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Part 5 Leadership Principles

10. Effective Leadership and Human Relations 11. The Team Concept

THE BOSS DRIVES; the leader coaches.

The boss wants power; the leader, good will.

The boss creates fear; the leader builds pride.

The boss says “I”; the leader says “We.”

The boss places blame; the leader solves the problem.

The boss knows how; the leader shows how.

The boss uses people; the leader serves others.

The boss preaches; the leader teaches.

The boss takes credit; the leader gives credit.

The boss commands; the leader asks.

The boss says “Go”; the leader says “Let’s go.”

—William J. Stewart

Author and educator

Learning Objectives

After studying Part Five, you will be able to: • Apply the principles and practices of effective leadership. • Develop a high-morale, high-performance workforce. • Understand the importance of good human relations in the work setting. • Demonstrate the art of effective listening. • Identify the elements of an enlightened workplace. • Describe the characteristics of a high-performance group. • Know what the leader can do to develop communication, teamwork, and

a one-team attitude.

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Effective Leadership and Human Relations

Part 5 addresses the role of the leader in creating a high-morale and high-performance workplace. Topics include work satisfaction, human relations,and team leadership. Chapter 10 begins with principles and practices for effective leadership.

How do you go about being an effective leader? Author and educator Warren Bennis provides a short-course answer distilled from years of study and experience:

Be yourself. Figure out what you are good at. Hire only good people who care. Treat people the way you want to be treated. Focus on one or two critical objectives. Ask your co-workers how to get there. Listen well. Call the play. Get out of their way. Cheer them on. Count the gains. Start right now.1

No individual has been more influential than Peter Drucker in the study and practice of effective leadership. His books are classics on the subject, and his advice has helped six generations of leaders. Drucker’s conclusions about leadership include the following:

1. There may be “born leaders,” but these are few. Effective leadership can be learned.

2. Without followers, there can be no leaders. Trust is the glue that binds the two.

3. Leadership is not rank, privilege, or title. Leadership is responsibility.

4. Popularity is not leadership; nor is it style or personality. Leadership is results.2

When Drucker died in 2005, Fortune, BusinessWeek, and The Wall Street Journal declared him to be the greatest management thinker and writer of all time. His ideas influenced Winston Churchill, Bill Gates, Jack Welch, and the Japanese business establishment, citing a famous few out of millions. Francess Hesselbein, past editor of the Harvard Business Review and CEO of the Girl Scouts of the USA, describes the influence of Peter Drucker: “In his 65 years of work, Peter Drucker redefined the social sector, redefined society, redefined leadership and management—and gave mission, motivation, and values powerful meanings that have changed our lives.” Drucker’s influence endures today especially in the booming economies of Asia where old school values like integrity and humility fit well with Confucian heritage.3

Certain principles of leadership have optimum positive influence on followers. Consider Amos Alonzo Stagg, Knute Rockne, Joe Paterno, Eddie Robinson, and Paul “Bear” Bryant in the field of sports. Although their styles were different, each followed universal principles of leadership that brought out the best in the pride and performance of people. These principles constitute leadership by competence. They apply at all levels of leadership and in all fields of work.4

For an evaluation of your competence as a leader (or an evaluation of your leader’s competence), complete Exercise 10–1 and read the rationale that follows each question. Note that this questionnaire is an assessment of leadership behaviors, as opposed to personality traits. Followers are unable to read the minds of their leaders and can go only by what they see them do; therefore, it is important to consider how well you are practicing the principles of effective leadership.

CHAPTER

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Circle the appropriate number for each response, and read the accompanying rationale. If you are evaluating your leader, substitute he or she for I, and his or her for my.

A. I have a clear understanding of my responsibilities in order of priority. 1. I haven’t the foggiest. 2. Things are vague. 3. There is some confusion. 4. Generally speaking, yes. 5. Exactly.

Rationale: ■ If the leader is confused about personal goals and duties, how can the leader guide the

behavior of others? The leader won’t know in which direction to lead them.

B. All my people know what their job duties are in order of priority. 1. None do. 2. Some do. 3. Most do. 4. Almost all do. 5. All do.

Rationale: ■ Job expectations must be understood and agreed upon for maximum job satisfaction

and work performance. ■ Not knowing what is expected of you is a major cause of stress at work. ■ Manage by the Marine Corps “rule of three”—most people can efficiently handle three

key responsibilities.

C. The jobs my people have are satisfying to them. 1. Not really. 2. Some are. 3. So-so. 4. More than most. 5. Definitely yes.

Rationale: ■ A person’s work is an important part of personal identity in Western society. ■ Work must be personally satisfying if high morale and productivity are to be achieved.

D. My people know whether they are doing a good job or if they need to improve. 1. No, it’s best they don’t. 2. Some do. 3. I try to get to most of them. 4. Practically all do. 5. Yes, it’s rare if they don’t.

Rationale: ■ Not knowing how you are doing causes worry and anxiety and dissipates energy.

E. I recognize and reward good performance. 1. The paycheck is enough. 2. Sometimes. 3. More often than not. 4. Almost always. 5. Always.

Rationale: ■ Appreciation for a job well done reinforces good work. ■ Ignoring a job well done reduces commitment. The employee begins to think, If they

don’t care, why should I? People need psychic, social, and economic reinforcement at work.

Exercise 10–1 Leadership Report Card5

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■ Glorify the lower levels of the organization. Celebrate their successes and take pride in their performance. Most of an organization’s critical tasks are accomplished by frontline leaders and their teams.

■ Recognition techniques that build morale include (1) personal thanks; (2) year-end cel- ebrations; (3) courtesy time off; (4) traveling trophy; (5) money.

F. I have criticized an employee in the presence of others. 1. I believe in making an example. 2. Occasionally. 3. Almost never. 4. Once. 5. Never, not once.

Rationale: ■ Public criticism embarrasses, alienates, and ultimately outrages not only the employee

being chastised, but all who are present as well. ■ As Ralph Waldo Emerson said, “Criticism should not be querulous and wasting, all knife

and rootpuller; but guiding, instructive and inspiring—a south wind, not an east wind.”6

G. I care about the personal well-being of my people, and they know it. 1. Honestly, no. 2. Some of them, yes. 3. Usually. 4. Almost all of them, yes. 5. Totally.

Rationale: ■ People resent being treated as unimportant; they want leaders to care about them and

show respect for their interests, their problems, and their needs. Whether by personal hospital visits when they are ill, or by providing the best equipment and working tools available, or by sharing in the trials of battle and the rewards of victory, the effective leader shows consideration for others. Plutarch in Lives has this to say about the Roman leader, Julius Caesar:

Caesar implanted and nurtured high spirits in his men: (1) first by gracious treatment and by bestowing awards without stint, demonstrating that the wealth he amassed from wars was a carefully guarded trust for rewarding gallantry, with no larger share for himself than accrued to the soldiers who merited it; and (2) secondly by willingly exposing himself to every danger and shrinking from no personal hardship of battle faced by his fellow soldiers.7

■ A leader’s ability to remember aspects of followers’ personal lives (names of children, favorite hobbies, etc.) creates a bond that causes followers to admire and support the leader.

H. I have policies and procedures for employee development and cross-training. 1. There is no need for this. 2. I plan to someday. 3. On occasion, for some employees. 4. Yes, generally speaking. 5. It is a major commitment I have.

Rationale: ■ Employee training does six important things: builds skills, raises morale, cuts avoidable

turnover and absenteeism, raises loyalty, reduces mistakes, and increases productivity.

I. I have given assignments to people without first considering the availability of their time and the competence they possess. 1. Often. 2. Occasionally. 3. Rarely. 4. I almost never do this. 5. Never.

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Rationale:

■ Assigning work that is over a person’s level of skill creates undue stress and is likely to result in a costly error.

■ Assigning more work than is possible to accomplish in the time available creates frus- tration, low morale, resentment, and lower performance in the long run.

J. I have been accused of favoritism regarding some of my employees.

1. Often.

2. More than most.

3. At times.

4. Rarely.

5. Never.

Rationale:

■ The values of equality and fair treatment are widely shared in Western society; favoritism runs directly counter to these values.

K. I take personal responsibility for the orders I give and never quote a superior to gain compliance.

1. Never.

2. Rarely.

3. Usually.

4. Almost always.

5. Always.

Rationale:

■ Leaders who violate this principle lose the respect of their direct reports, upper manage- ment, and ultimately themselves as they become merely “paper leaders.”

■ The effective leader agrees with Harry Truman, who said, “The buck stops here” and “If you can’t stand the heat, get out of the kitchen.”

■ When a leader refers to higher managers as “they,” he or she drives a wedge between the employees and the organization, failing senior managers and employees as well.

■ Karl Menninger’s definition of loyalty can be helpful here:

Loyalty doesn’t mean that I agree with everything you say, or that I believe you are always right, or that I follow your will in blind obedience. Loyalty means that we share the same values and principles, and when minor differences arise, we work together, shoulder to shoulder, confident in each other’s good faith, trust, constancy, and affection. Then together, we go forward, secure in the knowledge that few day-to-day matters are hills worth dying on.8

L. I do not promise what cannot be delivered, and I deliver on all promises made.

1. I have dropped the ball often.

2. I have failed occasionally.

3. Usually.

4. Almost without exception.

5. Always.

Rationale:

■ Broken promises lower employee confidence and respect for the leader.

■ Disappointments deflate employee morale and performance, especially when they come from the leader.

M. My people understand the reasoning behind policies and procedures.

1. Rarely.

2. Occasionally.

3. Sometimes.

4. Usually.

5. Always.

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Rationale:

■ Not knowing the purpose of a policy or procedure can result in mistakes.

■ The following story shows the importance of understanding why:

The members of a crew on a submarine were about to take battle stations, and the ship’s Captain was worried about a young seaman whose job it was to close the water- tight doors between certain compartments. The young man didn’t seem to realize the purpose of his job, so the Captain undertook to impress him. He told him that if he failed his job, the ship would be lost. Not only that, some of the men aboard were specialists and it cost thousands to train each of them; they might be drowned. The Captain stated: “So you see how important it is that you do your job . . . this is a very expensive ship, and these men are very valuable.” The young crewman replied: “Yes sir, and then there’s me too.” The Captain stopped worrying.9

■ Uncertainty about policies can lead to paralysis.

N. The rules we live by are discussed and modified as needed.

1. Rarely.

2. Sometimes.

3. Usually.

4. Almost always.

5. Always.

Rationale:

■ People are more likely to follow a rule they help set.

■ People need to know the appropriate limits of behavior and guidelines for conduct.

■ Rules should be periodically reviewed for appropriateness; some rules may no longer be necessary or desirable.

O. I encourage my people to express disagreement with my views, especially if I’m dealing in a controversial area.

1. Never.

2. Rarely.

3. Sometimes.

4. Fairly often.

5. Always.

Rationale:

■ People have the need to express themselves on emotional issues without fear of reprisal.

■ Good ideas can come from constructive disagreement.

■ Remember Harry Truman’s advice: “I want people around me who will tell me the truth as they see it. You cannot operate if you have people around you who put you on a pedestal and tell you everything you do is right. Because that can’t be possible.”10

P. My people know and feel free to use a right of appeal, formal and informal.

1. There is no procedure for appeal.

2. There is a procedure, but it is not widely known.

3. Some do.

4. Most do.

5. All do.

Rationale:

■ Not all decisions are good ones, and some should be reversed.

■ Every rule must have an exception, and a review or appeal process can facilitate this.

■ An appeal process is a defense against arbitrary and capricious treatment, and it meets the need for a sense of fairness.

Q. The last time I listened closely to a suggestion from my people was:

1. I can’t remember.

2. Two months ago.

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3. A month ago. 4. Last week. 5. Within the past two days.

Rationale: ■ Not listening shows disrespect, and people shut down when they do not feel respected. ■ Important information and ideas may be lost unless two-way communication prevails. ■ Ben Jonson’s words make the point well: “Very few men are wise by their own counsel;

or learned by their own teaching. For he that was only taught by himself had a fool to be his [teacher].”11

■ One of the best ways to keep communication lines open is to be available. The simple act of placing your office in a position near the lobby, parking lot, or hall is a time- tested way to stay informed of employee needs and suggestions.

R. I encourage my people to participate in decisions affecting them unless com- pelling reasons prevent it. 1. Rarely. 2. Sometimes. 3. Usually. 4. Almost always. 5. Always.

Rationale: ■ Democracy is a political value taught in our society. It should come as no surprise when

employees want to be involved in decisions that affect them. ■ Participation leads to understanding; understanding leads to commitment; and com-

mitment leads to loyalty. ■ Peter Drucker makes the point: Good leaders know how to tell; great leaders know how

to ask.12

S. I have mastered both the job knowledge and technical skills of my work. 1. I am totally out of my element. 2. I need much improvement. 3. I am OK. 4. I am very good. 5. I am excellent.

Rationale: ■ Job knowledge helps the leader gain the respect and loyalty of people. ■ Job expertise helps solve critical problems. ■ Effective leaders are teachers and developers of people; this role requires keeping job

knowledge current.

T. I have lost control of my emotions or faculties in the presence of my people. 1. Often. 2. Occasionally. 3. Rarely. 4. Almost never. 5. Never.

Rationale: ■ Emotional stability in the leader can be an anchor of strength for others. ■ Past a certain point, as emotionality increases, objectivity and the ability to make good

judgments decrease.

U. I set a good example for my people in the use of my time at work.

1. If they did what I do, we’d be in trouble.

2. I waste significant amounts of time.

3. Sometimes yes, sometimes no.

4. Usually.

5. I wish they would use me as a model.

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Rationale:

■ Because people are influenced primarily by the example the leader sets, leaders must follow effective time management practices.

■ Effective time-management results in efficiency and smooth operations in the work setting.

Scoring:

Add the numbers you circled for all 21 questions; record your total score here:

Interpretation:

Check the following list for an evaluation of your (or your leader’s) competence as a leader.

Score Evaluation

95–105 You should go to the head of the class. Your leadership practices can serve as a model for others. Your behavior concerning employee commu- nication, rewards, decision making, assignment of work, and the example you set are ideal.

84–94 You are on solid footing as a leader. You understand and employ the basic principles of effective leadership, regardless of the level and field of work. People should be happy under your direction, and the quality of their work can be expected to be high.

63–83 You are doing some things right, and you are making mistakes in other areas. Go back to the test, determine where your strengths are, and capi- talize on those areas. Also, work diligently to raise your low scores. For example: Do you have good two-way communication with your people? Are you following the principles of effective motivation? Are you setting a good example by your own work habits and the use of your time?

62 and lower Because of lack of training, lack of application, or lack of aptitude, you are not practicing the principles of good leadership. To diagnose the problem, answer these three questions: (1) Have you been reading the wrong book or following the wrong models of leadership? (2) Do you know the right answers but have been inattentive to practicing them? (3) Are you cut out for leadership, or do you feel more comfortable working alone—being responsible for your own work, as opposed to assigning, coordinating, teaching, coaching, and facilitating the work of others?

Whatever the cause of your low scores, for the benefit of your employees and the quality of work of your group, you should address the problem and solve it. The best way to do this is to read the rationale for the correct answers and then make every effort to exhibit the correct behavior on the job.

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Work Morale The importance of morale has been recognized by all great leaders. Napoleon once wrote: “An army’s success depends on its size, equipment, experience, and morale . . . and morale is worth more than all of the other elements combined.”13

Meta-analyses of research studies show positive relationships between employee morale and organizational commitment, job performance, organizational citizenship, and retention.14

A person’s morale can be diagnosed according to the percentage of time spent on the job in each of three states—work, play, and hell. Consider your own job. What percentage of your time is spent doing work (drudgery)? What percentage is spent at play (enjoyable, uplifting activities)? What percentage is hell (pain and torture)? Record your percentages below to assess your morale.

State Percentage of time Work Play Hell Total 100%

If less than 20 percent of your job is enjoyable, your interest, commitment, and ultimately your performance will go down. There is not enough satisfaction in your job. If more than 20 percent of your job is hell, your attitude, performance, relationships, and even your health may be affected. More than a day of your week is spent in a miserable state. An acceptable work (drudgery) quotient depends on the work ethic you have developed. Because of either Western world or Eastern world socialization, some people have a higher degree of self-discipline and tolerance for tedious labor.

The single best way to achieve high morale is to get the right person in the right job in the first place. As a job aid in doing this, career counseling can be helpful. To find out what people actually do in a variety of jobs, what the salaries and working conditions are, and what the current and future job prospects are, see the Occupational Outlook Handbook, compiled by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. It can be found online at http://www.bls.gov/oco/. See also O*NET at http://online.onetcenter.org/.

Some policies and techniques for maximizing morale seem to work with the majority of employees in most cases. A review of 550 studies published since 1959 shows nine areas in which management can take action that will have positive effects on employee satisfaction and job performance. Following are the nine areas and possible actions:

■ Pay and reward systems. Introduce a group bonus. ■ Job autonomy and discretion. Allow workers to determine their own work methods. ■ Support services. Provide service on demand from technical support groups. ■ Training. Provide training and development for all employees. ■ Organizational structure. Reduce the number of hierarchical levels. ■ Technical and physical aspects. Break long production and assembly lines into

smaller work units. ■ Task assignments. Assign whole tasks, including preparatory and finishing work. ■ Information and feedback. Solicit and utilize direct feedback from users—

clients, customers, other departments. ■ Interpersonal and group processes. Increase the amount and types of group in-

teraction.

Research shows that positive results can be obtained by using one or more of these techniques. Costs go down, and the quality of work and quality of work life improve.15

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Raising Employee Morale

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Robert Levering, in his best-selling book A Great Place to Work, describes high morale as having pride in what you do (the job itself), enjoying the people you are working with (the work group), trusting the people you work for (management prac- tices), and gaining economic rewards (wage and benefits). One of the best ways to understand the importance of morale is to evaluate your own level of morale in these four key areas. Complete the following exercise (Exercise 10–2).

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The Measurement of Morale

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The following survey addresses a number of work-related issues. Answer each question as it relates to your own experience. Circle the appropriate response.

Job

1. At this point in my job, I am doing the things I feel are important.

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Agree

2. When it comes to challenge, the job I am doing is demanding.

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Agree

3. As things are now, I have a sense of accomplishment in the work I am doing.

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Agree

Group

4. When it comes to pride in the work of my co-workers, it is high.

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Agree

5. I like the people with whom I work.

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Agree

6. There is teamwork between my co-workers and me.

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Agree

Management

7. Management strives to be fair.

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Agree

8. I understand and agree with the goals of management.

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Agree

9. Management shows concern for employees.

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Agree

Exercise 10–2: Morale Survey—What Is Your Level of Morale?16

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Economics

10. My wages are satisfactory.

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Agree

11. My fringe benefits are satisfactory.

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Agree

12. The opportunity for advancement is satisfactory—if I desire to pursue it.

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Agree

Scoring:

What does the Morale Survey tell you about your own work situation? To find your level of satisfaction in four important areas—the job itself, relations with co-workers, practices of management, and economic rewards—complete the following three steps.

Step One:

For each question, score 1 for “Strongly Disagree,” 2 for “Disagree,” 3 for “Undecided,” 4 for “Agree,” and 5 for “Strongly Agree.”

Step Two:

Add the total scores for each section of the questionnaire, divide by 3, and enter the aver- ages in the appropriate spaces below.

Job Group Management Economics

Average for items Average for items Average for items Average for items

1, 2, and 3 4, 5, and 6 7, 8, and 9 10, 11, and 12

Step Three:

Make a three-dimensional picture of your morale at work, using Figure 10–1. Circle the appropriate number on each edge of the box, and connect the circles with straight and dotted lines as shown in the example (Figure 10–2).

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Figure 10–1 Your Levels of Morale

1

5

4

3

1

2

1

2

5

4

3

5

4

3

2

1

4

3

2

Job Management

Group Economics

5

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Score Description Meaning

1.0–2.5

2.6–3.4

3.5–5.0

Low Morale

Wait-and-See Attitude

High Morale

Scores from 1.0 to 2.5 on any one or a combina- tion of the four edges of the box—job, group, management, and economics—indicate a low level of morale. If you are doing a good job, you are doing so because of personal qualities, not because of environmental support.

Scores between 2.6 and 3.4 on any one or a com- bination of the four edges indicate a wait-and-see attitude. It is likely that your morale is neither help- ing nor hurting your job performance at this point. However, you lack a sense of full satisfaction and do not feel complete commitment to your work. Your current condition can be likened to running in place or treading water.

Scores between 3.5 and 5.0 on all four edges in- dicate a high level of morale. You are fortunate in that you receive much satisfaction from your work. You are striving to do the best job possible, and with training and practice your level of perfor- mance could be expected to be high.

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Interpretation:

Figure 10–2 Example of Levels of Morale

1

5

4

3

1

2

1

2

5

4

3

5

4

3

2

1

4

3

2

Job Management

Group Economics

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Managing morale is the task of management. Meeting this responsibility requires a willingness to listen to employees and the ability to read between the lines of what they say and do. In this process, the morale of each person should be considered indi- vidually. Although the elements of morale are the same for everyone—job, group, management, and economic rewards—each element may be more or less important to different people at different times.

■ The nature of the job itself may not be as important to the individual who views work as a temporary source of income while going to school as it is to the person in midcareer who foresees many more years in the same line of work.

■ Typically, wages and the opportunity for advancement are of primary importance to younger workers, while older employees are more interested in fringe benefits for their retirement years. All three—wages, benefits, and advancement—are usually important to workers in their middle years, when the financial demands of raising a family must be met, security for sickness and retirement must be considered, and social needs for status and responsibility can be great.

■ Relations with co-workers and practices of management probably would be less important to the inventor, who works alone, than to factory and office employees, who spend a significant amount of time in the company of co-workers and who are subject to a supervisor’s orders.

