Research Skills Essay
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lecture_6_quantitative_research.pptxLECTURE 6: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH By: Dr. Tao Zhang Email: [email protected]
RESEARCH SKILLS (SINGAPORE PROGRAMME)
At the end of the lecture you should be able to:
Understand the importance of concepts in quantitative research and the ways in which measures may be devised for concepts;
Distinguish the features of quantitative research;
Evaluate some criticisms that are frequently levelled at quantitative research.
Be aware of the range of quantitative techniques available
Understand the types and techniques of designing and administering questionnaires
Understand how to increase response rates
Learning Outcomes
What is the quantitative approach?
‘Quantitative methods refer in large part to the adoption of the natural science experiment as the model for scientific research, its key features being quantitative measurement of the phenomena studied and systematic control of the theoretical variables influencing those phenomena’ (Henn et al 2009: 134)
Coming up with conjectures (hypotheses) and empirically testing them
Can provide generalizable data (replication)
Can show patterns of association (correlation) and causation
Focus on outputs (what type of questions) rather than processes (why sort of questions)
Why undertake quantitative research?
Quantitative Research Process
Measures
Causality
Generalisation
Replication
Preoccupations of Quantitative Researchers
Measuring Concepts
Quantitative research entails devising measures for concepts in which the researcher is interested in (operationalization).
Examples:
Concept Measure
Intelligence IQ
Performance ROI
Leadership -
Knowledge -
Indicators of concepts
Concepts may have different dimensions
Multiple-indicator measures
E.g. indicators of ethical/unethical behaviour measures (Jackson 2001)
Accepting gifts in exchange for services
Passing blame to an innocent co-worker
Calling in sick to take a day off
Giving gifts in exchange for services
Claiming credit for someone else’s work
Doing personal business on organization’s time
Concealing one’s errors
8
Exercise
What indicators would you use to measure the concept of ‘service quality’?
Causality
Explanation
Why things are the way they are
Direction of causal influence
Relationship between dependent & independent variables
An independent variable causes a change in a dependent one
Confidence
In the researcher's causal inferences
Fig. 1 Research model.
Lin, H. (2011) n empirical investigation of mobile banking adoption: The effect of innovation attributes and knowledge-based trust, International Journal of Information Management, 31 (3); 252-260
Hypothesizing Concepts
Generalization
Can findings be generalized beyond the confines of the particular context?
Can findings be generalized from sample to population?
How representative are samples?
Replication
Minimizing contamination from researcher biases or values
Explicit description of procedures
Control of conditions of study
Ability to replicate in differing contexts
Criticisms of quantitative research
Failure to distinguish between objects in the natural world and social phenomena
Artificial and spurious sense of precision and accuracy
Lack of ecological validity
Reliance on instruments and measurements
Static view of social life
Quantitative Research Procedures
Experiments
Surveys
The Three Components of Experiments
Variable being
acted upon – also
called
test unit,
subject,
dependent
variable
Change being
imposed
- also called the
treatment,
independent variable
Results relating
to change
Classification of Experiments
Can be field or lab experiments
Lab experiments are designed under very specific conditions in which an independent variable (s) is manipulated. E.g. the Hawthorne experiments
A ‘treatment group’ receives some treatment and is compared with a ‘control’ group which does not.
Advantages is that the researcher is in control of the conditions, and are easier to replicate. They also have high internal validity.
However they suffer from lack of external validity since the setting of the lab may be very different from real-world situations
Field Experiments
Are carried out in more naturally occurring environments and overcome the limitations noted with lab experiments.
Still use treatment and control groups which are assigned randomly.
Frayne and Geringer (2000) for example carried out such an experiment with salespeople to determine impact of training on job performance. The treatment group received training and the control group did not.
Findings confirmed the hypothesis that training enhances job performance
Limitations to Experimentation
Time
Cost
Administration
Surveys
The survey method involves obtaining information using structured questions designed to elicit specific information from respondents.
