university libraries in your region, or perhaps even a hospital library. Note that if you attend a state school, you may have borrowing privileges at other state colleges and universities. Most college and university libraries are organized using the Library of Congress Cataloging System. Table 9.2 presents some of the psychology- related categories for finding books in this system.

TABLE 9.2 Library of Congress Classification Codes of Topics Related to Psychology

BF 1 Psychology BF 173 Psychoanalysis BF 180 Experimental psychology BF 231 Sensation BF 309 Cognition, Perception BF 501 Motivation BF 511 Emotion BF 608 Will, Choice BF 636 Applied psychology BF 660 Comparative psychology BF 698 Personality BF 699 Genetic psychology BF 712 Developmental psychology BF 721 Child psychology BF 795 Temperament, Character HM 251 Social psychology LB 5 Theory and practice of education LB 51 Systems of individual educators and writers LB 1025 Teaching, principles and practices LB 1050.9 Educational psychology LB 1101 Child study LB 1131 Psychical development LB 1140 Preschool education LB 1141 Kindergarten LB 1501 Primary education LB 1555 Elementary or public school education LB 1603 Secondary education, high schools LB 1705 Education and training of teachers LB 2300 Higher education LB 2801 School administration and organization LB 3201 School architecture and equipment LB 3401 School hygiene LB 3525 Special days, school life, student manners, and customs

Source: Library of Congress (1990).

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JOURNAL ARTICLES

Although books are an important resource for information and leads to additional information, perhaps the most important communication mode of the results of psy- chological research comes in the form of journal articles. Journals have a more timely publication frequency, can reach large numbers of people, have a rigorous acceptance and publication process, and are a well-established means of informa- tion distribution. There are hundreds of journals in psychology that publish 4, 6, or 12 issues per year (i.e., per volume).

As a psychology major, if you haven’t started reading psychology journal ar- ticles on a regular basis yet, you will soon. When you read your first journal arti- cle, you immediately notice some important differences in relation to regular magazine articles; it may seem as if a journal article follows a quirky set of rules. The rules that dictate how articles are to be written in psychology are found in the 5th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (American Psychological Association, 2001). Knowledge of the APA format rules aids you in reading psychological research and is essential for suc- cess in writing your own research papers in psychology—more on this topic in Chapter 10.

How is a journal article different from a magazine article? Perhaps the funda- mental difference between a magazine and a journal is how the article is published. Journals in psychology operate under a peer review system where several profes- sionals review article submissions before an acceptance decision is made. Let’s say that you wanted to publish the results of your research. After selecting a journal to send your manuscript to (not always an easy task), you would send multiple copies to the journal editor. You may submit a manuscript to only one journal at a time. The editor sends copies of your manuscript out for review. Here is where the process begins. The editor asks your peers in the field (other psychologists) to re- view your manuscript and decide if it is suitable for publication. The peers are also called referees, and sometimes you hear the phrase “refereed journal” (which means the journal follows this peer review process).

How does an individual reviewer evaluate a manuscript? (To be clear about terminology, authors submit a manuscript in hopes that it will be accepted; this ac- cepted manuscript becomes a journal article.) The answer to this question varies across journals and individuals, but in general, scholarship is the key. For the man- uscript to be considered scholarly there should be a thorough review of the litera- ture, a keen grasp of the subject matter, concise writing, adequate research skills, demonstrated importance of the work to psychology, and an understanding of the journal readership (the journal subscribers). Often reviewers are individuals with prior success in publishing their own manuscripts. Once the editor has received the reviews, a decision must be made whether to accept the paper, suggest that the au- thor make some revisions and resubmit, or reject the paper. Journals go through this long, tedious, and expensive process to select the articles to be published (by the way, reviewers do not get paid for this service, and reviews are often done anony- mously). This procedure is as fair and objective as possible. Also, in an effort to keep the process fair, the author of the manuscript typically does not know the identity of the reviewers and sometimes the reviewers may not know the name(s) of the author(s) (i.e., a blind review).

This process also differs from a magazine in that magazines pay people to write articles; authors of journal articles are not paid and sometimes even help defray the cost of journal publishing. Whereas magazine articles may be checked for accuracy, they do not undergo the same scrutiny, examination, and review as journal articles. The majority of journal articles are well documented with supporting references noted as to when an idea has been adopted from another source (academics must avoid plagiarism just as students must avoid plagiarism). A magazine article is rarely as extensive in documenting the academic and scholarly work of the author. Another difference between the two is that

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journals are typically not available for purchase at newsstands but must be sub- scribed to, whereas magazines are typically available at a newsstand. However, magazines can be a great resource if you are trying to get some ideas about re- search topics.

Now that you are familiar with journal articles, where do you find them? The best place to begin your search is the library. Academic journals are expen- sive (and foreign journals are extremely expensive), and your library likely sub- scribes to selected journals of particular interest to faculty and students. Care and respect should be given to these resources. Never tear or cut any page out of a journal, and take the journal out of the library only if permissible and if neces- sary. When you photocopy an article, always copy the entire reference section. Sometimes students try to cut corners by not copying the references, and often regret it later; those references are valuable sources of information on your topic. Libraries often subscribe to journals electronically. That is, you can search your library electronically and may be able to retrieve articles as a PDF or HTML file. Also realize that some of your faculty members may subscribe to particular jour- nals—ask to see if someone in your department already has access to the infor- mation you need.

The key component of the database for searching the psychological litera- ture is a product called PsycINFO. PsycINFO is an Internet/Web interface where users can do multiple, unlimited searches of the PA database. Although this serv- ice provides a great deal of convenience for the user, one additional benefit is that the journal database has been expanded to an index of psychological articles pub- lished since the 1800s. In PsycINFO you can print out the bibliographic citation as well as the abstract, and you can use search operators (e.g., “and,” “or,” “not”). Also, some APA journals also have full-text versions available over the Internet. For more information about the variety of costs and services available to psychol- ogy students, check the APA Web site at www.apa.org. It is important to note that PsycINFO provides only citations and abstracts. You need to be sure to get the complete article before you write about it in a paper. You cannot write a good re- search paper from a stack of abstracts. But using PsycINFO through your school’s library may provide some direct links to access certain articles that may be avail- able online.

The resources that are available from PsycINFO are staggering. PsycINFO is a database of abstracts that range back to the 1800s. As of August 2008, there were more than 2.5 million records in the database, with 129,000 records added in 2007 alone. PsycINFO is updated weekly, and its journal coverage includes 2,150 titles in and related to psychology (American Psychological Association, 2008). See Table 9.3 (page 141) for a list of journals published by the American Psychological Association.

THE INTERNET

In the past 5 years, the Internet via the World Wide Web has become an impor- tant source of information about psychology and life in general. Caution should be used in interpreting information taken from the Web. In particular, look for the same signs of scholarship that you would expect to find from a scholarly research article or from a legitimate scientific entity: accuracy, authority, objec- tivity and reliability, and currency (Brandeis University, 1998). Look for informa- tion from reliable sources, such as professional organizations (e.g., APA, APS, Psi Chi) or from colleges and universities. Although you should evaluate any type of information critically, Web materials necessitate additional scrutiny. It is easy for anyone to post a Web page to the Internet and make it universally accessible—it is not nearly so easy to start your own peer-reviewed scholarly research journal and publish it yourself. Kirk (1996) offers this advice for

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American Journal of Orthopsychiatry American Psychologist Behavioral Neuroscience Clinician’s Research Digest Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology Developmental Psychology Dreaming Emotion Experimental & Clinical Psychopharmacology Families, Systems, & Health Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice Health Psychology History of Psychology International Journal of Play Therapy International Journal of Stress Management Journal of Abnormal Psychology Journal of Applied Psychology Journal of Comparative Psychology Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology Journal of Counseling Psychology Journal of Diversity in Higher Education Journal of Educational Psychology Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied Journal of Experimental Psychology: General

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition Journal of Family Psychology Journal of Occupational Health Psychology Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Journal of Psychotherapy Integration Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology Neuropsychology Prevention & Treatment Professional Psychology: Research and Practice Psychoanalytic Psychology Psychological Assessment Psychological Bulletin Psychological Methods Psychological Review Psychological Services Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy Psychology and Aging Psychology of Addictive Behaviors Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts Psychology of Men and Masculinity Psychology of Religion and Spirituality Psychology, Public Policy, and Law Psychotherapy Theory, Research, Practice, Training Rehabilitation Psychology Review of General Psychology School Psychology Quarterly Training and Education in Professional Psychology

TABLE 9.3 American Psychological Association Journals

Source: American Psychological Association (2008).

evaluating information from the Internet, as well as evaluative criteria presented in Table 9.4:

The World Wide Web offers information and data from all over the world. Because so much information is available, and because that infor- mation can appear to be fairly “anonymous,” it is necessary to develop skills to evaluate what you find. When you use a research or academic library, the books, journals and other resources have already been eval- uated by scholars, publishers and librarians. Every resource you find has been evaluated in one way or another before you ever see it. When you are using the World Wide Web, none of this applies. There are no filters. Excellent resources reside along side the most dubious. (p. 1)

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MORE LITERATURE SEARCH STRATEGIES

Before we conclude this chapter with some of the library skills that a psychology major should have, there are a handful of other strategies that you can use in your search for prior research. “Treeing” is a technique that can be used forward and backward. To tree backward through your references, try to find a great, current article that is right on target with your research idea—then look at that article’s ref- erence section. You may find some good leads in the articles you already have. Don’t forget about textbooks—they have reference sections that you can use to tree backward.

Treeing forward through the references involves the use of another biblio- graphic resource, the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) (Institute for Scientific Information, 1998). To tree forward, find a classic article that is commonly refer- enced in your field of study—perhaps a major article that shaped the direction of re- search since it was published. By using the SSCI, you can look at all the authors of articles who have cited that classic article since it was published. That is, you can find the more current information related to your area of interest by looking for other researchers who cited that classic article, and then obtain their publications. SSCI is a valuable resource; however, it uses incredibly small print and may be

TABLE 9.4 Criteria Used to Evaluate Internet Information

• Authorship is perhaps the major criterion used in evaluating information. Who wrote this? When we look for information with some type of critical value, we want to know the basis of the authority with which the author speaks.

• The publishing body also helps evaluate any kind of document you may be reading. In the print universe, this generally means that the author’s manuscript has undergone screening in order to verify that it meets the standards or aims of the organization that serves as publisher. This may include peer review.

• Point of view or bias reminds us that information is rarely neutral. Because data is used in selective ways to form information, it generally represents a point of view. Every writer wants to prove his point, and will use the data and information that assists him in doing so. When evaluating information found on the Internet, it is important to examine who is providing the “information” you are viewing, and what might be their point of view or bias. The popularity of the Internet makes it the perfect venue for commercial and sociopolitical publishing. These areas in particular are open to highly “interpretative” uses of data.

• Referral to or knowledge of the literature refers to the context in which the author situates his or her work. This reveals what the author knows about his or her discipline and its practices allow you to evaluate the author’s scholarship or knowledge of trends in the area under discussion.

• Accuracy or verifiability of details is an important part of the evaluation process, especially when you are reading the work of an unfamiliar author presented by an unfamiliar organization, or presented in a nontraditional way.

• Currency refers to the timeliness of information. In printed documents, the date of publication is the first indicator of currency. For some types of information, currency is not an issue: authorship or place in the historical record is more important. For many other types of data, however, currency is extremely important, as is the regularity with which the data is updated.

• All information, whether in print or by byte, needs to be evaluated by readers for authority, appropriateness, and other personal criteria for value. If you find information that is “too good to be true,” it probably is. Never use information that you cannot verify. Establishing and learning criteria to filter information you find on the Internet is a good beginning for becoming a critical consumer of information in all forms. Look for other sources that can authenticate or corroborate what you find. Learn to be skeptical and then learn to trust your instincts.

Source: Kirk (1996).

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difficult to use initially. Ask your instructor or the reference librarian for help if you have difficulty.

If your library does not carry a journal that you need for a particular article (and you have some time), why not write the author directly? Some authors have reprints (copies) made of each one of their publications. As a professional courtesy, most researchers will send you a free reprint on request. If you know the author’s name and affiliation, you should be able to determine a phone number, mailing ad- dress, or e-mail address that you can use for contact. Search engines on the Internet can help (www.google.com), and both the APA and APS publish membership direc- tories that may be available in your library (or from faculty members in your depart- ment if they belong to either organization). If you have the good fortune to attend a professional conference, you might have the chance to meet the researcher in per- son and make your request at that time. Similarly, at a conference you can often ob- tain a preprint, which is a manuscript that is either submitted for publication, or has been accepted for publication but is not yet in print.

The University of California–Santa Cruz (1998) library makes these recommen- dations when evaluating sources: (a) look for articles published in scholarly journals or sources that require certain standards or criteria to be met prior to publication; (b) use the bibliographies or reference lists cited from scholarly journal articles or books; (c) compare several opinions by scholars in your topic area as another method of evaluating your sources; and (d) consult with an instructor or the faculty member who is supervising the research project. Using these methods does not guarantee that you will have a perfect or complete literature search. The more you do literature reviews and the more familiar you become with the ideas and termi- nology in psychology, the better you will become as a consumer and evaluator of psychological knowledge.

LIBRARY SKILLS PSYCHOLOGY MAJORS SHOULD HAVE

Merriam, LaBaugh, and Butterfield (1992) proposed minimum training guidelines for library instruction of psychology majors. They suggested that students should become familiar with (a) locating known sources, (b) conducting a literature search, (c) making effective use of those resources that are found, and (d) developing an increased awareness of the places that a person can find information in psychology. This chapter has focused on the importance of the formulation of research ideas, and the pursuit of information related to those ideas. Reviewing the strategies pre- sented in this chapter will allow you to be successful in locating prior research. In the Chapter 10, we will look at how to put this information and more into creating an APA format paper.

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EXERCISE #9: PsycINFO Author Search

Below is a sample screen shot of how your PsycINFO interface might look (this is the interface from Boise State University). See where it says “Keyword”? If you hit the drop down arrow, you will find that you can search on a number of difference parameters, including journal title, author, etc. For this exercise, search in PsycINFO for journal articles written by faculty members at your college or university. If they have an uncommon last name, that will probably do in the “Search for”: first box (and instead of Keyword in the second box, select Author). If they have a common last name, you’ll get plenty of hits, so you’ll either have to scroll through those or you’ll have to add a first name and/or initials to the search. When done, write down some of the details of your search on the lines below.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

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C H A P T E R 1 0

An APA Format Primer

As you begin to read more and more journal articles in psychology, you may wonder, “Why APA format?” For years the APA has published the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association; the 2001 version is the fifth edition. Psychologists all over the world follow these steps and guidelines in the preparation of manuscripts. In fact, a number of scientific disciplines have adopted basic APA for- mat as the de facto standard of manuscript preparation. The first formal presentation of manuscript instructions appeared in the Psychological Bulletin (an APA journal) in 1929. A 6-member panel attending a Conference of Editors and Business Managers of Anthropological and Psychological Periodicals issued a report on manuscript guide- lines called “Instructions in Regard to Preparation of Manuscript.” This document of- fered general guidance for authors preparing manuscripts for publication. Although many of the details of page layout and preparation have changed and evolved into the current edition, some of the advice given in 1929 still holds true today. Consider this comment on the general form of the manuscript:

A safe and useful prescription is to be as brief as possible without sacri- ficing clarity or pertinent facts. Pressure upon space in the scientific jour- nals and the present heavy demands upon the informed reader both reinforce this prescription. Careless writing is usually diffuse, incoherent, and repetitious. Careful reading by a competent critic will usually sug- gest means for reduction. (“Instructions,” 1929, p. 57)

Why the specific format? One of the basic tenets of science and scientific knowledge is communicability (one other basic tenet of scientific knowledge is replication). APA format facilitates communication of scientific, psychological knowledge by the reporting of results in a consistent and predictable format. Any paper written by a psychologist in APA format has information presented in the fol- lowing order: title page, abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, and ref- erences. Knowing the parts of the manuscript and where they are located gives an advantage to the reader; you may not understand the jargon used, but you know there is a description of how the study was conducted in the Method section, and the statistical findings of the study are recorded in the Results section.

This common format facilitates the communication of ideas in the scientific com- munity. Some students are initially confused by APA format because they have already been taught a paper-writing format, such as Turabian (Turabian, 1982), Chicago Manual of Style (1993), or MLA (Gibaldi & Achtert, 1988). Other disciplines have their own for- mat as well, such as the Council of Biology Editors (1994). APA format is not necessarily superior to any other of these formats; in fact, APA format is confusing and tedious at times. However, it is the standard of communication in psychology for all authors. Whether you are submitting your work to a journal for publication or writing a paper in a psychology course, you should follow the established standards and use APA format.

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WRITING PSYCHOLOGY PAPERS

Although the APA Publication Manual (APA, 2001) is 439 pages long, the basic rules for writing in APA format are relatively straightforward. Much of the APA man- ual is dedicated to contingencies and events that do not occur very often. For exam- ple, in using APA format in the reference section of your paper, the Publication Manual lists 95 different methods of referencing; whereas the two basic references are journal articles and books.

Assume that you are eventually going to write a journal-style paper. Perhaps you are writing about your own experiment, a group project, or an experiment pro- posal. How do you get your notes organized to write the paper? Many authors use the notecard method. The notecard method is a technique of conducting library-type re- search in such a way that it facilitates later writing of the introduction and discussion sections of a manuscript by increasing the synthesis of a paper. By integrating multi- ple sources from your library research into the paper, it reads better, it flows better, and is one sign of scholarly writing. The notecard method is an organized procedure for collecting research notes when preparing a major term paper. Students are chal- lenged in such papers to not only analyze information from various sources, but also to synthesize the views and reports of these sources. The difference between a good paper and an excellent paper is often the level of synthesis. By using the notecard method, students organize their thoughts and ideas beforehand, rather than at the mo- ment of paper creation/typing/completion. For a more complete description of the notecard method with examples, we recommend Landrum (2008b).

THE PARTS: INTRODUCTION, METHOD, RESULTS, AND DISCUSSION

There are various details that must be attended to in preparing a manuscript in APA format, and a discussion of each of these sections follows. Note that, in general, APA has moved toward writing in the active voice (as opposed to the passive voice). Your instructor can help you to make this writing transition. First, Table 10.1 provides a quick overview of these sections.

The Introduction and Literature Review

This section is especially frustrating to persons who are unfamiliar with writing in APA format. The Publication Manual (APA, 2001) suggests that authors should try to accom- plish three goals in this opening portion of the paper. First, introduce the problem. The body of the paper opens with an introduction that presents the specific problem under study and describes the research strategy. Before writing the introduction, consider the following: What is the point of the study? How do the hypotheses and the experimental design relate to the problem? What are the theoretical implications of the study? How does the study relate to previous work in the area? A good introduction answers these questions in a paragraph or two and, by summarizing the relevant arguments and the data, gives the reader a firm sense of what was done and why.

