Final Exam

PERSUASION

Using deliberate and strategically designed messages intended to change beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors, or any combination of the three.

. One person is trying to get another person to believe or do something while the latter is attempting to convince the persuader that they are not interested.

For example,

why are some people far more successful than others who have less qualifications or talent than they do?

How are some people able to connect to other people so much better than others who seem to lack that ability?

On what basis was the winner of the presidential election of 2016 chosen?

In times that you have been effective with your persuasion efforts, what did you do differently from times when your persuasive efforts did not work so well?

For example, if someone is "slightly opposed" to the idea of donating blood, but then becomes "slightly in favor" after listening to a persuasive speech on the benefits of donating blood, then persuasion has occurred. 

ETHOS

Persuader nature and credibility.

LOGOS

Message arguments and logic.

PATHOS

Emotional appeals.

BELIEF

Things believed to be true.

· Example: "I believe that there is life after death"

ATTITUDE

Positive or negative orientation toward something.

· Example: "I don't like presidential candidate A" or "I love college basketball, but can't stand the NBA."

BEHAVIOR

Action.

VALUES

Things that people hold dear.

· Example: "I value freedom of speech" or "I value marriage equality" 

ATTITUDE SHAPING

Informing your audience with new information.

is the easiest form of persuasion because you are informing your audience with new information and they have little resistance to what you are claiming. Shaping can be done with generating beliefs (“This product tastes good.”) or with what you see below as conditioning, or pairing something already liked with something new

ATTITUDE CHANGE

To modify or change an individual’s perception.

is the most challenging kind of persuasion. For example, Whites in the United States, during the 1960s, had to be persuaded that open discrimination and prejudice toward Blacks were no longer acceptable.

ATTITUDE REINFORCEMENT

Confirming what people already believe and giving them reasons to act.

is confirming what people already believe and giving them reasons to act on what they believe. This is commonly done in religion and politics.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

The process of using messages to pair a new concept with concepts that are already liked.

is the process of using messages to pair (repeatedly associate) a new concept (new product for example) with concepts that are already liked. Coca-Cola has used this approach to persuasion very successfully for decades as they have paired the soft drink with things that are valued by Americans such as patriotism, ethnic diversity, and family relationships

SOCIAL JUDGMENT THEORY

Receivers have a continuum of possible evaluations for any message we hear.

These three types of responses are called latitudes

1-LATITUDE OF ACCEPTANCE

Arguments you agree with.

2- LATITUDE OF REJECTION

Arguments you believe are objectionable.

3- LATITUDE OF NON-COMMITMENT

Arguments you do not have a strong view about yet.

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

Stresses the need that humans naturally have for consistency of beliefs, feelings, attitudes, and behaviors.

One of the most important sets of early theories in psychology concerned research which indicated that humans have inborn tendencies to maintain equilibrium or consistency with their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

An example given by Festinger is a person knowing that smoking cigarettes causes lung cancer, but the person continues to smoke

ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL

A dual-processing model that explains both critical thinking internal responses and responses based on mental shortcuts.

CENTRAL ROUTE

Careful assessment and critical thinking of what is being said or presented.

PERIPHERAL ROUTE

Responds to persuasive messages with little critical thinking.

META- COMMUNICATION

Means being able to look back at a communication episode (e.g., conflict), analyze it, and talk

about it—an ability that appears to be very useful for dealing with conflict in close relationship.

CONFLICT

Can be defined as “an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and interference from others in achieving their goals.”

Here are three common misconceptions ("falsehoods") about conflict:

Misconception #1: Conflict should be avoided at all costs

· Leads to frustration because conflict is natural!

· Need to focus on the benefits of conflict!

Misconception #2: Conflicts usually result from not understanding each other.

· Not all conflict comes from misunderstanding

· We might disagree because we DO understand each other (but we still have a hard time agreeing or 'getting' why the other person feels or acts the way s/he does)

Misconception #3: All conflict can be resolved

· There may be fundamental differences or irrevocable damage

· Sometimes, separation might be the best response.

categorize interpersonal conflict approaches is to consider how (1) direct or indirect and (2) competitive or cooperative

Family Conflict Climates

Conflict climate = “the psychological atmosphere impacting a conflict” (Abigail & Cahn, 2011, p. 103).

Communication scholars have identified two different orientations that create a family's "conflict climate" and how they approach conflict in their interactions with one another. These two orientations are Conversation Orientation and Conformity Orientation.

1.) Conversation orientation

· HIGH Conversation = Interact frequently, openly share thoughts on any topic, and include others in decisions that involve them

· LOW Conversation = Interact less frequently, withhold private thoughts, and limit the input on decision-making and exchange of ideas

Was/is your family HIGH or LOW in conversation orientation?  

