georgaphy

1. The Cold War - (1945-1989) The United States and the USSR were regarded as two superpowers during the Cold War, each having its own sphere of influence, its power and forces. The Cold War had been the continuing conflict, caused by tensions, misunderstandings and competitions that existed between the United States and the USSR, as well as their allies from 1945 to the early 1990s. Throughout this long period, there was the so-called rivalry between the United States and the USSR, which was expressed through various transformations, including military buildup, the spread of propaganda, the growth of espionage, weapons development, considerable industrial advances, and competitive technological developments in different spheres of human activity, such as medicine, education, space exploration, etc.

· There four major causes of the Cold War, which include:

· Ideological differences (communism v. capitalism);

· Mutual distrust and misperception;

· The fear of the United State regarding the spread of communism;

· The nuclear arms race.

In my opinion, it is very important part of the chapter because the impact of the Cold War on the development of many countries was enormous. The consequences of the Cold War were derived from numerous internal problems of the countries, which were connected with the USSR, especially developing countries (India, Africa, etc.).

2. Winston Churchill (1874 – 1965) plays a big role in Cold War because he served as the prime minister of Great Britain from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. He led Britain's fight against Nazi Germany in World War II. Also, it is important to know that Churchill was not only a great leader but a great orator as well, we know his amazing speeches like “What is the use of living, if it be not to strive for noble causes and to make this muddled world a better place for those who will live in it after we are gone?” which means that he really cared about the generation of the young men.

Churchill was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 “for his mastery of historical and biographical description as well as for brilliant oratory in defending exalted human values.” Towards the end of his life, Churchill became an accomplished artist, though he found the years of retirement difficult and suffered periods of depression.

War Time Poster of Churchill

3. Joseph Stalin (1878-1953) Stalin was the one who made USSR a superpower and also created the Warsaw Pact. Also known to be one of most powerful dictators of the 20th century if not all time. He was the leader of the Soviet Communist Party from 1922 until his death in 1953. Following the death of V.I. Lenin, the first leader of Soviet Russia, Stalin managed to win complete control of the party, ruling as a dictator for the next thirty years. He led the Soviet Union through World War II and—not without justification—believed that his country made the greatest sacrifices to defeat Nazi Germany.

Such an outstanding person could not but invoke polar opinions about his activity; and there are several schools of thought. The advocates of liberal thought view Stalin as the executioner of freedom and initiative, a creator of the totalitarian society and a criminal who committed so many crimes against humanity he could only be compared to Adolf Hitler.

The Communist Party has an ambivalent perception of Stalin. The pro-Stalinists justify his every deed and see him as the true successor to Lenin, while those in the opposition deem Stalin a traitor and betrayer of Lenin’s ideas.

The extremist wing praises Stalin as the only true salvation and the only real ruler suited for Russia. They see his “strong hand” policy as the only true way to have revived the Russian state.

Today the role of Stalin in Russian history is the subject of bitter public debate, with a number of Russian history textbooks calling him “an effective manager” and others presenting him as absolute evil.

4. Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He is important in chapter because he was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology, and one of the leading figures in 20th-century French philosophy and Marxism.

His work has also influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continues to influence these disciplines.

Existentialism and Humanism is probably the most widely read of all Sartre’s philosophical writings, and it is certainly one of his more accessible pieces; yet surprisingly little has been written about it. One explanation for this may be that Sartre himself came to regret the publication of the book and later repudiated parts of it. Nevertheless Existentialism and Humanism provides a good introduction to a number of key themes in his major work of the same period, Being and Nothingness, and to some of the fundamental questions about human existence which are the starting point for most people’s interest in philosophy at all. He was one of the best French philosophers of that time. Here are some of his well-known quotes about humanity in general: “Man is condemned to be free; because once thrown into the world, he is responsible for everything he does”, and “Freedom is what you do with what's been done to you”. All of Sartre’s quotes have a very profound meaning that will help you question your inner and outer world and give you a deeper perspective.

Sartre 1967.

5. Dylan Marlais Thomas (27 October 1914 – 9 November 1953) it is important to know that Thomas came to be appreciated as a popular poet during his lifetime, though he found earning a living as a writer difficult. He began augmenting his income with reading tours and radio broadcasts. His radio recordings for the BBC during the late 1940s brought him to the public's attention, and he was frequently used by the BBC as a populist voice of the literary scene.