Second, develop the background. Discuss the literature, but do not include an ex- haustive historical review. Assume that the reader has knowledge in the field for which you are writing and does not require a complete listing. Although you should acknowl- edge the contributions of others to the study of the problem, cite only research that is pertinent to the specific issue and avoid references with only general significance. Refer the reader to general surveys or reviews of the topic if they are available. A real chal- lenge for writers is to demonstrate the logical continuity between previous research and the present work (your paper). Develop the problem with enough breadth and clarity to make it generally understood by as wide a professional audience as possible. Do not let the goal of brevity mislead you into writing a statement understandable only to the specialist. As you can see in the sample paper (at the end of this chapter), the author takes about five double-spaced pages to develop the idea. You may want to use sub- headings (as in the sample paper) to better organize your thoughts.

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TABLE 10.1 Major Sections of an APA Manuscript

Title page (Take credit) Author’s name, affiliation Other information as your professor requests Page numbering (header) and running head information

Abstract (Quick summary) No more than 120 words Some assignments will not require an abstract

Introduction (What you are studying) Introduce the problem Develop the background State the purpose and rationale for the present study

Method (What you did) Participants, materials, procedure Should be in enough detail to replicate if desired

Results (What happened) Presentation of statistical outcomes; tables and/or figures if necessary Presentation, not interpretation

Discussion (What it means) Was there support for the research idea? Did the study help resolve the original problem? What conclusions can be drawn? Suggest improvements, avenues for further/new research

Reference section (Give credit where credit is due) Starts on its own page Authors listed alphabetically by last name, no first names used, only initials Be sure all citations in the text are referenced Shows your scholarly ability and how you did your homework

TABLE 10.2 Introduction/Literature Review Checklist

Introduction to the topic under study Brief review of the research findings and theories related to the topic Statement of the problem to be addressed by the research (identifying an area in which knowledge is incomplete) Statement of purpose of the present research Brief description of the method intended to establish the relationship between the question being addressed and the method being used to address it Description of any predictions about the outcome and of the hypotheses used to generate those predictions

Third, state the purpose and rationale. After you have introduced the problem and developed the background material, you are in a position to tell what you did. Make this statement in the closing paragraphs of the introduction. At this point, a definition of the variables and a formal statement of your hypotheses give clarity to the paper. Often you will see the sentence containing the hypothesis clearly begin- ning “It is hypothesized that . . .” Clearly develop the rationale for each hypothesis. End the introduction with a brief overview of your own study. This overview pro- vides a smooth transition into the Method section, which immediately follows. They provide the transition for the reader. Bordens and Abbott (1988) provide a checklist for the introduction and literature review found in Table 10.2.

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The Method Section

The goal of this section is to describe your participants, apparatus, and procedures so clearly that another person in your field could replicate or repeat your research. You are inviting others to repeat what you did. This section is conventionally divided under three headings: participants, apparatus or materials, and procedure (a research design heading is sometimes included).

PARTICIPANTS Describe the major demographic characteristics of the participants, such as age, sex, type of institution they were drawn from, and geographic location. Describe the procedures by which the participants were available for participation, such as student volunteers or students fulfilling course requirements. Include any criteria you used in determining who could be a participant. Describe the proce- dures by which you assigned participants to groups. If certain participants were dropped from the study, explain why in this section.

MATERIALS If specialized equipment is an integral part of your research, describe this equipment and how you used it. If the equipment is standard, cite the manufac- turer and any relevant identifying labels or numbers (this section might be labeled apparatus in that case). If standardized test materials were used, briefly describe them under a heading of materials. If the materials were specially designed for your study, describe them in enough detail so that someone experienced in your field could reproduce them for replication or further research purposes.

PROCEDURE Describe the research chronologically, step by step. In descriptive re- search, describe the conditions under which you observed or tested the participants as well as specific instructions or tasks presented to them. In experimental research, indicate how the participants in each group were exposed to the independent vari- able, and describe any control procedures used in the design. Instructions to the participants should be included verbatim if they were a key part of the study. Provide clear details on the measurement of participants’ behavior.

The Results Section

Verify that all conditions stipulated in the Method section were accomplished. If any variations occurred, describe them here; then briefly describe the procedures used for data collection and analysis. How were your observations converted into analyzable data? What type of statistical analysis was selected, and how was it conducted? It is now time to present the findings. Briefly describe your results in writing. After doing so, repeat the results in numerical form. When reporting the results of statistical tests, include the following: the name of the test (such as t or F ), the degrees of freedom, the results of the specific computation, and the alpha level (usually p 0.05). Now, you may elaborate or qualify the overall conclusion if necessary in writing. Be sure to end each section of the results with a summary of where things stand. APA format requires that when you report the mean, you also report the standard deviation. For particular analyses, you will need to report the effect size along with the inferential statistic.

FIGURES AND TABLES Unless a set of findings can be stated in one or two numbers, a table or figure should accompany results that are sufficiently important to be stressed. However, you do not want the information presented in a table or figure to be redundant with information already presented in the text. The basic rule of pres- entation is that a reader should be able to grasp your major findings either by read- ing the text or by looking at the tables and figures. Be careful in preparing figures and tables: There are very specific APA rules governing their construction, they are time-consuming, and they are often difficult and expensive for journals to publish.

The Discussion Section

Begin the discussion by telling the reader what you have learned from the study. Open with a clear statement on the support or nonsupport of the hypotheses or the

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answers to the questions you first raised in the introduction. Do not simply reformu- late and repeat points already summarized in the Results section. Each new statement should contribute something new to the reader’s understanding of the problem. What inferences can be drawn from the data? What are the theoretical, practical, or even po- litical implications of the results? Next, compare your results with the results reported by other investigators and discuss possible shortcomings of your study—that is, conditions that might limit the extent of legitimate generalizations. Do not dwell com- pulsively on flaws in your study. Typically there is a section included that considers questions that remain unanswered or have been raised by the study itself, along with suggestions for the kinds of research that would help to answer them.

References

List the scholarly works that you used (cited) in your paper in the reference section. List only works that you actually used; the reference section is not a bibliography (in a bibliography, you would list all the research that you gathered, regardless of whether or not that information was used in the paper). Also, note that references have their own rules of capitalization, and these rules are counterintuitive to stu- dents at first. For example, most students think that every word of a book title or journal article is always capitalized—in APA format in the reference section that is not true. There are many, many different types of reference materials that you can use in an APA format paper. Unfortunately, each type has a slightly different APA format. For the listing of examples on how to format references, see the Publication Manual (APA, 2001, pp. 239–281). Table 10.3 presents the most common reference formats (note that they are not double-spaced as they would be in true APA format).

APA format concerning citing information from the Internet is much clearer than it used to be. APA has recommendations available (http://www.apastyle.org). As with all

TABLE 10.3 Examples of APA Format References

Periodicals/Journal Articles

Davis, S. F., & Ludvigson, H. W. (1995). Additional data on academic dishonesty and a proposal for remediation. Teaching of Psychology, 22, 119–122.

Landrum, R. E., & Chastain, G. (1998). Demonstrating tutoring effectiveness within a one-semester course. Journal of College Student Development, 39, 502–506.

Books

Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (1997). Psychology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Horvat, J. J., & Davis, S. F. (1998). Doing psychological research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Smith, R. A., & Davis, S. F. (1997). The psychologist as detective: An introduction to conducting research in psychology.

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Edited Book

Chastain, G., & Landrum, R. E. (Eds.). (1999). Protecting human subjects: Departmental subject pools and institutional review boards. Washington, DC: APA Books.

Book Chapters

Davis, S. F. (1994). You take the high road, I’ll take the low road: A satisfying career at a small state university. In P. A. Keller (Ed.), Academic paths: Career decisions and experiences of psychologists. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Landrum, R. E., & Chastain, G. (1999). Subject pool policies in undergraduate-only departments: Results from a nationwide survey. In G. Chastain & R. E. Landrum (Eds.), Protecting human subjects: Departmental subject pools and institutional review boards (pp. 24–36). Washington, DC: APA Books.

Internet Materials

American Psychological Association. (1997). A guide to getting into graduate school. Retrieved November 28, 1998, from http://www.apa.org/ed/getin.html

Lloyd, M. A. (1997, August 28). Exploring career-related abilities, interests, skills, and values. Retrieved March 30, 1998, from http://www.psych-web.com/careers/explore.htm

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reference materials, the ultimate goal is to provide enough information in the refer- ence so that other researchers are able to follow your path to the same information.

Title and Abstract

The title and abstract of your article permit potential readers to get a quick overview of your study and decide if they wish to read the article itself. Titles and abstracts are also indexed and compiled in reference works and computerized databases (e.g., PsycINFO). For this reason they should accurately reflect the content of the article; write the abstract after you have completed the article and have a firm view of its structure and content. The recommended length for a title is 10 to 12 words. The title should be fully explanatory when standing alone and identify the theoretical issue(s) or the vari- able(s) under investigation. A good title is hard to write; plan to spend some time on it. The abstract is a short paragraph that summarizes the entire work—it should not ex- ceed 120 words. It should state the problem under investigation, in one sentence if pos- sible, the participants (specifying pertinent characteristics), the experimental method (including apparatus, data-gathering materials, test names), the findings (including sta- tistical significance levels), and the conclusion with the implications or applications. Be warned: a good abstract is often the most difficult portion of the paper to write.

The Appendix

The appendix contains materials important to the research that are too lengthy or detailed for inclusion in the Method section. These items may include technical ma- terials, listing of a computer program, word lists used as stimuli, or an original sur- vey/questionnaire. Try to minimize the use of appendices.

APA Format Typing Instructions

There are a number of specific details that are followed when preparing a manu- script in APA format. Some of the more basic guidelines are presented here. As al- ways, heed your instructor’s modifications to this list.

• Do not use underlining in 5th edition APA format—only italics. • Double-space everything! • Use a one-inch margin on all sides. • Do not justify lines if using a word processing program (i.e., you should have

a ragged right margin). • Use a 12-point font, preferably Times New Roman or equivalent—always

make sure the font is absolutely readable. • Number every page, including the title page (except figures)—upper right-

hand corner, inside the one-inch margin. • Indent the first line of every paragraph using the tab key (usually set at one-

half inch indention), or use five to seven spaces to indent. • Center the title page information on a page; it should contain the paper’s title,

the author’s name, and the author’s affiliation. The running head also appears on the title page—this short description is what would appear at the top of the page if the article were published in a journal. The title is also repeated again on the first page of manuscript text.

• Place the abstract on a page by itself (page 2 of the paper). The word “Abstract” should be centered at the top of the page. The abstract should be about 120 words in length (maximum) and must be typed as one blocked (not indented) paragraph.

Spacing and Punctuation

APA format requires only one space after punctuation in the body of the paper and Reference section. Check with your instructor on his or her preference. Some in- structors may want you to follow APA format exactly; others will want two spaces

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because they believe it improves readability; and others won’t care. Also leave a space after the period used in the initials of people’s names listed in your reference section. The Reference section starts on its own page.

GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY

You can imagine that with all of these sections, the flow of a research paper might be choppy and the text difficult to read. The skilled writer uses transitions between sections and paragraphs to improve the flow and readability. Here are some of APA’s suggestions (2001) for transitions:

Time links: then, next, after, while, since

Cause–effect links: therefore, consequently, as a result

Addition links: in addition, moreover, furthermore, similarly

Contrast links: but, conversely, nevertheless, however, although, whereas

One of the most confusing aspects to the writer new to the use of APA format regards the use of verbs. The verb tense that is used depends upon the section of the paper (see Table 10.4). As a general note, the APA Manual does a good job of provid- ing the basics of formatting, and does have helpful examples. You should remember to always consult your instructor to determine his or her particular preferences in the application of APA format rules. At times, instructors may want you to vary from the rules to improve readability or to fulfill a departmental or institutional requirement.

Here are some different types of verb tense and an example of each. When appropriate, use the active voice. Try to increase the frequency of active voice con- struction—“Davis designed the study.” The passive voice is acceptable when you focus on the outcome of the action, rather than who made the action happen. Try to minimize the use of passive voice—“The survey was administered by the students.” Use past tense to discuss something that happened at a specific, definite time in the past (e.g., writing about another researcher’s work or when reporting your results)— “Landrum (1998) found that 63% of students reporting average work expected a grade of B or a grade of A.” Use the present perfect tense to discuss a past action that did not occur at a specific, definite time in the past—“Since the completion of the study, we have found further evidence to support our conclusions.”

Using Direct Quotes vs. Paraphrasing

Use a direct quote only if the author has stated the idea so perfectly that any paraphras- ing of the original would not do justice to it. In general, you should paraphrase informa- tion you take from other sources. To paraphrase means that you read and comprehend the material, but then you write it in your own words, not the author’s words (as a

TABLE 10.4 Verb Use in Sections of an APA Format Paper

Introduction (Literature review) Past tense (“Davis concluded”) Present perfect tense (“Researchers have concluded”)

Method Past tense (“Participants completed the task in 5 minutes”) Present perfect tense (“The task was completed by the participants in 5 minutes”)

Results Past tense (“Scores declined after the intervention”)

Discussion (discuss results and present conclusions) Present tense (“Participants take the computer task seriously”)

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direct quote would do). You still need to give the writer credit for his or her work, even though you have put it in your own words; if you do not, you have plagiarized.

In general (and this is our suggestion, not APA format), use direct quotations sparingly. No more than one or two per paper, and do not use block quotes (quotes longer than 40 words). When instructors see a string of quotations or a bunch of block quotes, they are drawn to the conclusion that the student thought that string- ing quotes together would look good and satisfy the requirement. A scholarly paper is not a string of direct quotations. Examples of paraphrasing include some sentences that have phrases like these: (a) Landrum (1998) found that . . .; (b) . . . as reported in a previous study (Landrum, 1998); and (c) In 1998, Landrum concluded that . . .

A BRIEF NOTE ON PLAGIARISM

In Chapter 12, we will address plagiarism more thoroughly, but it is important to mention it now while presenting information on writing papers. You need to avoid plagiarism at all costs. What is plagiarism? According to Landau (2003), “Plagiarism occurs when people take credit for thoughts, words, images, musical passages, or ideas originally created by someone else” (p. 3). Landau suggested that there are two main types of plagiarism—intentional and unintentional plagiarism. Regarding unintentional plagiarism, Landau suggested two types: (a) students inadvertently present someone else’s work as their own (source memory error); or (b) misappre- hension, or that students do not know what they were doing was wrong.

There are serious consequences for students who are caught plagiarizing; these vary from instructor to instructor as well as institution to institution. You should be able to find detailed information about this in your student handbook. The consequences could be receiving an F on the assignment, an F in the course, and worse punishments in some cases. In the real world, plagiarism has its consequences too. Read this excerpt by Margulies (2002) about what happened in one case of plagiarism:

Less than two weeks after he was called to task for borrowing liberally from others in his welcome address to the freshman class, the president of Hamilton College resigned on Tuesday. Although some faculty mem- bers had criticized Eugene M. Tobin, many people on the campus ex- pressed surprise and disappointment at his resignation. Mr. Tobin stepped down after nine years at the helm of the Clinton, NY, college. He spoke to his colleagues at an afternoon faculty meeting after having consulted with a circle of advisors and constituents almost continuously from the time his act of plagiarism was exposed last month. In a convo- cation address that focused on the books he had read over the summer, Mr. Tobin used phrases and passages, without citation, from a number of book reviews and descriptions posted on Amazon.com. (pp. 1–2, 4)

SAMPLE PAPER

We conclude this chapter with a mock-up of a sample paper. In actual APA format, each page is contained on one piece of paper, and pages are printed on one side of the page. Writing an APA format paper early in your academic career can be a daunting and frustrating task—try not to be discouraged. It is a skill and it takes time to acquire skills. As with most other things, practice helps; the more papers you write, the better you will become at writing in this style. The conventions used in APA format will become familiar over time, and you will eventually appreciate the organizational structure and logical sequence of thought that a well-prepared APA paper provides. Our thanks go to Carol Pack, a graduate of the Department of Psychology at Boise State University, for allowing us permission to use the final draft of her research paper prepared for a Research Methods course. Note that we have added some illustrative points to help you attend to some of the most impor- tant details that students might miss when just starting to learn APA format.

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EXERCISE #10: Proofreading APA Format

Below are two sample pages from an assignment. This paper was supposed to be prepared in APA format. Mark the mistakes that this person made in preparing his or her paper in APA format. Just for fun, use a red pen!

What are the mistakes made in this APA format paper assignment? List the big problems here. How would you fix them?

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C H A P T E R 1 1

Doing Well in Psychology Classes: Study Tips

When giving study tips, it is difficult to separate out time management from test preparation from study distractions—they all seem to relate to one another. Hopper (1998a) offers these 10 tips for surviving college. They serve as a good overview for the materials that follow.

Try not to schedule back-to-back classes. You’ll wear yourself out, and you’ll miss some of the best times to study—right before and right after class.

Be a student on the first day of class. Don’t take the first two weeks of the semester off—even if your classes are off to a slow start. If possible, try to get ahead on reading so you will be able to keep up later in the semester. If you know you have to miss some of the semester (traveling, a medical procedure), try to do this toward the beginning of the semester rather than the end of the semester.

Establish a routine time to study for each class. Studying means more than just doing your homework. Studying involves general organizational and planning strategies (finishing assignments early, organizing notes), task preparation strategies (literature reviews in library, rereading text- books), environmental restructuring (finding the right place to study, min- imizing distractions), processing/recall ability (remembering), and typical study strategies (taking notes, studying notes) (Garavalia & Gredler, 1998). Prepare for each class as if there will be a pop quiz.

Establish a place to study. Make your study place a place with minimal dis- tractions. The exercise at the end of the chapter will help you to deter- mine the best place to study.

Do as much of your studying in the daytime as you can. Nighttime brings more distractions for adults.

Schedule breaks. Take a brief break after every block of study time. Try to avoid long blocks of studying unless you are sure that is your optimum method of studying. Don’t be unrealistic in how long you can study—that is, don’t schedule an 8-hour study session for Saturday afternoon and evening if that is something that you just won’t do when the time comes.

Make use of study resources on campus. Find out about the opportunities for tutoring, study sessions, test review in class, etc. Does your class have teaching assistants who hold office hours? What about forming a study group with your classmates? Ask questions in class of your professors.

