HISTORY ESSAY
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revolutions-2.pptxAmerican and French Revolutions
Readings: Smith, et al., 771-776
D 18.7: “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen”
Enlightenment Ideas
The spread of revolutionary ideas across the Atlantic world in the second half of the eighteenth century followed the trail of Enlightenment ideas (in a way, the product of the new scientific method based on reason in action):
“All men are born free yet everywhere they are in chains” – Jean-Jacques Rousseau
“Challenge Authority” – Immanuel Kant
“Have the Courage to use your own reason”-Immanuel Kant
Absolute Monarchy bad, government is the result of a social contract between the ruler and the people—John Locke
The best government are those characterized by “separation of powers” and “checks and balances” –Michel de Montesquieu
Government should keep their hands out of markets – Adam Smith
People disagreed over the meaning of terms such as liberty, independence, freedom, and equality
We still do
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Political Reorderings
As Enlightenment ideals spread, certain groups in the colonies began seeking a new relationship with their respective motherlands. More sought involvement in politics and claimed to serve the interests of the “people.” Ideas like independence, freedom, and equality had power and prompted political revolts in the Americas and Europe. Since then revolution has been a powerful force.
Revolutionary transformations and new languages of freedom
The transatlantic disruption between 1750 and 1850 had roots in the economic systems of the previous century
Every major power engaging in capitalist-like markets through monopolistic companies and colonial empires
Colonial elites want to become part of new economies—don’t like colonial and merchant monopolies from England, France, Spain, and Portugal
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Revolutionary Transformations and New Languages of Freedom
Dissatisfied with their exclusion from power and wealth, politically aware people began organizing in hopes that a new or reformed system would provide freedom to trade and representation in government. Initially unwilling to revolt, these reformers found powerful resistance among the aristocracy. Arguing for popular sovereignty and free trade, they denounced trade monopolies and aristocratic domination of politics. New identities and concepts of “nation” arose. The question of how much freedom and to whom, however, generally meant for white males only.
Revolutionary transformations and new languages of freedom
As wealth increased, men and women demanded a relaxation of economic restrictions
Demanded greater freedom to trade
Demanded more influence in governing local institutions and making local economic decisions
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Revolutionary transformations and new languages of freedom
Over time, these demands became more radical and revolutionary
Revolutionaries championed the concept of popular sovereignty, free people, free trade, free markets, and free labor as a more just and efficient foundation for society (in America: must end slavery; in France, must end serfdom, feudalism)
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England was the exception to the Pyramid Shaped Societies
The English Civil War and the “Glorious Revolution” led to an increasing role of Parliament.
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Puritan New England
Town Meeting
Wanted consensus
Kicked out dissenters
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The South
Had Locke-inspired Constitution
40 shilling freehold
Excluded Many poor Appalachia Farmers
County was the basic unit of Government
Many counties in the South were 50% slaves
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All Colonies
Had minor legislative institutions
Were diverse
All happy to be English citizens
All believed they had some rights
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End of French and Indian War: Grenville Plan – 1764
Salutary Neglect
Grenville attempts to find old laws
Navigation Acts
Molasses Tax
Sugar Act
Stamp Act
Quartering Act
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Committees of Correspondence
Propaganda makes Boston Conflict a Massacre—The Boston Massacre
3 years later was the Boston Tea Party
Punished for the Boston Tea Party
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First Continental Congress
September 4, 1774
All colonies but Georgia
Refused to Import Goods
British angered by this and decided to destroy colonial stores in Concord
Paul Revere’s ride
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Declaration of Independence
Was signed in 1776, about a year after the war had started
It made the French realize that we were serious and they joined the colonists to fight the British
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Key Points in Declaration
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.”
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The Decision to Redesign the State
Building a republican government – Articles of Confederation not working
Government weak and in debt for war
Couldn’t make trade agreements with other countries (all states had to go along or did they)
Unable to protect shipping of particular states
During this time, the prospect of a social revolution of women, slaves, and artisans was very real; elites labeled this "excesses of democracy"
Shays's rebellion of 1786 protested negative effects of revolutionary wars on bankrupt farmer veterans from Western Massachusetts
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Building a Republican Government
Landed elites, however, convened the Constitutional Convention to prevent the revolution from falling into anarchy. There, the new federal government was empowered, and the power of the legislature was reduced to moderate the popular will. The Constitution and a bill of rights formed the basis for government. New lands deflected the slave issue, but the problem did not go away. For the moment, white elites maintained their privilege by suppressing black uprisings.
Hamilton and Jefferson
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Constitutional Convention
Building a republican government
Scope of power of federal government versus state power continued to be debated hotly
Constitution a Compromise, but more Federalist (Hamiltonian)
The new constitution substantially enhanced the power of the federal (national) government over state legislatures
Anti-Federalists (Jefferson) insisted on the inclusion of a bill of rights to protect individual liberties from government interference
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The French Revolution, 1789–1799
The French Revolution, even more than the American Revolution, inspired other rebellions around the world, lasting into the twentieth century
Origins and outbreak
Enlightenment ideas against oppressive government had gained legitimacy among millions and helped propel the nation into revolution
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THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, 1789–1799
Also inspired by Enlightenment ideas, the French Revolution had global impact.
The French Revolution, 1789–1799
Origins and outbreak
Harvests had been poor for years, leading many peasants to protest unreasonable tax burdens
King Louis XVI opened the door for reform when he convened the Estates-General in 1788 to seek new forms of revenue to service the crown’s debt
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Origins and Outbreak
In France, peasant suffering and widespread hostility toward the court, aristocracy, and church raised tensions. Visions of an Enlightenment-based polity and France’s extraordinary fiscal problems opened the door for revolution. Sustaining huge debts in support of the American bid for independence, the French court convened the Estates-General to raise taxes. The Third Estate (wealthy commoners), however, condemned the nobles and clergy as parasites and formed the National Assembly—a body claiming to speak for the people of France. After news spread of the storming of the Bastille, crowds attacked aristocratic manors and records of feudal dues with such ferocity that frightened aristocrats renounced their privileges.