In summary, when an employee has an attitude problem that is work-related, stress levels rise and performance goes down. It may be discovered that manage- ment is part of the problem. Occasionally, the problem is caused by other employ- ees. Often, the problem is caused by the employee her- or himself. In any case, management’s potential to help is enormous. If you are a manager and have an employee attitude problem, you should be concerned for the sake of the individual and the good of the organization.17

Work Morale and the Role of the Leader Does morale make a difference, and does leadership count? Yes and yes, say Robert Levering and Milton Moskowitz in The 100 Best Companies to Work for in America, identifying Southwest Airlines as number one and quoting an enthusiastic employee: “Working here is an unbelievable experience. They treat you with respect, pay you well, and ask you to use your ideas to solve problems. They encourage you to be yourself. I love going to work!”18

Although he downplays his role in the success of the company, former CEO Herb Kelleher personifies the honest and caring leader who is committed to his people and who cares about their morale. As CEO, Kelleher spent his business day making sure employees believed in themselves and their company, and he did this in his own unique way. He smoked, arm-wrestled, drank Wild Turkey, rapped in music videos—and he loved it. His employees loved him, too. Kelleher states, “You can’t just lead by the numbers. We’ve always believed that business should be enjoyable as well.”19

Kelleher’s attention to morale paid big dividends for Southwest Airlines. When he became CEO in 1982, the airline had just 27 planes, $270 million in revenues, 2,100 employees, and flights to 14 cities. By the time of his retirement in 2001, Southwest had become a $5.7 billion business with 30,000 employees and was flying to 57 cities. At $14 billion, Southwest’s market capitalization was bigger than American’s, United’s, and Continental’s combined. Most astounding of all was that, since the company first earned a profit in 1973, it never lost a penny. In an industry plagued by fare wars, oil crises, and other disasters, this is an amazing accomplishment—traced primarily to a caring leader who cared about his people.20

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Does job satisfaction help customer satisfaction as well? “Indeed so,” says Virgin Group founder Richard Branson. “It is common sense that happy employees make happy customers. At Virgin Group, our front line makes our bottom line.”21 The business case linking employee satisfaction with customer service is well documented. Research shows employees in a good mood display friendliness and positive interactions more naturally and frequently, and this causes customers to experience positive emotions and loyalty. Also, satisfied employees are less likely to quit their jobs, so they have better knowledge and skills to serve their customers. Lower turnover also enables customers to have the same employees serve them, so there is more consistent service.22

Practical Leadership Tips The task of leadership is to manage morale, which means making sure people (1) feel they are given the opportunity to do what they do best every day; (2) believe their opinions count; (3) sense their fellow employees are committed to doing high-quality work; and (4) have made a direct connection between their work and the company’s mission. By focusing on these key factors and by adhering to the following proven tips for being an effective leader, the leader can keep morale high and performance up in the work group or organization.23

1. Be predictable. One good rule for leading people is: Be consistent. If you give praise for an act today and criticism for the same act tomorrow, the result will be confusion.

2. Be understanding. Try to see things from the other person’s view. How can you appreciate what another person is going through if you have never been there or at least listened?

3. Be enthusiastic. The atmosphere you create determines whether people will give their best efforts when you are not present. Why would they care if you do not?

4. Set the example. It is difficult to ask others to do something (for example, be at work on time—8:00 A.M.) if you, yourself, aren’t willing to do it.

5. Show support. People want a leader they can trust in times of need and a person they can depend on to represent their interests. Care about your people and they will care about you. Mutual loyalty is an important force for getting things done, especially in emergencies and adverse conditions.

6. Get out of the office. Visit frontline people with your eyes and ears open. Ask questions, understand their concerns, and gain their support. This has to be done often enough to show that you care about their problems and their ideas.

7. Keep promises. When you make promises, keep them faithfully. One key to being an effective leader is credibility. Credibility is the formation of trust, and trust is an essential quality employees want in a leader.

8. Praise generously. Never let an opportunity pass to give a well-deserved com- pliment. Don’t forget to show appreciation for effort as well as accomplishments, and do so in writing whenever possible.

9. Hold your fire. Say less than you think. Cultivate a pleasant tone of voice. How you say something is often more important than what you say. Most important, ask people, don’t tell them. Discuss, don’t argue.

10. Always be fair. Show respect, consideration, and support for all employees equally, but differentiate rewards based on performance. Reward good performers in a similar fashion, and nonperformers in a similar fashion, but don’t reward good per- formers and nonperformers in the same fashion. Doing so is a sure way to demotivate good performers and lower the quality of work for all.

Psychological Health and the Concept of Flow Research supports the importance of work as a central activity in people’s lives. When asked, “If you had enough money to live as comfortably as you would like for the rest of your life, would you continue to work, or would you stop working?” 70 percent of Americans say they would continue to work.24

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A satisfying work experience is important for emotional well-being. The Russian writer Fyodor Dostoyevsky expressed this when he wrote, “If it were considered desirable to destroy a human being, the only thing necessary would be to give his work a climate of uselessness.”25

Thomas Jefferson believed it was neither wealth nor splendor, but tranquillity and occupation, which give happiness.26 Along these lines, University of Chicago psy- chologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi coined the term flow after studying artists who could spend hour after hour painting and sculpting with enormous concentration. The artists, immersed in a challenging project and exhibiting high levels of skill, worked as if nothing else mattered.27

Flow is the confluence of challenge and skill, and it is what the poet Joseph Campbell meant when he said, “Follow your bliss.” In all fields of work, from accounting to zookeeping, when we are challenged by something we are truly good at, we become so absorbed in the flow of the activity that we lose consciousness of self and time. We avoid states of anxiety, boredom, and apathy, and we experience flow. See Figure 10–3.

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Figure 10–3 The Experience of Flow Combines High Challenge and High Skill

High Challenge

Low Challenge

High Skill

Low Skill

FlowAnxiety

BoredomApathy

Note that low skill � low challenge � apathy and diminished work life; low skill � high challenge � anxiety and low self-esteem; high skill � low challenge � boredom and low creativity; high skill � high challenge � the experience of flow and work fulfillment.

What is it like to be in a state of flow? Csikszentmihalyi, in his book The Evolving Self, reports that over and over again, people describe the same dimensions of flow:

■ A clear and present purpose distinctly known. ■ Immediate feedback on how well one is doing. ■ Supreme concentration on the task at hand as other concerns are temporarily

suspended. ■ A sense of growth and being part of some greater endeavor as ego boundaries

are transcended. ■ An altered sense of time that usually seems to go faster.28

At this point in time, where are you in your work and professional life: Are you in a state of apathy, anxiety, boredom, or flow? If you are not now in a state of flow, what would it take to get you there?

Forty years ago, Peter Drucker recognized that leaders are more effective when they focus on strengths rather than weaknesses. They capitalize on their own

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strengths and the strengths of their employees.29 Yet research shows that only 20 percent of employees in large organizations say they have an opportunity to per- form tasks they do best.30 The untapped potential of people is the main message in the “concept of flow.” Effective leaders will take action to be sure no employee stays long in a state of apathy, anxiety, or boredom; but instead is challenged to perform in his or her area of strength and gain the satisfaction of the experience of flow.

Job Design and Work Satisfaction The works of Adam Smith and C. Babbage serve as the foundation for contemporary work design.31 The design of good jobs and work satisfaction remain central con- cerns in today’s workplace.32

What constitutes a good job? One of the best models of job design and work satisfaction shows intrinsic and extrinsic factors that are necessary for a rich job.33

Intrinsic factors are:

1. Variety and challenge—including the use of different skills and talents. 2. Opportunity for decision making—including task identity and autonomy. 3. Feedback and learning—including evaluation and suggestions from users. 4. Mutual respect and support—including responsive listening and teamwork. 5. Wholeness and meaning—including tasks of social and personal significance. 6. Room to grow—including development of new knowledge and skills.

The first three must be optimal—not too much, which can add anxiety, or too little, which produces boredom. The second three are open-ended. No one can have too much respect, growing room, or wholeness. Thus a rich job has optimal variety, re- sponsibility, and feedback, and as much respect, growth, and meaning as possible.

The rich job also includes extrinsic conditions of employment:

1. Fair and adequate pay. 2. Job security. 3. Benefits. 4. Safety. 5. Health. 6. Due process.

With this model as a basis, consider the employees in your jurisdiction. What steps can be taken to improve or maintain high job satisfaction?

The Importance of Human Relations Human relations are important to the individual and the society. As John Donne, the seventeenth-century English poet, wrote, in the language of his time:

No man is an Island, intire of its selfe; Every man is a peece of the Continent, A part of the maine; If a Clod be washed away by the Sea, Europe is the lesse, As well as if a Promontorie were, As well as if a Mannor of thy friends, or of thine owne were; Any man’s death diminishes me, Because I am involved in Mankinde; And therefore; Never send to know for whom the bell tolls; It tolls for thee.34

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In The Different Drum, psychiatrist Scott Peck writes: “We are all, in reality, interdependent. Throughout the ages, the greatest leaders of all of the religions have taught us that the journey of growth is the path away from self-love, and toward a state of being in which our identity merges with that of humanity.”35 Effective leaders understand this idea fully, and at a basic level feel connected with their fellow humans, care about the well-being of others, and relate effectively with people.

Consider the words of William Penn: “I expect to pass through this life but once; therefore if there be any kindness I can show or any good thing I can do for any fellow being, let me do it now, not defer or neglect it, for I shall not pass this way again.”

Human Relations in the Workplace Psychologist William Menninger explains the importance of human relationships in the world of work:

The only hope for man to be fulfilled in a world of work is that he get along with his fellowmen—that he try to understand them. He may then be free to contribute to their mutual welfare—theirs and his. Insofar as he fails this, he fails himself and society.36

The first empirical evidence of the importance of human relations in the workplace was provided by studies conducted at Western Electric’s Hawthorne plant. The original purpose of the studies was to discover the effect of working conditions— noise, lighting, and the like—on employee performance. The final result was to demonstrate the critical role of human relations, particularly employee recognition and management support.37

The Hawthorne studies followed a period of American history marked by massive industrialization, exploitation of workers, and the use of scientific management to improve employee efficiency. As epitomized by Charlie Chaplin in the film Modern Times, the worker had been dehumanized in the pursuit of production and profit.

Among the findings commonly attributed to the Hawthorne studies are the following: (1) Productivity is affected by human relationships because the work environment is also a social environment; (2) a supportive leadership style and the amount of attention di- rected toward employees have positive influence on productivity; (3) there is a tendency for workers to set their own standards or norms for acceptable behavior and output.38

With the published results of the Hawthorne studies, the industrial community awak- ened to the fact that the worker must be treated as more than a machine, and that human- ism in the workplace is good for both people and business. Participative work groups, enlightened leadership practices, and meaningful job assignments were recognized as im- portant to prevent worker alienation, and a human relations movement began to take root.

Human relations are increasingly important in today’s workplace for three reasons:

1. More people are employed in service occupations, where success depends on how well the customer is served. Writing in Liberation Management, Tom Peters states: “All business decisions hinge, ultimately, on conversations and relation- ships; all business dealings are personal dealings in the end.”39

2. To build superior work teams, people need greater competence in human relations skills. In the 1980s, the National Science Foundation reported that Japanese com- panies of the period were more productive than American companies primarily because of collaborative work relationships.40

3. In his essay “Building Community,” John Gardner describes the modern work- force as composed of a varied mix of personalities and cultures, thus the necessity— and challenge—of building strong human relations with all kinds of people. It is interesting to note that the most common cause of supervisory failure is poor human relations.41

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Basic Beliefs about People The quality of human relations in any workplace reflects its members’, particularly its leaders’, views of the essential nature and value of humanity itself.

■ Human nature. It makes a great deal of difference whether one views people in general as good or evil. If we assume that people are basically good, we can believe that misbehavior is a reactive response rather than a manifestation of char- acter. This positive view of people will lead to a search for causes in experience rather than in nature. If, on the other hand, we assume that people are inherently bad, then we are prone to assume that misbehavior is caused by something within the person that cannot be altered directly. Accordingly, our attention will focus on limiting freedom to choose and act through external restrictions and controls.

■ Human value. What is the basic value of human beings? This is a question as old as written history and probably as old as society itself. It stems from the debate as to whether people are ends in themselves or merely means to ends. In simple terms, we treat people as ends when we allow them to establish their own purposes and to choose for themselves. When we view people as ends, we reflect a human- istic view. In contrast, when we treat people as means, we limit their choices and use them primarily as instruments for our own purposes.

■ Where do you stand? Personal history draws each of us toward some primary tendency that determines the general pattern of our relations with others. Small changes may occur to accommodate the various roles we play, but there seems to be a core pattern that represents our basic beliefs concerning human beings. Is your own view of people primarily positive or negative? What experiences and factors have influenced your view? As a result, what principles and practices do you follow in your relations with others?

Abuse and Physical Violence Awareness and interest in workplace violence has increased in the past 25 years. It was in 1986 that Patrick Sherrill went on a rampage in the Edmond, Oklahoma, Post Office that resulted in the death of 14 of his co-workers before he took his own life. This event and others that followed resulted in the term going postal to describe episodes of violence at work.42

Bullying behavior and the escalation of abuse to the level of physical violence has become an increasingly important human relations issue in the workplace. Punching and shoving are becoming more common, and the extreme of violence, murder, is not unheard of. Men commit nearly 75 percent of the incidents, and women commit nearly a quarter of all threats and attacks.43

In an average work week in the United States, 10 employees are killed and 25 are seriously injured in assaults by current or former co-workers. Often the offender demonstrates clear warning signs of impending tragedy—revealing weapons, threatening co-workers, and talking about attacks. In many cases, employers ignore, downplay, or misjudge the seriousness of the threat.44

Paula Grubb, of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, states that one out of four workplaces reports bullying and three out of five say uncivil behavior, such as berating employees and using “the silent treatment,” occurs. From the professional office to the retail store to the factory floor, aggressive behavior is increasing personal injury, property damage, absenteeism, and turnover; and it is decreasing employee morale, productivity, and bottom-line profits of companies.45

Research shows that antisocial behavior can be influenced by the behavior of co- workers. Work groups can condone harmful behaviors, such as use of profanity, sexual abuse, damaging property, and threatening or bullying other employees. Codes of conduct, disciplinary action, offender counseling, and supervisory training are practical

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steps to deal with inappropriate behavior. It is essential for leaders to establish a work climate where ladies and gentlemen treat each other like ladies and gentlemen.46

The role of the leader is critical in preventing bullying behavior and dealing with workplace violence. It is important to establish a civil work climate and a no-violence code, and to back these up with quick and effective disciplinary action if violations occur. It is essential for the leader to model restraint and to avoid being a verbal or physical aggressor—behaviors that could be copied by employees.47

Studies of abusive leaders show that employees who face ridicule and verbal abuse develop anger and hatred toward their supervisors. Employee morale and work per- formance deteriorate until the supervisor is replaced or employees quit or are termi- nated. Abused workers are not happy, nor is the organization functioning at its most effective level.48

What to Do When People Complain An important subject in human relations is how to handle complaints. If people think a mistake has been made, it is only natural for them to be upset, especially if the mat- ter is important to them. When people complain, they want to be taken seriously and treated with courtesy. They also want to clear up the problem as soon as possible, so that it won’t happen again. Management author Wendy Leebov recommends the fol- lowing guidelines for handling complaints:

■ Keep cool, calm, and collected. A polite and friendly manner works best, even with the most irritated people. A phrase to remember is: Maintain grace under pressure.

■ Listen patiently without interrupting. Don’t argue or become defensive; allow the person to vent emotions.

■ Accept and acknowledge the person’s point of view. Show empathy. Consider how you would feel if you were in the other person’s shoes.

■ Ask questions to fully understand the problem and to fully understand what the person wants. Don’t jump to conclusions about how the problem should be resolved.

■ Fully discuss possible solutions. Explain clearly what can and cannot be done.

■ Reach closure. Don’t leave the person hanging. If you can’t solve the problem, find someone who can. Arrange a time and method for communicating the results.

■ Genuinely thank the person for speaking up. Explain why you are glad that he or she pointed out a shortcoming. For example, “ It gives me a chance to make things right,” or “It helps us improve for the future.”

■ Follow through. Do what you say you will do when you say you will do it. Keep promises.

Handling complaints is everyone’s responsibility. It is a practical and tangible demonstration of respect for people. If done effectively, it can help keep small irrita- tions from becoming major problems and it can be an important asset in building and maintaining relationships.49

Trust and Respect in Human Relations Today it is a recognized fact that people have greater satisfaction and produce more when they are involved in their work, when they feel they are doing something important, and when their work is appreciated. Both quality of work and quality of work life are greatest when people are treated with trust and respect.

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Trust and respect are the key elements of all good relationships. Trust is expressed by an openness in sharing ideas and feelings. Respect is demonstrated by a willingness to listen to the ideas and feelings of others. Without trust and respect, human relations break down.

The rules for good relationships are to show respect by listening in a responsive manner and to show trust by expressing oneself honestly and openly. Exercise 10–3 provides an effective way to develop trust and respect, the foundation behaviors of good human relations.

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Introduction:

A theme frequently thought and occasionally voiced when people meet or work together is, I’d like to get to know you, but I don’t know how. This sentiment often is expressed in work groups and emerges in marriage and other dyadic (two-person) relationships. Getting to know another person involves a learnable set of skills and attitudes—self-disclosure, trust, listening, acceptance, and nonpossessive caring.

Through the dyadic encounter, a unique learning experience, people who need or want to communicate effectively can learn trust and respect by doing, as they build relationships and skills that can be applied both on the job and in the home.

The conversation that you are about to have is intended to result in more effective human relations. Tasks are accomplished more effectively if people have the capacity to exchange ideas, feelings, and opinions freely.

In an understanding, nonjudgmental manner, one person shares information with another, who reciprocates. This exchange results in a greater feeling of trust, understanding, and acceptance, and the relationship becomes closer.

Directions:

The following ground rules should govern this experience:

■ Each partner responds to each statement before continuing to the next statement.

■ Complete the statements in the order they appear, first one person responding and then the other.

■ Do not write your responses.

■ If your partner has finished reading, begin the exercise.

A. My name is . . .

B. My hometown is . . .

C. Basically, my job is . . .

D. The reason I am here is . . .

E. Usually, I am the kind of person who . . .

F. The thing I like most is . . .

G. The thing I dislike most is . . .

H. My first impression of you was . . .

I. On the job I am best at . . .

J. My greatest weakness is . . .

K. The best leader I ever had was . . .

Exercise 10–3 The Dyadic Encounter50

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205

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L. The worst leader I ever had was . . .

M. I like people who . . .

N. I joined this organization because . . .

O. The next thing I am going to try to accomplish at work is . . .

P. Away from the job, I am most interested in . . .

Q. Society today is . . .

R. What concerns me is . . .

S. My most embarrassing moment was . . .

T. I believe in . . .

U. I would like to . . .

V. What I like about you is . . .

W. What I think you need to know is . . .

X. You and I can . . .

Y. During our conversation:

a. your face has communicated . . .

b. your posture has conveyed . . .

c. your hands and arms have indicated . . .

Z. Have a brief discussion of your reactions to this conversation. If time permits, you may discuss other topics. Several possibilities are projects at work, leadership practices, societal needs, and future goals. Or you may choose your own topics.

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The Art of Listening Poor listening is a major cause of communication breakdown. The Roman philoso- pher Cicero wrote, “God gave us two ears and only one mouth. In view of the way we use these, it is a good thing this is not reversed.”51 More recently, psychologist Carl Rogers wrote, “The biggest block to personal communication is the inability to listen intelligently, understandingly, and skillfully to another person. This deficiency in the modern world is widespread and appalling.”52

Poor listening is a problem that affects many people. Studies of listening effective- ness show that 40 percent of the average white-collar worker’s day is spent in the listening process, yet listening comprehension typically is only 25 percent.53 Most people would be upset if their pay were reduced by 30 percent (75 percent of 40 percent), yet the misunderstanding and mistakes resulting from inadequate listening can be critical (particularly in occupations with life-and-death consequences, such as medicine, transportation, justice, and the military), and this is precisely what would happen to a blue-collar laborer who produced poor-quality work.

What can be done to improve listening effectiveness? Ralph Nichols, pioneer and most recognized authority on the art of listening, outlines 10 principles of effective listening. These principles apply on the job, in the home, and in the greater community.54

Most people talk at a speed of 125 words per minute. Yet people think at a much faster rate—around 500 words per minute.55 It is difficult—almost painful—to slow down thinking speed. Therefore, you usually have about four times as much thinking time as you need for every minute you are in conversation. What you do with this extra thinking time depends on whether you are a poor listener or an effective listener.

If you are a poor listener, you usually start to listen to the speaker, then realize there is time to spare. So you briefly turn your thoughts to something else. These side trips of thought continue until you tarry too long on some enticing but irrelevant sub- ject. When your thoughts return, you find the speaker is far ahead of you. At this point, the conversation is harder to follow, making it easier to take more mental side excursions. Finally, you stop listening entirely. The speaker is still talking, but your mind is in another world.

If you are a good listener, you will use thought speed to advantage—by applying spare thinking time to concentrating on what is being said. To capitalize on thought speed, you should

■ Anticipate what the speaker is going to talk about on the basis of what has already been said. Ask: What is this person trying to get across?

■ Mentally summarize what the speaker has been saying. What point, if any, has already been made?

■ Weigh evidence by mentally questioning it. If facts, stories, and statistics are used, consider: Are they accurate? Am I getting the full picture? Is this person telling me only what will prove a point?

■ Take a few helpful notes on major points. As an old saying goes, “The strongest memory is weaker than the palest ink.” Research shows that you will gain 20 percent more retention if you take notes and 35 percent more if you put notes into a summary of how you will use what you have heard.56

■ Listen between the lines. People don’t put everything important into words. The changing tone and volume of the speaker’s voice may have meaning; so may facial expressions, hand and arm gestures, and other body movements.