Thomas first travelled to the United States in the 1950s. His readings there brought him a level of fame, while his erratic behaviour and drinking worsened. His time in America cemented his legend, however, and he went on to record to vinyl such works as A Child's Christmas in Wales. During his fourth trip to New York in 1953, Thomas became gravely ill and fell into a coma, from which he never recovered. He died on 9 November 1953. His body was returned to Wales where he was interred at the village churchyard in Laugharne on 25 November 1953.

Though Thomas wrote exclusively in the English language, he has been acknowledged as one of the most important Welsh poets of the 20th century. He is noted for his original, rhythmic and ingenious use of words and imagery. His position as one of the great modern poets has been much discussed, and he remains popular with the public.

In his biography of Thomas, Paul Ferris writes that ‘He was an answer to the machine; his poems contain few images drawn from the twentieth century… His subject was still himself, as it had always been, but in those last years he filled the background with scenes and creatures from nature, celebrating the world but seeing death in the living.”

Here is the part one of Dylan Thomas's most famous and best-loved poem “‘Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night’(1952)

'' Do not go gentle into that good night,

Old age should burn and rave at close of day;

Rage, rage against the dying of the light. ''

What an ingenious use of words and imagery!

6. The Harlem Renaissance - When considering essential movements in American poetry, no conversation would be complete without a discussion of the Harlem Renaissance. With a lyricism seated in the popular blues and jazz music of the time, an awareness of black life in America, its assertion of an independent African American identity, and its innovation in form and structure, the poetry of the Harlem Renaissance is unmistakable.

The timing of this coming-of-age was perfect. The years between World War I and the Great Depression were boom times for the United States, and jobs were plentiful in cities, especially in the North. Between 1920 and 1930, almost 750,000 African Americans left the South, and many of them migrated to urban areas in the North to take advantage of the prosperity—and the more racially tolerant environment. The Harlem section of Manhattan, which covers just 3 sq mi, drew nearly 175,000 African Americans, turning the neighborhood into the largest concentration of black people in the world.

The white literary establishment soon became fascinated with the writers of the Harlem Renaissance and began publishing them in larger numbers. But for the writers themselves, acceptance by the white world was less important, as Langston Hughes put it, than the "expression of our individual dark-skinned selves."

Droning a drowsy syncopated tune,

Rocking back and forth to a mellow croon,

I heard a Negro play.

Down on Lenox Avenue the other night

By the pale dull pallor of an old gas light

He did a lazy sway. . .

He did a lazy sway. . .

To the tune o’ those Weary Blues. ( Langston Hughes, “The Weary Blues”)

7. Black History -The Civil Rights Movement: 1919-1960s The U.S. Civil Rights Movement that began in the mid-1950s was dedicated to the activism for equal rights and treatment of African-Americans. During this era, people rallied for cultural, political, legal and social changes to end segregation and prohibit discrimination.

Many of the new African American radicals called for black separatism or nationalism—that is,

separation from white society rather than integration with it. Not content merely to seek civil

equality, they began to press for social and economic equality. They also questioned the

usefulness of nonviolence and no longer sought to include whites in the movement. SNCC, for

example, became an all-black organization in 1966. The arguments of the African American

radicals were punctuated by urban riots such as those in the Watts section of Los Angeles in

1965.

By the late 1960s, African Americans still suffered from many disadvantages, including poverty

rates that were much higher than those among whites and physical health that was much worse.

Racially motivated violence persisted as well, as seen in the assassination of King by a white

man in 1968.

The Civil Rights Movement is an important part of our history. Despite these problems, the civil

rights movement had forever changed the face of U.S. law and politics. It had led to legislation

that gave greater protection to the rights of minorities. It had also greatly changed the role of the

judiciary in U.S. government, as the Supreme Court had become more active in its defense of

individual rights, often in response to litigation and demonstrations initiated by those in the

movement. In this respect, the Court and the civil rights movement had great influence on each

other, with each reacting to and encouraging the efforts of the other. Likewise, the federal

government had, even if hesitatingly, enforced the rights of a persecuted minority in the face of

vigorous opposition from the southern states.