2.) Conformity orientation

· HIGH Conformity = Family members encourage similar attitudes, beliefs, and values

· Encourage interdependence and obedience to traditional family structure

· LOW Conformity = Family members value individuality in thought and expressions and independence among family members

Was/is your family HIGH or LOW in conformity orientation?  

Since the Family Communication Climates were developed over 20 years ago, a large body of research has supported the idea that a family's conversation and conformity orientations results in 4 different family types: Protective, Consensual, Laissez-Faire, and Pluralistic

The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

1. Criticism

· Goes beyond a complaint by blaming or attacking the partner

· Focus is on the other person (their character or personality) rather than their behavior or the issue

· “You always” and “You never”

2. Defensiveness

· Often a natural response to criticism

· Attempt to avoid blame or deny responsibility

· Making excuses, whining, responding with a complaint about the other person

· Cross-complaining

3. Contempt

· Any verbal or nonverbal expression that communicates the message “you are stupid,” “you just don’t get it,” or “I am better than you.”

· Criticism with the intention to insult (hostile humor, hostile mockery, sarcasm, rolling eyes, etc.)

· Typically causes irrevocable damage to the relationship

4. Stonewalling

· The partner (or partners) “shut down”

· Blank facial expression, no eye contact, removing themselves from the situation, no response or a dismissive response (e.g., “whatever”)

· Partners do not even acknowledge or listen to each other anymore; indicates that they have “given up”

EFFECTS OF CONFLICT ON PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH

The final section of this chapter explores the consequences of conflict on individuals’ physical and mental health. Many people find it surprising that the way they communicate can affect their health and well-being, and even influence the health of those around them. In this section, we examine (1) the effects of interparental conflict on children’s well-being and (2) the effects of marital conflict on partners’ well-being.

Constructive Conflict

1.) Develop conflict rules with your relational partner. 

· Consideration rules: “don’t belittle me”

· Rationality rules: “don’t raise your voice”

· Self-expression rules: “let’s be honest”

· Conflict resolution rules: “give reasons for your views”

2.) Practice the 5:1 ratio of positivity to negativity (Gottman)

· Dr. Gottman's research reveals that couples in the most successful and long-lasting relationships exhibit more positive than negative behaviors toward one another. He has found that, for the most satisfied couples, the ratio of positive to negative behaviors is 5:1. This is true of any relationship/friendship! 

3.) Engage in Meta-Communication

· Meta-Communication = looking back at a communication episode (e.g., a conflict), analyzing it, and talking about it. Thus, meta-communication is "communicating about communication." 

· By looking back on conflict episodes and discussing one another's behaviors and comments, relational partners can pinpoint why they are upset and what they can do differently in the future. 

CH9

CULTURE

A complex system of symbolic resources, worldviews, values, and norms.

ENCULTURATION

The process of learning one’s own cultural system/s.

WORLDVIEW

A deeply felt assumption about the nature of the world.

VALUE

A belief about how the world should be.

ETHNOCENTRISM

A tendency to perceive the world through a lens that privileges one’s own group in relation to others.

NORM

A culturally understandable behavior, the correct performance of which reinforces a sense of appropriateness.

ACCULTURATION

The process of learning another cultural system.

CULTURE SHOCK

Feelings of discouragement associated with adjusting to a different cultural system.

The first stage of the U-curve model is the Honeymoon Stage. This is the time when the traveler first arrives and finds everything new and exciting. The sights, the smells, the sounds are all exotic, creating a sense of adventure. During this stage, the traveler may make mistakes, but because everything is so new, these mistakes are quickly forgotten as the traveler moves to the next exciting interaction or event. If a person stays long enough, however, she or he will likely move to the second stage, called the Crisis Stage. Over time, the foreignness of the different cultural framework becomes difficult to cope with on a continual basis. This is the stage where culture shock is most profoundly felt. One thing that often happens to people when they travel in different places is that they get sick. Prolonged exposure to different foods, different microbes in the water, and the fatigue associated with trying to get along in a different culture can all add up to a weakened immune system and lead to illness. As you might imagine, this physical condition can compound culture shock. It is at this point that many travelers unfortunately leave.

CH10

Modulus 10

COMMUNICATIVELY

An organization is a social context where symbols are exchanged to create social reality and shared meaning.