The French Revolution, 1789–1799
Reform turned to revolution as members of the Third Estate (the common people) called for greater representation
Upon hearing of these events, peasants rose up in the countryside to protest unfair feudal dues and obligations
On July 14, 1789, a Parisian crowd attacked the Bastille, an infamous political prison
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The French Revolution, 1789–1799
Revolutionary transformation
In August, the Third Estate, calling itself a national assembly, abolished feudal privileges of the nobility and clergy and passed a “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens”
It recognized political equality and popular sovereignty
Some people suggested that women be included as citizens, but women's petitions were rejected
Olympe de Gouges completed “Declaration of the Rights of Women and Citizens”
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Revolutionary Transformations
The “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” championed individual rights and the right of the people to representative government. Women were granted some rights, but not equal to men.
French Revolution and Rights
Granted many civil liberties
Granted freedom of worship to Jews and Protestants—ended Catholic monopoly
Ended serfdom—everyone equal under the law
Grappled with ending slavery
Maybe first attempt at articulating the necessity of basic human rights
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Key Questions:
How much would popular violence influence rational political debate?
Is popular sovereignty possible without violence?
How do you incorporate working class Parisians, peasants, and women into the polity without violence—elites want to protect privilege?
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The French Revolution, 1789–1799
Revolutionary transformation
As the revolution gathered speed, it split into different factions over the goals
More elites fled country
The Terror
Launched by radical Jacobins, including Robespierre
Eliminated all symbols of the old regime
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The Terror
As aristocracy fled the country, the French Revolution splintered into factions with the more radical Jacobins eventually taking control. They executed the king and launched a Reign of Terror to rid France of counterrevolutionaries. Universal conscription made the revolution’s armies the world’s largest and spread revolutionary ideas to other parts of Europe. The transformation of France into a revolutionary system led to new names, times, and even religion. With time, however, enthusiasm for the radicals heading the revolution waned and was eclipsed by the rise of Napoleon. Napoleon’s reign marked a return to more moderate policies. The bloodletting ended. Catholicism returned. A new constitution and legal system were adopted.
Popular Rule/Mob Rule
Ended Serfdom
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Constitution of 1793
“The aim of society is the happiness of all.”
“Public assistance is a sacred debt. Society owes a living to the unfortunate among its citizens, either by finding work for them or by guaranteeing the means of subsistence to those who are not in a fit condition to work.”
“Education is a necessity for all.”
“When the government violates the rights of the people, then insurrection …is the most sacred and necessary of duties.”
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Women’s Clubs
Universal Manhood suffrage proclaimed with Republic (September 1792)
Women actively involved in clubs, Parisian sections, Convention (as hecklers)
Women allowed to vote on Constitution of 1793
Women’s Clubs Closed (October 30, 1793)
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Abolition of Slavery
Abolition of slavery in French colonies (February 4, 1794)
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BUT: The Revolution “Devours Its Own”
Terror: Put on Trial “Enemies of the Nation” for crimes against “the nation,” “against the people”
Law of 22 Prairial II (June 10, 1794):
“Every citizen is empowered to seize conspirators and counterrevolutionaries, and to bring them before the magistrates. He is required to denounce them as soon as he knows of them.”
Eventually friends kill Robespierre before he can kill them
40,000 Killed, 300,000 arrested
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The French Revolution, 1789–1799
The Terror
Tried to do away with aristocratic and Catholic influences on the nation’s culture
In 1794, moderates regained control of the government upon the execution of Robespierre
In 1799, in light of ineffective government, Napoleon Bonaparte and other generals from the army organized a coup
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The Terror in The French Revolution: Contrasting Images
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The French Revolution, 1789–1799
In 1804, Napoleon declared himself emperor of the French nation
Checked the excesses of the Radical era but let many revolutionary changes continue
Allowed religious freedom
Submitted a constitution to a plebiscite
Code Napoleon codified the nation’s laws into one legal framework emphasizing the equality of men and the protection of individual property
But—reintroduced slavery
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Napoleon’s empire, 1799–1815
Napoleon envisioned a new Roman empire based on the principles he espoused in France
His attempts to bring Europe under French rule laid the foundations for nineteenth-century nationalist strife
Strong local resistance appeared in Spain, Germany, and Egypt
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NAPOLEON’S EMPIRE, 1799–1815
French expansion into neighboring states was accompanied by promises of liberty for those who supported the revolutionary armies. As French successes mounted, however, many so-called liberated peoples began to resist. Even as Napoleon sought to unify Europe, he awakened nationalism in people, such as the Germans, who had cause to notice it before. A world war developed as Napoleon struggled against all of Europe’s powers. Forced to retreat from Moscow, Napoleon was defeated at Paris and later Waterloo, and dreams of a French empire collapsed. At the Congress of Vienna, Europe’s old aristocratic interests moved to build a new order capable of meeting the revolutionary threat. Rejecting the option of a constitution, the Congress based itself on a system of mutual support and balancing power politics. The French monarchy was restored. While France seemed to have returned to its former self, German and Italian principalities began to unify, upsetting the Congress of Vienna’s balance of power.
Napoleon’s empire, 1799–1815
The Congress of Vienna could not turn the clock back completely
In many areas, some of Napoleon’s reforms were kept in place, such as the abolition of serfdom among German states
The nationalist sentiments that French troops stirred continued in places such as Germany and Italy
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Question of Sovereignty Up for Grabs – Still Is
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