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Find at least one or two students in each class whom you can study with. A fellow student might be able to explain a concept in terms that you can understand better than your professor might. Also, you might feel more comfortable asking questions of another student, and you’ll have an opportunity to observe another person’s study habits. Try to study with students who are academically equal to, or better than, you; they will stimulate and challenge your abilities.

Study the hardest subject first. Work on the hardest subjects when you are fresh. Putting those subjects off until you are tired compounds their difficulty.

Be good to yourself. Take care of your other needs—physical, emotional, so- cial, financial, etc. If you can minimize other problems in your life, you can use your efforts to study and understand the subject matter.

It also is important to note that some of the study strategies that were success- ful for you in high school may no longer work in college. Table 11.1 highlights some of the major differences between then and now. When all is said and done, college is probably going to require more persistence and commitment from you to succeed than did high school.

GENERAL STUDY TIPS

Many students enter college unprepared or underprepared for the academic chal- lenges ahead. The strategies that worked for you previously may not be effective now, as pointed out earlier. In fact, you may find that different college classes, even different psychology classes, may require different study strategies. The following information is designed to give you some tips on how to improve your study habits, improve your reading, get more out of lectures, and improve your test-taking skills.

Students Are Different

Techniques and strategies that work for one student may not work for another. You need to concentrate on what you know, and you need to discover what

TABLE 11.1 Examples of How College Is Not High School

Then Now

High school is required of all students. College is not required of students. High school has homerooms. College does not have homerooms. In high school, you probably had the same daily class schedule.

In college, your schedule might vary every day.

In high school, your textbooks were given to you.

In college, you must buy your own textbooks (and they are expensive).

In high school, teachers take attendance more.

In college, your instructors often do not take attendance.

A high school requires a doctor’s note to say that you were too ill to attend school if you miss class.

In college, if you miss class, that is your business; many professors are unlikely to require a doctor’s note. Documentation may be required for missing major exams, however.

High schools emphasize teachers teaching. College emphasizes learners learning. High school may not require you to devote much time to homework.

To be successful in college, you will have to devote a lot of time to studying.

High school is a system with many rules that sometimes restricts freedom.

College is a system with fewer rules that allows a good deal of freedom.

Source: Wahlstrom and Williams (2004).

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works and does not work for you. The studying process involves a complicated sequence of behaviors. One instrument used to assess this complex behavioral pattern is the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI) (Weinstein, Palmer, & Schulte, 1987). The following list summarizes the areas of learning and studying that the LASSI measures: (a) attitude and interest, (b) motivation, diligence, self-discipline, and willingness to work hard, (c) use of time manage- ment principles for academic tasks, (d) anxiety and worry about school per- formance, (e) concentration and attention to academic tasks, (f) information processing, acquiring knowledge, and reasoning, (g) selecting main ideas and recognizing important information, (h) use of support techniques and materials, (i) self-testing, reviewing, and preparing for classes, and (j) test strategies and preparing for tests.

If you have an interest in taking the LASSI, ask a psychology instructor about it, or better yet visit your campus Counseling and Testing Center to see if they can administer this inventory to you. If that opportunity is not avail- able to you, Table 11.2 presents a Study Skills Checklist by McConnell (1998) that can give you some insight into several of the same areas covered by the LASSI.

To score the results, look at the categories below that correspond to the ques- tions in Table 11.2. If you answered yes to two or more questions in any category, you might want to concentrate on those areas.

Items 1, 2, 3—time scheduling Items 13, 14, 15—exams

Items 4, 5, 6—concentration Items 16, 17, 18—reading

Items 7, 8, 9—listening and note-taking Items 19, 20, 21—writing papers

Items 10, 11, 12—reading

TABLE 11.2 Study Skills Checklist

Yes No Items

_____ _____ 1. I spend too much time studying for what I am learning. _____ _____ 2. I usually spend hours cramming the night before the exam. _____ _____ 3. If I spend as much time on my social activities as I want to, I don’t have enough time left to study,

or when I study enough, I don’t have time for a social life.

_____ _____ 4. I usually try to study with the radio or TV turned on. _____ _____ 5. I can’t sit and study for long periods of time without becoming tired or distracted. _____ _____ 6. I go to class, but I usually doodle, daydream, or fall asleep. _____ _____ 7. My class notes are sometimes difficult to understand later. _____ _____ 8. I usually seem to get the wrong material into my class notes. _____ _____ 9. I don’t review my class notes periodically throughout the semester in preparation for tests. _____ _____ 10. When I get to the end of a chapter, I can’t remember what I’ve just read. _____ _____ 11. I don’t know how to pick out what is important in the text. _____ _____ 12. I can’t keep up with my reading assignments, and then I have to cram the night before a test. _____ _____ 13. I lose a lot of points on essay tests even when I know the material well. _____ _____ 14. I study enough for my test, but when I get there my mind goes blank. _____ _____ 15. I often study in a haphazard, disorganized way under the threat of the next test. _____ _____ 16. I often find myself getting lost in the details of reading and have trouble identifying the main ideas. _____ _____ 17. I rarely change my reading speed in response to the difficulty level of the selection or my familiarity

with the content. _____ _____ 18. I often wish I could read faster. _____ _____ 19. When my teachers assign papers, I feel so overwhelmed that I can’t get started. _____ _____ 20. I usually write my papers the night before they are due.

_____ _____ 21. I can’t seem to organize my thoughts into a paper that makes sense.

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Fight Delaying Tactics

These are things that you do when you know the task is boring, long, or difficult (Wahlstrom & Williams, 2004). Three strategies for avoiding delaying tactics include (a) facing boring assignments with short concentrations of effort, (b) conquering long assignments by breaking them down into smaller tasks, and (c) fighting diffi- cult tasks by tackling them first and by making sure you understand them. Delaying tactics differ from procrastination because procrastination is defined as intentionally putting things off. Delaying tactics are typically viewed as unintentional (Wahlstrom & Williams, 2004).

DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE STUDY HABITS

Studying is probably not one of your most enjoyable tasks. Studying is hard work. However, by being efficient, organized, and consistent you can make it easier. Here are some tips.

Create a Regular Schedule for Studying

You probably have more obligations now than before college; hence, finding time to study may be difficult. Set aside times during the week that are specifically used for studying (and only studying ). Choose times when you are at your mental peak—wide awake and alert. Some people are “morning” people, some are “night” people; choose your time to study accordingly. You probably already know when your “prime time” is for studying. When scheduling study time, write it down. Many students use appointment books or an electronic calendar program of your choice to keep track of classes, assignments, commitments, etc. Get an appoint- ment book that breaks the day into individual hours, and carry the book with you. If possible, carry your schedule electronically with you on your cell phone or iPod. You can then schedule certain hours for specific activities. Be realistic; don’t plan to study for 6 hours if you know that you can’t really do that. Also, think in the long term. Get a 6-month wall calendar and map out the entire semester. This way, assignment due dates are less likely to sneak up on you if you can see your entire semester at a glance.

Writing your schedule down helps to make it concrete and allows for time management. Time management is even more important if you have many other responsibilities (like working, family, sports). Here are some tips for time man- agement:

• Set aside times and places for work. • Set priorities; then do things in priority order. • Break large tasks into smaller ones. • Plan to do a reasonable number of tasks for the day. • Work on one important task at a time. • Define all tasks specifically (e.g., not “write paper”). • Check your progress often.

Once you develop your basic schedule, add school events (exams, papers, presentations). Sticking to a schedule can help you to avoid cramming and procras- tination. Cramming isn’t a good study idea, because it strains your memory processes, drains you of energy, and exacerbates test anxiety. When people are faced with a number of tasks, most of us do the easy things first, saving the harder tasks for later. Unfortunately, by the time you get to the harder ones, you are tired and not at your best. To avoid this situation, break difficult tasks into smaller tasks. To emphasize this aspect even further, Hopper (1998b) offers these ten principles of scheduling in Table 11.3.

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Find a Regular Place to Study Where You Can Concentrate with Minimal Distractions

Avoid TV or listening to conversations (as in the library). Find your special nook somewhere that is your study place.

Reward Your Studying

Try to reward your successful study sessions with something you like (watching TV, eating a healthy snack, or calling a friend). Many of the traditional rewards of studying (good grades, a college degree) take time, so give yourself some immediate re- wards. Take breaks and be realistic about what you can accomplish in one study session.

IMPROVING YOUR READING

Much of your study time is spent reading. To be successful, you need to actively think about what you are reading. Highlighting the boldfaced terms isn’t enough. A very popular reading system developed by Robinson (1970) is SQ3R, which divides the reading task into these steps: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review.

1. Survey. Before reading the chapter word for word, glance over the topic headings and try to get an overview for the chapter. You will know where the chapter is going.

2. Question. Look at the chapter headings. Turn the headings into questions, questions you want to be able to answer when finished reading. If the head- ing is “Auditory System,” ask yourself, “How does the auditory system work?” If the heading is “Multiple-Personality Disorder,” ask, “What are the character- istics of multiple-personality disorder?”

3. Read. Now you are ready to read the chapter. Your purpose is to answer the questions you just asked. If you finish reading and haven’t answered your questions, go back and reread.

4. Recite. Once you know the answers to your key questions, recite them out loud to yourself in your own words. Personalizing these concepts will help you later when you are tested. Once you’ve said them, write them down.

5. Review. When you are finished with the entire chapter, test your memory by asking yourself the key questions. Try not to look at the written answers.

TABLE 11.3 Ideas for Better Scheduling and Time Management

Make use of daylight hours. Study before a class that requires discussion or frequently has pop quizzes. Study immediately after lecture classes (this is why it is best not to schedule back-to- back classes). Study at the same time everyday to establish a study habit. Plan enough time to study. Space your study periods. List your study activities according to priorities, and tackle the most difficult task first. Study during your own prime time, paying attention to your own daily cycles and levels of alertness. Leave time for flexibility—if you don’t do this, you probably won’t get much use out of your schedule. Analyze your use of time—keep a log every once in a while to see how you are using your time and where you might make improvements.

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Practice the SQ3R system and you will find you have developed a method for successful studying. SQ3R works because the reading assignment is divided into more manageable portions.

GETTING MORE OUT OF LECTURES

Lectures can occasionally be boring and tedious; however, poor class attendance is associated with poor grades. Even if the instructor is disorganized, going to class helps you understand how the instructor thinks, which may help with exam ques- tions or assignment expectations. Most lectures are coherent and understandable, and accurate note-taking is related to better test performance. Here are some tips on improving your note-taking skills:

• You need to listen actively to extract what is important. Focus all attention on the speaker, and try to anticipate meanings and what is coming up.

• If the lecture material is particularly difficult, review the material in the text ahead of time.

• Don’t try to be a human tape recorder. Try to write down the lecturer’s thoughts in your own words (as much as you can). Be organized even if the lecture is not. Practice determining what is important and what is not (some- times instructors give verbal or nonverbal cues).

• Ask questions during lecture. You can clarify points you missed and catch up in your notes. Most lecturers welcome questions and often wish students weren’t so bashful.

• If the lecture is fast-paced (or if you are a slow note-taker), try to review your notes right after class if possible. Consult with a fellow classmate to make sure you didn’t miss anything important. You may want to form a study group to regularly review lecture materials and textbook readings.

You should note that instructors are often integrating the use of technology into course instruction. Your professor may make additional materials available through Blackboard or WebCT or D2L or some other software package. Many text- books now come with online support, Web-based materials, and CD-ROMs or DVDs full of support. Be sure to consult with your instructor to know what support materials are available for your particular course.

IMPROVING TEST-TAKING STRATEGIES

Your strategy should relate to the type of test you are taking. Most students study differently for a multiple-choice test compared with an essay exam. One myth about multiple-choice tests is that you should go with your first answer and not go back and change answers. Research indicates that this idea is wrong, and that 58% of the time students changed wrong answers to right ones; 20% of the time students changed right answers to wrong; and 22% of the time students changed a wrong an- swer to another wrong answer (Benjamin, Cavell, & Shallenberger, 1984). Some of the items in the lists below are from Wahlstrom and Williams (2004).

Here are some general tips for test-taking situations:

• When you first receive your test, “. . . flip the examination sheet over and sim- ply unload. Unloading means taking two or three minutes to jot down on the back of the exam sheet any key words, concepts, and ideas that are in your mind” (Wahstrom & Williams, 2004, p. 176). This helps to relieve anxiety, as well as to prevent forgetting.

• Pace yourself. Make sure that when half your time is up, you are halfway through the test.

• Don’t waste lots of time by pondering difficult questions. If you have no idea, guess (don’t leave a question blank). If you think you can answer a question but need more time, skip it and come back later.

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• Don’t make the test more difficult than it is. Often simple questions are just that—simple.

• Ask a question if you need clarification. • If you finish all the questions and still have time, review your test. Check for

careless mistakes, such as double-checking earlier questions that you may have skipped.

Here are some tips for multiple-choice exams:

• As you read the question, anticipate the answer without looking. You may re- call it on your own.

• Even if you anticipated the answer, read all the options. A choice further down may incorporate your answer. Read each question completely.

• Eliminate implausible options. Often questions have a right answer, a close answer, and two fillers. Eliminating filler items makes for an easier choice.

• Often tests give away relevant information for one question in another ques- tion. Be on the lookout.

• Return to questions that are difficult. • There are exceptions, but alternatives that are detailed tend to be correct. Pay

extra attention to options that are extra long. • Options that create sweeping generalizations tend to be incorrect. Watch out

for words such as always, never, necessarily, only, must, completely, and totally.

• Items with carefully qualified statements are often correct. Well-qualified state- ments tend to include words such as often, sometimes, perhaps, may, and generally.

• Look for opposite choices. One of the two opposites is likely the correct answer.

If you can guess without penalty, then use these options with your multiple-choice items: (a) choose between similar sounding options; (b) if options are numbers, pick in the middle; (c) consider that the first option is often not correct; and (d) pick a familiar term over an unfamiliar one. Be sure to clarify with the instructor first to make sure there is not a penalty for guessing.

Here are some tips for essay exams:

• Time is usually a critical factor in essay exams. When reviewing questions, consider what you know, the time you think it will take to answer, and the point value. Answer questions that you know first, but don’t neglect questions with high point values.

• Organize your thoughts so you can write them down coherently. Take one or two minutes (i.e., unload) and plan your essay (make an outline). Then make your answer easier to read by numbering your points—organizational cues and signposts will help the grader find the points you are making.

• The challenge with essays is to be both complete and concise. Avoid the “kitchen-sink” method (you don’t know the exact answer, so you write all you know hoping the answer is in there somewhere).

• You have probably learned a great deal of jargon and terminology in the course, so demonstrate what you’ve learned in your essay (but make sure that you use the jargon correctly!).

If possible, try to get your graded test back from your instructor, or at least spe- cific feedback about your test performance. Use the strategies presented in Table 11.4 to make the most from returned tests (University of California– Berkeley, 1998).

Study skills, reading, understanding lectures, and test-taking skills are all im- portant to achieving academic success. You cannot develop these skills overnight; however, they will emerge with practice. The rewards can be worth the effort— knowledge gained, a feeling of accomplishment, improved grades, and progress to- ward your degree.

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TABLE 11.4 Making the Most of Returned Tests

If you receive your test back to keep, rework your errors trying to reason out why the correct answer was correct and yours was not. If you do not receive your test back, visit your instructor’s office to take a look at your answer sheet and the questions you missed. Look for the origin of each question—textbook, class notes, labs, Web information, etc. Identify the reason you missed a question. Did you read it incorrectly? Was it something that you were not prepared for? Did you run out of time? Check the level of detail and skill of the test. Were most of the questions over precise details and facts, or over main ideas and principles (the big picture)? Did questions come straight from the text, from lecture and class discussion, or from both? Did you have any problems with anxiety or blocking during the test?

Success Stories

Dr. Janet F. Carlson

State University of New York—Oswego

Roberto was a student in my Introductory Psychology class. He also was in the Higher Education Opportunity Program (HEOP) at the university, a program designed to assist academically and economically disadvantaged students. The HEOP advisors were very involved with their advisees, often calling course instructors and so on, to ascertain their advisees’ progress during the semester.

Roberto was present for every class, and clearly attentive. He was somewhat quiet, but occasionally asked or answered questions, and participated in class activities fully. To my surprise, he failed the mid-term examination. I wrote on his examination words to the effect, “I hope you are not too discouraged by this grade. I believe from the quality of your work in class that you have a much better understanding of the material than is re- flected here.”

Roberto’s advisor from HEOP called me to ask about his standing in my class, won- dering whether he should drop it, but unsure just how to proceed (because of my written comment). I reiterated my sense that Roberto had a good grasp of the material and needed to sort out why he was not able to demonstrate that on the examination. He stayed in the class, and received the third highest grade on the final examination. Together with other class requirements, he ended up with a B in the course.

I don’t know what happened to Roberto after that, as I left the university (it was a one-year position).

I guess the important messages here are that it is important for students to receive feedback in its many forms and that faculty should not to equate a student’s grade/s with the student’s ability too swiftly. Grades are an estimate of subject matter mastery, and not every estimate will be accurate. It is important to try your hardest with each opportunity to do so.

MATH ANXIETY

According to Conners, Mccown, and Roskos-Ewoldsen (1998), “math anxiety is an emotional state of dread of future math-related activities. It interferes with statistics learning by making students so nervous they cannot concentrate and by lowering motivation, which, in turn, lowers effort and achievement” (p. 40). Throughout this book we have tried to emphasize the skills and abilities that are necessary to be suc- cessful in psychology. Math skills (especially statistics) are going to be an important part of your undergraduate career, and also your career in psychology. Math anxiety is not insurmountable, and to be successful in your undergraduate and graduate ca- reers, you have to tackle and confront it.

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Dealing with this type of anxiety is not something that you can wave your hand at and make go away, and it’s not the type of thing where you wake up one morning and your math anxiety is gone. One method of dealing with this anxiety is to shape your behavior using successive approximations. Success in a math course also helps. If you have a problem in this area, try to schedule your math classes during a semester in which you can give math your best level of attention. Do not wait until the end of your career to take all of your required math classes! You’ll do better in statistics and research methods, and be a more useful research assistant (and, as this sequence progresses, get better letters of recommendation, score better on the quantitative GRE section, etc.) if you take the math and statistics courses early. If you are serious about graduate school, try to take an advanced statistics course if one is available. Do not be afraid to look out- side your department—sociology, political science, economics, and math departments might also offer useful upper-division advanced-level statistics courses.