DEFINING AN ORGANIZATION

While there are numerous definitions of organizations the following four provide a nice picture of how organizations function very much like an individual in society. First, legally an organization is viewed as an artificial person having entity status under the law. The organization, regardless of its size or status, holds the same rights, privileges, and obligations of humans. It is entitled to hold property, remains subject to search and seizure, is privileged to expand business and secure contracts, obligated to pay taxes and to comply with legal judgments and courts (Brummer, 1991). Second, communicatively an organization is a social context where symbols are exchanged to create social reality and shared meaning. Communication is a central process in the creation, maintenance,and extension of collective organizational meaning (Seeger, 1997). Third, socially, an organization is responsive and responsible to the public. Finally, organizations are unique in size and complexity and have a unique culture with its own norms, values, and symbols. All of these definition simply that organizational communication is the process of creating, exchanging, interpreting (improperly or not), and storing messages inside a system of human relationships and interactions (Jablin, 1990). Note that the central piece of this definition is the process of communication or the exchange of symbols.

CH15

Computer Mediated Communication (CMC)

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) = any human communication achieved through computer or internet technology

It is no secret that advances in technology and social media have changed (and continue to change) the way we communicate with others in our personal and professional lives. As we conduct more and more of our communication encounters via online and digital technologies, there is a growing concern regarding whether technology has a "positive" or "negative" impact on our personal lives and relationships. However, the perspective taken by many communication scholars (myself included) is that Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) has both advantages and disadvantages. Thus, there is no simple answer to the question of whether technology is "good" or "bad" for our relationships; it depends on a number of factors including HOW we use the technologies to communicate, who we're communicating with, the rules we establish (or don't establish) with relational partners regarding appropriate CMC behaviors, and so on.

While there are entire textbooks and semester-long courses dedicated to discussing and debating CMC, we're just going to highlight some of the basic ideas in this module. My hope is that the information provided here raises your awareness about the role that technology plays in your own personal and professional lives, and perhaps encourages you to think more critically about how you use online and digital technologies to communicate. 

To begin, let's look at some of the advantages and disadvantages of CMC.

Advantages of CMC

· Connects geographically dispersed individuals

· Offers flexibility

· CMC is convenient and allows parties to maintain contact amid their hectic lives and busy schedules.

· Combines permanent nature of written communication with the speed and dynamism of oral communication

· Digital communication should not be viewed as an "impoverished" version of face-to-face communication, but as a mixed modality that combines beneficial elements of both face-to-face communication and written communication (Baym). Not only do many technologies allow for interactive, quick communicative exchanges characteristic of face-to-face encounters, they also offer many methods for conveying emotion and expressing intimacy that are typical of written communication (e.g., emoticons, caps lock and other font characteristics, abbreviations/slang, etc.). In this way, CMC can be viewed as allowing for the "best of both worlds." 

· Asynchronous CMC allows for greater reflection

· Asynchronous communication = communication that does not happen in "real" time. The message can be sent any time without the need for the sender and receiver to be "time-synchronized."  Email and text-messaging are examples of asynchronous exchanges. You can send an email or a text and the other person does not have to (or may not be able to) respond right away. The receiver can respond at a later time and at his/her convenience. This is in contrast to synchronous communication (e.g., face-to-face encounters, talking on the telephone, etc.) that requires both parties to be available at the same time and typically demands an immediate response from the receiver.

· Thus, the asynchronous nature of CMC can be an advantage because it allows parties to reflect on a message they have received and think about how they want to respond.

Other advantages of CMC?

Disadvantages of CMC

Reduced cues environment - CMC often lacks important social cues that help facilitate interactions. This "reduced cues environment" creates the following disadvantages of CMC:

· Limits nonverbal communication

In most CMC encounters, we do not have access to observe others' facial expressions, gestures, eye movements, tone of voice, and other valuable nonverbal "cues" that offer insight into their emotions and how they are interpreting messages. Although emjois and other digital elements (e.g., the use of all caps, slang, etc.) can give us an idea of the other person's mood, they are not as telling and typically not as accurate as the cues we can observe in face-to-face interactions.

· Offers more potential for deception

Have you ever heard of the TV show Catfish? Because CMC limits the ability to observe nonverbal behaviors and other cues, people may feel that they can "get away" with deception more easily online than offline. Communicating via digital technologies is often less intimidating than communicating face-to-face, which may also tempt people to engage in more deception online.  

· Offers more potential for misunderstandings

Without access to others' nonverbal behaviors and reactions, there is more potential for messages to be misunderstood or misinterpreted. Additionally, CMC makes it more difficult to immediately clarify our messages or ask others how they interpreted something we said, which can also lead to misunderstandings.