Do you ever say, When I listen, I concentrate on details? If so, you may be a poor listener. Suppose someone is giving you information composed of points A through Z. The person begins to talk. You hear point A and think, Point A, point A, point A . . . I have to remember it. Meanwhile, the person is telling you about point B. Now you

Listen for Ideas

Capitalize on Thought Speed

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have two things to memorize. You are so busy memorizing point A and point B that you miss point C completely. And so it goes up to point Z. You catch some informa- tion, confuse other information, and completely miss the rest.

Good listeners focus on main ideas. As information is presented, weigh one point against the other. Try to find a relationship between them. The person talking usually will put several points together to develop or support a central idea. If you want to comprehend and remember the speaker’s message, listen for main ideas, not for a series of memorized details.

Parallel to the blind spots that affect human vision are emotional deaf spots that impair one’s ability to listen and understand. These deaf spots are the dwelling places of our most cherished notions, convictions, and complexes. Often, when a speaker invades one of these areas with a word or phrase, the mind turns to familiar mental pathways that crisscross the invaded area of sensibility. When emotional deafness occurs, listening efficiency drops rapidly to zero.

To show how emotional deaf spots work, suppose your tax accountant calls and says, “I have just heard from the Internal Revenue Service, and . . .” Suddenly, you breathe harder and think, Auditors. Can’t they leave me alone? You have stopped lis- tening. Meanwhile, your accountant is saying there is a chance you can save $3,000 this year. But you don’t hear this, because the words “Internal Revenue Service” have created emotional deafness.

Emotional deaf spots are common to almost everyone. An ardent Republican, for example, may become temporarily deaf on hearing the names Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton; and many Democrats quit listening when they hear the names Ronald Reagan and George Bush. Other red-flag words that cause emotional deafness include tax increase, downsizing, and mother-in-law.

For more effective listening, identify the words that bother you and analyze why they upset you. A thorough examination may reveal that they really shouldn’t bother you at all.

Studies of listening effectiveness support the importance of being interested in the topic under discussion. Poor listeners usually declare a subject dry after the first few sentences. Once this decision is made, it serves to rationalize any and all further inattention. Good listeners follow different tactics. Although their first thought may be that the subject sounds boring, a second thought immediately follows, based on the realization that to get up and leave would be awkward. The final reflection is that, being trapped anyway, it would be good to learn if anything is being said that can be put to use.

The key to the whole matter of interest in a topic is the word use. Whenever you wish to listen carefully, ask yourself, What is the speaker saying that I can use? What worthwhile ideas are being expressed? Is the speaker reporting any workable proce- dures? Is there anything of value to me or anything I can use to make myself happier? Such questions help keep attention on the subject as you screen what is said in a con- stant effort to sort out elements of value.

Many listeners justify inattention to a speaker by thinking to themselves, Who could listen to such a character? What an awful voice. Will the speaker ever stop reading from those notes? The good listener reacts differently. The good listener may well look at the speaker and think, This person has a problem. Almost anyone ought to be able to communicate better than that. But from this initial similarity, the good listener moves on to a different conclusion, thinking, But wait a minute. . . . I’m not inter- ested in the speaker’s personality or delivery. I want to find out if this person knows something that I need to know.

Essentially, people listen with their own experiences. Should a speaker be held responsible because a listener is poorly equipped to receive the message? Even if you

Judge Content, Not Delivery

Find an Area of Interest

Reduce Emotional Deaf Spots

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cannot understand everything you hear, one way to improve communication effectiveness is to assume responsibility to be a good listener by judging content, not delivery. Can you remember a time when you withheld judgment of delivery and benefited by the content?

Albert Einstein believed: If A equals success, then the formula is A equals X plus Y plus Z. X is work, Y is play, and Z is keep your mouth shut. Overstimulation is almost as bad as understimulation, and the two together constitute the twin evils of inefficient listening. The overstimulated listener gets too excited or excited too soon by the speaker. You must learn not to get worked up about a speaker’s point until you are certain you thoroughly understand it. The secret is contained in the principle that you should withhold judgment until comprehension is complete.

Some people are greatly addicted to overstimulation. For them, a speaker can seldom talk for more than a few minutes without touching on a pet bias or conviction. Occasionally, they are aroused in support of the speaker’s point, but often the reverse is true. In either case, overstimulation reflects the desire to enter into argument. This can be especially harmful if it occurs with family members, friends, and colleagues.

The aroused person usually becomes preoccupied by trying to do three things simultaneously: calculate the harm being done to personal ideas, plot an embarrassing question to ask the speaker, and mentally enjoy all the discomfort the speaker will experience once a devastating reply is launched. With these three things happening, subsequent passages go unheard.

Listening is hard work. It is characterized by faster heart action, quicker blood circu- lation, and a small rise in body temperature. To be a good listener, you must be an active participant.

One of the most striking characteristics of poor listeners is their unwillingness to spend energy in a listening situation. People, by their own testimony, frequently enter school, community, or business meetings worn out physically, assume postures that only seem to give attention to the speaker, and then proceed to catch up on needed rest or reflect on purely personal matters.

Faking attention is one of the worst listening habits. It is particularly prevalent when you are listening to someone you know very well, such as family members or a friend. You think you know what the speaker is going to say anyway, so you just appear to tune in. Then, feeling conscience-free, you pursue any of a thousand mental tangents.

For selfish reasons alone, one of the best investments you can make is to give each speaker your full attention. You should establish and maintain eye contact and indicate by body posture and facial expression that the occasion and the speaker’s efforts are of concern to you. When you do these things, you help the speaker express thoughts clearly, and you, in turn, profit by better understanding. This does not imply accep- tance of the speaker’s point of view or favorable action on the speaker’s arguments. Rather, it is an expression of interest.

Ours is a noisy age. People are distracted not only by what they hear, but also by what they see. Poor listeners tend to be influenced readily by all types of distractions, even in an intimate face-to-face situation. Often they create distractions themselves by tapping feet, drumming fingers, and clicking pens.

A good listener fights distraction. Sometimes the fight is easily won—by closing a door, turning off the radio, moving closer to the person talking, or asking the person to speak louder. If distractions cannot be solved easily, then your task becomes one of concentrating.

Resist Distractions

Work at Listening

Hold Your Fire

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People often fail to hear what is said, even when spoken to directly. An employee may be ordered to improve performance or be released; or a supervisor may be criticized for poor leadership practices. Later, when the employee is discharged or the supervi- sor is relieved of leadership position, both may be surprised, claiming never to have known of impending trouble.

In such instances the mechanism of denial serves to shut out unfavorable messages. This poor listening habit is common to many people who use selective listening and hear only what they want to hear. Some people are masters of denial. Do you have a tendency toward selective hearing? What messages might you be blocking or denying?

Perhaps the one word that best describes the poor listener is inexperienced. Although you may spend 40 percent of your day in the listening process, you may be inexperienced at hearing anything tough, technical, or expository; you may be conditioned to light, recre- ational material (television programs, radio shows, sports events, gossip, etc.). This prob- lem can be significant because it lowers performance on the job and in the classroom.57

Inexperience can be difficult to overcome. It takes recognition of your weakness, a desire to improve, and effort. You are never too old to meet new challenges, particu- larly when the challenge is meaningful and the rewards are great. Seek opportunities to challenge your listening skills.

How important is effective listening as a leadership skill? Executive coach Marshall Goldsmith explains: One of the world’s most respected research and development organi- zations had a problem—retaining young talent. The flaw was that during presentations members of senior management had the annoying habit of looking at their watches and checking their BlackBerries, motioning young scientists to move it along, and repeating over and over, “Next slide. Next slide.” This annoying practice resulted in a serious com- pany problem. The executives learned an important lesson as they watched talent walk out the door. People will leave (physically or mentally) when they do not feel respected.58

The Enlightened Workplace Every so often, someone captures an important concept and expresses it in such a way that it penetrates and takes root in the society. Douglas McGregor and his book The Human Side of Enterprise, first published in 1960 and rereleased in 1985, stand like a lighthouse over the sea of literature on leadership. McGregor’s book and his famous “Theory Y” speech, delivered at MIT’s Alfred P. Sloan School of Management in 1957, changed the entire concept of organizational life for the second half of the twentieth century.59 See Table 10–1 for the three propositions and five beliefs of Theory X in contrast to the four dimensions of Theory Y.

Challenge Yourself

Hear What Is Said

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Theory X: Three Propositions and Five Beliefs

The conventional conception of management’s task in harnessing human energy to meet organizational requirements can be stated broadly in terms of three propositions:

1. Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise—money, materials, equipment, people—in the interest of economic ends.

2. With respect to people, this is a process of directing their efforts, motivating them, controlling their actions, and modifying their behavior to fit the needs of the organization.

3. Without this active intervention by management, people would be passive—even resistant—to organizational needs. They must therefore be persuaded, rewarded, punished, and controlled— their activities must be directed. This is management’s task. We often sum it up by saying that management consists of getting things done through other people.

Behind this conventional theory there are five beliefs—less explicit, but widespread:

1. The average person is by nature indolent—working as little as possible. 2. The average person lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, and prefers to be led. 3. The average person is inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs. 4. The average person is by nature resistant to change. 5. The average person is gullible, not very bright, and the ready dupe of the charlatan and the

demagogue.

Conventional organization structures and managerial policies, practices, and programs reflect these assumptions.

Table 10–1 Two Theories of Management—X and Y60

The Importance of Listening as a Leadership Skill

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McGregor married the ideas of social psychologist Kurt Lewin to the theories of Abraham Maslow. To these, he added his own perspective drawn from his experi- ences as a professor and practicing leader. The essence of McGregor’s message is that people react not to an objective world, but to a world fashioned from their own perceptions and assumptions about what the world is like. Not content to merely describe alternative theories, McGregor went on to identify leadership strategies that could be used to create enlightened workplaces.61

McGregor emphasized the human potential for growth, elevated the importance of the individual in the enterprise, and articulated an approach to leadership that undergirds all types and forms of organization. McGregor’s prescriptions for an enlightened workplace are as follows:62

■ The practice of inclusion versus exclusion, based on democratic ideals; the active involvement of all concerned.

■ Mutual satisfaction of individual needs and group goals through effective interpersonal relationships between leaders and followers.

■ Leadership influence that relies not on techniques of coercion, compromise, and bargaining, but on openness, honesty, and working through differences.

■ A conception of humanity that is optimistic versus pessimistic, and that argues for humanistic treatment of people as valuable and valuing, as opposed to objects for manipulation and control.

■ A transcending concern for human dignity, worth, and growth, captured best by the phrase “respect for the individual.”

■ A belief that human goodness is innate, but that it can be thwarted by a dysfunc- tional environment, and that one’s full potential can best be achieved in a healthy climate characterized by trust, respect, and authentic relationships.

■ The importance of free individuals to have courage to act and accept responsibility for consequences.

To show the difference enlightened leadership can make, contrast conditions in two investment firms:

Firm 1. This firm refers to one-half of its staff as the professionals and the rest of the employees as office staff. While the office staff members, primarily secretaries, do not expect to earn the wages of college graduates with multiple degrees, they resent the inference that if one group is professional, it follows that everyone else is unprofessional. In this firm, morale is low, turnover is high, and work performance is reduced.

Firm 2. This firm considers its investment counselors and support staff to be directly associated. One or more counselors and a secretary form a team, and the company

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Theory Y: Four Dimensions

We require a different theory of the task of managing people based on more adequate assumptions about human nature and human motivation. The broad dimensions of such a theory are as follows:

1. Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise—money, materials, equipment, people—in the interest of economic ends.

2. People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs. They have become so as a result of experience in organizations.

3. The motivation, potential for development, capacity for assuming responsibility, and the readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals are all present in people. Management does not put them there. It is a responsibility of management to make it possible for people to recognize and develop these human characteristics for themselves.

4. The essential task of management is to arrange organizational conditions and methods of operation so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives.

This is a process primarily of creating opportunities, releasing potential, removing obstacles, encouraging growth, and providing guidance. It is a liberating and empowering process in contrast to a system of beliefs, policies, and practices that can best be described as “management by control.”

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ties the secretary’s bonus and other forms of recognition to the performance of the people he or she supports. Here, esprit de corps runs at stratospheric levels, performance is high, and the firm is prosperous.

Firm 2 puts into practice McGregor’s prescriptions for inclusion, shared goals, respect for all people, and personal responsibility. Research exploring the relation- ship between managerial adjustment and attitudes toward subordinates shows man- agers with theory Y assumptions are better at accomplishing organizational objectives and better at tapping the potential of employees.63

Ricardo Sember of Semco, a Brazilian manufacturer of industrial products, shares the beliefs of a theory Y leader: “We simply do not believe our employees have an interest in coming in late, leaving early, or doing as little as possible. These are the same people who raise children, join the PTA, elect mayors and presidents. They are adults and at Semco they are treated like adults. We trust them. We get out of their way and let them do their jobs.”64

The Evolving Context of Human Relations Information technology has brought new human relations challenges. Virtual rela- tionships are ones maintained at a distance, with the majority of interactions occur- ring through e-mail, fax, phones, Internet, intranet, video, and other communication technologies. Online technology allows geographic and time dispersement. The most recently developed tools for electronic communication generally fall into a category called Web 2.0, a set of Internet-based applications that encourage user-provided content and collaboration. The leader today finds herself in a web of virtual relation- ships with customers and co-workers.

The challenge is to maintain both a productive and humanistic work life in the face of virtuality problems such as these:

1. None of the technology of virtuality can currently carry a fraction of the whole range of communications that people use to relate to one another; intended meaning is lost.

2. Virtual communications tend to be brief and intermittent, while long-lasting rela- tionships based on trust and respect usually take time to develop.

3. Virtual communications such as e-mail, teleconferences, and videoconferences may actually distract people from what is going on around them so they are neither fully here nor fully there.

4. Virtual communication works only when the party you desire to communicate with also uses it.

5. Many e-mail users are overwhelmed by hundreds of messages each week, many of which are either unnecessary or irrelevant to the receiver.65

It is important to remember that only 7 percent of what is communicated is with words; 38 percent is by sound (or tone), and 55 percent is by body language. More than 90 percent of communication is nonverbal, and this is lost without face-to-face contact.66

The successful leader recognizes the problems of virtuality but accepts the fact that electronic communication is a reality of modern organizational life and capitalizes on its strengths (speed, convenience, volume, cost, and so on). Effective leaders master changes in communication technology in the same manner that Franklin Roosevelt used the radio and John Kennedy used television. Senior executive Charles Cianchette of the Cianbro Companies explains: Networking technologies allow compa- nies to run cohesive yet decentralized operations in a fast and efficient manner.

Currently, more than 40 percent of IBM employees work from home or on the road. This is an accelerating trend partly because of a new demographic of younger workers who cannot imagine a world without Google, smart phones, social networking, and

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instant messaging. No previous generation of employees has grown up understanding, using, and expanding on such a pervasive instrument as the computer. Many people today conduct business via virtual offices on the Internet, working off their computers from wherever they happen to be.67

HiWired co-president Singu Srinivas advises a balanced approach: He believes online communication tools, such as chat and e-mail, should be used to enhance face- to-face relationships rather than replace them.68

Although today’s workplace has become more time pressured, more mobile, less dependent on geography, and more reliant on technological competence, the success- ful leader recognizes the importance of preserving the “human moment at work.” This can be done three ways:

1. Maintain high standards of written and spoken communication, as great letter writers and public speakers have always done.

2. Engage in as much face time as possible to sustain satisfying and productive relationships. Exert the effort, pay the expense, and spend the time required.

3. Keep in mind these three don’ts: Don’t hide behind technology, don’t forget it’s recorded, and don’t use sarcastic or belittling statements.69

The Virtual World Hits Home It is one thing to know about something and another to understand it. Understanding requires personal experience. We began writing textbooks in 1980. At that time, books were acquired, developed, and produced in one location. 2007 marked the pub- lication of the third edition of this book: Acquired in New York, managed in Chicago, developed in Iowa, produced in Pennsylvania, with internal design from India, cover from California, copyedited in Greece, proofread in Ireland, printed in Canada, with an Instructor’s Guide from North Carolina. This was a virtual stretch for two profes- sors who began writing with yellow pads and pencils, and who were happy there. It took tremendous adjustment and the help of many patient people to work effectively in a virtual world. We were challenged to keep up, but willing to try.

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214

The Team Concept

Sociologists Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, and George Simmel explain the roleof groups in the human experience.70 Whether preliterate or postindustrial,people have always used groups to satisfy important needs: For childbearing and intimacy, we use marriage and family; for our interest in the supernatural, we create religious sects and institutions; for social order and organization, we form governments; for education, we establish schools; for protection, we raise armies; for economic needs, we form work groups and organizations.71

The importance of group dynamics in the workplace and the role of the leader as team builder have a long history. The formal study of groups began in the hu- man relations movement of the 1920s and 1930s, as collaborative efforts were fea- tured to balance the individual efforts emphasized by scientific management theorists. In the 1940s and 1950s, the focus moved to sensitivity training and T-groups and the development of interpersonal skills. In the 1960s, an era of orga- nizational development emphasized team and leadership effectiveness through interventions with ongoing work groups and organizations. In the 1970s and 1980s, competition from Japan and other countries resulted in an emphasis on participative management, employee involvement, and quality improvement through the use of teams. In the 1990s and 2000s, the focus shifted to high- performance teams to design products, serve customers, and improve quality to maintain a competitive advantage in a global economy. Leaders today rely on teams and new technology to enable communication across time and geographic distance. Leadership success requires an understanding of group behavior and the ability to tap the constructive power of teams.72

Teamwork Means Life and Death at Mayo Clinic The Mayo Clinic, which employs more than 42,000 people at various locations, is an example of an organization that relies on teamwork to provide high-quality health care. Mayo hires at the top of the talent pool, but it also seeks people who view qual- ity in medicine as a team endeavor. Mayo shuns the star system in favor of the team concept. Many excellent clinicians will not fit at Mayo, including those who lack interpersonal skills and a one-team attitude. States a Mayo physician: “The Mayo culture attracts individuals who see the practice of medicine best delivered when there is an integration of medical specialties functioning as a team. It is what we do best, and most of us love to do it. What is most inspiring is when a case is successful because of the teamwork of a bunch of docs from different specialties; it has the feel- ing of hitting a home run in baseball.”73

CHAPTER

11

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Excellent Teams The Russian writer Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) opens his masterpiece Anna Karenina by saying, “All happy families are alike; each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.”74 The same can be said for groups. Rather than a single thread, there is a tapes- try of qualities that characterize all effective groups. The most important element of teamwork is commitment to a common purpose. The best teams also develop norms of behavior for working together to achieve their purpose. With a clear, motivating purpose and positive norms of behavior, people can pull together as a powerful force to achieve extraordinary results.75 Fully functioning groups and excellent teams possess 12 key characteristics:

1. Clear mission. The task or objective of the group is well understood and accepted by all.

2. Informal atmosphere. The atmosphere is informal, comfortable, and relaxed. It is a working atmosphere in which everyone is involved and interested. There are no signs of boredom.

3. Lots of discussion. Time is allowed for discussion in which everyone is encour- aged to participate, and discussion remains pertinent to the task of the group.

4. Active listening. Members listen to each other. People show respect for one another by listening when others are talking. Every idea is given a hearing.

5. Trust and openness. Members feel free to express ideas and feelings, both on the issues and on the group’s operation. People are not afraid to suggest new and different ideas, even if they are fairly extreme.

6. Disagreement is OK. Disagreement is not suppressed or overridden by premature group action. Differences are carefully examined as the group seeks to under- stand all points of view. Conflict and differences of opinion are accepted as the price of creativity.

7. Criticism is issue-oriented, never personal. Constructive criticism is given and accepted. Criticism is oriented toward solving problems and accomplishing the mission. Personal criticism is neither expressed nor felt.

8. Consensus is the norm. Decisions are reached by consensus, in which it is clear that everyone is in general agreement and willing to go along. Formal voting is kept to a minimum.

9. Effective leadership. Informal leadership shifts from time to time, depending on circumstances. There is little evidence of a struggle for power as the group operates. The issue is not who controls, but how to get the job done.

10. Clarity of assignments. The group is informed of the action plan. When action is taken, clear assignments are made and accepted. People know what they are expected to do.

11. Shared values and norms of behavior. There is agreement on core values and norms of behavior that determine the rightness and wrongness of conduct in the group.

12. Commitment. People are committed to achieving the goals of the group.

Exercise 11–1 can be used to evaluate a group and improve both team spirit and team effectiveness on the basis of results. By reinforcing strengths and addressing deficiencies, people can take steps to build and sustain a high-performance group. When this is done, together everyone can accomplish more.

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Consider each of the following characteristics. Evaluate your group as it is operating now (1 is the lowest rating; 10 is the highest).

1. Clear mission

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Informal atmosphere

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3. Lots of discussion

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

4. Active listening

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

5. Trust and openness

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

6. Disagreement is OK

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

7. Criticism is issue-oriented, never personal

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

8. Consensus is the norm

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

9. Effective leadership

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

10. Clarity of assignments

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11. Shared values and norms of behavior

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

12. Commitment

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Scoring:

Add all the circled numbers to find your overall score. Then see the following chart to find your group’s effectiveness rating.

Score Rating

108–120 Excellent

84–107 Good

49–83 Average

25–48 Poor

12–24 Failing

Exercise 11–1 Characteristics of an Effective Group76

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Interpretation:

Refer to the following discussion to interpret your group’s rating. Note that each charac- teristic is important, so strive to improve low ratings, regardless of the overall total.

Excellent This is a top-notch group regarding communication and teamwork. The atmosphere is warm and supportive. The focus of attention and effort is on the mission. Creativity is encouraged and success can be expected.

Good This is a strong group for morale and teamwork. There is enthusiasm and an overall spirit of cooperation and dedication to accomplishing the mission. Such a group attracts and keeps good people; then these people work as a team to achieve success.

Average Conditions are neither all good nor all bad regarding group effectiveness. As is, the group is average. If you are a member or leader of such a group, you are probably suffering from cognitive dissonance and won’t be satisfied until conditions are in line with your ideals.

Poor This is a poor group environment. Major work is needed to improve attitudes and performance. Without attention to team building, failure can be expected.