BEHAVIORS TO AVOID

This chapter has focused on providing tips for better performance as a psychology major. We end this chapter with a modified list (Table 11.5) of behaviors that tend to irritate professors—their pet peeves about students. This somewhat humorous,

TABLE 11.5 What Professors Do NOT Want to Hear from Students

Are we doing anything important in class today? Can I be excused from class this week? My cousin/friend is coming in from Nebraska. I won’t be in class tonight. It’s my friend’s birthday. I don’t understand why I got such a low grade. I really enjoyed the class and I thought you liked me. I don’t understand why I got such a low grade. I came to class every day. Can I leave class early? I have to run an errand. I’ve been trying to reach you all week. You’re never in your office. I haven’t had enough time to do the job I think I can do on this paper. If I had more time, I could have done a better job. Do you take off for spelling? (One week before the project is due): I can’t find any articles in the library. Can I change my topic? Can you give me a topic for the project? (Concerning handing in group reports): I didn’t read the final report. Mary said she would put it together and hand it in on time. I didn’t know there was a test today. I wasn’t in class when you announced it. Do I have to take it now? Does the class presentations count? (Notice the grammar!) I don’t have time to go to the library. Can I borrow your copy of the readings? I hope this class ends on time. How many sources do I need in my paper? Which of the assignment readings will be on the test? I can’t make it to class today. I’m working on a paper for another class and it’s due tomorrow. Will the final exam take the ENTIRE two hours? That’s not what Professor Jones told us about that. (During the week before finals): What can I do to get an “A” in this class? Did the syllabus really say that? Do I have to do footnotes? How many pages does this paper have to be? What if it isn’t that long?

(continued)

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TABLE 11.5 What Professors Do NOT Want to Hear from Students (continued)

Does the paper have to be typed? Why? Are you sure? I was absent last class. Did we do anything important? Will we be responsible for EVERYTHING covered in the book and in the class? Why did I have to read all this if it wasn’t going to be on the test? (Written on top of the final exam): Dear Professor Jones: If this test brings me down below a “B,” I would like to take an incomplete. (After the exam is handed out): I don’t feel well. Can I take a make-up exam? I couldn’t find the room. Can I take the exam now? I forgot the time of the exam. Can I take it now? I’m not doing well in this class. Can I do some extra credit work? I think I have a problem. I’m taking another class that meets the same time as yours, and I have a midterm that’s scheduled at the same time for both classes. Can I take your test at a later time? There’s nothing written on the subject. I looked for a book in the library and couldn’t find one. I missed class last week. Can you tell me what went on? It’s not fair. I wasn’t in class when you gave the assignment.

Source: Zuckerman (1995).

somewhat serious list might give you some ideas about how to avoid getting on the bad side of your professors—these are valuable tips for success in any course.

Again, please remember that the listing in Table 11.5 consists of statements and questions that professors do not want to hear from their students.

Source: DILBERT reprinted by permission of United Feature Syndicate, Inc.

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EXERCISE #11: Locations for Studying

In using the table below, think of the three most common places that you study, and give each an arbitrary label (Place A, Place B, Place C). Answer the true–false questions for each of the locations. The location that has the most “false” responses may be the least distracting place to study. Try to plan your day so that the bulk of your studying is done in the most favorable place.

Study Distractions Analysis

Place A Place B Place C

True False True False True False Questions

______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 1. Other people often interrupt me when I study here. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 2. Much of what I can see here reminds me of things that don’t

have anything to do with studying. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 3. I can often hear radio or TV when I study here. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 4. I can often hear the phone ringing when I study here. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 5. I think I take too many breaks when I study here. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 6. I seem to be especially bothered by distractions here. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 7. I usually don’t study here at regular times each week. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 8. My breaks tend to be too long when I study here. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 9. I tend to start conversations with people when I study here. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 10. I spend time on the phone here that I should be using for study. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 11. There are many things here that don’t have anything to do with

study or schoolwork. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 12. Temperature conditions here are not very good for studying. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 13. The chair, table, and lighting arrangements here are not very

helpful for studying. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 14. When I study here I am often distracted by certain individuals. ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ 15. I don’t enjoy studying here.

TOTALS

Source: Hopper (1998).

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C H A P T E R 1 2

Ethical Issues for Psychology Majors

In this chapter, we present ethical issues from two different perspectives: ethics as a student enrolled in a college or university (whether you are a psychology major or not), and ethics from the perspective of an undergraduate researcher. As discussed earlier, serving as a research assistant for a professor in the psychology department allows you to gain valuable skills/abilities and a potentially strong letter of recom- mendation. However, the opportunity to serve as a research assistant carries additional responsibilities, such as the guarantee of ethical interactions with your research study participants. The latter portion of this chapter reviews the guidelines and principles for ethical behavior as a psychologist.

Before we address those principles specific to psychology, however, a broader topic involves your ethical behavior as a person. How do you treat other people? Do you treat everyone you encounter with dignity and respect? Do you show respect for the laws of the land and the rules that your institution imposes on the student body? It is clearly difficult to legislate ethical behavior among people—in fact, some people split hairs between actions and behavior that are probably unethical but not technically ille- gal. Of course, we would encourage you to seek the higher moral and ethical plane— some people behave in a certain way because they don’t think they’ll be caught, whereas others know the difference between right and wrong and do what’s right, even if they could get away with what’s wrong. As an undergraduate psychology major, you should have exposure to ethical concepts and ideas, hopefully in a number of classes that you take in the major. It is clear from the literature that education in ethics is valu- able for undergraduate students (Lamb, 1991; Mathiasen, 1998) and that students can learn ethical behavior and beliefs (LaCour & Lewis, 1998). For instance, student re- searchers who worked with Institutional Review Boards (more on this topic later in this chapter) became more serious about the research process (Kallgren & Tauber, 1996).

THE ETHICS OF BEING A STUDENT

What are the ethical responsibilities of being a college student? Most colleges and uni- versities address this topic with respect to cheating and academic dishonesty. Much of the work in this area has been done by one of the authors of this book, Stephen Davis (Davis, 1997; Davis, Grover, Becker, & McGregor, 1992; Davis & Ludvigson, 1995; Davis, Pierce, Yandell, Arnow, & Loree, 1995). In a series of studies conducted across the nation, 40%–60% of college students self-report that they have cheated at least once during their college career, and over 50% of that number report cheating on a regular basis. Although many colleges and universities have academic dishonesty policies, stu- dents still cheat—again, it is hard to legislate ethical behavior.

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It is fair to ask, “So what if a student cheats on an exam?” As discussed in earlier chapters, if you have a career in psychology, at some point someone is going to expect you to know about your major and the discipline. Cheating is a short-term solution that leads to bigger problems—it will probably become apparent at some point postgraduation that you did not “know your stuff,” and that lack of knowl- edge may create some significant employment issues for someone who has cheated. Additionally, it makes your institution look bad, because “we” are graduating stu- dents who do not “know their stuff.” This perception lowers the value of a degree of other graduates from your institution, and specifically those graduates in your major. Think of it this way—do you want a surgeon operating on you who cheated his or her way through medical school? Do you want a lawyer protecting your legal interests who cheated his or her way through law school? Do you want someone who is having serious psychological problems (perhaps a loved one of yours) to see a psychologist who cheated his or her way through graduate school? The bottom line is that someone someday is going to expect you to know about and understand the principles of psychology—why not just learn the material and complete the projects rather than spending an enormous amount of time and effort cheating?

It may be of interest to you to see how schools address this issue of academic dishonesty. In Table 12.1, we present the academic dishonesty policy of the University of Oregon (2001). It is interesting to see how the policy spells out differ- ent types of academic dishonesty. The policy statement starts like this (University of Oregon, 2001, p. 1):

Members of the university community are expected to be honest and forthright in their academic endeavors. To falsify the results of one’s re- search, to present the words, ideas, data, or work of another as one’s own, or to cheat on an examination corrupts the essential process by which knowledge is advanced.

This University of Oregon (2001) Policy on Academic Dishonesty goes on to suggest ideas about what students can do to protect them- selves from being charged with academic dishonesty:

• Prepare thoroughly for examinations and assignments. • Take the initiative to prevent other students from copying exams or

assignments; for example, shield answer sheets during examina- tions, and do not loan completed assignments to other students.

• Check the course syllabus for a section dealing with academic dis- honesty for that course. There may be special requirements. If there is no written section in the syllabus, ask the instructor what his or her expectations are, particularly concerning collaboration and citation.

• Do not look in the direction of other students’ papers during exam- inations.

• Utilize a recognized handbook for instruction on citing source materials in papers. Consult with instructors or academic depart- ments when in doubt.

• Discourage dishonesty among other students. • Refuse to assist students who cheat. • If extraordinary circumstances cause anxiety over taking an exam or

getting an assignment in on time, talk to the instructor in advance. It is better to request special arrangements rather than resort to dishonesty.

• Inform the instructor if you are aware of other students cheating. (p. 10)

The consequences of academic dishonesty can be serious, including failure on the assignment, failure in the class, and suspension or expulsion from the univer- sity. Be sure you are familiar with the particular policies of your institution. It is clear there are ethical responsibilities to being a student, but what about the special responsibilities of being a student researcher? The remainder of this chapter is de- voted to that topic.

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TABLE 12.1 Forms of Academic Dishonesty

Plagiarism Plagiarism is the inclusion of someone else’s product, words, ideas, or data as one’s own work. When a student submits work for credit that includes the product, words, ideas, or data of others, the source must be acknowledged by the use of complete, accurate, and specific references, such as footnotes. Expectations may vary slightly among disciplines. By placing one’s name on work submitted for credit, the student certifies the originality of all work not otherwise identified by appropriate acknowledgments. On written assignments, if verbatim statements are included, the statements must be enclosed by quotation marks or set off from regular text as indented extracts. A student will avoid being charged with plagiarism if there is an acknowledgment of indebtedness. Indebtedness must be acknowledged whenever:

• one quotes another person’s actual words or replicates all or part of another’s product; • one uses another person’s ideas, opinions, work, data, or theories, even if they are completely paraphrased in one’s own

words;

• one borrows facts, statistics, or other illustrative materials—unless the information is common knowledge. Unauthorized collaboration with others on papers or projects can inadvertently lead to a charge of plagiarism. In addition, it is plagiarism to submit as your own any academic exercise (for example, written work, printing, computer program, art or design work, musical composition, and choreography) prepared totally or in part by another. Plagiarism also includes submitting work in which portions were substantially produced by someone acting as a tutor or editor.

Fabrication Fabrication is the intentional use of information that the author has invented when he or she states or implies otherwise, or the falsification of research or other findings with the intent to deceive.

Examples include, but are not limited to: • citing information not taken from the source indicated; • listing sources in a reference not used in the academic exercise; • inventing data or source information for research or other academic exercises.

Cheating Cheating is an act of deception by which a student misrepresents or misleadingly demonstrates that he or she has mastered information on an academic exercise that he or she has not mastered, including the giving or receiving of unauthorized help in an academic exercise. Examples include, but are not limited to: • copying from another student’s test paper, computer program, project, product, or performance; • collaborating without authority or allowing another student to copy one’s work in a test situation; • using the course textbook or other material not authorized for use during a test; • using unauthorized materials during a test; for example, notes, formula lists, cues on a computer, photographs, symbolic

representations, and notes written on clothing; • resubmitting substantially the same work that was produced for another assignment without the knowledge and

permission of the instructor; • taking a test for someone else or permitting someone else to take a test for you.

Academic Misconduct Academic misconduct is the intentional violation of university policies, such as tampering with grades, or taking part in obtaining or distributing any part of an unadministered test or any information about the test. Examples include, but are not limited to: • stealing, buying, or obtaining in any other unauthorized manner all or part of an unadministered test; • selling, trading, or giving away all or part of an unadministered test, including answers to an unadministered test; • attempting to change or changing, altering, or being an accessory to changing or altering a grade in a grade book, work

submitted on a test or a final project, a “supplementary grade report” form, or other official academic records of the university which relate to grades;

• entering a building or office for the purpose of obtaining an unadministered test.

Source: University of Oregon (2001).

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THE ETHICS OF RESEARCH

Ethics is a commonly used term that has broad applications in psychology. For example, we might question the ethics of a particular researcher, whether or not a procedure is ethical, or if measuring a participant’s behavior can be done in an ethically prudent way. Ethics generally refers to a code of honor in science that researchers follow proper procedures and treat the research participants (whether they be human or animal) properly. As you might expect, psychologists trained in research methods occasionally disagree as to what is proper. Fortunately, the APA has developed a set of rules and regulations of ethical behavior (first adopted in 1953, with major revisions in 1982, 1992, and 2002). For the most current version of the code, see www.apa.org/ethics. Portions of this code are presented near the end of this chapter.

In doing psychological research, the overriding consideration is the analysis of cost versus benefit. The researcher must weigh this decision carefully in any situation involving the participation of humans. Do the potential benefits that might be derived from a research study outweigh the potential harms (or costs) to the participant? Researchers do not take this decision lightly. One method to minimize the costs or harms to a human participant is to fully inform the person about the nature of the re- search. Thus, if there are potential harms from placing the participant at risk, then the participant can make an informed judgment about whether to participate or not. This judgment is typically called informed consent. Technically speaking, informed consent:

. . . is a procedure in which people are given an explicit choice about whether or not they would like to participate in the research prior to par- ticipation but after they have been fully informed of any harmful effects of the research and made aware that they are completely free to with- draw from the research at any time. (Jones, 1985, pp. 35–36)

THE DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF APA ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

Although psychologists were self-motivated to generate a code of ethics on their own, events made public after World War II hastened the need for a written code of honor. In many of the Nazi concentration camps in Europe, prisoners were experi- mented on under horrible conditions and without regard for the sanctity of human life. Out of those events came the Nuremburg Code (Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No. 10, 1949), from which much of the APA ethical guidelines are based. The 10-point Nuremburg Code is presented in Table 12.2.

As early as 1935 the APA formed a special committee to discuss ethical matters and make recommendations on how to resolve complaints. By 1948, this committee recommended that the informal procedure they had used for years be formalized

TABLE 12.2 The Nuremburg Code

1. Participation of subjects must be totally voluntary and the subject should have the capacity to give consent to participate. Further, the subject should be fully informed of the purposes, nature, and duration of the experiment.

2. The research should yield results that are useful to society and that cannot be obtained in any other way.

3. The research should have a sound footing in animal research and be based on the natural history of the problem under study.

4. Steps should be taken in the research to avoid unnecessary physical or psychological harm to subjects.

5. Research should not be conducted if there is reason to believe that death or disability will occur to the subjects. 6. The risk involved in the research should be proportional to the benefits to be obtained from the results. 7. Proper plans should be made and facilities provided to protect the subject against harm. 8. Research should be conducted by highly qualified scientists only. 9. The subject should have the freedom to withdraw from the experiment at any time if he (or she) has reached the

conclusion that continuing in the experiment is not possible. 10. The researcher must be prepared to discontinue the experiment if it becomes evident to the researcher that continuing

the research will be harmful to the subjects.

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into a code of ethics for psychologists. The Committee on Ethical Standards for Psychology was formed and used a unique method of forming and organizing the formal code of ethics. This committee surveyed thousands of members of the APA and asked them to describe any situation in which a psychologist would need to make an ethical decision. Based on the responses, the committee developed a code designed to encompass a large variety of ethics-type situations, which at that time condensed into six general categories: responsibility to the public, the relationship between therapist and client, teaching, research, publishing, and professional rela- tionships (Crawford, 1992). After input was received from the membership, this code was published as the Ethical Standards of Psychology by the APA in 1953. This basic code has been revised several times, and the general principles are presented in Table 12.3. For more on the ethical standards related to teaching, training super- vision, research, and publishing, see the end of this chapter.

TABLE 12.3 General Principles from Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct

General Principles This section consists of General Principles. General Principles, as opposed to Ethical Standards, are aspirational in nature. Their intent is to guide and inspire psychologists toward the very highest ethical ideals of the profession. General Principles, in contrast to Ethical Standards, do not represent obligations and should not form the basis for imposing sanctions. Relying upon General Principles for either of these reasons distorts both their meaning and purpose.

Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence Psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they work and take care to do no harm. In their professional actions, psychologists seek to safeguard the welfare and rights of those with whom they interact professionally and other affected persons, and the welfare of animal subjects of research. When conflicts occur among psychologists’ obligations or concerns, they attempt to resolve these conflicts in a responsible fashion that avoids or minimizes harm. Because psychologists’ scientific and professional judgments and actions may affect the lives of others, they are alert to and guard against personal, financial, social, organizational, or political factors that might lead to misuse of their influence. Psychologists strive to be aware of the possible effect of their own physical and mental health on their ability to help those with whom they work.

Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility Psychologists establish relationships of trust with those with whom they work. They are aware of their professional and scientific responsibilities to society and to the specific communities in which they work. Psychologists uphold professional standards of conduct, clarify their professional roles and obligations, accept appropriate responsibility for their behavior, and seek to manage conflicts of interest that could lead to exploitation or harm. Psychologists consult with, refer to, or cooperate with other professionals and institutions to the extent needed to serve the best interests of those with whom they work. They are concerned about the ethical compliance of their colleagues’ scientific and professional conduct. Psychologists strive to contribute a portion of their professional time for little or no compensation or personal advantage.

Principle C: Integrity Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology. In these activities psychologists do not steal, cheat, or engage in fraud, subterfuge, or intentional misrepresentation of fact. Psychologists strive to keep their promises and to avoid unwise or unclear commitments. In situations in which deception may be ethically justifiable to maximize benefits and minimize harm, psychologists have a serious obligation to consider the need for, the possible consequences of, and their responsibility to correct any resulting mistrust or other harmful effects that arise from the use of such techniques.

Principle D: Justice Psychologists recognize that fairness and justice entitle all persons to access to and benefit from the contributions of psychology and to equal quality in the processes, procedures, and services being conducted by psychologists. Psychologists exercise reasonable judgment and take precautions to ensure that their potential biases, the boundaries of their competence, and the limitations of their expertise do not lead to or condone unjust practices.

Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self- determination. Psychologists are aware that special safeguards may be necessary to protect the rights and welfare of per- sons or communities whose vulnerabilities impair autonomous decision-making. Psychologists are aware of and respect cultural, individual, and role differences, including those based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status and consider these factors when working with members of such groups. Psychologists try to eliminate the effect on their work of biases based on those fac- tors, and they do not knowingly participate in or condone activities of others based upon such prejudices.

Source: American Psychological Association (2002).

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THE ROLE OF INFORMED CONSENT AND THE INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD

In terms of ethical behavior, one of the fundamental concepts that emerge from ex- amining both the Nuremburg Code and the Ethical Principles of the American Psychological Association is that participants must be told, at some time or another, about the nature of the research project. In most cases, it is preferable to accomplish this objective prior to the onset of the research. Why? First, it allows participants to make a judgment about whether they want to participate. Second, it gives the par- ticipants more information about the general nature of the required tasks. Third, telling participants about the general nature of the research prior to onset allows the researcher to obtain informed consent. Informed consent means that participants have some idea about the research study and have given their permission not only to participate, but that the researcher may collect data.