The questions may cover the respondent’s
behaviour,
intentions,
attitudes,
awareness,
motivations,
demographic and lifestyle characteristics.
Classification of Survey Methods
Surveys
Personal
Telephone
Impersonal
Computer Assisted
Telephone
Interview (CATI)
In home/office
Street/shopping
center
Computer Assisted
Personal
Interview (CAPI)
Mail/Postal
Traditional mail
survey
Electronic
Internet
Malhotra and Birks, 2006
Personal Methods
In home or office
Street interviews
Computer Assisted Personal Interviews (CAPI)
Telephone Methods
Computer Assisted Telephone Interviews (CATI) involves using a computer to administer questionnaires to respondents over the phone.
Impersonal Methods
Postal
Tradition postal
Mail panels
Electronic
Attachments
Embedded
Link to survey
Internet (e.g. Survey Monkey)
Exercise
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using each of these methods?
Determine the conditions under which you would consider using each of them:
Personal survey methods
Telephone survey methods
Impersonal survey methods
Postal survey
Electronic survey methods
Some things you might consider – interviewer bias, social desirability of answers, ability to clarify, probe, rapport, speed, cost
25
Designing a Questionnaire What’s a Questionnaire?
A set of questions designed to generate the data necessary to accomplish the objectives of the research project; it is a formalised schedule for collecting information from respondents.
(McDaniel and Gates 2007)
A structured technique for data collection consisting of a series of questions written or verbal that a respondent answers.
(Malhotra and Birks 2006)
The Questionnaire Development Process
Research objectives,
Resources and
Constraints
Determine Data
Collection Methods
Determine
Question Response
Format
Decide Question
Wording
Establish Flow
and Layout
Evaluate the
Questionnaire
Pilot and Revise
Final Copy
Implement
Check with your supervisor
Research Objectives, Resources and Constraints
What is the research problem/hypotheses?
What information is required?
What resources and constraints are there?
Staff
Facilities
Money
Time
Determine Data Collection Methods
Budget available
Length of questionnaire
Structure of the questions
Sample precision
Open Ended Questions
These questions are not followed by any kind of choice, the respondent is free to give their own answer which is recorded in full.
E.g. Why do you buy organic produce?
Response Format and Question Wording
Closed Questions
Closed questions are ones in which the respondents are offered a choice of alternative replies.
E.g. Do you own a car? Yes □ No □
E.g. What is your main method of travelling to work?
Walk □
Bicycle □
Car □
Bus □
Train □
Figure 12.1 Defining the data type; Saunders et al., (2012)
Types of Closed Questions
Dichotomous Questions
Usually require answers that are either one or the other, e.g. gender (can only be male or female)
May also be answers requiring yes or no
Identify the categories and puts them into an order that can be ranked
E.g. Please rank the following airlines from 1 to 5, with 1 being the most preferred airline and 5 the least preferred.
Virgin 5 B.A. 1 Easyjet 4 BMIbaby 3 Ryanair 2
They can also be used to rate various characteristics.
E.g. Please state how often you use B.A.?
All the time (5) Often (4) Sometimes (3) Rarely (2) Never (1)
Ordinal Scales
Nominal Scales
Questions that categorize variables into more than 2 sets, but that cannot be placed in a rank order
For example, hair color is also a categorical variable having a number of categories (blonde, brown, brunette, red, etc.).
However there is no agreed way to order these from highest to lowest.
A question asking participants to identify their hair colour therefore would not require an ordering of such.
In these scales the relative difference between two data values are identical.
Interval Scales
-are numeric scales in which we know not only the order, but also the exact differences between the values.
For example age differences can be calculated in terms difference in days, months, years etc.
They do not have a “true zero.” E.g. there is no such thing as “no temperature.”