Failing Major change in group composition is in order. Personal and social factors may exist that make staying together unacceptable. What is the answer? Separation and reorganization so that talented and dedicated individuals are not lost.

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Positive versus Negative Group Member Roles How do you develop a high-performance group? Success depends on the individual and what he or she chooses to do. It depends also on the example and direction of leaders. A high level of group performance can be achieved when formal leaders and influential members of the group model and reinforce positive versus negative group member roles. Roles that help build and sustain a high-performance group are as follows:77

■ Encourager. This person is friendly, diplomatic, and responsive to others in the group. The encourager makes others in the group feel good and helps them make contributions to fulfill their potential. The encourager is a cheerleader, coach, and group advocate.

■ Clarifier. The clarifier restates problems and solutions, summarizes points after discussion, and introduces new or late members to the group by bringing them up to date on what has happened. The gift of the clarifier is to create order out of chaos and replace confusion with clarity.

■ Harmonizer. The harmonizer agrees with the rest of the group, brings together opposite points of view, and is not aggressive toward others. The harmonizer brings peace versus war, love versus hate, cooperation versus competition, and unity versus discord.

■ Idea generator. The idea generator is spontaneous and creative. This person is unafraid of change and suggests ideas that others do not. Often these ideas are just what is needed to solve a problem. The idea generator is almost always a creative and unconventional thinker. Pose a problem, and ideas will flow. Idea generators are rich in ideas—half-baked or fully baked.

■ Ignition key. This person provides the spark for group action, causing the group to meet, work, and follow through with ideas. The ignition key is often a practical organizer who orchestrates and facilitates the work of the group. In this sense, the ignition key plays a leadership role in group action.

■ Standard setter. This person’s high ideals and personal conduct serve as a model for group members. The standard setter is uncompromising in upholding the group’s values and goals, and thus inspires group pride. The standard setter is often an expert, possessing knowledge and skills deemed important by the group.

■ Detail specialist. This person considers the facts and implications of a problem. The detail specialist deals with small points that often have significant conse- quences in determining the overall success of a group project. A vigilant finisher, the detail specialist searches for errors and omissions and keeps the group on red alert. To understand the importance of the detail specialist, consider Benjamin Franklin’s words:

A little neglect may breed mischief: for want of a nail, the shoe was lost; for want of a shoe, the horse was lost; for want of a horse, the rider was lost; for want of a rider, the battle was lost; for want of a battle, the war was lost; for want of a war, the cause was lost. The cause could be something of great importance—life, liberty, the pursuit of happiness—lost for want of a nail.78

Group member roles that reduce group success are:79

■ Ego tripper. This individual interrupts others, launches into long monologues, and is overly dogmatic. The ego tripper constantly demands attention and tries to manipulate the group to satisfy a need to feel important.

■ Negative artist. This person rejects all ideas suggested by others, takes a negative attitude on issues, argues unnecessarily, and refuses to cooperate. The negative artist is pessimistic about everything and dampens group enthusiasm.

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■ Above-it-all person. This member withdraws from the group and its activities by being aloof, indifferent, and excessively formal, and by daydreaming, doodling, whispering to others, wandering from the subject, or talking about personal expe- riences when they are unrelated to the group discussion. The above-it-all person has a “don’t care” attitude that detracts from group progress.

■ Aggressor. This person attacks and blames others, shows anger or irritation against the group or individuals, and deflates the importance or position of the group and the members in it.

■ Jokester. This person is present for fun, not work. The jokester fools around most of the time and will distract the group from its business just to get a laugh.

■ Avoider. This person does anything to avoid controversy or confrontation. The avoider is dedicated to personal security and self-preservation, and is unwilling to take a stand or make a decision.

As a practical measure, consider your own work group or organization, and ask, Who is playing positive versus negative group member roles? Who is providing encouragement, harmony, new ideas? Take the time to let members know how impor- tant they are to the group’s success, and how appreciated they are for their efforts. Be specific and be personal if you want to reinforce these helpful behaviors. Above all, be sure that your own actions are positive and constructive. For example, where a negative artist may complain about the wind, the effective leader adjusts the sails. This positive example is instructive and helpful for all.

Dealing with Problem Behavior What do you do about the individual who reduces the effectiveness of the group? Psychologist Harry Levinson prescribes a nine-point plan for dealing with problem behavior:80

1. When an individual disrupts the group, talk it over in a calm and patient way. Recognize that the origins of negative behavior may be feelings of insecurity, need for attention, vulnerable self-image, and eagerness for perfection.

2. Report observations uncritically. Describe what happened, especially the behavior to which people reacted. Ask how the person thought others felt when she said or did what you describe. Was this the result desired? If not, discuss how the person can act in the future to get the response she wants.

3. Point out that you recognize the person wants to be successful but that to reach his goals, he must take others into account. Note also that usually there will be defeats and disappointments along the way.

4. If the person’s behavior becomes irritating, avoid the impulse to attack or with- draw. Instead, report how he made you feel and how others must feel when he behaves this way. Let him know that you are annoyed, but you nevertheless value him as a person.

5. Ask why the person behaves as she does. For example, why does she attack people in situations that are not combative? Explain that being part of a critical discussion is one thing, but turning discussion into an argument or struggle for power is another.

6. If the person challenges, philosophizes, defends, or tries to debate your observa- tions, don’t counterattack. Keep your eye on his or her goal. People do what they do for their own reasons. What exactly does the person want, and how can partici- pation in the group help accomplish his or her goals?

7. Help the person understand that compromise is not necessarily second best, that the all-or-nothing approach usually results in disappointment, and that cooperation with others can be rewarding. Expect to repeat this process again and again. In all discussions point out the legitimate achievements of which he can be proud.

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8. A person may be closed-minded. Perhaps she is thinking of defensive arguments or is preoccupied with her own thoughts. Then she must be confronted with the facts and consequences of her negative group behavior.

9. If, despite your best efforts, the person does not respond, he needs to know in no uncertain terms that his behavior is unacceptable and will not be tolerated. Do not assume that he knows. He should be told repeatedly.

Designing Teams for Success Over 50 years ago, Peter Drucker wrote: “Organizations years hence will bear little resemblance to the typical company, circa 1950. Traditional departments will serve as guardians of standards, as centers for training and assignment of specialists. They won’t be where the work gets done; that will happen largely in task focused teams.”

The team approach is being used more and more in organizational settings. Senior leaders may sponsor teams of five to eight individuals to work on projects related to the success of the company. Areas addressed include strategic planning, new markets, technology, product and service quality, safety, and “work life” issues.81

Types of teams include production, service, management, project, action, and advisory. The globalization of organizations and the changing nature of work have created the need for cross-cultural and virtual teams. The goal is to unlock slices of genius and tap the constructive power of teams of employees.82

Effective teams generate creative solutions to business problems, thus feeding in- novation required for organization success. The example of Google makes the point. There is little in the way of corporate hierarchy. Innovation is achieved by creative and motivated employees working in teams.83

When a group approach is appropriate, the questionnaire in Exercise 11–2 can be used to construct teams for balance and diagnose existing teams for potential strengths and weaknesses. Note that the questionnaire evaluates problem-solving styles, not ability.

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There are 10 sets of phrases below. Rank each set by assigning a 4 to the phrase that is most like your problem-solving style, a 3 to the one next most like your style, a 2 to the one next most like your style, and a 1 to the phrase that is least like your problem-solving style. Be sure to assign a different number to each phrase in the set. There can be no ties. The example below shows how one person might rank the first set of phrases.

E R T A Example: 2 Following 1 Weighing 3 Developing 4 Accomplishing

instincts evidence thoughts goals

E R T A

Exercise 11–2 Problem-Solving Styles—Darwin, Einstein, Socrates, and Henry Ford84

Following instincts

Relying on feelings

Being perceptive

Emotional involvement

Being aware

Letting intuition guide

Present- oriented

Open to experience

Conscious of events

Concrete experience

Weighing evidence

Considering facts

Measuring effects

Impartial investigation

Questioning details

Recording information

Evaluation- oriented

Thorough observation

Studying data

Unbiased inquiry

Developing thoughts

Considering potentialities

Thinking things through

Rational analysis

Using reason

Summarizing truths

Future- oriented

Conceiving ideas

Forming theories

Abstract thinking

Accomplishing goals

Trying things out

Taking action

Practical use

Performing deeds

Applying solutions

Achievement- oriented

Applying knowledge

Taking risks

Producing results

Scoring:

When you have completed the questionnaire, find the total score for each column. Record that number in the appropriate space below:

Total for Total for Total for Total for E column R column T column A column

Record your totals for E, R, T, and A on the appropriate axes in Figure 11–1, and connect the scores with straight lines to make a picture of your problem-solving style. The longest line of your four-sided figure indicates your preferred style—Charles Darwin, Albert Einstein, Socrates, or Henry Ford.

Interpretation and Discussion:

All problem solving involves having experiences (E), reflecting on results (R), building theories (T), and taking action (A). These processes or activities constitute four steps of the problem-solving cycle (see Figure 11–2). The following is a description of this cycle,

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including the strengths and potential weaknesses of each style—Charles Darwin, Albert Einstein, Socrates, and Henry Ford.

Having experiences (step 1) is followed by reflecting on results (step 2). If the longest line of your four-sided figure is between E and R (see Figure 11–3), your preferred style of problem solving is like that of Charles Darwin (1809–1882), author of On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection and The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. At the age of 22, Darwin sailed the South Pacific on the HMS Beagle. His observations of plants and animals, most notably the rare creatures of the Galápagos Islands, were the basis for his theory of evolution. About himself, Darwin wrote, “My mind seems to have become a kind of machine for grinding general laws out of large collections of facts.”85

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E Experience

T Theory

R Reflection

A Action

Basic Researcher (Charles Darwin)

40 36 33 30 27 24 21 18 15 12

9

9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 40

9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 40

40 36 33 30 27 24 21 18 15 12 9

Functional Practitioner

(Henry Ford)

Known for goal orientation and concrete achievement

Known for inquiry and basic discovery

Known for abstract thinking and new ideas

Known for teaching and creative application

Theoretical Scientist

(Albert Einstein)

Applied Scientist (Socrates)

Step 1 Having Experiences (E)

“These are the facts.”

Step 3 Building Theories (T)

“I will come up with a theory.”

Step 2 Reflecting on Results (R)

“I have to put these facts in order.”

Step 4 Taking Action (A)

“I‘m ready to test my theory.”

Figure 11–1 A Picture of Your Problem- Solving Style

Figure 11–2 The Problem-Solving Cycle

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As a Darwin, your strengths are observing, recording facts, and identifying alternatives. Gathering data is enjoyable to you. By style, you are a basic researcher and you love the discovery process. Darwins are known in every field—social science, natural science, the arts, business, and the professions—for their thorough data collection and objective analysis. Carried to an extreme, however, the Darwin style of problem solving can lead to paralysis as each new fact becomes even more interesting than the last, resulting in indecision. It is important to look before leaping, but it is possible to look so long that one never leaps. Consider the case of Darwin himself, who had developed his theories of human evolution years before another scientist, Alfred Russell Wallace, came to similar conclusions and would have received credit for these theories had not Darwin at last published.

After the data are gathered, theory building takes place (step 3). At this stage, assumptions are developed and ideas are formulated. One moves from the world of experience into the world of theory, while remaining in the mode of reflecting rather than acting. If the longest line of your figure is between R and T (see Figure 11–4), your preferred style of problem solving is the same as the theoretical scientist Albert Einstein (1879–1955). Abstract conceptualization and blue-sky thinking are your forte. In 1905, known as Einstein’s “year of miracles,” he wrote four papers that are each regarded as works of genius. In his description of the world, Einstein wrote, “Physical concepts are free creations of the human

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Figure 11–3 The Charles Darwin Problem-Solving Style

E

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Figure 11–4 The Albert Einstein Problem-Solving Style

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A more modern example of the Socrates problem-solving style is Thomas Alva Edison, a practical genius and America’s greatest inventor, who said: “The only invention I can really claim as absolutely original is the phonograph. I’m an awfully good sponge. I absorb ideas from every source I can and then I put them to practical use. Then I improve them until they become of some value. The ideas that I use are mostly the ideas of other people who don’t develop them themselves. None of my inventions came by accident. I saw a worth- while need to be met and I made trial after trial until discovery came. What it boils down to is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration.”88

Comfortable with ideas, but wanting to apply them, the applied scientist moves from a reflective to an active orientation. This person enjoys coordinating and problem-solving activities. When taken to the extreme, the Socrates style of problem solving may result in impressive, but incomplete, performance because these individuals dislike details. The Socrates-type person may give a beautiful speech, but fail to do thorough research.

Taking action automatically results in new experiences (step 1), so the problem-solving cycle never completely ends. In work, and in life, when one problem is solved, another arises. If your longest line is between A and E (see Figure 11–6), your style of problem solving is like that of Henry Ford (1863–1947), whose strength was achieving results. Upton Sinclair described Henry Ford, the functional practitioner, as follows:

Henry Ford was now fifty-five; slender, gray-haired, with sensitive features and a quick, nervous manner. His long, thin hands were never still, but were always playing with something. He was a kind man, unassuming, not changed by his great success, the world’s first billionaire. Having had less than a grammar-school education, his speech was full of the peculiarities of the plain folk of the Middle

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mind, and are not, however it may seem, uniquely determined by the external world.”86

When Einstein was asked how he would save the world in one hour, he replied 55 minutes should be spent thinking and 5 minutes doing. The Einstein style of problem solving is like that of the typical philosopher. Carried to an extreme, however, it can result in castles in the air with little practical value. This is the style of the husband whose wife says, “That’s good, Albert, but when are you going to do something?”

After theories have been developed, they must be tested (step 4). If your longest line is between T and A (see Figure 11–5), your preferred style is that of the applied scientist. Your strength is not in collecting and analyzing data, but in translating ideas so that they can be put into action. As such, yours is the style of the teacher Socrates (470–399 BC):

We know Socrates as one of the greatest teachers in history, perhaps the greatest of the great men produced by Athens. . . . He wandered through the streets and down to the marketplace, or often he would go to the public gymnasium. Then he started business—the business of teaching. Socrates was the founder of moral philosophy. He was scoffed at for taking his examples from common life, but he did so to lead plain people to goodness, truth, and beauty.87

E

RA

T

Figure 11–5 The Socrates Problem- Solving Style

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If the functional practitioner knows what needs to be done, the goal will usually be accomplished. This is a person of deeds and action, more than ideas and contemplation. But here, as with the other problem-solving styles, a strength may become a liability when carried to the extreme. If the functional practitioner does not have sufficient facts, or fails to work from a well-conceived plan, there may be tremendous accomplishment—of the wrong thing.

The versatile style of problem solving is represented by Figure 11–7. This individual is equally comfortable with each step of the problem-solving cycle—having experiences, reflecting on results, building theories, and taking action. As such, this person does not have structural strengths or weaknesses resulting from style preference.

E

RA

T

Figure 11–7 A Versatile Style of Problem Solving

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West. He had never learned to deal with theories, and when confronted with one, he would scuttle back to the facts like a rabbit to its hole. What Ford knew he had learned by experience, and if he learned more, it would be in the same manner.89

E

RA

T

Figure 11–6 The Henry Ford Problem- Solving Style

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There are several important points to remember concerning styles of problem solving:

1. All problem solving involves four steps—having experiences, reflecting on results, building theories, taking action—and each step must be performed well for overall effectiveness. For example, an independent businessperson with a Socrates style must take extra care to consider details as well as concepts, and should remember to get the facts before making decisions, even if this does not come naturally.

2. It is possible to have preference for more than one style of problem solving. For example, a person may be equally comfortable as a Henry Ford and a Socrates. Such a person relates to the world in both an experiential and a theoretical sense. In either case, this person shows a bias for action.

3. When people with different styles of problem solving live or work together, tolerance of differences is required. A Henry Ford manager must be patient with the seeming lack of effort put forth by an Einstein employee, and a Socrates wife must try to understand her Darwin husband’s preference for having experiences and reflecting on results over forming ideas and applying knowledge. Appreciation of the characteristics and needs of each type of person can go a long way toward improving relationships and increasing performance.

4. Most people have difficulty changing their styles of problem solving. This can be seen in school when a Henry Ford student fails or drops out. Often the cause is the nature of the curriculum and the style of instruction versus the ability of the student. The functional practitioner, who wants to apply knowledge and accomplish tangible results, may have difficulty relating to book reading and theoretical discussion.

An organization or group needs all four styles of problem solving. A balance of basic research, theoretical science, applied science, and functional practice helps maximize individual as well as group performance. Consider the following story:

Fred was a successful research chemist when he suffered a heart attack. During his stay in the hospital, his work was performed by younger employees. Like many large organizations, Fred’s company was rich in talent, and others were qualified to do his job.

When Fred recovered and returned to work, he retained his title, his office was the same, and his income was unchanged. However, he had lost a significant part of his job—his duties were now make-work assignments, while important responsibilities and decision making were handled by others. Whereas Fred had been physically ill before, he now became depressed, and his overall health began to deteriorate. Fred had been placed on the shelf, and he knew it.

At that time, Fred’s company began research and development on a new product, and the “Problem-Solving Styles” questionnaire was used to create a balanced team. On the team was a theoretical scientist, who could write formulas from wall to wall, but whom few could understand. This was the Einstein. Also on the team was an applied scientist, who could understand the Einstein’s ideas and who knew how to bridge the gap between thinking and doing. The team had a Socrates. The team also had a Henry Ford, who was known for his practical nature. He was a goal-oriented person with the ability to produce results. What was missing on the new product team was a Charles Darwin, a basic scientist, who would be sure that all the facts were gathered and all the data were considered. Fred was chosen to be the team’s Darwin.

Within a year, the team developed one of the company’s most successful products. A year after that, Fred’s wife phoned him at work. By accident, she reached his boss. She said: “Oh, Mr. Johnson, I have been wanting to talk to you for so long. I have wanted to thank you . . . for giving my Fred back to me.”90

Fred’s story shows how the needs of the individual and the needs of the organization are interwoven and how both can be met by creating a balanced team incorporating all four styles of problem solving.

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Leader as Team Builder Teamwork is essential for group success. The testimony of basketball star Michael Jordan, a superb individual contributor, is instructive for people in all fields of work: “One thing I believe to the fullest is that if you think and behave as a team, the indi- vidual accolades will take care of themselves. Talent wins games, but teamwork and intelligence win championships.”91

Leaders in every endeavor know the power of the team concept for achieving results. Effective leaders value teamwork as a virtue, and they demonstrate this by their own efforts as team builders and champions of the group.92

A role model for team building and coaching to succeed is Pat Summit, head coach of Tennessee’s women’s basketball team since 1974, with six NCAA championships and the highest win percentage (.838) of any men’s or women’s college basketball program in history. Summit has both a love for the sport and a passion for developing others. She even says she enjoys practicing as much as the games because teaching is her “real passion.”93

The task of the leader is to recruit and develop team members who can perform successfully in the type of sport and level of league they are in. Winning performance is A and B levels, not C, D, or F, for every team member, as well as for the leader her- or himself.

This simple principle is employed by every successful athletic coach, yet it is too often overlooked by the leader in the workplace. The result is inadequate performance— loss of product, people, and profit—and, inevitably, replacement of the leader.

What can the leader do? The answer is to commit to excellence and model this ideal personally. The leader must follow the dictum: Hire the best and develop the rest. The successful leader hires the best talent available (A and B players), then trains and develops all other personnel to perform at A and B levels.

What happens to individuals who cannot or will not perform at A and B levels? For the sake of customers and co-workers and ultimately themselves, they are reas- signed. The caring leader considers the interests of all, knowing effective perfor- mance is required and the individual may be better suited for another sport or league. As difficult or unpleasant as the task may be, action must be taken.94

A cautionary note is in order about the practice of labeling people in a group or organization as winners and losers and using a required distribution of ratings to reflect this. An example is Enron’s “rank and yank” system of putting employees in one of five categories: 5 percent superior, 30 percent excellent, 30 percent strong, 20 percent satisfactory, and 15 percent need improvement. First, any inaccurate rank- ings can destroy motivation and reduce future performance. Second, requiring a per- centage of group members to be rated lower than others in the group works against cohesion, teamwork, and, ultimately, effectiveness. Third, such ranking systems can lead to lawsuits. For example, employees with Microsoft, Ford, and Conoco have filed lawsuits claiming that ranking systems are biased toward some groups over others.

Most importantly, imagine how counterproductive a required distribution of performance rankings would be on any high-performance team in its era of greatness— Boston Celtics, Chicago Bulls, U.S. women’s soccer team, for example. How long will the team be successful if certain percentages of its members are required to be labeled A, B, C, D, F, relative to each other regardless of individual performance? Leaders should evaluate performance case by case, using good judgment, rather than an artificial distribution of rankings.95

Effective leaders understand that all the individual competence in the world will not result in a high-performance team. An essential component of success is the leader’s ability to create a spirit of cooperation and a one-team attitude. Team leadership is important from the research lab to the fashion industry. A study of almost two thousand research publications shows the percentage of journal articles written by teams has increased substantially over the past five decades.96 Executive Rose Marie Bravo of

How to Create a High- Performance Team

The Importance of Hiring and Developing Winners

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Burberry, the London fashion house, explains the importance of teams: “It isn’t one person. It is a whole group of people working cohesively towards a goal that makes something happen or not.”97 The best leaders develop successful teams by following 11 time-tested practices:

■ Show enthusiasm for the work of the group. The leader’s emotion ignites and energizes the team.

■ Make timely decisions based on agreed-upon goals. In this way, leaders show decisiveness and consistency.

■ Promote open-mindedness, innovation, and creativity by personal example and a conducive work climate.

■ Admit mistakes and uncertainties, modeling honesty as a virtue.

■ Be flexible in using a variety of tactics and strategies to achieve success.

■ Have persistence and lasting power, never giving up on hope or effort.

■ Give credit to others for the team’s accomplishments, meeting people’s needs for appreciation and recognition.