Who decides whether an experiment (minimal risk, informed consent, or de- ception) meets the ethical standards of the APA? Although researchers are re- quired always to consider the ethical practices in their research, most colleges and universities also have a standing committee called the Institutional Review Board (IRB) (this committee is sometimes called the Human Subjects Committee). The IRB is typically composed of faculty members from various disciplines and indi- viduals from the community; it is charged with one major function: to protect the rights of persons and animals who participate in research. Any college or univer- sity that receives federal funding for research is required to have such a commit- tee. Gone are the days when a researcher might design a new experiment in the morning and actually administer that experiment to participants (i.e., “run subjects”) that afternoon. The hypotheses, research methodology, and participant recruit- ment and treatment all come under scrutiny of the IRB. Only after the approval of this board may researchers go forward with their research. The IRB screens re- search projects so that no or minimal harm occurs to persons who participate. If minimal harm may occur, the IRB certifies that the proper informed consent pro- cedures are in place. Experiments involving deception come under the close scrutiny of the IRB, especially in weighing the risk of the deception against the potential benefits of the outcomes. For more information about the role and status of IRBs, see Chastain and Landrum (1999) or Rosnow, Rotheram-Borus, Ceci, Blanck, and Koocher (1993).

Although the chief function of the IRB is the protection of the participant pop- ulation, other advantages occur from its use. The IRB also serves as a screening de- vice for the university in knowing what kinds of activities are taking place. If the IRB feels that a particular research project may involve too much risk (risk to the participant or risk to the university), it may reject a project. Another advantage of the IRB is for the protection of the researchers. Often the IRB may have procedural suggestions to make and offer improvements.

The decision to conduct psychologically sound research is not a light one. There are a number of factors that must be carefully considered in making this decision—only a handful of those factors have been discussed here. In Table 12.4 (pages 183–184) we present a listing of the rights and responsibilities of research participants. This listing echoes the sentiments of the Nuremburg Code and the APA Ethical Principles. Although we have focused on your responsibilities as a re- searcher, the participant also has responsibilities in this process. The dual benefit that accrues from student participation in research is that it allows psychologists to study human behavior and collect data to further the human condition; this oppor- tunity gives students a firsthand learning experience with the research process. To read about research in a textbook or journal article is one way to learn it; you gain a very different experience by being an active participant in actual “live” research.

Actually conducting research is a complicated enterprise, not only from the methodological perspective, but also from an ethical perspective. As undergraduate

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Success Stories

Dr. Edie Woods

Madonna University

[Contributed by a colleague.] When I was asked to write something about my own “suc- cess story” I was thrilled, because I do feel like I have a success story, but success is meas- ured by my own ruler of what it means to feel like I am doing what I was put on this earth to do. For 44 years I floundered in other professions but nothing felt right for me. I always knew I had to do something different, that I needed to be in a profession that would allow me to understand people, and with that understanding be able to help those who suf- fered. As a child I always wanted to help and I always was very caring and for some rea- son I always gravitated toward people who were on the fringe.

When I was 44, after I had been an Insurance Underwriter for 20 years, I went back to school. I wanted more, yet I was not sure what that was. I took psychology, and anthropol- ogy and criminal justice classes and I had an interest in all three. I kept taking more and more psychology classes and it began to be evident that I was most curious about why people do what they do. After 4 years in Madonna University with a major in Psychology, I graduated with a B.S. degree. I knew that I needed more education and that I had to have a master’s de- gree to go further and to actually have a career in psychology as a therapist. I applied for the master’s program and began the fall of the year I graduated from the undergrad program.

Two years later, I graduated with a master’s in Clinical Psychology and began my career with my own private practice as a therapist. Success!! Yes in many ways, I feel very successful, but that does not end the story. I am continuing my education at the Michigan Psychoanalytic Institute in their Adult 2-year program. So my education continues. I am a perennial student and that is probably one of the reasons I love this field of psychology. You can never learn enough, the learning goes on and on and as a person I feel enriched by this continuous growth.

Today, less than 2 years out of grad school, I am a therapist with about 40 patients, I am also teaching at my alma mater, Madonna University, as well as a community college, I have a position at a community mental health clinic as a contract therapist and I also am a therapist for an organization called Boys Hope Girls Hope. Do I feel like a success? Absolutely, but there is more to come, much more. My success is not measured in dollars, actually I don’t make nearly enough money for most people, but I feel completely rewarded when I sit in a room with a patient and that person feels a connection with me and can share his or her life story. It is a humbling experience and the most rewarding and com- plete feeling of value that I could ever imagine.

My future plans are to continue my learning at Michigan Psychoanalytic Institute. I have applied to the University of Detroit, Mercy, to their doctoral program in clinical psy- chology and I hope to be admitted for the fall of 2005. I will continue my work as a therapist and teaching. Success is a measure of fulfillment; I don’t feel full yet, but I do feel fulfilled and finally on the path toward greater and greater personal success.

TABLE 12.4 Rights and Responsibilities of Research Participants

Rights of Research Participants 1. Participants should know the general purpose of the study and what they will be expected to do. Beyond this, they

should be told everything a reasonable person would want to know in order to decide whether to participate. 2. Participants have the right to withdraw from a study at any time after beginning participation in the research. A

participant who chooses to withdraw has the right to receive whatever benefits were promised. 3. Participants should expect to receive benefits that outweigh the costs or risks involved. To achieve the educational

benefit, participants have the right to ask questions and receive clear, honest answers. When participants do not receive what was promised, they have the right to remove their data from the study.

4. Participants have the right to expect that anything done or said during their participation in a study will remain anonymous and confidential, unless they specifically agree to give up this right.

5. Participants have the right to decline to participate in any study and may not be coerced into research. When learning about research is a course requirement, an equivalent alternative to participation should be available.

6. Participants have a right to know when they have been deceived in a study and why the deception was used. If the deception seems unreasonable, participants have the right to withhold their data.

(continued)

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student researchers, you have a responsibility to protect the health and welfare of your research participants, and at the same time pursue research that enables you to test worthy hypotheses. A psychologist must never take lightly the consideration of using humans or animals for research purposes, and the potential benefits from such research enterprises must always outweigh any potential costs or harm to the participant. And please note: The following section (APA Principles 7 and 8) is pro- vided to you as a convenience and as a reference resource. Don’t try to memorize this—it is here to show you the various situations in which ethical behavior is re- quired, and sometimes complicated.

P R I N C I P L E S S E V E N A N D E I G H T O F A PA’ S E T H I C A L P R I N C I P L E S O F P S Y C H O L O G I S T S A N D C O D E O F C O N D U C T

PRINCIPLE 7. Education and Training

7.01 Design of Education and Training Programs

Psychologists responsible for education and training programs take reasonable steps to ensure that the programs are designed to provide the appropriate knowl- edge and proper experiences, and to meet the requirements for licensure, certifica- tion, or other goals for which claims are made by the program. (See also Standard 5.03, Descriptions of Workshops and Non-Degree-Granting Educational Programs.)

7.02 Descriptions of Education and Training Programs

Psychologists responsible for education and training programs take reasonable steps to ensure that there is a current and accurate description of the program con- tent (including participation in required course- or program-related counseling, psy- chotherapy, experiential groups, consulting projects, or community service), training goals and objectives, stipends and benefits, and requirements that must be met for satisfactory completion of the program. This information must be made readily available to all interested parties.

7.03 Accuracy in Teaching

(a) Psychologists take reasonable steps to ensure that course syllabi are accurate regarding the subject matter to be covered, bases for evaluating progress, and the nature of course experiences. This standard does not preclude an instructor from modifying course content or requirements when the instructor considers it

7. When any of these rights is violated or participants object to anything about a study, they have the right and the responsibility to inform appropriate university officials, including the chairperson of the Psychology Department and the Institutional Review Board.

Responsibilities of Research Participants 1. Participants have the responsibility to listen carefully to the experimenter and ask questions in order to understand

the research.

2. Be on time for the research appointment.

3. Participants should take the research seriously and cooperate with the experimenter. 4. When the study has been completed, participants share the responsibility for understanding what happened.

5. Participants have the responsibility for honoring the researcher’s request that they not discuss the study with anyone else who might be a participant.

Source: Korn (1988).

TABLE 12.4 Rights and Responsibilities of Research Participants (continued )

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pedagogically necessary or desirable, so long as students are made aware of these modifications in a manner that enables them to fulfill course require- ments. (See also Standard 5.01, Avoidance of False or Deceptive Statements.)

(b) When engaged in teaching or training, psychologists present psychological information accurately. (See also Standard 2.03, Maintaining Competence.)

7.04 Student Disclosure of Personal Information

Psychologists do not require students or supervisees to disclose personal informa- tion in course- or program-related activities, either orally or in writing, regarding sexual history, history of abuse and neglect, psychological treatment, and relation- ships with parents, peers, and spouses or significant others except if (1) the pro- gram or training facility has clearly identified this requirement in its admissions and program materials or (2) the information is necessary to evaluate or obtain assis- tance for students whose personal problems could reasonably be judged to be pre- venting them from performing their training- or professionally related activities in a competent manner or posing a threat to the students or others.

7.05 Mandatory Individual or Group Therapy

(a) When individual or group therapy is a program or course requirement, psy- chologists responsible for that program allow students in undergraduate and graduate programs the option of selecting such therapy from practitioners un- affiliated with the program. (See also Standard 7.02, Descriptions of Education and Training Programs.)

(b) Faculty who are or are likely to be responsible for evaluating students’ aca- demic performance do not themselves provide that therapy. (See also Standard 3.05, Multiple Relationships.)

7.06 Assessing Student and Supervisee Performance

(a) In academic and supervisory relationships, psychologists establish a timely and specific process for providing feedback to students and supervisees. Information regarding the process is provided to the student at the beginning of supervision.

(b) Psychologists evaluate students and supervisees on the basis of their actual performance on relevant and established program requirements.

7.07 Sexual Relationships With Students and Supervisees

Psychologists do not engage in sexual relationships with students or supervisees who are in their department, agency, or training center or over whom psychologists have or are likely to have evaluative authority. (See also Standard 3.05, Multiple Relationships.)

PRINCIPLE 8. Research and Publication

8.01 Institutional Approval

When institutional approval is required, psychologists provide accurate information about their research proposals and obtain approval prior to conducting the research. They conduct the research in accordance with the approved research protocol.

8.02 Informed Consent to Research

(a) When obtaining informed consent as required in Standard 3.10, Informed Consent, psychologists inform participants about (1) the purpose of the re- search, expected duration, and procedures; (2) their right to decline to partic- ipate and to withdraw from the research once participation has begun; (3) the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing; (4) reasonably fore- seeable factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to partici- pate such as potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects; (5) any prospective

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research benefits; (6) limits of confidentiality; (7) incentives for participation; and (8) whom to contact for questions about the research and research par- ticipants’ rights. They provide opportunity for the prospective participants to ask questions and receive answers. (See also Standards 8.03, Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research; 8.05, Dispensing With Informed Consent for Research; and 8.07, Deception in Research.)

(b) Psychologists conducting intervention research involving the use of experi- mental treatments clarify to participants at the outset of the research (1) the experimental nature of the treatment; (2) the services that will or will not be available to the control group(s) if appropriate; (3) the means by which as- signment to treatment and control groups will be made; (4) available treat- ment alternatives if an individual does not wish to participate in the research or wishes to withdraw once a study has begun; and (5) compensation for or monetary costs of participating including, if appropriate, whether reimburse- ment from the participant or a third-party payer will be sought. (See also Standard 8.02a, Informed Consent to Research.)

8.03 Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research

Psychologists obtain informed consent from research participants prior to record- ing their voices or images for data collection unless (1) the research consists solely of naturalistic observations in public places, and it is not anticipated that the recording will be used in a manner that could cause personal identification or harm, or (2) the research design includes deception, and consent for the use of the recording is obtained during debriefing. (See also Standard 8.07, Deception in Research.)

8.04 Client/Patient, Student, and Subordinate Research Participants

(a) When psychologists conduct research with clients/patients, students, or sub- ordinates as participants, psychologists take steps to protect the prospective participants from adverse consequences of declining or withdrawing from participation.

(b) When research participation is a course requirement or an opportunity for extra credit, the prospective participant is given the choice of equitable alter- native activities.

8.05 Dispensing with Informed Consent for Research

Psychologists may dispense with informed consent only (1) where research would not reasonably be assumed to create distress or harm and involves (a) the study of normal educational practices, curricula, or classroom management methods con- ducted in educational settings; (b) only anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic observations, or archival research for which disclosure of responses would not place participants at risk of criminal or civil liability or damage their financial standing, employability, or reputation, and confidentiality is protected; or (c) the study of factors related to job or organization effectiveness conducted in organiza- tional settings for which there is no risk to participants’ employability, and confiden- tiality is protected or (2) where otherwise permitted by law or federal or institutional regulations.

8.06 Offering Inducements for Research Participation

(a) Psychologists make reasonable efforts to avoid offering excessive or inappro- priate financial or other inducements for research participation when such in- ducements are likely to coerce participation.

(b) When offering professional services as an inducement for research participa- tion, psychologists clarify the nature of the services, as well as the risks, obli- gations, and limitations. (See also Standard 6.05, Barter With Clients/Patients.)

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8.07 Deception in Research

(a) Psychologists do not conduct a study involving deception unless they have determined that the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study’s sig- nificant prospective scientific, educational, or applied value and that effective nondeceptive alternative procedures are not feasible.

(b) Psychologists do not deceive prospective participants about research that is reasonably expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional distress.

(c) Psychologists explain any deception that is an integral feature of the design and conduct of an experiment to participants as early as is feasible, preferably at the conclusion of their participation, but no later than at the conclusion of the data collection, and permit participants to withdraw their data. (See also Standard 8.08, Debriefing.)

8.08 Debriefing

(a) Psychologists provide a prompt opportunity for participants to obtain appro- priate information about the nature, results, and conclusions of the research, and they take reasonable steps to correct any misconceptions that participants may have of which the psychologists are aware.

(b) If scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding this information, psychologists take reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm.

(c) When psychologists become aware that research procedures have harmed a participant, they take reasonable steps to minimize the harm.

8.09 Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research

(a) Psychologists acquire, care for, use, and dispose of animals in compliance with current federal, state, and local laws and regulations, and with profes- sional standards.

(b) Psychologists trained in research methods and experienced in the care of laboratory animals supervise all procedures involving animals and are responsible for ensuring appropriate consideration of their comfort, health, and humane treatment.

(c) Psychologists ensure that all individuals under their supervision who are using animals have received instruction in research methods and in the care, maintenance, and handling of the species being used, to the extent appropri- ate to their role. (See also Standard 2.05, Delegation of Work to Others.)

(d) Psychologists make reasonable efforts to minimize the discomfort, infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects.

(e) Psychologists use a procedure subjecting animals to pain, stress, or privation only when an alternative procedure is unavailable and the goal is justified by its prospective scientific, educational, or applied value.

(f ) Psychologists perform surgical procedures under appropriate anesthesia and fol- low techniques to avoid infection and minimize pain during and after surgery.

(g) When it is appropriate that an animal’s life be terminated, psychologists pro- ceed rapidly, with an effort to minimize pain and in accordance with ac- cepted procedures.

8.10 Reporting Research Results

(a) Psychologists do not fabricate data. (See also Standard 5.01a, Avoidance of False or Deceptive Statements.)

(b) If psychologists discover significant errors in their published data, they take reasonable steps to correct such errors in a correction, retraction, erratum, or other appropriate publication means.

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8.11 Plagiarism

Psychologists do not present portions of another’s work or data as their own, even if the other work or data source is cited occasionally.

8.12 Publication Credit

(a) Psychologists take responsibility and credit, including authorship credit, only for work they have actually performed or to which they have substantially contributed. (See also Standard 8.12b, Publication Credit.)

(b) Principal authorship and other publication credits accurately reflect the rela- tive scientific or professional contributions of the individuals involved, re- gardless of their relative status. Mere possession of an institutional position, such as department chair, does not justify authorship credit. Minor contribu- tions to the research or to the writing for publications are acknowledged ap- propriately, such as in footnotes or in an introductory statement.

(c) Except under exceptional circumstances, a student is listed as principal au- thor on any multiple-authored article that is substantially based on the stu- dent’s doctoral dissertation. Faculty advisors discuss publication credit with students as early as feasible and throughout the research and publication process as appropriate. (See also Standard 8.12b, Publication Credit.)

8.13 Duplicate Publication of Data

Psychologists do not publish, as original data, data that have been previously pub- lished. This does not preclude republishing data when they are accompanied by proper acknowledgment.

8.14 Sharing Research Data for Verification

(a) After research results are published, psychologists do not withhold the data on which their conclusions are based from other competent professionals who seek to verify the substantive claims through reanalysis and who intend to use such data only for that purpose, provided that the confidentiality of the participants can be protected and unless legal rights concerning proprietary data preclude their release. This does not preclude psychologists from requir- ing that such individuals or groups be responsible for costs associated with the provision of such information.

(b) Psychologists who request data from other psychologists to verify the sub- stantive claims through reanalysis may use shared data only for the declared purpose. Requesting psychologists obtain prior written agreement for all other uses of the data.

8.15 Reviewers

Psychologists who review material submitted for presentation, publication, grant, or research proposal review respect the confidentiality of and the proprietary rights in such information of those who submitted it.

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EXERCISE #12: Ethics Scenarios

For each of the following scenarios, think about the ethical ramifications of such re- search. What are the ethical violations, if any? How does the design of the study im- pact the possible results as well as impact the ethics code? Are there right or wrong answers to these scenarios? We encourage you to talk to classmates and your in- structor about these situations.

1. An investigator is interested in the effect of manipulating the initial level of self-esteem. The proposed research would involve having two people compete for the attention of a member of the opposite sex. The experimenter would arrange the situation in such a way that one competitor would experience an embarrassing de- feat whereas the other competitor would be victorious. In this case there is no way to inform the participants about the factors that may influence their willingness to participate and still make the desired manipulation. Is it possible to do this research without violating ethical standards?

2. The participants were informed correctly regarding the basic procedures that would be used, but they were misinformed about the purpose of the experiment. They were told the experiment was designed to test the speed of the visual system. Actually, the experimenter was interested in testing long-term memory. The partici- pants were not told the real purpose because the investigator was afraid this knowl- edge would influence their performance. The experimenter reasoned that a participant who would participate for the stated reason would also participate for the real rea- son? Is this procedure acceptable?