Ratio Scales
Quite similar to interval scales, although they have a fixed zero point, e.g. revenue, income
http://www.mymarketresearchmethods.com/types-of-data-nominal-ordinal-interval-ratio/
Interval and Ratio Scales
Use of Measurement Scales for Questionnaires
Use Likert type scales to measure how people feel about things e.g. For each of the following, please circle (1= very important, 5= not important) how you would rate your business performance based on each of the factors listed (please circle one number for each part of the question)
| Very important | Not Important | |||||
| Understanding the customer | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
| Lower selling prices | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
| Credit availability and terms | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
| Low cost base | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
| Quality of products/services | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Fig. 1 Research model.
Lin, H. (2011) n empirical investigation of mobile banking adoption: The effect of innovation attributes and knowledge-based trust, International Journal of Information Management, 31 (3); 252-260
Hypothesizing Concepts
Operationalizing Concepts (Li, 2011)
Questionnaire Wording
Questions must be;
Appropriate to the target population
Comprehension
Unambiguous
Sensitive to the respondents
Questionnaire Wording Tips
1. Avoid double barrelled questions/varying meanings
2. Avoid proverbs and sayings
3. Avoid double negatives
4. Avoid acronyms, abbreviations, jargon and technical terms
5. Avoid ambiguous words
6. Avoid leading questions
8. Avoid loaded words
10. Avoid vague questions
Questionnaire Layout Introductions
Introductions
at beginning of sections
explain the purpose
state the organisation behind it
confidentiality/anonymity
data security
contact details
Questionnaire Layout - Instructions, Directions
Instructions
should be clear, unambiguous
should be distinct from the questions
E.g. How often do you buy any type of fish or shellfish for your family? Please circle the appropriate number.
More than once a week ( )
Once a week ( )
Once a fortnight ( )
Once a month ( )
Less then once a month ( )
Never ( ) GO TO QUESTION 6
Questionnaire Layout – Appearance
Factors to consider;
Appearance
layout, colour, typeface
Length
Questionnaire Flow
| Location | Type | Example |
| First few questions | Warm ups/screens | Do you buy fish? |
| First third of questions | Transitions | How often do you buy frozen fish? |
| Second third | Difficult and complicated | Rate your agreement/disagreement on a scale of 1-5 |
| Last section | Classification and demographic | What is the highest level of education you have? |
Questionnaire Flow
AVOID;
Ordering items in such a way that necessitates referral back to earlier questions
Conditioning of later responses by earlier ones
Preceding knowledge questions with other questions giving the answers
TIP:
Questions need to be based on your research questions/hypotheses and can be structured accordingly
PILOT THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire must be tested out on people who are similar to the sample
If majority of the questionnaire is altered, the final version should be piloted again
Why is it important to pilot the questionnaire?
Implementation - Approaching respondents
Personal distribution and collection
Personal distribution and postal or email returns
Postal or email distribution and postal email returns
Implementation - Increasing Response Rate
Advance warning
Explanation of selection
Sponsorship
Envelope
Incentives
Publicity
Confidentiality
Anonymity
Follow ups
Exercise
Read the Case uploaded on Canvas (Lecture 6, Case 11a) and address the questions raised.
QUESTIONS?
Reading
Ch 9 Self completion questionnaires, 2011, Bryman and Bell
Ch 11Collecting Primary Data Using Questionnaires, 2012, Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill
Ch 6 Primary Data Collection, 2010, Wilson
Ch 10 & 11 Malhotra and Birks 2006
Ch 10 & 12 Zikmund et al., 2013
Dommeyer C.J. and Moriarty E., (2000), Comparing Two Forms of an E-mail Survey: Embedded vs Attached., Market Research Society, Journal of the Market Research Society, Vol. 42 No. 1, pp.39-50
Fuchs, C., Prandelli, E., Schreier, M. and Dahl D.W. (2013), All that is users might not be gold: How labelling products as user designed backfires in the context of luxury fashion brands, Journal of Marketing, 77, 75-91
Lozar Manfreda K., Bosnjak M., Berzelak J.Haas I. and Vehovar V., (2008), Web Surveys versus other survey modes; a meta analysis comparing response rates, International Journal of Market Research, 50, 1, pp.79-104