■ Keep people informed about progress and problems, celebrating victories and fine-tuning efforts.

■ Keep promises and follow through on commitments, earning the trust and confi- dence of others.

■ Train for success; master fundamentals and practice for perfection.

■ Put others first and self last, embodying the spirit of the caring leader.98

Research shows why some teams are successful and others are not. One study evalu- ated a number of high-performance teams, including national champion sports teams, heart transplant surgical teams, the crew of the USS Kitty Hawk, and others, to determine the characteristics that make them successful. Eight characteristics were always present:

1. A clear, elevating goal.

2. A results-driven structure.

3. Competent team members.

4. Unified commitment.

5. A collaborative climate.

6. Standards of excellence.

7. External support and recognition.

8. Principled leadership.

When any one feature is lost, team performance declines. The most frequent cause of team failure is letting personal or political agendas take precedence over clear and elevating team goals.99

The use of virtual teams is a growing trend. Virtual teams are teams whose members operate across space, time, and organizational boundaries and are linked through in- formation technologies to achieve organizational tasks. Some virtual teams operate across a city; others operate across countries, cultures, and time zones. One reason why virtual teams have become so widespread is that information technology has made it easier than ever to communicate and coordinate with people at a distance.

Information technology makes virtual teams possible, but knowledge management and globalization make them increasingly necessary. Virtual teams operate best with structured tasks requiring only moderate levels of task interdependence. Complex and ambiguous tasks require an enormous amount of intense dialogue and are better suited to nonvirtual teams.100

Many teams use a combination of virtual and nonvirtual interaction. When IBM formed a virtual team to build a customer-access system for Shell, employees from

Virtual Teams

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Stage I

Forming Group Characteristics: • Caution • Excitement • Anxiety • Low performance

Stage II

Storming Group Characteristics: • Conflict over task • Conflict over structure • Conflict over influence • Increased skills and knowledge

Stage III

Norming Group Characteristics: • Agreement on roles and tasks • Agreement on norms of behavior • Increased cohesive- ness and morale • Increased productivity

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Performing Group Characteristics: • Good communication and teamwork • Individual commitment • High morale and group pride • High team performance

Figure 11–8 Stages in the Life of a Group

both firms began with an “all hands” face-to-face gathering to assist the teamwork process. The two firms also made a rule that dispersed team members should have face-to-face contact at least once every six weeks throughout the project.101

A point to remember is that teams need meaningful face time even when doing virtual work across space and time. For example, at Lucasfilm Ltd., the creator of Star Wars, Lucas staffers across the board say the type of collaboration required wouldn’t be possible if they hadn’t been brought under the same roof. In an era of extreme telecom- muting, when companies are rolling out expensive high-definition videoconferencing systems, even the highest-tech employees say there’s no substitute for face-to-face inter- action for their team-oriented projects if world-class work is the goal.102

Stages in the Life of a Group Regardless of size or type, a group typically goes through predictable stages over the course of time. Figure 11–8 is an illustration of four stages in the life of a group, as described by Glenn Parker and Roy Lacoursiere.103 By understanding these stages, including major issues, typical member behavior, and effective leadership actions at each stage, the leader can help a group move quickly to the high-morale–high- performance status of an effective team.

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Table 11–2 Storming

Major Issue Is Increased Conflict from 1. Openly dealing with problems. 2. Increasing group interaction. 3. Power struggles for influence. 4. Increasing independence from leader.

Member Behavior Is Characterized by 1. Confrontation with the leader. 2. Polarization of team members. 3. Testing of group tolerance. 4. Fight-or-flight behavior.

Leaders Can Reduce Conflict by 1. Hearing all points of view. 2. Acknowledging conflict as opportunity for improvement. 3. Adhering to core values, such as truth, trust, and respect. 4. Staying focused on the goal.

Stage I—Forming. In the start-up stage, the group is formed, but its purpose and members’ expectations are unclear. This stage incorporates all the discomfort and apprehension found in any new social situation. It is characterized by caution and tenta- tive steps to test the water. Individuals try to determine acceptable behavior and the nature of the group’s task, as well as how to deal with each other to get work done. Interactions are superficial and tend to be directed toward the formal leader. Skills and knowledge as a team are undeveloped. See Table 11–1.

Stage II—Storming. The initial stage of forming is followed by a period of storming. In this stage, individuals react to what has to be done, question authority, and feel increasingly comfortable being themselves. This stage can be characterized by conflict and resistance to the group’s task and structure, even as productivity begins to increase as skills and knowledge develop. Group members express concerns and frustrations, and feel fairly free to exchange ideas. Members learn to deal with differences to work to- gether to meet the group’s goals. A group that doesn’t get through this stage successfully is marked by divisiveness and low creativity. See Table 11–2.

Stage III—Norming. The stage of storming is usually followed by a third stage in the life of a group, a period of norming. In this stage, norms of behavior are developed that are considered necessary for the group to accomplish its task. These norms can be ex- plicit or implicit. In any case, a greater degree of order begins to prevail and a sense of group cohesion develops. Members now identify with the group and develop customary

Major Issue Is Development of Trust, Including Answers to These Questions: 1. What is going to happen? 2. Who is who in the group? 3. Where do I fit in the group? 4. How will I be treated?

Member Behavior Is Characterized by 1. Anxiety. 2. Search for structure. 3. Silence. 4. Caution with leader and other group members.

Leaders Can Reduce Uncertainty by 1. Explaining purpose and goals. 2. Providing time for questions. 3. Allowing time for members to get to know each other. 4. Modeling expected behaviors.

Table 11–1 Forming

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ways for resolving conflict, making decisions, and completing assignments. In this stage, members typically enjoy meetings and freely exchange information. Productivity continues to increase as group skills and knowledge further develop. See Table 11–3.

Stage IV—Performing. Stage III is usually followed by a fourth stage, performing. This is the payoff stage in the life of a group. People are able to focus their energies on the task, having worked through issues of membership, purpose, structure, and roles. The group is now focused on solving problems and completing tasks. Members take initia- tive, and their efforts emphasize results. As the group achieves significant milestones, morale goes up and people have positive feelings about each other and the accomplish- ments of the group. The group is no longer dependent solely on the leader for direction and support; instead, each member takes on leadership roles as necessary. At this stage, the group shows the characteristics of an effective team. See Table 11–4.

It is helpful to view each of the stages in the life of a group from two points of view. The first is interpersonal relationships. The group moves through predictable stages of testing and dependency (forming), tension and conflict (storming), building cohesion (norming), and finally, establishing functional role relationships (perform- ing). Each stage focuses on problems inherent in developing relationships among group members.

Major Issue Is Group Performance, Including 1. Using a wide range of task and process behaviors. 2. Monitoring and taking pride in group accomplishments. 3. Focusing on goals as well as interpersonal needs. 4. Maintaining the values and norms of the group.

Member Behavior Is Characterized by 1. Interpersonal trust and mutual respect. 2. Active resolution of conflict. 3. Active participation. 4. Personal commitment to the success of the group.

Leaders Can Help the Group Succeed by 1. Being prepared for temporary setbacks. 2. Focusing on task accomplishments and interpersonal support. 3. Providing feedback on the work of the group. 4. Promoting and representing the group.

Table 11–4 Performing

Major Issue Is Development of Norms for 1. Team member behavior. 2. Decision-making processes. 3. Resolving differences. 4. Leadership behavior.

Member Behavior Is Characterized by Shift from 1. Power struggle to affiliation. 2. Confusion to clarity. 3. Personal advantage to group success. 4. Detachment to involvement.

Leaders Can Encourage Norm Development by 1. Modeling listening skills. 2. Fostering an atmosphere of trust. 3. Teaching and facilitating consensus. 4. Providing team-centered learning.

Table 11–3 Norming

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At the same time, the group is struggling with accomplishing tasks. The initial stage focuses on task definition and the exchange of information (forming). This is followed by discussion and conflict over the task (storming). Next comes a period of sharing interpretations and perspectives (norming). Finally, a stage of effective group performance is reached (performing).104

Avoiding Groupthink As important and effective as teams can be, there are also potential problems, the first of which is social loafing. Social loafers do not contribute to group effort because they do not feel they will reap individual rewards, nor will they have to suffer indi- vidual blame.105 A second potential problem is groupthink, a term coined by William H. Whyte Jr. in 1952.

As a group settles on norms of behavior in stage III and into a mode of perfor- mance in stage IV, there is a risk of falling into a pattern of groupthink. This is a well- documented pitfall in group dynamics described by psychologist Irving Janis in Victims of Groupthink. Janis defined groupthink as “a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive group, and when the members’ striving for unanimity overrides their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action.” Groupthink is an important concept for a leader to understand.106

When people meet in groups, they are often under strong pressure to conform to the majority view. When they don’t conform, they risk being isolated or cast aside. In such situations, people may make errors in judgment and conduct based on a desire to preserve group harmony and to continue to be accepted by the group and its leader.

Janis describes additional factors that, when combined with cohesiveness, can foster groupthink. These factors are a highly insulated group with restricted access to external information, and a stressful decision-making context, such as that brought on by budgetary crises, external pressure, or a history of recent setbacks. As a result of the trilogy of group cohesiveness, isolation, and stress, a group can arrive at decisions that are unsuccessful and possibly even catastrophic.107

Janis describes eight symptoms that can give a group early warning that groupthink may be present. The following is a description of these symptoms with cases in history to illustrate their effects:108

1. Illusion of invulnerability. A feeling of power and authority is important to any decision-making group. It gives members confidence that they will be able to carry through on any decisions reached. However, if they come to believe that every decision they reach will automatically be successful, then they become prey to an illusion of invulnerability. Janis showed that American military leaders had this illusion in choosing not to fortify Pearl Harbor more heavily prior to the disastrous attack by the Japanese that led to U.S. entry into World War II.

2. Belief in the inherent morality of the group. People want to believe in the rightness of their actions. In the extreme, this can lead to exhortations that “God is on our side.” Such claims fulfill an important function—they relieve responsibility for justifying decisions according to rational procedures. People do this as a way to protect self-esteem.

3. Rationalization. When a final decision is reached, it is normal to downplay the drawbacks of the chosen course. The problem in a group arises when legitimate objections exist, but they are overshadowed by the perceived negative reaction to anyone who voices those objections. Key engineers in the NASA Challenger decision ulti- mately withdrew their objections to the ill-fated launch, not because of any correction in the admittedly problematic O-rings, but rather, because they rationalized the risk of catastrophic launch failure as only “possible,” while the risk of censure and os- tracism for continuing to speak out against the launch became a virtual certainty.

4. Stereotypes of out-groups. President Truman and his advisors fell victim to the temptation to falsely characterize enemy groups in 1950 with the decision to cross the 38th parallel, a line drawn by the Chinese Communists as a “line in the

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sand” between North and South Korea. The decision was made despite repeated warnings from Communist China that to do so would be viewed as a declaration of war by the United States on China. How could Truman and his advisors have so seriously misinterpreted the Chinese warnings? The decision was based largely on a false stereotype of the Chinese Communists as being weak and dominated by Russia, who, it was believed, did not want war. The stereotype proved false, and the Korean “police action” became a resounding failure as the Chinese attacked with massive force.

5. Self-censorship. As one of the principles on which our country was founded, the ability to express oneself without censorship has always been highly valued. It has also been considered a healthy safeguard against group coercion in our work lives. But the fact is, the most common form of censorship is the one we commit on ourselves under the guise of group loyalty, team spirit, or adherence to company policy.

The decision by President Kennedy and his advisors to send a band of Cuban exiles into the Bay of Pigs has been ranked as the greatest foreign policy mistake of the Kennedy administration. The day after the Bay of Pigs fiasco, JFK said, “How could I have been so stupid?” The answer is that Kennedy and his advisors suppressed their doubts, censoring themselves to make the operative belief seem like the truth.

6. Direct pressure. Pressure on group members can surface in many forms. The net effect is the same: Group members are encouraged to keep dissident views to them- selves. As one example, Janis reported that during Watergate, “Nixon time and again let everyone in the group know which policy he favored, and he did not encourage open inquiry.” Another example involves the Challenger disaster. Several engineers made the recommendation to postpone the Challenger launch. According to the Rogers Commis- sion report, certain group members responded with direct pressure on those engineers to alter their views, with statements such as “I’m appalled that they could arrive at the recommendation” and “At that rate, it could be spring before the shuttle would fly.”

7. Mindguards. A bodyguard is someone charged with the protection of another person’s physical well-being. In groupthink, a corollary entity may surface to protect the group from disturbing thoughts and ideas—a mindguard. Interestingly, such mindguards typically perform their function not within the group itself, but far from the confines of group discussion. Data, facts, and opinions that might bear directly on the group are deliberately kept out of the group’s purview. Generally, this is done with a variety of justifiable intentions—time is running short, a regular member will summarize for the group, and not pertinent and perhaps saddest of all, the group has already made up its mind.

8. Illusion of unanimity. Finally, the rationalizations, psychological pressures, and mindguards have their effect—the group coalesces around a decision. Drawbacks are downplayed, and the invulnerability and morality of the final course are reinforced. Doubting group members may even feel that they have adequately put their own fears to rest. More likely, it is simply the sense of relief that the struggle has come to an end. An illusion of unanimity sets in.

In contrast to the destructive forces of groupthink, Janis describes a number of techniques that a leader can employ to help ensure a rational consideration of all available courses of action:

1. The leader should assign the role of critical evaluator to each member, encourag- ing the group to give open airing of ideas, including objections and doubts. This practice should be reinforced by the leader’s acceptance of criticism of his or her own judgments.

2. When charging a group with a task, the leader should adopt an impartial stance instead of stating personal opinions and preferences. This approach will encourage open discussion and impartial probing of a wide range of policy and problem-solving alternatives.

3. The leader should set up outside evaluators to work on the same policy question. This tactic can prevent the group from being insulated from important information and suggestions.

4. When the agenda calls for evaluation of decision or policy alternatives, at least one member should play devil’s advocate, functioning as a lawyer in challenging the testimony of those who advocate for a position.

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5. After reaching a preliminary consensus about what seems to be the best policy or decision, the group should hold a “second chance” meeting, at which every mem- ber expresses as clearly as possible all residual doubts and rethinks the entire issue, before making a final decision.109

Team-Building Interventions and Techniques There are many approaches to team building. The most common is for members of a group to develop and grow together over the normal course of time as the team responds to challenges and successfully performs its natural functions. Consider this example:

From time to time, the tribe gathered in a circle. They just talked and talked and talked, apparently to no purpose. They made no decisions. And everybody could participate. There may have been wise men or wise women who were listened to a bit more—the older ones—but everybody could talk. The meeting went on, until it finally seemed to stop for no reason at all and the group dispersed. Yet after that, everybody seemed to know what to do because they understood each other so well. Then they could get together in smaller groups and do something or decide things.110

Team building can be enhanced by experiential strategies and activities. Educational workshops in retreat settings are increasingly popular. This off-site format focuses on topics such as communication, teamwork, characteristics of effective groups, positive versus negative group member roles, and workshop/labs to improve team performance— goal setting, values clarification, problem solving, decision making, and the like.

Some organizations use adventure and challenge experiences that can be quite effective at building relationships, developing group identity, and increasing team pride. These interventions are usually conducted in field settings and involve a range of activi- ties that include “ground” experiences, or low-course initiatives, to build team spirit and skills, and “ropes,” or high-course challenges, that build individual confidence and pride. There are many varieties of challenges including rafting, rowing, and riding.

One of the best ways to develop and sustain team effectiveness is to meet in a conducive atmosphere, free of interruptions, and discuss important issues. Meaningful questions include:

■ Where have we been? What forces and events have brought us to this point?

■ Where are we now? What are our current “prouds” and “sorries”? What are our strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats?

■ What is our purpose or mission? What is our reason for existence?

■ What should be our goals? What should we accomplish to fulfill our mission?

■ What are our values? What principles should guide us in moral dilemmas?

■ Who are our stakeholders? Who cares about our work and what will it mean to them when we are successful?

■ What should be our strategy? What initiatives should we have to accomplish our goals and achieve our mission? What strategic, measurable, action-oriented, and timely projects and activities should we undertake?

■ What are the critical factors that define success? How do we know what great performance looks like?

■ How should we work together to fulfill our potential? What should we continue doing, start doing, or stop doing? How should we monitor progress? Who should do what by when?111

Exercise 11–3 is an easy-to-use and highly effective exercise for team building. It is a variation of Kurt Lewin’s famous force field theory for improving team perfor- mance. A good approach would be to have individuals complete the exercise alone and then work as a group to develop and improve team effectiveness.

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Answer the following questions, first individually, then as a group.

To operate as a team, what do we need?

What should we continue doing?

What should we start doing?

What should we stop doing?

How should we monitor our progress?

Actions to be taken, including who should do what by when, are as follows:

Exercise 11–3 Team Excellence112

237

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Appreciative Inquiry A positive and popular approach to team building is appreciative inquiry, developed at Case Western Reserve University. This technique emphasizes building on strengths and gaining commitment through participation.113 Appreciative inquiry typically uses a “Four-D” model or process. The first D is Discovery, or identifying the best of “What is.” Positive experiences, success stories, and best practices are shared. The second D is Dreaming, or imagining “What could be.” Open discussion and nonjudgmental listening are important. The third D is Designing, or “What should be.” It includes collective dia- logue and agreement on a direction and course of action. The fourth D is Delivering “What will be.” It involves action steps to achieve specific objectives.114 An example of using appreciative inquiry is provided by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC):

The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) needed more innovative programming to reverse declining audience numbers, but employees complained that the radio, television, and Internet broadcaster did not provide a creative work environment. To discover how to become more creative, the company sponsored an appreciative inquiry process of employee consultation, called Just Imagine. More than 10,000 employees (about 40 percent of BBC’s workforce) participated in 200 meetings held over six months. At each meeting, employees were paired to ask each other three questions: (1) What has been the most creative/valued experience in your time at the BBC? (2) What were the conditions that made that experience possible? (3) If those experiences were to become the norm, how would the BBC have to change? The pairs then discussed their interview results in teams of 10 people, and the most powerful stories were shared with others at the meeting. These meetings produced 98,000 ideas, which boiled down to 15,000 unique suggestions and ultimately 35 concrete initiatives. The BBC’s executive publicized the results and immediately implemented several recommendations, such as a job swapping and a newcomer orientation program. Greg Dyke, BBC’s respected director-general at the time, commented that the appreciative inquiry process provided valuable guidance. “It gave me a powerful mandate for change,” he stated. “I could look staff in the eye and say, ‘This is what you told us you wanted.’”115

The Role of the Leader in the Team Concept It is true that good teams can boost productivity and accomplish the seemingly impossible. It is also true that poor teams reduce effectiveness and generally create problems. Is there something that can be done to ensure team success? Research shows that success is enhanced if an organization understands and effectively manages five team processes:116

1. Buy-in—how the work of the team is legitimized and goals are set.

2. Accountability—how individual and team performance is managed and rewarded.

3. Learning—how performance is improved and skills developed.

4. Infrastructure—how the work of the team is systemized and resources accessed.

5. Partnering—how people interact and work together to achieve success on the team and across organizational units.

A key factor in all five team processes is leadership. Teams perform most success- fully when they have a leader who facilitates the work of the group to accomplish buy-in—agreement on direction; accountability—clarity of assignments; learning— the development of members; infrastructure—allocation of resources; and partnering— a supportive work climate. The most effective team leaders are caring individuals who have a passion for the work and a concern for people.117

Organizations can empower their people and improve performance through the use of teams, but successful teams require effective leadership. For optimum results, a designated leader should coordinate the group, advocate for the team across the organization, access needed resources and processes, and ensure that results are supported by, and meaningful to, the organization.118

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Over 100 years ago, businessman and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie wrote, “Team- work is the fuel that allows common people to attain uncommon results.” Today tech- nology giant Cisco is actively and strategically applying this maxim.

As the Internet radically changed how people live and work, new opportunities were emerging in many areas. Cisco president and CEO John Chambers knew that the Internet’s and Cisco’s rapid growth had increased the difficulty for one top person to review new ideas, gather information, and make timely decisions. For Cisco to continue to grow, he reasoned, it needed to be more nimble and bring more products to market faster—in short, to innovate with speed.

Chambers saw collaborative teams as the solution and designed a new, broader, and more inclusive system in which decision-making responsibility is pushed deeper into the organization. The new configuration includes: An operating committee of 11 people—Chambers plus other top executives; several councils that manage $10 bil- lion projects; boards that handle $1 billion opportunities; and working groups that support the councils and boards and perform other activities. The teams are cross- functional, interdepartmental, and even transnational. Each is organized around promising initiatives or product lines; other teams can spring up at the drop of a hat when needed. In the new company, to not share what you know is unacceptable, so few turn down an invitation to collaborate.

Chambers says collaborative technologies permit almost instant access to informa- tion and other people, providing new ways to interact. Cisco promotes all types of social networking: blogs, videos, and even an internal “My Cisco” system that em- ployees use like an internal Facebook network. There employees can share what they have learned and provide details about their expertise.

Initially, not everyone embraced the new teamwork structure. The old Cisco sported a “cowboy culture,” with leaders competing aggressively for resources. Nearly 20 percent of them left the company, deciding they couldn’t work under Chambers’s new setup. Leaders now share responsibility for each other’s success. They are measured on how well they collaborate and are compensated on how well all businesses perform, not just their own unit.119

In 2009, author James Collins wrote a research-based book titled How the Mighty Fall. The contrast he describes between teams on the way down and teams on the way up provides excellent guidance for leading teams (see Table 11–5). Teams on the way up address the truth, use evidence-based problem solving, emphasize two-way communication, have a one-team attitude, show mutual respect, are cause-focused, are learning-centered, and accept responsibility.120

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The Team Concept in Business Today: The Cisco Case

Teams on the Way Down People shield those in power from grim facts, fearful of penalty and criticism for shining light on the harsh realities. People assert strong opinions without providing data, evidence, or a solid argument. The team leader has a very low questions-to-statements ratio, avoiding critical input and/or allowing sloppy reasoning and unsupported opinions. Team members acquiesce to a decision yet do not unify to make the decision successful, or worse, undermine the decision after the fact. Team members seek as much credit as possible for themselves yet do not enjoy the confidence and admiration of their peers.

