Research Skills Essay
johnathan1993
lecture_5_qualitative_research.pptxLECTURE 5: NATURE AND ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH By: Dr. Tao Zhang Email: [email protected]
RESEARCH SKILLS (SINGAPORE PROGRAMME)
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the session you should be able to understand:
The main contrasts between qualitative and quantitative research;
Some common criticisms of qualitative research;
The different types of qualitative research available
focus groups
depth interviews
Ethnography/netnography
The process of qualitative data analysis
Features of Qualitative Research
Inductive view of relationship between theory and research
i.e. theories and concepts emerge from the data
Interpretivist epistemology
Constructionist ontology
i.e. social properties are outcomes of the interactions between individuals, rather than phenomena ‘out there’ and separate from those involved in their construction
Emphasis on words/text rather than numbers
The main steps of qualitative research
The main preoccupations of qualitative researchers
Seeing through the eyes of those studied
Taking the role of the other
Understanding the meanings people attribute to their world
Unexpected findings
Description and emphasis on context
Detailed account of the social setting
‘Thick descriptions’ of what is going on
The main preoccupations of qualitative researchers cont’d
Emphasis on process
How patterns of events unfold over time
Social worlds characterized by change and flux
Flexibility and limited structure
No ‘prior contamination’ by rigid schedules
Concepts and theory grounded in data
Contrasting qualitative and quantitative research
Criticisms of qualitative research
Too subjective
Researcher decides what to focus on
Difficult to replicate
Unstructured format
Problems of generalization
Samples not ‘representative’ of all cases
So why use qualitative research?
Sensitive information
Subconscious feelings
Complex phenomena
Holistic view
New theory
Interpretation
Classification of Qualitative Research Tools
Ethnography
Qualitative Research Procedures
Focus
group
Depth
interviews
Adapted from Malhotra and Birks 2006
Characteristics of Focus Groups
Group Size
Group composition
Physical setting
Duration
Recorded
Focus Group Examples
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= j_cUnlQl29Q
Moderator
A person who leads a focus group and insures that everyone gets a chance to speak and contribute to the discussion.
The role of moderators:
Permissiveness and flexibility
Involvement
Encouragement
Sensitivity
Observation
Zikmund et al 2013
Planning and Conducting Focus Groups
Clarify research problem(s) and objectives
Clarify the role of focus groups in fulfilling those objectives
Specify the issues to be developed in the focus groups
Specify the target respondents for the focus groups
Specify the location(s) to conduct the focus group
Recruit group members
Run an experimental group (pilot test)
Conduct the focus groups
Example of Focus Group Question Schedule
Provision of refreshments
Introduction (15mins)
Introduce the research
Aim and format of the focus group
Conventions: confidentiality, speak one at a time, recording everybody’s views, right to withdraw
Personal introductions of participants
Discussion topics
Depending on the research objectives/questions
Summing Up
Thanking for participation
Highlighting some main points of discussion and what is going to happen next
Advantages and Disadvantages of Focus Groups
Synergy
Snowballing
Stimulation
Spontaneity
Time consuming
Group effects
Misjudgement
Moderation
Organisation
Malhotra and Birks 2006; Bryman and Bell 2012
Interviews
“We interview people to find out from them those things we cannot directly observe (Patton, 2002: 340)
Types of Interviews
Structured interview
Semi structured interview
Unstructured interview
Degree of control
Flexibility
Characteristics of Interviews
Conducted on a one to one basis
Duration
Empathy
Encourage and motivate
Topic guide
Note areas of interest
Probe when lack of clarity
Probe when given yes or no answer
Advantages and Disadvantages of Interviews
Advantages
Disadvantages
Uncover greater depths
No group pressure
Easy to arrange
Obtain majority and minority opinions
Skilled interviewers
Interviewer bias
Data analysis
High cost
Telephone and Online Interviews
Telephone
Advantages
Access
Speed
Cost
Disadvantages
Lack of rapport
Lack of visual cues, ability to observe body language
Less time
Difficulty with more complex questions
Online
Advantage
Greater feeling of anonymity
Access to distant geographical areas
Cheaper
Disadvantages
Authenticity
Less rich material
Less visual cues, body language
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2012
Tips in Developing Interview Guides
Use your research questions direct your guide
Use open ended questions that enable you to probe further
Avoid using jargon or leading questions
Avoid questions that lead to yes/no answers only
Questions may sometimes be accompanied by visual materials to enhance the experience of respondents
Ethnography
A method that allows for an immersion into the respondents’ worlds to gather insights from their lived experiences (Denzin, 1997; Denzin and Lincoln; 2000, 2005).