3. A doctoral student was interested in factors influencing cheating. The doc- toral student administered an examination, collected the papers, and then photo- copied each one. The students were not informed about the photocopies. The papers were returned unscored and the students were given the opportunity to cheat while scoring their papers. The papers were collected again and were com- pared with the photocopies. Is this an ethical procedure?

4. A professor of psychology worked on the production line in a factory for one semester. He did not reveal his identity to his coworkers or his reasons for being there. His purpose was to study the interactions of his coworkers. The findings proved useful in his subsequent teaching and research. His coworkers, some of whom he became very close to, were not informed of his purpose until their obser- vation session was completed. Is this type of data collection unethical?

5. An investigator, who was using Galvanic Skin Response procedures, had a participant become extremely upset during a testing session. The 8-year-old child discontinued the experiment and went home. The experimenter was unaware of the child’s reason for leaving. Later, it was determined that the child thought that blood was being extracted from his body because the electrode wires had a red plastic covering and red ink was used in the recording pens. Was the experimenter’s behavior unethical?

6. The respondents to a mailed questionnaire were told that they would not be identified with their responses. A self-addressed return envelope was included for the “convenience” of the responder. The type and location of the stamp were such that the investigator COULD identify 100 of the respondents to the questionnaire. Is this procedure unethical?

Source: Wood (1981).

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C H A P T E R 1 3

Psychology and Other Options: Nurturing

Your Career

If you have read every chapter of this book, you know that we have covered a myr- iad of topics. We opened with details about majoring in psychology and what psy- chology majors can do with a bachelor’s degree and higher degrees. Opportunities outside the classroom play a considerable role in your success during your under- graduate years of study. We then focused on some of the skills and abilities that you will need for success in almost any major, but particularly in psychology: locating prior research, tips for writing in APA format, tips for doing well in classes in gen- eral, the ethics of being a college student, and doing research in psychology. We now try to bring this journey full circle by addressing issues related to the psychol- ogy major, and other disciplines related to psychology that you might not have con- sidered, and by directing you toward some self-reflection and assessment. This chapter is not designed to talk you “into” or “out of” the psychology major—rather, we think it’s best for you to consider all of your options.

The bulk of the readers of this book are either psychology majors or students seriously considering the major. Given that situation, it would be interesting to know how our profession is regarded, especially in the context of other profession- als (such as psychiatrists, physicians, counselors, teachers, and scientists). Webb and Speer (1986) asked various samples of students and their parents to rate the six dif- ferent professions (the five listed above plus psychology). The results were interest- ing—each profession was rated on a variety of dimensions that yielded mean scores. Webb and Speer found that “compared to the five other professions, psy- chologists scored above the group means on rich, patient, inquisitive, understanding, psychological, and helpful. Scores were below the group means on unappreciated, scholarly, dedicated, alienated, and arrogant” (p. 7). The authors concluded from these data that the public image of psychologists is favorable, confused with the role of psychiatrists, clinically biased, and based on limited information. It seems that there were no negative attitudes about psychology; this finding is good news for students planning to major in psychology!

THE PSYCHOLOGY MAJOR, REVISITED

We would like to mention three topics of interest. First, why do students major in psychology? Although not much work has been done in this area, the results we do have are interesting. Second, what are the factors that lead to success in the major?

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Various sections of this book are designed to lead you to success—what else does the available research say? Third, how satisfied are students with the psychology major, and how prepared are they for careers in psychology? But first, a reminder of just how important the selection of a major can be:

But you should keep in mind that choosing a major is an important part of your college experience and one that’s worth carefully thinking about. The world is much too vast to tackle all at once. You have to stake your claim on a little piece of it and build a home. Choosing a major is not ir- relevant or unimportant. Your field of study will speak to you con- stantly—through advisors, professors, course requirements, and fellow students. Whatever choices you make after college, your chosen major will continue to matter through the years. It will affect you, enrich your mind, expand your options, and for some, define the course of your life. Make an effort to find the right major, and you might get more out of college than you ever expected. (Natavi Guides, 2002, p. 3)

Why do students choose to major in psychology? Gallucci (1997) surveyed stu- dents at a variety of locations, including conferences that were held in different parts of the country (see Table 13.1). Students rated the reasons on a 1–5 scale, with 1 indicating not a reason, and 5 indicating a very important reason for majoring in psychology.

Gallucci (1997) concluded that:

. . . these results indicated that the most important reason for choosing psychology as an undergraduate major was a very strong interest in the subject matter of psychology. Career concerns were also salient, as undergraduates rated preparation for graduate study in professional psy- chology, other graduate or professional study, and employment as impor- tant reasons for selecting the psychology major. (p. 886)

The lowest rated item is also of interest: “Psychology is an easy major.” Clearly, psychology majors do not select psychology because they think it is easy. This result provides some good truth in advertising about the major and what to

TABLE 13.1 Reasons for Becoming a Psychology Major

Reasons Mean Standard Deviation

I have a very strong interest in the subject matter of psychology.

4.59 0.71

I want to become a professional psychologist. 3.89 1.17

Psychology is a good undergraduate degree to prepare me for a graduate or professional (e.g., M.D., J.D.) degree.

3.73 1.43

A bachelor’s degree in psychology will prepare me for a job. 3.21 1.41

I want to become an academic psychologist. 2.74 1.47

Psychology is a good undergraduate degree to prepare me for teaching.

2.45 1.39

I want to figure myself out. 2.31 1.34

I want to become a professional social worker. 1.62 1.26

I want to become an industrial or organizational psychologist.

1.35 0.87

Psychology is an easy major. 1.27 0.68

Source: Gallucci (1997).

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expect from it—don’t choose it because you think it will be easy. In fact, there are a number of universities now (Green, Allbritten, & Park, 2008) that offer “Introduction to the Psychology Major”-type courses (Dillinger & Landrum, 2002; Landrum, Shoemaker, & Davis, 2003; Mulcock & Landrum, 2002). In an evaluation of the effectiveness of such courses, Thomas and McDaniel (2004) developed a Career Information Survey for psychology majors (see Table 13.2). Students rated each item on a scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Not only does this scale highlight information necessary for psychology majors, but also it points to some of the major goals you can accomplish by utilizing the advice of this book!

In another study, Meeker, Fox, and Whitley (1994) studied the predictors of academic success for undergraduate psychology majors. Specifically, they looked at high school grades, college admission scores, and college grades to determine the best predictors of psychology GPA in college. They examined the number of semes- ters of classes taken in high school (e.g., English), average high school grades in certain areas (e.g., average grades in math classes), high school demographics (GPA, class rank, class size), Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores, college grades in core/general studies courses (e.g., history, speech), grade in introductory psychol- ogy, applied statistics, and research methods. The strongest factor that emerged to predict college psychology GPA was performance in core/general studies classes, such as research methods, mathematics, English, history, and science.

Interestingly, in the Meeker et al. (1994) study, grade in the introductory psychol- ogy course was not a strong enough variable to be included in any of the three factors that emerged as predictors of psychology GPA and success in the major. Because many students become attracted to psychology through the introductory course, the results can be interpreted to mean that the grade in the introductory course alone should not drive the decision to major in the discipline. Considering that we have some informa- tion about why students choose the major and what leads them to be successful in their psychology courses, what about student satisfaction with the major? If they had it to do all over again, would psychology graduates (i.e., alumni) select the same major? Kressel (1990) conducted a survey of social science (including psychology) alumni and asked a series of questions about degree satisfaction and job satisfaction (see also Braskamp, Wise, & Hengstler, 1979; Finney, Snell, & Sebby, 1989; Keyes & Hogberg, 1990; McGovern & Carr, 1989). Kressel found that 39% of the respondents said they would probably select the same major. The strongest predictor of degree satisfaction was the job-relatedness to the major. The factors that lead to higher satisfaction with the psychology degree include having a higher degree, being female, more course en- joyment, more course difficulty, income satisfaction, and job satisfaction. See Table 13.3 for excellent examples of work-related skills and how you can gain these skills while an undergraduate (Ware, 2001, p. 24).

TABLE 13.2 Psychology Major Career Information Survey Items

1. I have a clear understanding of the kinds of work done by different types of psychologists (e.g., clinical, social, experimental, organizational).

2. If I decide to become a psychologist, I know what steps I will have to take to accomplish this goal.

3. I know how to go about preparing for, selecting, and getting admitted into graduate school.

4. I can identify several different fields of study that would allow me to do counseling/therapy and I understand what each of them involves.

5. I can identify a number of “people helping” careers outside of psychology and I have some understanding of the preparation required for each of these careers.

6. I can identify several areas within the business world in which a psychology major may be valuable and I know how to pursue a career in business if I should decide to do so.

Source: Thomas & McDaniel (2004).

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Based on his research, Kressel (1990) suggests there are several strategies that can be used to enhance degree and job satisfaction of social science gradu- ates: (a) improve instructor and advisor education about career options in psy- chology, (b) implement career development courses for undergraduate majors, and (c) incorporate business training into psychology curricula. Clearly, the use of this book can help achieve two of these goals. Psychology instructors who read the earlier chapters of this book will be up to date on the latest information related to job opportunities. Second, we wrote this book for career development courses, whether the course is an “Introduction to the Psychology Major” for un- dergraduate students or “The Professional Psychologist” for the new graduate student. Students attracted to studying psychology are from diverse backgrounds with varied interests. This diversity provides for a valuable learning experience;

TABLE 13.3 Transferable Work-Related Skills, and Examples of Skill Acquisition

Skills Employers Seek Student Products, Experiences

Communication Skills

Writing • Wrote essays for scholarships while applying to colleges and graduate schools

• Prepared a research article and submitted it for publication • Presented a speech to a group of students on a retreat

Speaking • Explained the strengths of our university to parents and prospective students

• Discussed research projects in small groups, explained the project to participants, and talked to professor about research findings

Cognitive Skills Coping with Deadlines • Prepared manuscripts in advance of deadlines • Completed reports on time when they were vital to patient

treatment • Evaluated new ways to solve daily problems

Research • Wrote numerous manuscripts that required gathering information from a variety of sources

• Conducted a job search and made contacts with people, asking them about the nature of their work

Planning • Scheduled study time in preparation for several major tests • Balanced homework, classes, extracurricular time, and time for

myself • Balanced when to study and when to write papers

Social Skills Human Relations • Dealt with older patients, sick children, and families as a hospital volunteer

• Worked as a physical therapy aide to maximize quality of care and minimize waste of time

• Mediated between my roommates to ensure that tasks (e.g., paying bills) were completed

• Resolved differences between players and coaches

Negotiation/ Organization

• Organized a benefit concert • Organized workers for a Habitat for Humanity project • Coordinated dates, space, exhibitors, advertisers, and nurses for

health fair

Supervision • Monitored and directed the members of a team in my capacity as captain

• Ensured that personnel in training attended clinics and completed research projects and manuscripts

• Monitored a research team and gave directions

Source: Ware (2001).

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psychology, by its very nature, is a discipline that strives to understand human behavior—all human behavior.

DIVERSITY IN PSYCHOLOGY

You can think about diversity in many ways. A person can have number of diverse experiences, or receive his or her education at a diverse collection of schools. Typically, however, we think of diversity as in cultural diversity or ethnic diversity. Some dramatic demographic shifts have occurred in psychology in the past 30 years or so. For instance, considering gender diversity, the number of women receiving their bachelor’s degree in psychology has increased from 46% of degrees awarded in 1971 to 73% of all degrees awarded in 1993 to 77% of all bachelor’s degrees awarded in 2006. In 1976, women received 33% of the new doctorates awarded in psychology, in 1996 that number was 69%, and in 2006 that number was 73% (APA, 1998b; Snyder, et al., 2008). When considering people of color, there have also been a number of important changes. For example, the percentage of people of color re- ceiving bachelor’s degrees went from 11.6% of all degree recipients in 1976 up to 16.0% in 1993. When considering graduate enrollments, people of color comprised 11.8% of all graduate enrollments in psychology in 1980, and in 1997 that number had risen to 17.0%. When considering the number of new doctorates awarded, peo- ple of color received 7.5% of all new doctorates in psychology in 1977, and in 1997 that percentage was 13.9%. Finally, the percentage of people of color in the work- force with Ph.D.’s in psychology rose from 2.0% in 1973 to 8.5% in 1997 (APA, 1998b).

Diversity seems to be an important component of higher education. Why? We think this is a fair question to ask. In a civilized society, the qualities to which we aspire sometimes are hard to pinpoint, and for some people, hard to justify. In February 1999, 67 learned societies banded together to publish a statement titled “On the Importance of Diversity in Higher Education” (Chronicle of Higher Education, 1999). Although we cannot provide the entire statement below (it is too long), here are some of the key points:

Many colleges and universities share a common belief, born of experi- ence, that diversity in their student bodies, faculties, and staff is impor- tant for them to fulfill their primary mission: providing a high-quality education. The public is entitled to know why these institutions believe so strongly that racial and ethnic diversity should be one factor among the many considered in admissions and hiring. The reasons include:

• Diversity enriches the educational experience. We learn from those whose experiences, beliefs, and perspectives are different from our own, and these lessons can be taught best in a richly diverse intel- lectual and social environment.

• It promotes personal growth—and a healthy society. Diversity challenges stereotyped preconceptions; it encourages critical think- ing; and it helps students learn to communicate effectively with people of varied backgrounds.

• It strengthens communities and the workplace. Education within a diverse setting prepares students to become good citizens in an in- creasingly complex, pluralistic society; it fosters mutual respect and teamwork; and it helps build communities whose members are judged by the quality of their character and their contributions.

• It enhances America’s economic competitiveness. Sustaining the nation’s prosperity in the 21st century will require us to make ef- fective use of the talents and abilities of all our citizens, in work settings that bring together individuals from diverse backgrounds and cultures. (p. A42)

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Success Stories

Dr. Kenneth A. Weaver

Emporia State University

Jeremy Kohomban: Using Psychology to Improve Children’s Lives

I first met Jeremy Kohomban when I had him in class in the fall 1987 semester, one year after finishing my Ph.D. and beginning my work at Emporia State University (ESU). My first impression was extremely favorable for three reasons—he was at the time the only psychology major who was an international student, he was from Sri Lanka and I had spent 3 months in Sri Lanka in 1976, and his first course with me was a demanding coop- erative education placement working with boys who were wards of the court. That impression was reinforced when Jeremy completed a second semester at the same place- ment, knowing that he could make a difference in the lives of these boys.

Jeremy ended up taking four courses from me before he graduated in May, 1989 with his B.S. in Psychology with Honors from ESU. His accomplishments at Emporia State were many. He was a member of the Psychology Club and was initiated into Psi Chi. He belonged to the International Club all 4 years, serving in a number of positions and was a member of the ESU Choir for all 4 years. He served a term as an Associated Student Government Senator and participated in the ESU Rugby Club and the Intervarsity Christian Fellowship. During the time that Jeremy was at ESU, we offered the U.S. Army Reserve Officers Training Command (ROTC) curriculum. He was in ROTC all 4 years, eventually becoming leader of the entire squadron.

He was named to the Dean’s Honor Roll, President’s Honor Roll, and National Dean’s List just about every semester and received several scholarships for academic ex- cellence. In addition, Jeremy received the American Legion Award for Scholastic Excellence, the ROTC Commandant’s Award, and the ROTC Superior Cadet Award. ESU President Robert Glennen appointed Jeremy to the Council on International Education, which designed and implemented Emporia State’s Student Exchange Program. In his sen- ior year he was named to Who’s Who in American Colleges and Universities.

These amazing accomplishments are heightened when one learns that Jeremy was totally responsible financially for all his tuition and living expenses and eventually for those of his younger brother, who joined him at Emporia State for 2 years. At one time, Jeremy was working a full-time job and two part-time jobs simultaneously. Jeremy spent the sum- mer between his junior and senior years in New York City working for St. Christopher’s- Jennie Clarkson Family Services, one of 68 private agencies providing foster care services in New York state. The agency recruits and trains foster parents, oversees cases, and coor- dinates the services needed to either reunite families or free children for adoption. After his ESU graduation, Jeremy moved to New York City to work with St. Christopher’s full time.

Jeremy has played a central role in changing the way the foster care system in New York works. Before 1993, agencies housing foster children were reimbursed a daily fee for taking care of each child. The longer the child stayed in the system, the more money the agency generated, which was good for the agency but not good for quickly returning the child back to the family or freeing the child for adoption. Jeremy and other St. Christopher’s leaders proposed that the state reimburse agencies a flat, guaranteed fee for each child. This approach gave the agencies the financial incentive to resolve the children’s futures more quickly because the agency got to keep the full fee no matter how long the child stayed in foster care.

In a 1995 New York Times front page article highlighting St. Christopher’s and Jeremy’s work, the new approach was credited with returning children to families sooner, thereby keeping the families together. At St. Christopher’s, Jeremy started as After-Care Services Coordinator and then gradually moved up through the ranks to become Assistant Program Director for Foster Boarding Homes and Adoption, then Director of Family Services, then Resident Director of the Jennie Clarkson Residential Treatment Center and Group Homes, and then Director of Education and Residential Services where he oversaw the operations of all five residential homes.

In November of 1998, he left St. Christopher’s to become Senior Vice-President of Easter Seals of New York, where he continues to dedicate his life to improving children’s lives. Jeremy is married with two sons. He earned his Master of Science degree in Clinical Psychology from Long Island University and is currently a Doctor of Philosophy candidate

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If you believe in the values of diversity as outlined above, then you can be confident that psychology as a profession seems to be headed in a good direction. Given the emphasis of understanding human beings and the study of individual dif- ferences, it is hard to think of someone who would not value diversity but be truly interested in understanding human behavior.

OTHER RELATED OPTIONS

The bulk of our efforts have been to address psychology and students choosing to major in it. There are a number of related disciplines that we want to discuss briefly to make the picture complete. A common response students give when they are asked, “Why are you majoring in psychology?” is “Because I want to help people.” Although this is a noble reason, it is also broad and vague. Many disciplines also strive to help people—in this section we will focus on anthropology, criminal jus- tice, political science, social work, and sociology. We do not present this informa- tion to try to talk you out of psychology but to make you aware of the full palette of possibilities available in the social sciences. Even though you may feel strongly that psychology is the major for you, we would be remiss if we did not mention that there are other opportunities for careers that help people. Our ultimate goal is for you to be satisfied in your choice of major and career. Below we present some brief descriptions of the disciplines mentioned. Note that it is extremely difficult to con- vey the essence of any discipline in a single paragraph.