Table 11–5 Team Dynamics: On the Way Down Versus on the Way Up

Teams on the Way Up Address the truth–People bring forth unpleasant facts—”Come here, look, man, this is ugly”—to be discussed; leaders never criticize those who bring forth harsh realities. Use evidence-based problem solving–People bring data, evidence, logic, and solid arguments to the discussion. Emphasize two-way communication–The team leader employs a Socratic style, using a high question-to-statements ratio, challenging people, and pushing for penetrating insight. Have a one-team attitude–Team members unify behind a decision once made and work to make the decision succeed, even if they vigorously disagreed with the decision. Show mutual respect–Each team member credits other people for success yet enjoys the confidence and admiration of his or her peers.

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Team members argue to look smart or to improve their own interests rather than argue to find the best answers to support the overall cause. The team conducts “autopsies with blame,” seeking culprits rather than wisdom. Team members often fail to deliver exceptional results, and blame other people or outside factors for setbacks, mistakes, and failures.

Are cause focused–Team members argue and debate, not to improve their personal position, but to find the best answers to support the overall cause. Are learning-centered–The team conducts “autopsies without blame,” mining wisdom from painful experiences. Accept responsibility–Each team member delivers exceptional results, yet in the event of a setback, each accepts full responsibility and learns from mistakes.

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Part Five Summary After reading Part Five, you should know the following key concepts, principles, and terms. Fill in the blanks from memory, or copy the answers listed below.

Leadership author Warren Bennis details advice to leaders based on years of study,

including (a) , , ,

, , , and .

Research shows nine ways an organization can raise morale, including

(b) , , , ,

, and . A master at building morale and achieving

business success was (c) , who believed that you can’t lead just by

the numbers; business must also be enjoyable. Specific leadership actions that build

morale include (d) , , , and

. High morale and high performance result when a person is in a

state of (e) , versus apathy, anxiety, or boredom. This state comes

from the confluence of high challenge and high skill. The best (most rich) jobs are

characterized by (f) , , ,

, , and . The key elements of

good relationships are (g) , shown by listening in a responsive

manner, and (h) , shown by expressing oneself honestly and

openly. Douglas McGregor’s book (i) changed the entire concept

of organizational life for the second half of the twentieth century. The

characteristics of a high-performance work group and the need for positive versus

negative group member roles are practical applications of McGregor’s ideas.

Positive roles include ( j) , , ,

, , , and . In

the design of teams for success, (k) are important, as is

(l) . Stages in the life of a group are (m) ,

, , and . There are potential

pitfalls to effective group decision making, including (n) ,

, , , and .

Organizations can empower their people through the use of teams, but successful

teams require effective (o) to coordinate the group, advocate for the

team, access needed resources or processes, and ensure that meaningful results

are achieved.

Answer Key for Part Five Summary

a. (any seven) be yourself, figure out what you are good at, hire good people, treat people fairly, focus on key objectives, ask your co-workers how to achieve the objectives, listen well, call the play, get out of the way, cheer them on, count the gains, start right now, page 184

b. (any six) introduce a group bonus, allow workers to determine their own work methods, provide technical support services, provide training, reduce the number of hierarchical levels, break production into small work units, assign whole tasks, gain direct feedback from users, increase group interaction, page 191

c. Herb Kelleher, page 197

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d. (any four) be predictable, be understanding, be enthusiastic, set the example, show support, get out of the office, keep promises, praise generously, hold your fire, always be fair, page 198

e. flow, page 199

f. variety and challenge, opportunity for decision making, feedback and learning, mutual respect and support, wholeness and meaning, room to grow, page 200

g. respect, page 204

h. trust, page 204

i. The Human Side of Enterprise, page 210

j. encourager, clarifier, harmonizer, idea generator, ignition key, standard setter, detail specialist, page 219

k. problem-solving styles, page 221

l. tolerance of differences, page 228

m. forming, storming, norming, performing, pages 232– 233

n. (any five) illusion of invulnerability, belief in the inherent morality of the group, rationalization, stereotypes of out-groups, self-censorship, direct pressure, mindguards, illusion of unanimity, pages 234–235

o. leadership, page 239

Reflection Points—Personal Thoughts on Effective Leadership, Human Relations, and the Team Concept

Complete the following questions and activities to personalize the content of Part Five. Space is provided for writing your thoughts.

■ How do you rate on principles of effective leadership? What are your strengths? What areas do you need to improve?

■ What is your level of morale? What practical steps can the leader take to keep morale and performance high in a work group or organization?

■ Have you ever been a member of a high-performance work group? Describe the conditions.

■ Discuss positive and negative group member roles. Which positive roles do you usually play when you perform at your best? Which negative roles do you need to eliminate?

■ What is your style of problem solving—Charles Darwin, Albert Einstein, Socrates, or Henry Ford? Does your career or current job allow you to capitalize on the strengths of your style—inquiry and discovery, abstract thinking, teaching and advising, execution of results?

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■ What should a leader do to build a top-performing team? What policies and prac- tices have worked for you? What have you seen work for others?

■ Use the “Team Excellence” exercise to develop and sustain team effectiveness. Discuss results.

■ A role-play exercise shows the importance of individual behavior in team dynamics: Gather in a group of 10 to 13 participants. Anonymously assign positive group member roles from page 219 to half the participants; assign negative group member roles to the remaining half. Charge each participant to play his or her role as the group plans the “Company Annual Employee Recognition and Appreciation Day.” The budget is $120,000, and the time limit is 12 minutes. At the conclusion of the role-play exercise, discuss the importance for group success of modeling and rein- forcing positive group member roles, as well as addressing and correcting negative group member roles.

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Part Five Video Case Hot Topic: Employees with Passion

Hot Topic Incorporated, located in City of Industry, California, is a retailer that licenses various products, such as T-shirts, clothes, and accessories geared toward alternative and pop culture with an emphasis on modern music trends. The average age of the employees at Hot Topic is 25 years old.

Hot Topic Incorporated reaches its customers through its two retail store lines—Hot Topic and its sister store, Torrid. Hot Topic offers a myriad of cultural items as well as accessories and clothing aimed at a younger market segment. Torrid is a fashion store offering modern, trendy clothing catering to plus-size women. This organization has been cited on the “Best Small Companies” and “Best Companies to Work For” lists many times over its 20-year history.

Betsy McLaughlin is the CEO of Hot Topic Incorporated. McLaughlin believes that the culture at Hot Topic is based on a passion for a concept. For Hot Topic, that passion is music, and for Torrid, it is fashion. McLaughlin says that the passion for the products and the inspiration behind them is what makes her company different from many oth- ers, and the passion that drives the culture is shared across all levels and positions of the organization. In fact, McLaughlin claims that music inspires not only the products they sell, but also store design and even the people they hire.

Hot Topic has a unique corporate culture but structurally does not differ tremen- dously from other organizations. Employees are fiercely loyal to the firm as a result of the great working environment where they feel they can “fit in” and be appreciated for what they contribute to the organization. One example of how Hot Topic encour- ages fitting in is its “concert reimbursement” program. Employees can attend a concert and bring someone with them, fill out an expense report, and be reimbursed for the cost of their tickets. The only requirement for this benefit is to submit a “fashion re- port.” The culture also values collaboration, open communication, and empowerment, and is perpetuated by a lack of walls and doors in the corporate headquarters. Everyone works in one big room and shares space, taking emphasis off hierarchy and promot- ing collaboration and open communication. The employees are supported in risk-taking decisions when taking care of the needs of customers. This gives employees a feeling of inclusion and empowerment to make decisions.

Hot Topic has grown from 15 stores just 15 years ago to nearly 800 stores today. This provides a ready applicant pool to allow the company to hire for corporate jobs from within—a practice that has the worker bring her or his sense of the corporate culture to the new job. Employees are kept satisfied through such perks as cell phone discounts, on-site massages, health fairs, scholarship reimbursement, and “employee of the month” programs. Another interesting and no-cost perk offered to employees is the “9/80” program. This program allows employees to work 80 hours over 9 days— giving them a three-day weekend every other weekend.

McLaughlin talks to her employees and customers to learn in what direction they want Hot Topic to go. This along with all of the innovative ideas and programs provides Hot Topic with a unique culture that helps keep their employees and customers satisfied and loyal.

Questions for Discussion

1. What makes Hot Topic so successful as a retailer? What makes them so popular with their employees? How can they keep their success going?

2. How does the idea of no walls and no doors in the corporate headquarters encour- age the culture Hot Topic is trying to perpetuate? Do you think you would like to work in such an atmosphere?

For more information, see www.hottopic.com.

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Action Assignment As a bridge between learning and doing, complete the following action assignment.

1. What is the most important idea you have learned in Part Five?

2. How can you apply what you have learned? What will you do, with whom, where, when, and, most important, why?

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Understanding People

12. Human Behavior and the Art of Persuasion 13. The Diversity Challenge

A FRIEND ASKED MICHELANGELO: “How’s the work going at the Sistine Chapel?”

Michelangelo answered:

“About the same. You know, I really never should have started this thing. Four

years, on and off, I’ve been at it. What I really wanted to do was a tomb for Julius

II. But they made a decision and I’m stuck with it. The worst thing is that I had to

start at the entrance of the chapel first, which I thought was a stupid idea. But

they wanted to keep the chapel open as long as possible while I was working.”

His friend inquired: “What’s the difference?”

Michelangelo replied:

“What’s the difference? Here I am trying to do a ceiling mural on the creation

of man, right? But I have to start with the end of the whole scheme, and then fin-

ish with the beginning. Besides, I’ve never painted a ceiling before, and I’m not

very experienced at murals either.”

The friend sympathized: “Boy, that’s tough.”

Michelangelo went on:

“And on top of that, the scaffolding material I have to use is dangerous. The

whole thing shakes and wiggles every time I climb up there. One day it’s boiling

hot, and the next day it’s freezing. It’s dark most of the time. Working on my back,

I swallow as much paint as I put on the ceiling. I can’t get any decent help. The

long climb up and down the ladders will kill me yet. And to top everything, they

are going to let the public in and show the thing off before it’s even finished. It

won’t be finished for another year at least. And that’s another thing, they are always

nagging me to finish. And when I’m finished, what then? I’ve got no security. And

if they don’t like it, I may be out of work permanently.”

The friend responded: “Gee, Michelangelo, that’s tough. With no job security,

such poor working conditions, irritating company policies, and inadequate subor-

dinates, you must really be dissatisfied with your job. Are you ready to quit?”

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Michelangelo replied:

“What? Quit? Are you crazy? It’s a fascinating challenge. And I’m learning more

and more every day about murals and ceilings. I’ve been experimenting and

changing my style for these last few years, and I’m starting to get a lot of recogni-

tion from some very important people. You can see for yourself that it’s going to

be one of the finest achievements of all time. I’m the only one responsible for the

design, and I’m making all of the basic decisions. It may bring me other opportu-

nities to do even more difficult work.

“Quit? Never. This is a terrific job.”1

The Sistine Chapel in the Vatican Palace was painted by Michelangelo betweenAD 1508 and 1512.

Learning Objectives

After studying Part Six, you will be able to: • Understand why people do what they do. • Tap the transformational power of human motivation. • Achieve employee engagement. • Assess your level of emotional intelligence. • Know the power of words when spoken from the heart. • Diagnose strengths and weaknesses in the art of persuasion. • Know why diversity is an important subject for leadership effectiveness. • Understand gender, age, and cultural diversity. • Describe what the leader can do to achieve the benefits of diversity and

avoid the pitfalls of prejudice.

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Human Behavior and the Art of Persuasion

Iwonder why she acts that way,” “People! I’ll never understand them.” “We’ve metthe enemy, and they are us.” If you have ever had such thoughts as these, this chap-ter will be of interest to you. Understanding why people do what they do is impor- tant for employee morale and job performance. When the work is done, this understanding is important in dealing with family and friends.

Business leader Lee Iacocca prescribes a formula for success: “Effective leaders focus on three “p’s—people, products, and profit—in that order.” Mark McCormack, author of What They Don’t Teach You at Harvard Business School, explains the importance of understanding people:

Whether it is a matter of closing a deal or asking for a raise, of motivating a sales force or negotiating one to one, of buying a new company or turning around an old one, business situations almost always come down to people situations. Those individuals with a finely tuned people sense, and an awareness of how to apply it, invariably take the edge.2

Psychological Forces Physical and emotional needs are important determinants of human behavior, helping explain why people work, why they have certain personal goals, and what they want in their relationships with others. Psychologist Abraham Maslow divides human needs into five categories, progressing from basic needs for survival and security, to social needs for belonging and respect, to the complex need for fulfillment.3 See Figure 12–1.

CHAPTER

12

Figure 12–1 Hierarchy of Human Needs

Survival

Security

Belonging

Respect

Fulfillment

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1. Survival. The needs that are taken as the starting point for motivation theory are the physiological, or basic body tissue, needs. Taking a breath of air and acting in self-defense are normal expressions of such needs. Survival needs are strong and natural forces within the person. Psychologist Viktor Frankl tells of his experiences in a Nazi concentration camp during World War II:

What did the prisoner dream about most frequently? Of bread, cake, cigarettes, and nice warm baths. During waking hours prisoners were concerned, above all else, with what they would get for their evening meal and how much would be available. When they received food, they were torn between whether they should consume all of it immediately, or save a part of it for that later time when their stomachs would hurt from hunger. In short, whether awake or asleep, their greatest concern was for the most basic physical needs—food and physical comfort.4

2. Security. Once survival needs are satisfied, security needs become important. Freedom from threat and protection from loss are major security goals, helping explain our interest in savings accounts, medical insurance, seniority rights, and burglar alarms. All ages and types of people experience the need for security. Both the child who is afraid of the dark and the worker who fears unemployment feel the need for security, and the drive to satisfy this need influences their actions.

3. Belonging. When survival and security needs are satisfied, the need for belong- ing emerges. This is true for people in all cultures, whether aggressive or peaceful, primitive or advanced. Every individual makes a distinct effort to belong to some aspired social group. If you have ever felt a need for love or a need to express love, you have experienced a natural need for belonging, and this has influenced your behavior.5

4. Respect. Once survival, security, and belonging needs are satisfied, people are motivated by the need for respect—the need to be considered favorably by self and others. The pursuit of fame, regardless of the field—business, government, the arts— can be explained only by the powerful need for respect. It is natural to want the recognition and honor of others. When this need is not satisfied, an individual feels inferior, weak, and discouraged. William James, American philosopher and founder of psychology as a discipline, writes:

We are not only gregarious animals, liking to be in sight of our fellows, but we have an innate propensity to get ourselves noticed, and noticed favorably, by our kind. No more fiendish punishment could be devised, were such a thing physically possible, than that one should be turned loose in society and remain absolutely unnoticed by all the members thereof.6

5. Fulfillment. After physical and social needs are satisfied, people are motivated by the need for fulfillment, which Maslow referred to as “self-actualization.” These people may or may not please others by what they do, and their efforts may or may not result in the attainment of intended goals. Regardless of the consequences, if a person does something because it is valued personally, then the act itself is fulfilling.

The English author–philosopher Julian Huxley summarizes the need for fulfill- ment with the following observation:

Human life is a struggle—against frustration, ignorance, suffering, evil, the maddening inertia of things in general; but it is also a struggle for something. Fulfillment seems to describe better than any other single word the positive side of human development and human evolution—the realization of inherent capacities by the individual and of new possibilities by the race; the satisfaction of needs, spiritual as well as material; the emergence of new qualities of experience to be enjoyed; the building of personalities.7

In studying the characteristics of the fulfilled person, Maslow identified people he believed lived rich and fulfilling lives. Included were Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Albert Schweitzer. Maslow found that these people shared 15 characteristics of self-actualization.8 To evaluate your own development as a self-actualized person, complete Exercise 12–1.

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Rate yourself on the following characteristics. Circle the number that best represents your current status (1 is low; 10 is high).

1. Acceptance of self and others

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. Accurate perception of reality

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3. Close relationships

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

4. Personal autonomy (independence)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

5. Goal-directedness; achievement orientation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

6. Naturalness (spontaneity)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

7. Need for privacy

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

8. Orientation toward growth and new experience

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

9. Sense of unity with nature

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

10. Sense of fellowship with all people

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11. Democratic character

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

12. Sense of justice

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

13. Sense of humor

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

14. Creativity

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

15. Personal integrity (high principles)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Exercise 12–1 Characteristics of the Self-Actualized Person

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Scoring and Interpretation:

Add the numbers you circled to find your total score; then compare it with the correspon- ding description.

Score Progress

15–45 Not great—should definitely improve

46–120 Just OK—needs work

121–150 Very good—keep going!

The characteristics I want to improve are:

Action steps I will take are:

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Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and characteristics of a self-actualized per- son are commonly taught in psychology, business, and leadership courses. He has in- fluenced management theory and practice for over 50 years, including the works of Douglas McGregor, Rensis Likert, Warren Bennis, Ken Blanchard, and Peter Drucker.

In his book The Farther Reaches of Human Nature, Maslow prescribes five principles for developing one’s full potential: (1) Experience life fully in the present rather than dwelling on the past or worrying about the future; (2) make choices in your life that will enhance growth by taking reasonable risks; (3) be honest with yourself and with other people; (4) strive to do your best in accomplishing tangible goals in line with your basic values; and (5) commit yourself to concerns and causes outside yourself.9

Motivation in the Workplace To understand why people behave the way they do, one must consider motivation. Motivation has been a key interest to leaders since Hugo Munsterberg wrote Psychol- ogy and Industrial Efficiency almost 100 years ago. Today, C.G. Pinder’s book Work Motivation in Organizational Behavior is one of the best overall sources on the sub- ject. Motivation varies across and within individuals. It combines with ability and expectation to produce behavior and performance.10

The term motivation comes from the Latin word movere meaning “to move.” An- cient scholars were fascinated by the fact that some objects in the world seem to be self-movers, while other objects remain stationary unless acted upon by some outside force. They assumed that motion was caused by a spirit inside the object—a “little man” of some kind—that pushed or impelled the object into action. Whenever the “spirit was moved,” so was the object or body that the spirit inhabited.11

The effective leader must motivate people to accomplish tasks. This involves understanding the needs of others and arranging conditions so that individual needs can be met while advancing the organization. In this way, the little man, or spirit of the individual, is awakened and liberated. The performance that results can be tremendous.

For most employees, a few words of appreciation create renewed energy and job commitment. Of employees who leave a company, 5 to 10 percent do so because of money; of the remaining 90 to 95 percent, many leave because they don’t feel they are being recognized. The importance of motivation is suggested in findings that most people believe they could give as much as 15 to 20 percent more effort at work than they now do with no one, including their own supervisors, recognizing any difference. Perhaps even more startling, these workers also believe they could give 15 to 20 percent less effort with no one noticing any difference.12

Exercise 12–2 evaluates motivation in the work setting. By completing this exer- cise, you will better understand the role of human needs in the world of work.

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Rank your responses for each of the following questions. The response that is most important or most true for you should receive a 5; the next, a 4; and on down to the least important or least true, which should receive a 1.

Example: The work I like best involves

A 4 Working alone.

B 3 A mixture of time spent with people and time spent alone.

C 1 Giving speeches.

D 2 Discussion with others.

E 5 Working outdoors.

1. Overall, the most important thing to me about a job is whether or not

A The pay is sufficient to meet my needs.

B It provides the opportunity for fellowship and good human relations.

C It is a secure job with good employee benefits.

D It allows me freedom and the chance to express myself.

E There is opportunity for advancement, based on my achievements.

2. If I were to quit a job, it would probably be because

A It was a dangerous job, such as working with inadequate equipment or poor safety procedures.

B Continued employment was questionable because of uncertainties in business conditions or funding sources.

C It was a job people looked down on.

D It was a one-person job, allowing little opportunity for discussion and interaction with others.

E The work lacked personal meaning to me.

3. For me, the most important rewards in working are those that

A Come from the work itself—important and challenging assignments.

B Satisfy the basic reasons people work—good pay, a good home, and other economic needs.

C Are provided by fringe benefits—such as hospitalization insurance, time off for vacations, and security for retirement.

D Reflect my ability—such as being recognized for the work I do and knowing I am one of the best in my company or profession.

E Come from the human aspects of working—that is, the opportunity to make friends and to be a valued member of a team.

4. My morale would suffer most in a job in which

A The future was unpredictable.

B Other employees received recognition, when I didn’t, for doing the same quality of work.

C My co-workers were unfriendly or held grudges.

D I felt stifled and unable to grow.

E The job environment was poor—no air conditioning, inconvenient parking, insufficient space and lighting, primitive toilet facilities.

5. In deciding whether or not to accept a promotion, I would be most concerned with whether

A The job was a source of pride and would be viewed with respect by others.

B Taking the job would constitute a gamble on my part, and I could lose more than I gained.

C The economic rewards would be favorable.

D I would like the new people I would be working with, and whether or not we would get along.

E I would be able to explore new areas and do more creative work.

Exercise 12–2 Motivation at Work13

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6. The kind of job that brings out my best is one in which

A There is a family spirit among employees and we all share good times.

B The working conditions—equipment, materials, and basic surroundings— are physically safe.

C Management is understanding, and there is little chance of losing my job.

D I can see the returns on my work from the standpoint of personal values.

E There is recognition for achievement.

7. I would consider changing jobs if my present position

A Did not offer security and fringe benefits.

B Did not provide a chance to learn and grow.

C Did not provide recognition for my performance.

D Did not allow close personal contacts.

E Did not provide economic rewards.

8. The job situation that would cause the most stress for me is

A Having a serious disagreement with my co-workers.

B Working in an unsafe environment.

C Having an unpredictable supervisor.

D Not being able to express myself.

E Not being appreciated for the quality of my work.