African-American Civil Rights Movement. 1963 march on Washington

8. Louis Armstrong (August 4, 1901 – July 6, 1971), nicknamed Satchmo or Satch, was an American trumpeter, composer, singer and occasional actor who was one of the most influential figures in jazz. His career spanned five decades, from the 1920s to the 1960s, and different eras in jazz.

Louis Armstrong had a very long and successful career. He influenced the direction of jazz music and improvisation. Armstrong was the first ever “Super Star” of jazz music. His reputation as the best jazz player of his time was secured as Armstrong’s formation of swing and melodic innovation opened out and transformed Henderson’s band as well as jazz as a whole. He incorporated the jazz style of his hometown with popular jazz of Broadway to integrate a new and improved type of jazz. “I wouldn’t say I know what jazz is, because I don’t look at it from that angle. I look at it from music—we never did worry about what it was in New Orleans, we just always tried to play good.” –Louis Armstrong (Wald)

As the most accessible of all jazz performers and a universally beloved figure, Louis Armstrong introduced jazz to a countless number of listeners while symbolizing the music for millions. His importance to jazz, whether through his solos, singing or ability to win over listeners, cannot be measured. The history of jazz, American music and music in general would be much different if there had not been a Louis Armstrong.

(Uncredited Photographer Louis Armstrong, Chicago 1932)

9. Gender Equality - While the world has achieved progress towards gender equality and women’s empowerment under the Millennium Development Goals (including equal access to primary education between girls and boys), women and girls continue to suffer discrimination and violence in every part of the world.

Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right, but a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous and sustainable world. Providing women and girls with equal access to education, health care, decent work, and representation in political and economic decision-making processes will fuel sustainable economies and benefit societies and humanity at large.

Goal 5 targets

· About two thirds of countries in the developing regions have achieved gender parity in primary education

· In Southern Asia, only 74 girls were enrolled in primary school for every 100 boys in 1990. By 2012, the enrolment ratios were the same for girls as for boys.

· In sub-Saharan Africa, Oceania and Western Asia, girls still face barriers to entering both primary and secondary school.

· Women in Northern Africa hold less than one in five paid jobs in the non-agricultural sector. The proportion of women in paid employment outside the agriculture sector has increased from 35 per cent in 1990 to 41 per cent in 2015

· In 46 countries, women now hold more than 30 per cent of seats in national parliament in at least one chamber.

I believe that gender equality and women’s empowerment isn’t a part of development but the core of development. Progress cannot be delivered in a vacuum. For societies to thrive, women and girls must have access to education, healthcare, and technology. They must have control of resources, lands, and markets. And they must have equal rights and equal opportunities as breadwinners, peace-builders and leaders.

10. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe – (March 27, 1886 – August 17, 1969) is one of the most influential architects of the 20th century, known for his role in the development of the most enduring architectural style of the era: modernism. Born in Aachen, Germany, Mies' career began in the influential studio of Peter Behrens, where Mies worked alongside other two other titans of modernism, Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier. For almost a century, Mies' minimalist style has proved very popular; his famous aphorism "less is more" is still widely used, even by those who are unaware of its origins. In the 1960s Mies continued to create beautiful buildings, among them the Bacardi Building in Mexico City (1961); One Charles Center office building in Baltimore (1963); the Federal Center in Chicago (1964); the Public Library in Washington, D.C. (1967); and, most Miesian of all, the Gallery of the Twentieth Century (later called the New National Gallery) in Berlin, dedicated in 1968. A heavy man, badly plagued by arthritis, Mies continued to live alone in a spacious apartment in an old building near Lake Michigan in Chicago until his death in 1969. The IBM Building (1972), in Chicago, was completed after his death.

AMA Plaza AMA Plaza

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s IBM Building at 330 North Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Illinois.

Although Mies attracted a great number of disciples, his indirect influence was perhaps of even greater importance. He is the only modern architect who formulated a genuinely contemporary and universally applicable architectural canon, and office buildings all over the world echo his concepts. His work eventually came under criticism in the 1970s for rigidity, coldness, and anonymity, but it was Mies’s declared choice to accept the nature of 20th-century industrial society and express it in his architecture.