Anthropology

Anthropology is the study of humankind. The word anthropology itself tells the basic story—from the Greek anthropos (“human”) and logia (“study”)—it is the study of humankind, from its beginnings millions of years ago to the present day. Nothing human is alien to anthropology. Indeed, of the many disciplines that study our species Homo sapiens, only anthropology seeks to understand the whole panorama—in geographic space and evolutionary time—of human existence. Its subject matter is both exotic (e.g., star lore of the Australian aborigines) and com- monplace (e.g., the anatomy of the foot). Its focus is both sweeping (the evolution of language) and microscopic (the use-wear of obsidian tools). Anthropologists may study ancient Mayan hieroglyphics, the music of African Pygmies, and the corporate culture of a U.S. car manufacturer. A common goal links these vastly different proj- ects: to advance knowledge of who we are, how we came to be that way—and where we may go in the future (American Anthropology Association, 1998).

Criminal Justice

The nature and control of crime are important social phenomena that affect all of our lives. The criminal justice program provides an in-depth analysis of this subject

in Organizational Leadership at the Center for Leadership Studies at Regent’s University in New York. He is a nationally recognized speaker who has presented at numerous local and national conferences on system reform and family-focused service delivery. He also consults nationally on system reform.

He is active in his volunteer work. For the last 8 years he has worked with the National Association for Family-Based Services in Washington, DC, serving first as New York State’s Representative; then being elected Treasurer of the Association; and then elected Director on the National Board of Directors. Currently, he is the Association’s President. He also completed a 2-year term as a school board member for the Greenburgh North Castle Union Free School District in New York. Jeremy will gladly tell anyone how his training in psychology has been instrumental in his work, helping him frame problems and then giving him both the knowledge to create solutions and the methods to identify the best one. He has worked diligently and persevered, using psychology to improve chil- dren’s lives. Jeremy is one of my heroes.

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to students. Students who choose this major will study the development, functions, and structure of the criminal justice system. They will examine the roles of law en- forcement agencies, the courts, correctional agencies, and private agencies that aid in the prevention and control of crime and delinquency. The in-depth study of per- tinent justice issues is designed to foster the capacity for balanced and critical eval- uation of criminal justice problems. The criminal justice administration major will appeal to undergraduates who are interested in preparing for a career in criminal justice, law, or a related field; to persons currently employed in the criminal justice community; and to individuals who are generally interested in studying how public policies about crime and its control, as well as deviance and its treatment, are cre- ated and implemented (San Diego State University, 1998).

Political Science

Political science is the study of political behavior and the groups and institutions through which power is exercised. Students examine the purposes and problems of politics and evaluate many of the controversial issues of political life. They examine different viewpoints about the world community, analyzing political issues and re- lating them to ethical decisions (Marietta College, 1998).

Social Work

Social work is a profession for people with a strong desire to help people. Social workers help people deal with their relationships with others; solve their personal, family, and community problems; and grow and develop as they learn to cope with or shape the social and environmental forces affecting daily life. Social workers often encounter clients facing a life-threatening disease or a social problem requir- ing a quick solution. They also assist families that have serious conflicts, including those involving child or spousal abuse. Social workers practice in a variety of set- tings, including hospitals, schools, mental health clinics and psychiatric hospitals, and public agencies. Through direct counseling, social workers help clients identify their concerns, consider solutions, and find resources. Social workers typically arrange for services in consultation with clients, following through to assure the services are helpful (Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1998b).

Sociology

Sociology is the study of society, of the social frameworks within which we live our lives. It is a study of social life at every level, from two-person relationships to the rise and fall of nations and civilizations. More than any other discipline it is a meet- ing place of the social sciences, combining its own ideas and methods with insights from history, anthropology, economics, political science, and psychology in an ex- tended examination of the ways societies work—or fail to work (Harvard University, 1998).

Clearly, there are a variety of methods that you can use to help people—these are just samples of some of the disciplines related to psychology. In addition, the undergraduate degree is good preparation for graduate work in many of the disci- plines mentioned above—a career path that students sometimes overlook. Don’t limit your horizons and career choices.

SELF-REFLECTION, SELF-ASSESSMENT, AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Our focus of this book has been to provide information that we feel is critical for you to be a successful psychology major. That goal rests on the notion that you want to be a psychology major. In the previous section, we reviewed several options that share some similarity with psychology. In this section we explore career interest tools as well as life development ideas. In particular, we focus on

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the Self-Directed Search (SDS), a career-planning tool developed by John L. Holland (1994). The SDS developed out of Holland’s theories of vocational choice (1958, 1959). According to Holland (1973), four working assumptions drive the theory:

1. In this culture, most persons can be categorized as one of six types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, or conventional.

2. There are six kinds of environments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, en- terprising, and conventional.

3. People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abil- ities, express their attitudes and values, and tackle agreeable problems and roles.

4. A person’s behavior is determined by an interaction between his or her per- sonality and the characteristics of his or her environment.

The basic notion of this theory is that people are happier and more successful in a job that matches their interests, values, and skills. Scoring of the SDS is linked to occupational codes and titles. Thus, by determining your preferences for styles or types, the SDS gives you some indication of the jobs that you might like and would make the most of your skills and interests. The fundamental idea is that people and work environments can be classified according to Holland’s six types; thus, if you know your own type and understand the types that are associated with particular careers, you can find a match. Holland’s SDS (1994) is a relatively straightforward inventory. There is an Internet version (http://www.self-directed-search.com/index. html), which, for $9.95 (at the time of this writing), you can take on your computer and receive a personalized report with your results. Individuals answer questions about their aspirations, activities, competencies, occupations, and other self-estimates. These scores yield a 3-letter Summary Code that designates the three personality types an individual most closely resembles. With this code, test-takers use the Occupations Finder to discover those occupations that best match their personality types, interests, and skills. This comprehensive booklet lists over 1,300 occupational possibilities—more than any other career interest inventory. Although it is not possible for you to take the SDS here, we describe the six personality types and examples of corresponding careers in Table 13.4 (page 200). If you are interested in taking the SDS, you might want to contact your campus Counseling and Testing Center or Career Center. There may be a small fee for this service, but the insight and self- reflection gained from the SDS is worth it.

The SDS presents some interesting options for persons thinking about a ca- reer. Although you haven’t taken the SDS, you can look at the six different types and realize that perhaps one or two of them fit you very well. The idea here is to not be afraid of some self-exploration; it is important for you to figure out what you would like to do for a career. College is a great time for career exploration; if you put some work into it, you will enjoy the rewards you reap.

Your career can take many different paths, and progress through different stages or models. For instance, Harr (1995; as cited in Wahlstrom & Williams, 2004) differentiated job, occupation, and career this way: Your job is defined by the spe- cific job duties that you fulfill within your occupation. Your occupation is the specific form that your career might take at any given time. Your career is the overall path you will take through your work life. There are different depictions of how a career might progress. Driver (1988; as cited in Wahlstrom & Williams, 2004) describes some of these career progressions: The linear career looks like climbing the stairs, in that you are climbing in the organization’s hierarchy. Each job along the way imparts more responsibility and requires more skill. In the steady-state career, you discover that you are comfortable with a particular occupation and you stay put. A promotion might mean more responsibility and more job stress, and you want to avoid that. The spiral career suggests that one job builds on the other, being upwardly mobile. You might have a number of jobs that are different yet they build on one another.

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Journalizing is powerful because answering powerful questions yields power- ful, clear answers. When you write in a journal regularly, you become the type of person who can define what they want, has definite plans, and can articulate your desires. Combs (2000) suggests the following journalizing questions:

• What are the most important things in your life? • What are the activities that you love and enjoy most today? • What would be your ideal work environment today? • How would your ideal work day go today? • How would you define success today? • What might be your purpose or destiny? • How do you want to be perceived by your friends? Coworkers? Parents?

Significant other? • What magazine would you most like to be featured in for your tremendous ac-

complishments in 10 years? • What would you like to be the best in the world at? • Who are your heroes and what is it about them that you most want to be like? • What do you really think should be changed in the world? • What do you most want to be remembered for at the end of your life? • Whom do you envy and what is it about them that you envy?

TABLE 13.4 Types and Occupations of the Self-Directed Search

Realistic Investigative

Personality Type Occupations Personality Type Occupations

• Have mechanical ability and athletic ability?

• Like to work outdoors? • Like to work with machines and tools? • Genuine, humble, modest, natural,

practical, realistic?

• Aircraft controller

• Electrician • Carpenter • Auto

mechanic • Surveyor • Rancher

• Have math and science abilities? • Like to explore and understand

things and events? • Like to work alone and solve

problems? • Analytical, curious, intellectual,

rational?

• Biologist • Geologist • Anthropologist • Chemist • Medical

technologist • Physicist

Artistic Social

Personality Type Occupations Personality Type Occupations

• Have artistic skills and a good imagination?

• Like reading, music, or art? • Enjoy creating original work? • Expressive, original, idealistic,

independent, open?

• Musician • Writer • Decorator • Composer • Stage

director • Sculptor

• Like to be around other people? • Like to cooperate with other

people? • Like to help other people? • Friendly, understanding, cooperative,

sociable, warm?

• Teacher • Counselor • Speech

therapist • Clergy member • Social worker • Clinical

psychologist

Enterprising Conventional

Personality Type Occupations Personality Type Occupations

• Have leadership and public speaking ability?

• Like to influence other people? • Like to assume responsibility? • Ambitious, extroverted, adventurous,

self-confident?

• Manager • Salesperson • Business

executive • Buyer • Promoter • Lawyer

• Have clerical and math abilities? • Like to work indoors? • Like organizing things and meeting

clear standards? • Efficient, practical, orderly,

conscientious?

• Banker • Financial analyst • Tax expert • Stenographer • Production

editor • Cost estimator

Source: Holland (1994).

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As you can see, these are powerful questions, and should provoke thoughtful responses. Not only is college a good time for career exploration, but a good time for life exploration as well. In that vein, we offer the following “Rules for Being Human” which appeared in Combs (2000), but the original author is unknown (see Table 13.5).

MORE RESOURCES

We designed this entire book to provide you valuable resources. Be sure to take ad- vantage of the references section (which lists everything we have referenced). As you can tell from our citations, the Internet is becoming a valuable resource for in- formation about psychology. For more information, especially about careers, check out some of the resources listed in Table 13.6.

We have previously mentioned many of these resources. Keep them in mind as you make your career plans. Knowledge is power, so we hope you will gather all the information you can and then make intelligent decisions.

Psychology is an exciting profession with a positive and growing future. The complications of current lifestyles and choices make understanding behavior even more important and imperative. Behavioral problems and difficulties are all the more commonplace nowadays. Compared to other sciences, psychology is rela- tively young, with many frontiers still to be blazed and a number of behavioral phe- nomena yet to be explored or understood. We do have a bias, however—we think that psychology is inherently fascinating, and when you are passionate about a topic such as this, it’s natural to want to share that feeling and hope it is infectious. We hope that you come away from this book feeling more positive and more informed about what psychology has to offer, and how you can do well in the psy- chology major. As we discussed at the beginning, the choice of psychology as a dis- cipline to study and as a career can take many different directions and occur in many different settings. We hope that your use of this book will continue as you journey through the major—at different times you may need to refer to different sections.

TABLE 13.5 The Rules for Being Human

1. You will receive a body. You may like it or hate it, but it will be yours for the entire period this time around.

2. You will learn lessons. You are enrolled in a full-time informal school called life. Each day in this school you will have the opportunity to learn lessons. You may like the lessons or think them irrelevant and stupid.

3. There are no mistakes, only lessons. Growth is a process of trial and error, experimentation. The “failed” experiments are as much as part of the process as the experiment that ultimately “works.”

4. A lesson is repeated until it is learned. A lesson will be presented to you in various forms until you have learned it. When you have learned it, you can go on to the next lesson.

5. Learning lessons does not end. There is no part of life that does not contain lessons. If you are alive, there are lessons to be learned.

6. “There” is no better than “here.” When your “there” has become a “here,” you will simply obtain another “there” that will, again, look better than “here.”

7. Others are merely mirrors of you. You cannot love or hate something about another person unless it reflects to you something you love or hate about yourself.

8. What you make of your life is up to you. You have all the tools and resources you need; what you do with them is up to you. The choice is yours.

9. The answers lie inside you. The answers to life’s questions lie inside you. All you need to do is look, listen, and trust.

10. You will forget all this.

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202 Chapter 13 • Psychology and Other Options: Nurturing Your Career

What can be more interesting than understanding human behavior? Many psy- chologists have found that attempting to answer that question can make for a pleasant and rewarding career choice. May your journey be as rewarding as it can be—now just make it happen!

TABLE 13.6 Recommended Resources

American Psychological Association. (2007). Getting in: A step-by-step plan for gaining admission to graduate school in psychology (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Appleby, D. (2007). The savvy psychology major. Dubuque, IA: Kendall-Hunt.

Career Communications, Inc. (2004). Career success catalog. Harleysville, PA: Author.

Combs, P. (2000). Major in success: Make college easier, fire up your dreams, and get a very cool job. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.

Hettich, P. I., & Helkowski, C. (2005). Connect college to career. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Keith-Spiegel, P., & Wiederman, M. W. (2000). The complete guide to graduate school admission: Psychology, counseling, and related professions (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Kuther, T. L. (2003). The psychology major’s handbook. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Kuther, T. L., & Morgan, R. D. (2007). Careers in psychology: Opportunities in a changing world (2nd ed). Belmont, CA: Thomson Higher Education.

Landrum, R. E. (2008). Undergraduate writing in psychology: Learning to tell the scientific story. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Morgan, B. L., & Korschgen, A. J. (2009). Majoring in psych? Career options for psychology undergraduates (4th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Schultheiss, D. E. P. (2008). Psychology as a major: Is it right for me and what can I do with my degree? Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (2006). Career paths in psychology: Where your degree can take you (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Wahlstrom, C., & Williams, B. K. (2004). College to career: Your road to personal success. Mason, OH: South-Western.

Walfish, S., & Hess, A. K. (Eds.). (2001). Succeeding in graduate school: The career guide for psychology students. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

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Chapter 13 • Psychology and Other Options: Nurturing Your Career 203

EXERCISE #13: Attitudes and Options

This exercise is adapted from a self-quiz by Carole Kanchier that appeared in the USA Weekend Magazine issue dated April 12–14, 2002. The quiz examines your attitudes toward growth in a career. Answer the following Yes/No questions and then use the scoring key below to ascertain your level of positive, growth-oriented attitudes.

Career Quiz

Yes No Items

Y N 1. I welcome criticism as a way to grow. Y N 2. I do what I “should” rather than what I want. Y N 3. I periodically assess my career and life goals. Y N 4. I prefer activities I know to those I’ve never tried. Y N 5. I enjoy challenge and a sense of achievement. Y N 6. I’m too old to compete with younger job applicants. Y N 7. I expect good things to happen. Y N 8. I won’t consider relocating for an attractive job. Y N 9. I accept responsibility for my successes and failures. Y N 10. I’ll take a job I don’t like for money or prestige. Y N 11. My job gives my life meaning and direction. Y N 12. I look forward to retirement so I can do what I want. Y N 13. I make my own decisions, even swim against the tide. Y N 14. Career success means having social standing and money. Y N 15. I’ll take a lower-level job. Y N 16. If I’m laid off, I’ll take the first offer in the same field.

Scoring: Give yourself 1 point for each “YES” for the odd-numbered items. __________

Give yourself 1 point for each “NO” for the even-numbered items. __________

Now add your scores together. Kanchier (2002) suggests that the higher your score, the more you possess positive, growth-oriented attitudes, and that you be- lieve in the “new view” of career. She suggests that if you scored less than 7, you may want to reevaluate your attitudes concerning a career. For more information on working on yourself, go to http://daretochange.com.

Source: Kanchier (2002).

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N 0-

55 8-

58 24

1- 9

INDEX

A Abbott, B. B., 147 Abiko, G. Reynaga, 76 abstracts, APA format for, 149 academic advising, 19 academic dishonesty, 177–78, 179 academic misconduct, 179 accreditation, of graduate

programs, 70 Actkinson, T. R., 73 admissions process, graduate

school. See graduate admissions process

advising, 19–20 all-faculty model, 19 central model, 19 maximizing meeting with

advisor, tips for, 20 no-faculty model, 19 part-faculty model, 19 prescriptive advising, 19

Allbritten, A., 193 all-faculty model of advising, 19 American Psychological Association

(APA), 13, 67, 100, 195 accreditation by, 70 degree options, summary of, 70 ethical principles, 180–81, 182,

184–88 format guidelines (See

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association)

goals of, 129 Graduate Study in Psychology,

83–85, 86–87, 88, 90 job survey, master’s degree

recipients, 72–73 journals published by, 141 student involvement with, 129–30 website, 129

anthropology, 197 APA format. See Publication

Manual of the American Psychological Association

APA Monitor ads, 74, 80–82 appendix, APA format for, 149 Appleby, Drew, 4, 11, 18, 20, 29,

55, 58, 60, 90, 92, 110, 111 Appleby, K. M., 90 application process, graduate

programs. See graduate admissions process

Arnold, K. L., 90 Arnow, P. S., 177 associates degree in psychology,

careers with, 31–37 Association for Psychological

Science (APS), 130

B bachelor’s degree in psychology

careers with, 28–31 curriculum, 25–28 employer-desired job skills and

pay scale, 26–28 job titles and descriptions,

30–31, 32–37 learning goals and outcomes,

26–27 transitioning to workplace, 37–39

Baker, E. C., 19, 20 Banerji, A., 8, 9 Baum, S., 2 Bauman, K. J., 1 Baxa, J. D., 45 Becker, A. H., 177 Bell, L., 31 Bell, P. A., 110 Bendersky, K., 20 Benjamin, L. T., 170 Bernieri, F. J., 58 bibliographies, 137 Blanck, P. D., 182 Blanton, P. G., 125, 126, 128 Bloom, L. J., 110 books, researching, 137–38 Bordens, K. S., 147 Bosley, C. Y., 117 Bottoms, B. L., 95, 110 Boulder model, 68–69, 70 Boyless, J. A., 128 Braskamp, L. A., 193 Brescia, S. A., 117 Brown, Candace, 30 Buskist, W., 85 Butler, D. L., 18 Butterfield, N. E., 143

C career advising, 19 career course, 27–28 Career Information Survey, 193 careers

with associates degree, 31–37 with bachelor’s degree, 28–31 with doctoral degree, 74–77 with master’s degree, 72–74 quiz examining attitudes

toward, 203 self-reflection/self-assessment and

career development, 198–201 Carlson, Janet F., 172 Carr, K. F., 193 Cashin, J. R., 88 Castle, P. H., 70 Cavell, T. A., 170 Ceci, S. J., 182 central model of advising, 19 Chastain, G., 28, 182 cheating, 177–78, 179 Chen, E. K. Y., 3, 4, 45 Chickering, A. W., 125 Chronicle of Higher Education, 1, 2 civic value of college education,