9. I would accept a new position if

A The position would be a test of my potential.

B The new job would offer better pay and physical surroundings.

C The new job would be secure and offer long-term fringe benefits.

D The position would be respected by others in my organization.

E Good relationships with co-workers and business associates were probable.

10. I would work overtime if

A The work is challenging.

B I need the extra income.

C My co-workers are also working overtime.

D I must do it to keep my job.

E The company recognizes my contribution.

Scoring:

Place the values you assigned to A, B, C, D, and E for each question in the spaces provided in the scoring key on page 257. Notice that the letters are not always in the same place for each question. Then add each column to obtain a total score for each motivation level.

The five motivation levels are as follows (each will be discussed in the “Interpretation” section—see page 258):

Level I Survival needs

Level II Security needs

Level III Belonging needs

Level IV Respect needs

Level V Fulfillment needs

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Scoring Key

Motivation Level

I II III IV V

1. A C B E D

2. A B D C E

3. B C E D A

4. E A C B D

5. C B D A E

6. B C A E D

7. E A D C B

8. B C A E D

9. B C E D A

10. B D C E A

Totals

Next, make a graphic representation of your motivation at work on the motivation graph in Figure 12–2. Find the number on the scale that corresponds to each motivation level, and draw a line across that point in the column. Then fill in the area, creating a bar chart of your needs at work. See the sample motivation graph on page 258 (Figure 12–3).

The highest points of your motivation graph indicate the most important needs identi- fied by you in your work. The lowest points show those needs that have been relatively well satisfied or de-emphasized by you at this time.

Figure 12–2 Motivation Graph High

Motivation Level

Low

N ee

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I Survival

10

20

30

40

50

10

20

30

40

50

II Security

III Belonging

IV Respect

V Fulfillment

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Interpretation:

The following is a description of the five motivation levels. Also included are policies and practices an organization should consider to help satisfy employee needs at each motiva- tion level. In a real sense, the five best gifts to give employees are survival, security, be- longing, respect, and fulfillment.

Level I: Survival Needs

People motivated at the first level are concerned with physical and economic survival. If they do not presently have a job, they feel the need to find one. If they do have a job, their goal is to keep it and to have a safe work environment. There is also concern for comfort and the avoidance of physical irritations such as inadequate space, inefficient equipment, and inconvenient parking, restroom, and eating facilities.

Physical needs may dominate the behavior of a person who has no job or who is in eco- nomic difficulty. Consider the plight of millions of people during the Great Depression, or that of an individual today who has lost a job, whose children need clothing, and whose dependent parents are ill. Consider Ma’s words in John Steinbeck’s masterpiece, The Grapes of Wrath:

But I like to think how nice it’s gonna be, maybe, in California. Never cold. An’ fruit ever’place, an’ people just bein’ in the nicest places, little white houses in among the orange trees. I wonder—that is, if we all get jobs an’ all work—maybe we can get one of them little white houses. An’ the little fellas go out an’ pick oranges right off the tree. They ain’t gonna be able to stand it, they’ll get to yellin’ so.14

An organization can meet the survival needs of its employees by providing:

■ Sufficient pay.

■ Safe working conditions.

■ Safe equipment, tools, and materials.

■ A supportive physical environment, with good lighting, heating, air conditioning, and restrooms.

High

Motivation Level

Low

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20

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10

20

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50

I Survival

II Security

III Belonging

IV Respect

V Fulfillment

Figure 12–3 Sample Motivation Graph

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Does your organization meet the survival needs of its employees? Evaluate on a scale of 1 to 10 (1 is low; 10 is high):

Level II: Security Needs

People motivated at the second level feel the need for security and predictability in their lives. They want assurance that their jobs are not subject to loss or change. As a result, there is a concern for benefits of a protective nature, such as health insurance, retirement income, and seniority rights. There is also a need for signs of stability from upper management.

The second motivation level, like the first, involves issues that are peripheral to the work itself; therefore, any job that provides economic protection and a dependable work environment will be valued by the person motivated at this level.

Security needs may erupt at all levels of responsibility and in all lines of work if business conditions are poor or if managers act in a threatening way. Think of how you would feel if you sensed that your job was in jeopardy; or imagine the concern you would feel if the equipment, supplies, and other resources required to perform your job were taken away.

An organization can meet the security needs of its employees by providing:

■ Proper tools, equipment, and materials to do the job.

■ Job aids, such as training manuals and technical assistance.

■ Economic protection through insurance and retirement programs.

■ Job security through career counseling, in-service training, and seniority systems.

■ Confidence in management through stable and dependable actions of managers.

How well does your organization meet its employees’ security needs? Evaluate on a scale of 1 to 10 (1 is low; 10 is high):

Level III: Belonging Needs

When belonging needs are the primary source of motivation, employees value work as an opportunity for establishing warm and satisfying human relationships. Jobs that allow them the opportunity to interact with people and to create friendships are likely to be val- ued, regardless of the nature of the work itself. A person motivated at this level may be more interested in human relations than job duties when considering which career to pur- sue or which company to join.

Employee needs for belonging are normal. How these needs are met (whether by counterproductive cliques and gripe sessions or by constructive work groups and em- ployee meetings) can influence the success of an organization.

An organization can meet the belonging needs of its employees by providing:

■ Communication sessions between employees and management (these are most effective when conducted in small groups).

■ Celebration of holidays, birthdays, and special events.

■ Expressions of consideration, such as notes of appreciation, hospital visits, and sympathetic understanding when employees have personal problems.

■ Job participation vehicles, such as regular staff meetings, annual employee meetings, employee task forces, committees, and performance improvement teams.

■ Communication outlets, such as employee newsletters, notices from management, bulletin boards, and annual reports.

■ Most important, an open-door policy in which every employee feels free to share concerns and suggestions with every other employee, regardless of level of responsibility.

How well does your organization support the belonging needs of its employees? Evaluate on a scale of 1 to 10 (1 is low; 10 is high):

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Level IV: Respect Needs

The fourth motivation level reflects a person’s need for recognition. The respect of others for one’s special traits or competencies is important. This is the first motivation level that is closely related to the nature of the work and depends on aspects of the job itself for satis- faction. Work that provides the opportunity to display skills that one feels others respect will be valued and will have motivation strength. The person who is primarily interested in self-image or reputation is motivated at the fourth motivation level.

An organization can meet its employees’ needs for recognition by providing:

■ Individual incentives for high performance, such as achievement awards, worker-of- the-month honors, attendance awards, and recognition for suggestions.

■ Public acclaim for outstanding contributions at award banquets, retirement dinners, and annual meetings.

■ Opportunities to improve job status through training programs, job titles, and promotions.

■ Tangible rewards, such as increased pay, bonuses, commemorative plaques, letters of recognition, gifts, and privileges.

■ Most important, day-to-day recognition and praise for a job well done.

Does your organization provide recognition for employees’ achievements? Evaluate on a scale of 1 to 10 (1 is low; 10 is high):

Level V: Fulfillment Needs

When a person is motivated at the fifth level, his or her primary concern is to fulfill per- sonal values and to experience growth. There is a desire to demonstrate life values on the job. Writer Studs Terkel explains the motivation of employees at the fifth level:

It’s about a search, too, for daily meaning as well as for daily bread, for recognition as well as cash, for astonishment rather than torpor; in short, for a sort of life rather than a Monday through Friday sort of dying.

There are, of course, the happy few who find a savor in their daily job: The Indiana stonemason who looks upon his work and sees it is good; the Chicago piano tuner who seeks and finds a sound that delights; the bookbinder who saves a piece of history; the Brooklyn fireman who saves a piece of life.

But don’t these satisfactions, like Jude’s hunger for knowledge, tell us more about the person than about the task? Perhaps. Nonetheless, there is a common attribute here: a meaning to their task well over and beyond the reward of the paycheck.15

Once people reach a certain level of material comfort and social needs are met, they care more about fulfillment; in plain English, they are more interested in what they actu- ally do all day. Add a strong economy and a small labor pool, and the fifth motivation level is all the more important.

The nature of one’s work is particularly critical for satisfying fulfillment needs, because the job itself must allow a good deal of freedom of expression and opportunity for experi- mentation. When the fifth motivation level is dominant, the individual channels more cre- ative and constructive energy into the work activity than she or he would if motivated solely by the need for respect, belonging, security, or survival.

An organization can meet the fulfillment needs of its employees by:

■ Discussing organization values and goals in light of individual values and goals, and tailoring job duties to accomplish both.

■ Providing the opportunity for personal growth, through both on-the-job assignments and outside activities. For example, an organization may support an employee’s involvement in community service activities or may support his or her continuing education efforts.

How well does your organization meet its employees’ needs for fulfillment? Evaluate on a scale of 1 to 10 (1 is low; 10 is high):

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Why People Do What They Do There are nine points to remember about human motivation. With these in mind, you will better understand why people do what they do, both on the job and in their lives away from work. These points can also explain the complicated relationship between personal goals and work behavior.16

1. A satisfied need is not a motivator. It is not what people have that motivates behavior; it is what they do not have, or what they have done without. One person may be motivated by a need to never be hungry again; another, by a need to never be dependent again; another, by a need for love; another, by a need to be “somebody” someday; and yet another, by a need for self-expression. Each is motivated by a need that is not fully satisfied.

2. Employee motivation and company success are related. In his book The Human Equation, Jeffrey Pfeffer shows that profit is directly related to a company’s effectiveness in motivating its workforce. He identifies seven practices that successful companies share: (1) employment security; (2) selective hiring of new personnel; (3) empowered teams and decentralization of decision making as the basic principles of organizational design; (4) comparatively high compensation, contingent on organi- zational performance; (5) extensive training; (6) reduced status distinctions and barri- ers, including dress, language, office arrangements, and wage differences across levels; and (7) extensive sharing of financial and performance information throughout the organization.17

This list shows that three of the practices—job security, above-average wages, and reduced wage differentials—address lower-level needs; and three practices— empowered teams, extensive training, and information sharing—address higher-level needs. The remaining practice, selective hiring, is made possible because these companies are desirable places to work. Pfeffer concludes that high performance requires both good pay and an enriched work environment.

3. Psychological needs and social values are not the same. Both Adolf Hitler and Mohandas Gandhi may have been motivated by the need for respect (the fourth motivation level), but their actions reflected different social values. Similarly, two employees may be motivated by fulfillment needs—both behaving for self-discovered, self-defined reasons. Yet the actions of one may be harmful to other people, while the actions of the other may help other people. The psychological forces are the same, but the values are not. Psychological needs explain human motivation; social values are the concern of ethics.

4. The same act can satisfy any of the five motivation levels. Consider that a person may work for any of the following reasons: (1) because there is no food to eat, thus meeting survival needs; (2) because job stability is in danger, thus meeting security needs; (3) to be an accepted member of a work group, trade, or profession, thereby meeting belonging needs; (4) to be recognized as important, skillful, or otherwise worthy of admiration, thus meeting respect needs; (5) for the personal satisfaction experienced doing the job, thereby meeting fulfillment needs.

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Same Mile—Different Motives18

Level 1 or 2 Motivation

Michael Jazey (1965, 3:53): “I ran so I would not have to fight the war in Algeria.”

Level 3 Motivation

Jim Ryun (1965, 3:51): “I ran to get a letter jacket, a girlfriend.”

Level 4 Motivation

Noureddine Morceli (1993, 3:44): “I ran to be known as the greatest runner of all time.”

Level 5 Motivation

Sebastian Coe (1981, 3:47): “I ran because I was meant to run.”

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5. All people have the same needs, but to different degrees and accompanied by different wants. What it takes to satisfy motivational needs and how much is required are unique to each person. To illustrate: (1) Sue’s affection satisfies Bill’s need for belonging, while Jim’s belonging needs are satisfied by acceptance into his work group. (2) Jill’s need for respect will be satisfied when she is recognized as a skilled actress, whereas Karen’s need for respect is reflected in her goal to win an Oscar. Jill and Karen feel their needs to different degrees, showing that some people have a greater need for ego satisfaction.

6. A person can be deficiency-motivated, bringing harm to self or others. It is possible to have an extreme fixation on a natural need, so strong that it can lead to neurotic and even destructive behavior. For example, a person can be so hungry for love that the need becomes destructive. In the following passage, Gustave Flaubert describes Madame Bovary’s relationship with her husband:

She had to have her chocolate every morning, attentions without end. She constantly complained of her nerves, her chest, her liver. The noise of footsteps made her ill. When people went away, solitude became odious to her; if they came back, it was doubtless to see her die.

When Charles returned in the evening, she stretched forth two long thin arms from beneath the sheets, put them around his neck, and having him sit down on the edge of the bed, began to talk to him of her troubles: he was neglecting her; he loved another; she had been warned she would be unhappy; and she ended by asking him for a dose of medicine and a little more love.19

No matter how much Charles showed his wife that he loved her, she was never satisfied, and in the end, her need for proof that she was loved ended in a diminished life and early death.

In contrast, the healthy individual is growth-motivated and reasons, I have satisfied this need; now I am ready to satisfy other needs. This point is important in interper- sonal relations, especially leader–follower relationships. For example, when someone is deficiency-motivated and psychologically stuck at one of the need levels (except the fifth), direction from others is needed. In this case, help and advice from the wise would be appropriate. On the other hand, when someone is growth-motivated, the primary need is for understanding and nonpossessive caring. Those who want to help should listen in a nonjudgmental way as the person talks and discovers his or her own answers.20 Good books that can be used to understand and deal with deficiency- motivated and growth-motivated people, respectively, are The Road Less Traveled by Scott Peck and If You Meet the Buddha on the Road, Kill Him! by Sheldon Kopp.

7. Unsatisfied needs can harm your health, as surely as if you were physically stricken. If you feel the need for recognition, but no one respects you; if you feel the need for love, but no one cares; if you feel the need for self-expression, but have no outlets, you can develop a motivation condition as harmful as physical illness. Consider the following case:

Tim wanted to be an artist. He felt the need to express himself, and art was to be the means. The fact that no one else liked his work, and that he could not sell his paintings, mattered little to Tim; he was happy. Then Tim met Sarah. They fell in love and were married.

A year later, twins were born to Tim and Sarah. With this change in his life, Tim’s mind turned to food, clothing, and other needs for the children. Soon he went to work in an automobile factory as a production worker. Tim loved his family, and he was proud of himself for sacrificing his need for self-expression—his desire to paint—in the interest of his family.

By the time four years had passed, Tim was experiencing poor physical health and recurrent depression. His inner need to paint, sidetracked because of the need to earn a living, would not be quieted. He felt incomplete and unhappy. Tim developed problems at work and became increasingly irritable.21

8. Leadership is important in meeting employee needs and preventing motiva- tion problems. What a leader does will vary with the circumstances. Sample actions include improving job safety (survival needs), clarifying job assignments (security needs), offering a word of encouragement (belonging needs), providing praise for a job well done (respect needs), and offering new skills development (fulfillment

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needs). In any case, such leadership motivates employees and brings out their best in job performance. It is an example of enlightened and servant leadership.22

9. The ideal is to integrate the needs of the individual with the goals of the organization. If the needs of the individual can be satisfied while advancing the goals of the organization, the ultimate in employee morale and organization effectiveness will be achieved. Too many people are dissatisfied and perform below their potential because their jobs are not motivating. Many employees care more about off-the-job projects than on-the-job duties because these outside activities satisfy their psycho- logical needs. The failure to integrate individual needs and organizational goals can represent a significant loss or brain drain for the organization.23

Jeffrey Pfeffer summarizes: “If you want to have great business results, you have to have customers who love your products and believe they are getting excellent treatment in the broadest sense of the word. To do that, you have to have employees who are motivated and using their talents to the utmost of their ability.”24 It must be added that the same relationship is found with employee motivation, job perfor- mance, and citizen satisfaction in public-sector organizations.25

Employee Engagement When people discuss employee motivation, they often use the term employee engage- ment. Engagement involves both job satisfaction and organizational commitment.26

The challenge facing leaders is to tap the performance potential of all employees. Studies show only one-fourth of American employees are highly engaged, 55 percent are somewhat engaged, and 20 percent have low engagement or are actively disen- gaged. Negative attitudes and disruptive behavior of actively disengaged employees can be harmful to an organization.27

The benefits of engagement are significant in improving organizational perfor- mance. British retailer Marks and Spencer reports that a 1 percent improvement in engagement produces a 2.9 percent increase in sales per square foot; and JCPenney calculates that stores with higher engagement produce higher sales. Research in both the private and public sector shows that employee engagement results in higher orga- nizational citizenship and lower employee turnover.28

Jim Haudan, author of The Art of Engagement, provides an excellent framework for engaging the hearts and minds of people. Haudan identifies the roots of engagement, analyzes the causes and solutions to disengagement, and prescribes leadership actions or keys for achieving engagement in any organization. His premise is that organization success is not determined solely by the vision of leaders, but also by bringing these ideas to life in a way that is meaningful for all employees.

The roots of engagement are in human motivation, the realization that people want survival and security, but they also want a sense of belonging, respect from others, and the opportunity to make a difference in the world. Employees have the need to be accepted. If they feel ignored, they slip into indifference. Employees want to be im- portant. If they feel disregarded, they lose self-esteem. Employees want to live mean- ingful lives and accomplish something important. This is why the vision, mission, and values of an organization must be seen in the actions of its leaders.

The causes and solutions to disengagement are as follows:

Cause 1: Being overwhelmed with too many demands, too much confusion, and inad- equate resources. The solution is to prioritize and simplify the assignment of work and provide the systems, procedures, tools, and supplies to perform good work. Employees need a rational work environment.

Cause 2: Not being relevant to customer needs because leaders are out of touch, self- serving, incompetent, or all three. The solution is for leaders to set high standards of

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customer satisfaction and to require unrelenting adherence to these standards by all personnel, especially the leadership corps.

Cause 3: Fear of being hurt personally can cause employee disengagement. Employ- ees do not want to risk economic security or personal well-being. The solution is to create a safe work environment where honesty, effort, and innovation are rewarded, and people feel free to be themselves.

Cause 4: Not knowing the overall plan for the organization, including a strategy to succeed, and not understanding the importance of one’s own role. The solution is for every employee to understand the vision, mission, and values of the organization and his or her place in the plan, including performance expectations, accountabilities, and rewards.

Cause 5: Lack of personal ownership causes disengagement. The solution is to include all employees in both the success and failure of the organization. Perfor- mance and consequences must be shared in fair, proportional, and transparent ways as all boats rise and fall together. Executive and employee well-being must be tied together.

Cause 6: Denial of reality and unwillingness to face the truth will result in employee disengagement. The solution is for leaders to address the facts. Only when the truth is shared will employees let go of the past and focus on the future. Focus, traction, and momentum all begin with truth.

The following are time-tested keys or leadership actions for achieving employee en- gagement. The goal is to engage people to get real work done.

1. Keep people connected through stories and images. Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, about the Trojan War, show the power of stories; and Aristotle said, “The soul doesn’t think without a picture.” A good way to communicate meaning is with a story, and a good way to tell a story is with pictures.

2. Create pictures together that liberate the imagination. The power of the notepad, pencil, and two or more heads together is enormous. The plan on a napkin, the project on a poster, and the story on the wall are icons of business innovation and achievement. Thinking together in pictures is a potent and creative engagement tool. Leaders and employees use data, anecdotes, and group dialogue to understand the past, diagnose the present, and decide the future.

3. Gain employee trust through competence and integrity. People give power to their leaders who must use their power well or they will take it away; or at least, they will withhold allegiance. Aristotle taught that leaders can maintain the trust of others through moral virtue, unselfish interest, and relevant skill. Engagement results when employees trust the integrity and competence of their leaders.

4. Empower people to own business problems. Both policy makers and action takers are personally committed in engaged companies. Engagement requires assigning meaningful tasks to achieve product and service excellence, holding people accountable for results, correcting mistakes that may occur, and rewarding success. This is the essence of performance management that all leaders must master.

There are many models for employee engagement. Jim Haudan’s roots, causes, and solutions, and keys of engagement provide a practical guide that can be used to build high morale and high performance in any organization. Applying this guide can be done in a customized way by each leader, case by case.29

Emotional Intelligence Management author Fred Fiedler writes, “Leadership is the use of influence to ac- complish a task.”30 This point is supported in Working with Emotional Intelligence, a book that explains the importance of understanding and dealing with people. Author

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Keys of Engagement

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Daniel Goleman explains that although technical skills are important, emotional in- telligence (EI) is the essential and indispensable requirement for effective leadership. One person may call this practical wisdom, and another may call it commonsense leadership. No matter what label is put on the skill, leadership success requires the ability to understand and deal effectively with people.31

In the 1980s Howard Gardner proposed seven different kinds of intelligence. Two of these, interpersonal and intrapersonal, form the basis of emotional intelligence. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand other people—what motivates them, how they work, and how to work cooperatively with them. Intrapersonal intelli- gence is a correlative ability turned inward. It is the ability to form an accurate model of oneself and to be able to use that model to operate effectively in life.32

The concept of emotional intelligence can be traced to an article published by E. L. Thorndike in 1920, “Intelligence and Its Use.”33 In 1973, R. E. Walker and J. M. Foley provided a review of research published on social intelligence during the 50 years following Thorndike’s paper. They noted the two key elements of Thorndike’s definition were the ability to understand the needs of others and the ability to behave wisely in respect to others.34

The following story is a practical example of emotional intelligence:

The owner of a fast-food franchise was having trouble with employee turnover. The majority of his employees were teenage students, and few would remain for an entire semester.

In an attempt to solve the problem, he sat down one day and wrote down everything he could think of about them. He noted the fact that they went to school; that most of them sought teacher approval and parental approval; that they liked money; that they were working to buy things, but were thinking about college. Most had pride in their school grades, were competitive, and were working to develop a work ethic. All sought recognition and some were worried about the future.

As he studied this list, the owner focused his attention on certain words: money, work ethic, pride in grades, teacher approval, parental approval, competitive, recognition, and college.