Involves data collection methods like
Observation (photographs, researcher notes)
Interviews and informal conversations (may be audio recorded)
Analysis of artefacts
Observation
The researcher employs explicitly formulated rules for the observation and recording of behaviour and their environment
https :// www.youtube.com/watch?v=FBIdwhrnIZw
Physical actions (e.g. a worker’s movement during assembly process)
Verbal behavior (e.g. statements made by customers while waiting for service)
Expressive behavior (e.g. facial expressions)
Temporal patterns (E.g. length of time it takes to execute an order)
Physical objects (e.g. percentage of recycled materials in the trash)
Zikmund et al 2013
Other Observation Examples
25
Observation Techniques
Structured vs. Unstructured observation
Disguised vs. Undisguised observation
Natural vs. Contrived observation
Participation vs Non-participation
Level of participation
Bryman and Bell 2012
Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation Techniques
Measures ACTUAL behaviour.
Less interviewer bias.
Certain types of information can ONLY be collected by observation techniques.
E.g. babies’ toy preferences
The reasons behind the observed behaviour are difficult to determine.
Time consuming.
Expensive.
Difficult to observe certain kinds of behaviour.
Bordering on the unethical.
Netnography
A qualitative method devised specifically to investigate the consumer behavior of cultures and communities present on the Internet
(Kozinets, 2008)
Robert V. Kozinets (1998) ,"On Netnography: Initial Reflections on Consumer Research Investigations of Cyberculture", in NA - Advances in Consumer Research Volume 25, eds. Joseph W. Alba & J. Wesley Hutchinson, Provo, UT : Association for Consumer Research, Pages: 366-371
Netnography - Examples
How would you interpret this type of information?
What are the advantages and weaknesses of netnography?
Figure 13.1 Dimensions of qualitative analysis
Qualitative Analysis
Steps in Analysing Qualitative Data
Transcribing
Generating codes
Interpreting
Writing report
Wilson 2010
Transcribing
Using recorded audio or video
Verbatim
No editing
Wilson 2010
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Figure 13.2 Types of category and codes
Coding Data
Generating Codes
| Example | Coded Concept |
| We know our foreign partner will always deliver on time and is open regarding the sharing of technological information. | 1. Trust |
| We see this joint venture as being at least a 10-year venture. | 2. Commitment |
| We work closely together in aiming to achieve our strategic objectives. | 3. Cooperation |
| We are pleased with the venture in that there is regular exchanging of information. | 4. ? |
| We have achieved our set of objectives over the short term. | 5. ? |
Wilson 2010
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Coding Using Software
Common software for qualitative data coding:
Nvivo
Atlas.ti
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= TUZpXEySp1U
Problems with coding
Losing the context of what was said
Fragmentation of data - loss of narrative flow (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996)
Risk of only providing a descriptive account of the data rather than theorizing
Coding Tips
Code as soon as possible
Read through your initial set of transcripts
Review your codes
Consider more general theoretical ideas in relation to codes and data
Any one item or slice of data can and often should be coded in more than one way
Do not worry about the number of codes generated
Keep coding in perspective – it is not analysis
Qualitative Data Analysis
Two general strategies:
Analytic induction
Grounded theory
The process of analytic induction
Grounded theory
Theory is derived from the data, which are systematically gathered and analysed (Strauss and Corbin, 1988: 12).
Iterative process
Repetitive interplay between data collection and analysis / theory building
Developments in grounded theory
Straussian model more prescriptive
Term used loosely by researchers today
Distinction between tools and outcomes
Tools of grounded theory
Theoretical sampling – data collected for the purpose of theory development, using an iterative process
Going back to cases that are information rich
Coding
Begins during initial stages of research, based on emerging data
Important first step in generating theory
Theoretical saturation – no new data collected after this
Constant comparison (between concepts and indicators)
Figure 13.3 Comparing approaches to grounded theory method
Source: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2011
Processes and outcomes in grounded theory
Example
Criticisms of grounded theory
Cannot suspend awareness of theories and concepts (Bulmer, 1979)
Funding proposals require clear statement of aims, theories and research questions
Time consuming
Does not necessarily produce a theory - usually specific explanations of substantive issues
Fragments data (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996)
Competing accounts of what is involved
Exercise
Using the case uploaded on the ‘Lecture 5’ section on Canvas (Lecture 5 Case Exercise) work in groups of 5 and address the questions raised there.
Reporting Qualitative Data
Conclusions
Look at the relationships between the categories
How important are the relationships?
Why are there similarities and differences between categories?
Do your findings fit with previous research/theories, do they suggest new theories and raise new questions?
Wilson 2010
Reading
Ch 16,17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, Bryman and Bell, 2011
Ch 7 Business Reseach Methods, Zikmund, Babin, Carr, Griffin, 2013, Cencage Learnings
Ch 9, 10, 13 Analysing Qualitative Data, Saunders,Lewis and Thornhill, 2012
Ch 10 Analyzing Qualitative Data, Wilson 2010
Strauss A. and Corbin J., (1998), Basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory., London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif. : SAGE