6–7 Clark, J., 88 Clarkson, C. P., 45 Clarkson, R. N., 45 Clay, R. A., 78, 115 clinical psychologists, 14 cognitive psychologists, 14 college education, 1–9

campus characteristics, 9 civic value of, 6–7 covert curriculum, 4–6 demand for, 1 financial value of, 7–8 overt curriculum, 4 public expectations concerning,

1–2 reasons for attending, 2–3 roles college fulfills, 2

staying in, 9 student expectations about, 2–3 workplace competencies and

skills, 3–4 Combs, P., 38, 61, 200, 201 community psychologists, 14 The Complete Guide to Graduate

School Admission: Psychology, Counseling, and Related Professions (Keith-Spiegel and Wiederman), 88

conferences, presenting research at, 118–21

connections, and job search, 46 Connors, F. A., 172 Coolidge, Calvin, 61 corporate management skills, 27 cost versus benefit analysis, in

research, 180 counseling psychologists, 14 covert curriculum, 4–6 Coxford, L. M., 47 cramming, 168 criminal justice, 197–98 curriculum, undergraduate,

25–28 curriculum vita (CV), 103–10

organization of, 103–5 resume, distinguished, 87, 103 sample student CVs, 106–9

D Davis, S. F., 121, 177, 193 DeGalan, J., 67 Deluca, M. J., 58, 59 developmental psychologists, 14 Dewey, R. A., 18 Dictionary of Occupational Titles, 29 Diehl, J., 87 Dillinger, R. J., 23, 193 Dillow, S. A., 1 direct quotations, in psychology

papers, 151–52 discussion section of psychology

papers, APA format for, 149 diversity, 195–97 doctoral degrees

occupational opportunities, 74–77

salaries for, 75, 77 specializations, 16

Dodson, J. P., 28 Donchin, Emanuel, 68

E Eckardt, E. A., 117 educational psychologists, 14 Educational Testing Service (ETS),

92, 93 Edwards, J., 18 engineering psychologists, 14 environmental psychologists, 14 essay exams, tips for, 171 Ethical Principles of Psychologists

(APA), 181, 182, 184–88 ethics, 177–89

academic dishonesty, 177–78, 179 of research (See ethics of

research) student’s ethical responsibilities,

177–79

ethics of research, 180–89 APA ethical principles, 180–81,

182, 184–88 cost versus benefit analysis, 180 informed consent, 180, 182–84 Institutional Review Board

(IRB), 182 Nuremberg Code, 180, 182 research participants, rights and

responsibilities of, 183–84 scenarios for consideration, 189 student researchers,

responsibilities of, 182–84 experimental psychologists, 14–15 extracurricular activities

field experiences, 125–26 internships (See internships) organizational involvement (See

organizational involvement) planning sheet for, 123 reasons for participating in, 115 research assistantships (See

research assistantships) senior thesis, 121–22 teaching assistantships, 122

F fabrication, 179 field experiences, 125–26 figures, APA format for, 148 financial value of college

education, 7–8 Finney, P., 193 firings, reasons for, 61 forensic psychologists, 15 Fox, D., 193 Fox, E. J., 118 Furumoto, L., 11

G Gada-Jain, N., 59 Gallucci, N. T., 192 Garavalia, L. S., 165 Gardner, P., 61, 62 Gelhaus, D., 27 general psychologists, 14–14 Giordano, P., 67 grade point average (GPA), 88,

90–92 graduate admissions process,

83–113 competitiveness and popularity

of, 83–85, 86 curriculum vita (CV) and (See

curriculum vita (CV)) grade point average (GPA) and,

88, 90–92 Graduate Record Exam (GRE)

and, 88, 92–93 interviews, 110, 111 letters of recommendation and,

93–95, 96–98, 113 match of applicant with

program of interest, 110–11

narrowing program list, 86–87 patience and, 87–88 personal statements (See

personal statements) research experience and, 110–11 selection criteria, 88–90

208

IS B

N 0-558-58241-9

Index 209

strategies to consider if unsuccessful, 111–12

transcripts and, 92 understanding application

process, 87 what not to do in application

process, 90 Graduate Record Exam (GRE), 88,

92–93 graduate school

accreditation, 70 admissions process (See graduate

admissions process) characteristics for success, 69 deciding if graduate school is

right for you, 67 goals of, 68 graduate training, reasons for,

65–68 job descriptions and work

settings, 70–72 number of degrees awarded, 66 occupational opportunities,

72–77 postdoctoral study, 77–79 public expectations

concerning, 1 skills and abilities addressed in,

66–68 types of training and degrees,

68–70 Graduate Study in Psychology

(APA), 83–85, 86–87, 88, 90 Graf, N. L., 1 grammar, APA format,

151–52 Grayson, J., 126 Gredler, M. E., 165 Green, R. J., 193 Griggs, R. A., 25 Grover, C. A., 177

H Halpern, D., 11 Hammer, E. Y., 20 Hardy, C. A., 31 Harris, E. W., 126 Hayes, L. J., 67, 104 Hayes, S. C., 104 health psychologists, 15 Hengstler, D. D., 193 Hennessey, E. P., 115 Hettich, P. I., 25–26, 37–38 Hoffman, C. M., 1 Hogberg, D. K., 193 Holder, W. B., 25 Holland, John L., 199 Holton, E. F., III, 25–26 Hopper, C., 165, 169 Horrigan, K. L., 90 Hurtado, S., 2

I industrial/organizational (I/O)

psychologists, 15 informed consent, 180, 182–84 Institutional Review Board (IRB),

182 interlibrary loans, 138 internet

evaluating internet information, criteria for, 140–41, 142

research strategies for, 140–42 internships, 46, 125–29

benefits of, 126, 127 paraprofessional program, 129 peer advising program,

128–29

service learning, 128 supervision of, principles for, 127 tasks interns perform, 126

interpersonal skills, 45 interviews

for graduate program admissions, 110, 111

for jobs (See interviews for jobs) interviews for jobs, 58–60

first impressions, 59–60 knockout factors, 60 preparing for, 58 questions to ask potential

employer, 59 questions you might be asked,

58–59 introduction/literature review

section of psychology papers, APA format for, 146–47, 148

Isaac, W. L., 20

J Jackson, S. L., 25 Jalbert, N., 132 Jaschik, S., 93 Jeglum, E. B., 88 Jeschke, M. P., 11 Jessen, B. C., 126 job search, 45–63

ads, 63 applications, 45–46 connections, 46 firings, reasons for, 61 internships, 46 interpersonal skills, building, 45 interviews (See interviews for

jobs) keeping job, 61–62 lack of initial success, 60–61 letters of recommendation (See

letters of recommendation) by master’s degree recipients, 75 obtaining feedback from

employers, 61 persistence in, 61 promoting new hires, reasons

for, 62 resumes (See resumes)

Johnson, K. E., 11 Jones, R. A., 180 journal articles

peer review system, 139 researching, 139–40

journalizing, 200

K Kaiser, A. J., 118 Kaiser, J. C., 118 Kallgren, C. A., 177 Kampfe, C. M., 128 Kanchier, Carole, 203 Keith-Spiegel, P., 69, 70, 88, 89,

90, 91–92, 94, 100 Kennedy, J. H., 18, 27 Kerchhoff, A. C., 31 Keyes, B. J., 193 Kimble, G. A., 11 Kirk, E. E., 140–41 Knight, D., 8 Knouse, S. B., 126, 127 Kohout, J., 72, 75, 78 Koocher, G. P., 182 Korn, James H., 28, 136 Kressel, N. J., 193, 194

L LaBaugh, R. T., 143 LaCour, J., 177

Lamb, C. S., 177 Lambert, S., 67 Landau, J. D., 152 Landrum, R. E., 23, 28, 83, 87, 88,

92, 95, 110, 116, 117, 146, 182, 193

Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI), 167

Leavitt, G. S., 25 lectures, getting most out of, 170 Lefton, L. A., 13 letters of recommendation, 54–58,

93–95, 96–98, 113, 115 characteristics to be described

in, 94 for graduate school admissions,

93–95, 96–98 items to include in requests for,

55 for job applications, 54–58 request worksheet, 113 sample letters, 56–57, 96–98 securing strong letters, 54–55

Lewis, D. M., 177 Library of Congress Cataloging

System, 138 library research strategies, 137–43

books, 137–38 internet, 140–42 journal articles, 139–40 Library of Congress Cataloging

System, 138 PsycINFO, use of, 140, 144 treeing, 142–43

library skills research strategies (See library

research strategies) training guidelines for library

instruction, 143 Lindgren, A., 60 literature review

APA format for, 146–47, 148 benefits and purpose of, 136

Lloyd, M. A., 18, 27 local psychology clubs, 132 locations for studying, 169, 175 Lord, C. G., 83, 104, 111 Lore, N., 47 Loree, A., 177 Ludvigson, H. W., 177 Lunneborg, P. W., 19, 20

M Ma, J., 2 Macias, Salvador, III, 8 major, selection of, 192 Margulies, J., 152 Martin, D. W., 135 master’s degrees

job search methods, 74, 75 occupational opportunities, 72–74 salaries for, 73, 74 specializations, 16

math anxiety, 172–73 Mathiasen, R. E., 177 Mayo, Tony, 73 McCann, L. I., 25, 115 McConnell, K., 167 Mccown, S. M., 172 McDaniel, C. R., 193 McGovern, T. V., 11, 12, 193 McGregor, L. N., 177 McGuiness, C., 27 McKeachie, W. J., 11 McKenna, F. S., 25 Meeker, F., 193 Menges, R. J., 25 mentoring, 20–21 Merriam, J., 143

Messer, W. S., 25 method section of psychology

papers, APA format for, 147–48 materials, description of, 148 participants, description of,

147–48 procedures, description of, 148

Mitchell, M. M., 128 Mulcock, S. D., 193 multiple-choice exams, tips for, 171 Murray, B., 27, 68

N National Centre for Vocational

Education Research, 3 National Honor Society in

Psychology. See Psi Chi Neidig, J. M., 117 Nelsen, L. R., 117 neuropsychologists, 15 Newman, John Henry, 7 no-faculty model of advising, 19 Norcross, J. C., 70 notecard method, 146 note-taking skills, 170 Nuremberg Code, 180, 182 Nysse, K. L., 95

O Occupational Information

Network. See O*NET system Occupational Outlook Handbook,

72 O’Hare, L., 26 Oliver, J., 66 Omarzu, J., 115 O*NET system, 29–31

bachelor’s degree, job descriptions with, 32–37

master’s or doctoral degree, job descriptions with, 71, 72

recreational therapists, summary report for, 39–43

organizational involvement, 129–33

with American Psychological Association (APA), 129–30

with Association for Psychological Science (APS), 130

with local psychology clubs, 132 with Psi Chi, 130–32 regional associations,

132–33 Osborne, R. E., 100, 105 Oudederk, B. A., 110 overt curriculum, 4

P Palm, L. J., 121 Palmer, D. R., 167 paper presentations, 118, 119 paraphrasing, in psychology

papers, 151–52 paraprofessional program, 129 Park, A., 193 Park, C. L., 117 part-faculty model of advising, 19 peer advising program, 128–29 peer review system, 139 Perlman, B., 25, 115 personal statements, 95–103

issues to address in, 100–1 sample instructions for, 99 sample statements, 101–3 tips for preparing, 100

Peterson, D. R., 70 Pierce, M. C., 177

IS B

N 0-

55 8-

58 24

1- 9

210 Index

Pierroutsakos, Sophia, 13 Pinkus, R. B., 28 plagiarism, 152, 179

defined, 152 types of, 152

Plous, S., 54, 55, 104 political science, 198 postdoctoral study, 77–79 poster presentations, 119–20 practitioner model, 68, 69 prescriptive advising, 19 Prickett, T. J., 59 Prohaska, V., 119, 120 promoting new hires, reasons for, 62 Pryor, J. H., 2 Psi Beta, 130 Psi Chi, 90

advantages of membership, 131 eligibility requirements, 132 goals of, 130–31 student involvement with, 130–32

Psychological Bulletin, 145 psychology classes, study tips for.

See study tips psychology major, 3, 11–23,

191–203 additional resources, 201–2 advising, importance of, 19–20 bachelor’s degree (See bachelor’s

degree in psychology) Career Information Survey, 193 diversity and, 195–97 goals of undergraduate degree,

12 mentoring, importance of, 20–21 number of degrees awarded,

17–18 reasons for majoring, 192–93 related disciplines, 197–98 satisfaction with degree and

career, 193–95 self-reflection/self-assessment and

career development, 198–201 skills and abilities of, 18–19, 22 specializations within, 12–17 success in major, predictors of,

193 survey for, 23

psychology papers, format and style of. See Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association

PsycINFO, 140, 144 Publication Manual of the

American Psychological Association, 5, 139, 145–63

abstracts, 149 appendix, 149 direct quotations, 151–52 discussion sections, 149 figures, 148 grammar, 151–52 introduction and literature

review section, 146–47 method section, 147–48 paraphrasing, 151–52 proofreading exercise, 163 punctuation, 151 purpose of, 145 references, 149, 150 results section, 148 sample paper, 152–62 spacing, 151 tables, 148 titles, 149 typing instructions, 150 verb tense, 151 vocabulary, 151–52 writing psychology papers, 146

public expectations concerning college, 1–2

punctuation, APA format, 151

Q quantitative and measurement

psychologists, 15

R Rajecki, D. W., 11, 31 recreational therapists, O*NET

system summary report for, 39–43

refereed journals, 139 references

APA format, 149, 150 role of, 137

regional associations, 132–33 Reisser, L., 125 research, ethics of. See ethics of

research research assistantships, 115–22

advantages of participating in, 116

benefits to faculty of, 120–21 earning course credits, 116–17 faculty members’ perspective

on, 117–18 presenting research at

conferences, 118–21 securing positions, 117 senior thesis, distinguished, 121 tasks performed by research

assistants, 116 research experience, and graduate

admissions process, 110–11 research ideas, generating, 135–36 research participants, rights and

responsibilities of, 183–84 research skills, 135–44

library research strategies (See library research strategies)

literature review, 136 references, role of, 137 research ideas, generating, 135–36

results section of psychology papers, APA format for, 148

resumes, 47–54 action verbs, 48–49 curriculum vita, distinguished,

87, 103 fabrications, avoiding, 54 sample resumes, 50–53 tips for preparing, 47–49

returned tests, learning from, 171, 172

Rewey, K., 113 Richardson, N. J., 118 Ritter, L. A., 119 Ritzer, D. R., 116 Robinson, F. P., 169 Roedinger, Henry, 104, 110 Roig, M., 116 Rosenfield, Anita, 3 Roskos-Ewoldsen, B., 172 Rosnow, R. L., 182 Rotheram-Borus, M. J., 182 Rys, L. E., 115

S salaries

for associate’s degree holders, 31–37

for bachelor’s degree holders, 27 for doctoral-level psychologists,

for master’s degree recipients, 73, 74

synthetic earnings, 7 top-paying jobs without college

degree, 8–9 value of college education, 7–8

Sapenoff, L. A., 117 Sauers, G. O., 128 Schallenberger, W. R., III, 170 Schoeneman, K. A., 89 Schoeneman, T. J., 89 school psychologists, 15 Schulte, A. C., 167 Schultz, J. R., 20 scientist model, 68 scientist-practitioner model,

68–69 Sebby, R., 193 selection criteria, graduate

admissions, 88–90 Self-Directed Search (SDS), 199,

200 self-management skills, 27 self-reflection/self-assessment and

career development, 198–201

senior thesis, 121–22 service learning, 128 Shelver, K. S., 117 Shoemaker, C. S., 193 Singleton, D., 72, 73 skills and abilities

graduate training, 66–68 of psychology majors, 18–19,

22 research skills (See research

skills) workplace skill and abilities,

3–4, 26–28 Slattery, J. M., 117, 127 Sleigh, M. J., 116 Smith, K., 18 Snell, W., Jr., 193 Snyder, T. D., 3, 31, 195 social psychologists, 15 Social Sciences Citation Index

(SSCI), 142–43 social work, 198 sociology, 198 spacing, APA format, 151 Speer, J. R., 191 SQ3R reading system, 169–70 Stover, J. H., 20 study tips, 165–75

behaviors to avoid, 173–74 delaying tactics, avoiding, 168 effective study habtis,

developing, 168–69 general tips, 166–68 high school and college,

distinguished, 166 lectures, getting most out of,

170 locations for studying, 169, 175 math anxiety, 172–73 reading, improving, 169–70 rewarding successful study, 169 schedule for studying, creating,

168–69 skills checklist, 167–68 student differences, 166–67 test-taking strategies, 170–72

Sue, V. M., 119 Suggs, Welch, 54 Sullivan, M., 87 Sullivan, R. L., 19 survey, for potential psychology

majors, 23 surviving college, tips for, 165–66

Synder, T. D., 1 synthetic earnings, 7

T tables, APA format for, 148 Tanner, J. R., 126 Tarsi, M., 132 Tate, A. C., 72 Tauber, R. T., 177 Taylor, R. D., 31 teaching assistantships, 122 test-taking strategies, 170–72 thinking skills, 27 Thomas, J. H., 193 Thorpe, J., 120 time management, 133, 168–69 title of psychology paper, APA

format for, 149 transcripts, 92 treeing, 142–43 Trumpeter, P. W., 25 Turner, K., 89 typing, APA format, 150

U undergraduate curriculum, 25–28 undergraduate students, common

goals of, 12 USA Weekend Magazine, 203

V Vail model, 69–70 verbs

action verbs, for resumes, 48–49

tense, APA format, 151 vita. See curriculum vita (CV) Vittengl, J. R., 117 vocabulary, APA format, 151–52

W Wahlstrom, C., 168, 170, 199 Walfish, S., 78, 89 Walsh, L. L., 73–74 Ward, T., 120 Ware, M. E., 193 Waters, M., 46 Weaver, Kenneth A., 118, 196 Webb, A. R., 191 Weinstein, C. E., 167 Whitley, B. E., Jr., 193 Wicherski, M., 75, 78 Wiederman, M. W., 88, 89, 90,

91–92, 94, 100 Williams, B. K., 168, 170, 199 Williams, C. C., 11 Wise, S. L., 193 Wofle, D. L., 25 Wood, M. R., 121 Woods, Edie, 46, 183 workplace competencies and

skills of college grads, 3–4 of psychology bachelor’s

degree, 26–28

Y Yancey, G. B., 45 Yandell, L. R., 177

Z Zechmeister, Eugene, 115 Zook, J. M., 20

IS B

N 0-558-58241-9

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