· Encourages "flaming" (the act of posting or sending insults online)

Some people feel less restricted and less self-conscious about their behaviors in the "reduced cues environment" created by CMC, making them more likely to "attack" or offend others online. If you've ever read through the comments section of an article, you've likely observed other users engaging in flaming and throwing insults at complete strangers. 

Online Disinhibition Effect

Online disinhibition effect = the tendency for people to say and do things in cyberspace that they would not ordinarily say and do in face-to-face encounters.

· Reduced concern for self-presentation and the judgment of others

Factors that contribute to online disinhibition:

1 Anonymity

· People are often more likely to say and do certain things online when they can remain "unknown" to others and can conceal any and all aspects of their identity (name, sex, race, hometown, etc.). 

2 Invisibility

· When people can control the amount and duration of their visibility online, they often feel less inhibited and may be more likely to say things that they would not typically say in face-to-face interactions. 

3 Asynchronicity

· Online settings remove the pressures associated with interacting with others in "real" time and observing their immediate reactions. Thus, even with people we know, we become less inhibited when communicating via digital technologies and may be more likely to say things we wouldn't feel comfortable saying to them in person.

4 Minimization of authority

· Whereas power differences are often emphasized or noticeable in face-to-face encounters, online settings can create the sense of a more level playing field and allow parties to interact more as "equals." Though we may be aware of others' offline status and authority, we are less likely to be intimidated by it on the Internet or when communicating via digital technologies. 

Toxic vs. Benign Disinhibition

While online disinhibition can be problematic and harmful, it can also be positive and lead to beneficial outcomes. Thus, it is important to distinguish between toxic and benign disinhibition.

Toxic disinhibition = angry, threatening, and/or offensive behavior prompted by the feeling of being "disinhibited" online.

· Flaming (discussed) above, cyber bullying, threats, offensive comments, etc.

Benign disinhibition = revealing personal information and intimate details or showing unusual kindness/generosity to others due to feeling "disinhibited" online.

· Personal self-disclosures, "opening up" to strangers, random acts of kindness (e.g., GoFundMe donations, "liking" someone's Facebook post although you wouldn't likely compliment them in person, etc.)

· Benign disinhibition is what helps a lot of online dating couples "connect" 

Self-Presentation Online

When creating a persona online, people tend to engage in two processes: 1) Selective Self-Presentation and 2) Warranting

Selective Self-Presentation 

· Conveying a desired impression to others

· The tendency for people to highlight positive information that makes them most desirable

· Not blatantly lying or being dishonest, but embellishing/bragging

Warranting

· Information with warranting value cannot be easily altered or falsified

· Links to blogs, personal websites, or other verifiable sources

· Specific information (5’8” instead of “average height”)

· Multiple (recent and accurate) photographs

Selective Self-Presentation, Warranting, and Online Dating

Communication scholars Wotipka and High (2016) examined how selective self-presentation and warranting behaviors affected viewers' perceptions of others' online dating profiles and their desire to contact the profile's owner.

316 online daters viewed 4 different profile types:

· High Selective Self-Presentation & High Warranting

· High Selective Self-Presentation & Low Warranting

· Low Selective Self-Presentation & Low Warranting

· Low Selective Self-Presentation & High Warranting

Participants were asked to rate the following for each of the 4 profiles: trustworthiness, social attraction, intention to date, and desire to contact profile owner

The profiles favored the MOST by participants were:

· Low Selective Self-Presentation & Low Warranting

· Low Selective Self-Presentation & High Warranting

In other words, participants preferred the LOW selective self-presentation profiles (the profiles that contained less bragging).

The profiles favored the LEAST by participants were:

· High Selective Self-Presentation & High Warranting

· High Selective Self-Presentation & Low Warranting

In other words, participants were more turned off by the HIGH selective self-presentation profiles (the profiles that contained more bragging).

Summary of the study's findings: Viewers judged people who bragged about themselves, their looks, or their accomplishments too much as less trustworthy and less socially attractive, thereby lessening their intentions to date or contact the profile owner.

 

 

Main takeaway from the study? Braggers don't get dates! Also, how we present ourselves online MATTERS.

Communication & Technology: Key Takeaways

· Technology has (and continues) to change how we communicate, live our lives, and form and maintain relationships

However, there is no simple answer to the question of whether technology is "good" or "bad" for our relationships; rather, CMC has both advantages and disadvantages.

It is important to be aware of these advantages and disadvantages and strive to use CMC in responsible, mature, and productive ways

· People should clearly communicate to their relational partners their expectations for CMC and text-based communication 

Discuss rules for CMC

Craft messages carefully

Be aware of potential misinterpretations/misunderstandings

Ask for clarification

· It is important to be careful about how we present ourselves online and via text (text-messaging & email)