Then an idea hit him: a bonus plan based on grade-point averages. Any student who works for a whole semester and earns a 2.5 to 3.0 GPA would be awarded a 15-cent-per-hour bonus for all hours worked that semester. The ante would be upped to 25 cents per hour for students earning better than 3.0.

The cost was small—less than 5 percent of his payroll costs for the time period. The advantages were many:

Students were encouraged to work for the entire semester. The bonus attracted better students, who tended to be better workers. Guidance counselors and teachers did his recruiting for him, recommending his restaurant to

students looking for work. Parents encouraged their children to work at his place. Great public relations for the restaurant—he received free newspaper and television coverage.35

A high-profile example of the importance of understanding and dealing effectively with people is the case of Louis V. Gerstner, Jr., former chairman and chief executive of IBM. By 1996, Gerstner was leading his company back to success, rebounding from nearly a decade of problems.36 Business analysts and management authors would say that IBM had recommitted to its core values of service to the customer and performance excellence, as it took the efforts of literally thousands of talented and dedicated employees to create a resurgence of IBM. However, a particularly visible success factor was the leader Gerstner’s personal ability to deal with people. In particular, Gerstner was effective in his personal appeals to major customers. A case in point was a visit to Toronto, where Gerstner held a conference with 20 top executives:

Seated at a horseshoe-shaped table, and dressed in shirtsleeves, the IBM top executive held forth for 90 minutes in a casual, but powerful presentation. There were no slides, no computerized overheads, and no prepared speech. Gerstner chatted about a wide range of subjects, including the changes that technology is bringing to business and society. Most of the CEOs in the room were impressed by the relevance of his discourse to their companies. In the words of the

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chairman and CEO of Rubbermaid, “He was able to connect.” Lou Gerstner was filling a leader’s quintessential responsibility—influencing key people to think and act in ways to benefit his organization.37

The legendary founder of Federal Express, Fred Smith, was a believer in using emotional intelligence to solve business problems. He tells about a situation where planes were getting backed up even though every control mechanism was tried. Smith realized the underlying cause was employees at the cargo terminal would run late because it meant more money for them. What was the solution? Align the inter- ests of the employees with the needs of the company. Employees were given a mini- mum guarantee and told if they finished before a certain time they could go home. The results were remarkable—within about 45 days, the operation was ahead of schedule and the problem was solved.38

Goleman summarizes the character and ability of successful leaders with the phrase “nice guys finish first.” The research on leadership success shows that the best com- mands, forces, and companies are run not by Captain Ahab types who terrorize their people, but by caring leaders with emotional intelligence to balance a people-oriented personal style with a decisive command role and willingness to make difficult deci- sions. These leaders do not duck the tough problems—technical or personnel. They are purposeful, decisive, and businesslike; but equally characteristic, they are positive, warm, and understanding with people. They are democratic in their character and show respect for all people regardless of position or status. They are appreciative, trustful, and even gentle in their dealings with people, although sometimes this trait is below the surface of a dignified and formal appearance. Goleman emphasizes that the successful leader is a caring leader who can understand people and deal with them effectively.39

There is much interest and ongoing research about emotional intelligence. Elements of emotional intelligence include self-awareness, impulse control, persistence, confi- dence, self-motivation, social awareness, empathy, social deftness, and relationship man- agement. It is difficult to single out one trait as most important because different aspects of emotional intelligence come into play in different situations. One overall characteris- tic, however, is persuasiveness. Can you get buy-in for your ideas from the people around you? The most effective leaders have a finely honed ability to influence others. To evaluate your emotional intelligence in the workplace, complete Exercise 12–3.

A popular model organizes emotional intelligence into four dimensions represent- ing the recognition of emotions in ourselves and in others, as well as the regulation of emotions in ourselves and in others. See Table 12–1.40

■ Self-awareness is the ability to recognize and understand the meaning of one’s own emotions.

■ Self-management is the ability to regulate one’s own emotions, keeping harmful impulses in check.

■ Social-awareness is the abilitiy to understand another person’s emotions and know his or her needs even though unstated.

■ Relationship management is the ability to gain cooperation and inspire others as well as manage potentially dysfunctional emotions such as anger and fear.

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Yourself Other People (Personal Competence) (Social Competence)

Recognition of Emotions Self-Awareness Social Awareness

Regulation of Emotions Self-Management Relationship Management

Table 12–1 Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence

Sources: D. Goleman, R Boyatzis, and A. McKee, Primal Leadership (Boston: Harvard Business School, 2002), Chap. 3; and D. Goleman, “An EI–Based Theory of Performance,” in The Emotionally Intelligent Workplace, ed. C. Cherniss and D. Goleman (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001), p. 28.

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The following 25 statements represent aspects of emotional intelligence. Using a scale from 1 to 4 (1 is low; 4 is high), estimate how you rate on each trait.

I usually stay composed, positive, and unflappable, even in trying times.

I can think clearly and stay focused on the task at hand under pressure.

I am able to admit my own mistakes.

I usually or always meet commitments and keep promises.

I hold myself accountable for meeting my goals.

I am organized and careful in my work.

I regularly seek out fresh ideas from a wide variety of sources.

I am good at generating new ideas.

I can smoothly handle multiple demands and changing priorities.

I am results-oriented, with a strong drive to meet my objectives.

I like to set challenging goals and take calculated risks to reach them.

I am always trying to learn how to improve my performance, including asking advice from people younger than I am.

I readily make sacrifices to meet an important organizational goal.

The company’s mission is something I understand and can identify with.

The values of my team—or of our division or department, or the company— influence my decisions and clarify the choices I make.

I actively seek out opportunities to further the overall goals of the organization and enlist others to help me.

I pursue goals beyond what is required or expected of me in my current job.

Obstacles and setbacks may delay me a little, but they don’t stop me.

Cutting through red tape and bending outdated rules are sometimes necessary.

I seek fresh perspectives, even if that means trying something totally new.

My impulses or distressing emotions don’t often get the best of me at work.

I can change tactics quickly when circumstances change.

Exercise 12–3 What Is Your EI at Work?41

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Pursuing new information is my best bet for cutting down on uncertainty and finding ways to do things better.

I usually don’t attribute setbacks to a personal flaw (mine or someone else’s).

I operate from an expectation of success rather than a fear of failure.

Scoring and Interpretation:

Add your ratings for all 25 items: . A score below 70 indicates a need for improvement. Remember, however, that EI is not a permanent state. As Goleman notes in Emotional Intelligence and Working with Emotional Intelligence: “Emotional intelligence can be learned, and we can each develop it, in varying degrees, throughout our lives. Personal coaching, plenty of practice, and frequent feedback are particularly effective at developing EI. It is part of the process called maturity.”42

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Most jobs involve social interaction with co-workers and customers. Research shows that people with high EI are better at interpersonal relations and perform better in teams.43 Human relations and teamwork can be improved through emotional intelli- gence training as the following case shows:

General Motors carefully selected staff for its new Holden production facility at Port Melbourne, Australia, but it wasn’t long before the project unraveled due to infighting and interpersonal tensions. Consultants called in to analyze the problems offered the following solution: Employees need to improve their emotional intelligence. With this advice, the 30 plant design team members and more than 300 other employees completed a detailed assessment of their emotional intelligence. The automaker then introduced a variety of training modules targeting different aspects of emotional intelligence, such as effective self-expression, understanding others, and controlling emotions.

Some staff were skeptical about these touchy-feely seminars, so GM Holden evaluated the program to see whether employee scores improved and behavior changed. The company discovered that employee scores on the emotional intelligence test improved by almost 50 percent and that employees became much more cooperative and diplomatic in their behavior. “It has greatly improved communication within the team and with other teams outside the plant,” says GM Holden quality systems engineer Vesselka Vassileva. Some employees also note that it has improved their interpersonal behavior outside the workplace. “I’m not so aggressive or assertive,” says manufacturing engineer Alf Moore. “I feel better and it’s helped me at home.”44

The Art of Persuasion The successful leader must master the elements of the art of persuasion including (1) an understanding of people, (2) the effective use of words, and (3) the ability to manage conflict.

Napoleon Bonaparte was a master of persuasion because he understood people. The secret of his leadership was simple: He first determined what people wanted most; then he did everything in his power to help them get it. Most of us take just the opposite tack: We first decide what we want; then we try to persuade others to want the same thing as badly as we do. Napoleon always keyed his plea to what his army wanted most at the moment:

When his army was half starved, Napoleon promised them food in exchange for victory. When they were homesick and thinking of deserting, he appealed to their pride by asking them how they wanted to return home: as conquering heroes or with their tails tucked between their legs? When they were fighting in Egypt under the pyramids, he appealed to their sense of history: “Forty centuries are looking down upon you,” he told them. Helping others to achieve their goals—that is the essence of leadership.45

Contrary to myth, Napoleon was not exceptionally short. He was five feet six inches, slightly taller than the average Frenchman of his day. It was the English who alleged he was five feet two inches and seeking power to compensate for being short.

Understanding others requires sensitivity to their needs. The ability to see things from the other person’s view is important in all human relations, especially leadership. Vince Lombardi was famous for his beliefs on coaching: “Coaches who can outline plays on a chalk board are a dime a dozen. Give me a leader who can get inside his players, find their talents, read their minds, and motivate them.”46

America’s thirty-sixth president, Lyndon Johnson, recognized that people do what they do for their own reasons, and he accomplished his goals by helping others achieve theirs. In her book Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream, historian Doris Kearns Goodwin describes how Johnson could usually persuade people to do what he wanted.

An Understanding of People

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The Politics of Seduction From facts, gossip, observation—a multitude of disparate elements—Lyndon Johnson shaped a composite mental portrait of every senator: his strengths and his weaknesses: his place in the political spectrum; his aspirations in the Senate, and perhaps, beyond the Senate; how far he could be pushed, in what direction, and by what means; how he liked his liquor; how he felt about his wife and his family; and, most important, how he felt about himself. For Johnson understood that the most important decision each senator made, often obscurely, was what kind of senator he wanted to be; whether he wanted to be a national leader in education, a regional leader in civil rights, a social mag- nate in Washington, an agent of the oil industry, a wheel horse of the party, or a President of the United States.

Johnson would, for instance, explain to a senator that, “Although five other senators are clamoring for this one remaining seat on the congressional dele- gation to Tokyo, I just might be able to swing it for you since I know how much you really want it. It’ll be tough, but let me see what I can do.” The joys of visiting Tokyo may never have occurred to the senator, but he was unlikely to deny Johnson’s description of his desire—after all, it might be interesting, a relaxing change, even fun; and perhaps some of the businesses in his state had expressed concern about Japanese competition.

Johnson’s capacities for control and domination found their consummate manifestation during his private meetings with individual senators. Face to face, behind office doors, Johnson could strike a different pose, a different form of behavior and argument. He would try to make each senator feel that his support in some particular matter was the critical element that would affect the well-being of the nation, the Senate, and the party leader; and would also serve the practical and political interests of the senator. From his own insistent energy, Johnson would create an illusion that the outcome, and thus the responsibility, rested on the decision of this one senator.

Then too, Johnson was that rare American man who felt free to display inti- macy with another man, through expressions of feeling and also in physical closeness. In an empty room he would stand or sit next to a man as if all that were available was a three-foot space. He could flatter men with sentiments of love and touch their bodies with gestures of affection. The intimacy was all the more excusable because it seemed genuine and without menace. Yet it was also the product of meticulous calculation. And it worked. To the ardor and the bearing of this extraordinary leader, the ordinary senator would almost invariably succumb.47

Vocabulary, clarity, and eloquence can be used to persuade others to take action, especially in difficult times. Leaders can inspire with a phrase:

“Of the people, by the people, for the people”—Abraham Lincoln

“The only thing we have to fear is fear itself”—Franklin Roosevelt

“Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country”—John F. Kennedy

These motivational words are etched in the memories of most Americans. In times of crisis, the conviction of a leader conveyed by his or her words can be

a determining factor in the course of events. Consider the tenacity of the English

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people during World War II, inspired by a determined Winston Churchill who braced Britons to their task. Churchill told his people that even though all of Europe may fall to the German onslaught:

We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in the seas and oceans, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.48

Churchill expressed his nation’s gratitude to its airmen who, although outnumbered, fought bravely and defeated the German Luftwaffe, by saying, “Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.” Then Churchill declared:

Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves that, if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will say, “This was their finest hour.”49

About the importance of words and the power of persuasion, Churchill said, “If you have an important point to make, don’t try to be subtle or clever. Use a pile driver. Hit the point once. Then come back and hit it again. Then hit it a third time a tremendous whack!”50

Churchill is among the select group of individuals whose name has become syn- onymous with historic, indeed heroic, leadership. His effective use of words cannot be overestimated.

The most recent edition of the Oxford English Dictionary contains 171,476 words in current usage, among the most of any language. But it is not the number of words you know that counts, it is how you use the words you know.

One of the best examples of the power of words to inspire people and persuade them to action is that of Patrick Henry, revolutionary and patriot, who proclaimed in 1775:

Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death!51

Day-to-day leaders are unlikely to face the magnitude of challenges that Winston Churchill did; nonetheless, they are still required to communicate their ideas and inspire their subordinates. They may not have the skill with words to the degree that Patrick Henry did, but they still must be convincing in conveying information and effective in generating emotion. Some ability to communicate can be learned in a good course on public speaking and developed further with practice. However, more important than tech- nique is to speak the truth and speak from the heart. These two principles are required for credibility and trust, the fundamental elements of successful leadership. The best ad- vice to the leader is to forget personal ego. Instead, concentrate on the audience. Consider what is important to them, and address their interests honestly, directly, and to the point.

The power of speaking from the heart is perfectly illustrated in the case of Civil War leader Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, hero in the defense of Little Round Top during the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863. Michael Useem, author of The Leadership Moment, describes turning points in history when the actions of leaders have changed all that followed. Useem cites Gettysburg, Little Round Top, and the words of Cham- berlain, recreated by Michael Shaara in The Killer Angels, to show the importance of “leadership moments.”52

In September 1862, Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain left his family and a respected teaching position at Bowdoin College to serve in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He became the commander of the Twentieth Maine and would be the leader of this unit during one of the bloodiest battles of the war—Gettysburg.

The first few years of the war had not gone well for Union forces. They were now fac- ing the second invasion of the North by Confederate troops. Morale was so low that some forces actually refused to follow orders. While moving into position for the battle, some of the mutineers from the Second Maine regiment were ordered to report to Chamberlain.

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On July 2, 1863, Chamberlain’s forces formed the southern flank of the Union army located on Little Round Top. If his troops could not hold their position, Con- federate forces would then be able to cause the entire center of the Union army to collapse. The leadership shown by Chamberlain and the courage of his Maine troops proved to be a “turning point” in the battle, and therefore, the entire war.

Coming at the Twentieth Maine was a hardened Confederate regiment of 700 men under the command of William C. Oates. Oates’s Fifteenth Alabama attacked and reattacked Chamberlain’s defensive flank, with both sides gaining and giving. After two long hours and five attacks, the Union line remained unbroken.

When Oates pulled his regiment back to regroup a final time, the surviving soldiers of the Twentieth Maine had exhausted their ammunition. Chamberlain knew he could not withstand another attack, so he ordered his remaining force of 200 men to take the of- fensive with the only weapons they had available—bayonets. His command to charge stymied the Confederate army at Little Round Top. Oates would later write, “There never were harder fighters than the Twentieth Maine men and their gallant colonel.”

A critical factor in the outcome at Little Round Top was the total number of men Chamberlain had in his command and the bravery they showed. Many of these men were formerly mutineers of the Second Maine; all of them responded to Chamberlain’s leadership—his call to arms so compellingly made.

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Chamberlain’s Request of Maine Mutineers to Join His Twentieth Maine Regiment

This Regiment was formed last fall, back in Maine. . . . Some of us volunteered to fight for the Union. Some came in mainly because we were bored at home and this looked like it might be fun. Some came because they were ashamed not to. Many of us came because it was the right thing to do.

This is a different kind of army. If you look at history you’ll see men fight for pay, or women, or some other kind of loot. They fight for land, or because a king makes them, or just because they like killing. But we’re here for some- thing new. This hasn’t happened much in the history of the world. We’re an army going out to set other men free.

Here you can be something. Here’s a place to build a home. It isn’t the land—there’s always more land. It’s the idea that we all have value, you and me, we’re worth something more than the dirt. What we’re fighting for, in the end, is each other.

I think if we lose this fight the war will be over. So if you choose to come with us I’ll be personally grateful.53

A leader who spoke from the heart and built his vocabulary to be more persuasive was the African American ideological and religious leader Malcolm X.

The Autobiography of Malcolm X Every book I picked up had sentences that contained anywhere from one to nearly all of the words that might as well have been in Chinese. When I just skipped those words, of course, I really ended up with little idea of what the book said. So I had come to the Norfolk Prison Colony still going through only

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book-reading motions. Pretty soon, I would have quit even these motions, un- less I had received the motivation that I did.

I saw that the best thing I could do was get hold of a dictionary—to study, to learn some words. I was lucky enough to reason also that I should try to im- prove my penmanship. It was sad. I couldn’t even write in a straight line. It was both ideas together that moved me to request a dictionary along with some tablets and pencils from the Norfolk Prison Colony school.

I spent two days just riffling uncertainly through the dictionary’s pages. I’d never realized so many words existed! I didn’t know which words I needed to learn. Finally, just to start some kind of action, I began copying. In my slow, painstaking, ragged handwriting, I copied into my tablet everything printed on that first page, down to the punctuation marks. I believe it took me a day. Then, aloud, I read back to myself, everything I’d written on the tablet. Over and over, aloud to myself, I read my own handwriting.

I woke up the next morning, thinking about those words—immensely proud to realize that not only had I written so much at one time, but I’d written words that I never knew were in the world. Moreover, with a little effort, I also could re- member what many of these words meant. I reviewed the words whose mean- ings I didn’t remember. Funny thing, from the dictionary’s first page right now, that “aardvark” springs to my mind. The dictionary had a picture of it, a long- tailed, long-eared, burrowing African mammal, which lives off termites caught by sticking out its tongue as an anteater does for ants.

I was so fascinated that I went on—I copied the dictionary’s next page. And the same experience came when I studied that. With every succeeding page, I also learned of people and places and events from history. Actually the dictionary is like a miniature encyclopedia. Finally the dictionary’s A sec- tion had filled a whole tablet—and I went on into the B’s. That was the way I started copying what eventually became the entire dictionary. It went a lot faster after so much practice helped me to pick up handwriting speed. Be- tween what I wrote in my tablet, and writing letters, during the rest of my time in prison I would guess I wrote a million words.

I suppose it was inevitable that as my word base broadened, I could for the first time pick up a book and read and now begin to understand what the book was saying. Anyone who has read a great deal can imagine the new world that had opened. Let me tell you something: from then until I left prison, in every free moment I had, if I was not reading in the library, I was reading on my bunk. You couldn’t have gotten me out of books with a wedge. Between Mr. Muhammad’s teachings, my correspondence, my visitors—usually Ella and Reginald—and my reading of books, months passed without my even thinking about being imprisoned. In fact, up to then, I never had been so truly free in my life.

I have often reflected upon the new vistas that reading opened to me. I knew right there in prison that reading had changed forever the course of my life. As I see it today, the ability to read awoke inside me some long dormant craving to be mentally alive. Not long ago, an English writer telephoned me from London, asking questions. One was, “What’s your alma mater?” I told him, “Books.”54

Source: From The Autobiography of Malcom X by Malcom X, with the assistance of Alex Haley. Copyright 1964 by Malcom X and copyright 1965 by Alex Haley and Betty Shabazz. Reprinted by permission of Random House, Inc.

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Rhetoric is the use of language to influence others. It is the art of argument and the result is persuasion. The ancient Greeks considered rhetoric to be an essential skill of leadership, and they placed it at the center of education. Rhetoric taught them how to speak and write persuasively. After the Greeks invented it, rhetoric helped Roman orators like Julius Caesar and Cicero and even inspired Shake- speare. America’s founding fathers studied rhetoric, and they used its principles in writing the Constitution.

The three issues of rhetoric (and persuasion) are blame, values, and choice, and these are time-graded in the past, present, and future. Blame is about who is responsi- ble, values are about what is right, and choice is about deciding the future.

Aristotle identified three tools of rhetoric: Tool 1—ethos—is argument by character; tool 2—logos—is argument by logic; tool 3—pathos—is argument by emotion. Ethos, logos, and pathos appeal to the gut, brain, and heart of people. The gut tells us who and what we can trust, the brain sorts out the facts, and the heart makes us want to do something. These three tools form the essence of effective persuasion.

Effective leaders match the tools of rhetoric to the five senses of the audience. For ethos or character, they use mostly sight (seeing is believing). For logos or logic, they use mostly sound. For pathos or emotion, they use mostly smell, taste, and touch. They employ these tools and senses in the most advantageous sequence. A rule of thumb is: ethos first—gain their trust; logos second—gain their minds; pathos third—gain their hearts.

Effective leaders start by gaining the trust of the audience. They do this through shared values, good sense, and unselfish concern for the well-being of others. Then they state the facts and make the case for a course of action by proving points logi- cally. Then they gain commitment through patriotism, anger, pride, or any other emo- tion that leads to action. This sequence can be done easily in 15 minutes and even as short as 2 minutes.

To review: Blame, values, and choice are the issues of rhetoric; ethos, logos, and pathos are the tools of rhetoric. The effective leader is a master of rhetoric to support his values and achieve his goals.55

Conflicting purposes and personalities are inevitable in dealing with people, and they are part of the normal functioning of a healthy group. Without knowledge and skill in man- aging conflict, the leader will fail to achieve her or his full potential.56 There are many strategies for dealing with conflict. The following points should be remembered:57

■ Recognize that conflict is natural; indeed, nature uses conflict as an agent for change, creating beautiful beaches, canyons, and pearls.

■ We can view conflict as either a problem or an opportunity. We can dwell on the negative or accentuate the positive. By choosing optimism over pessimism, we can be energized by events and focused in our efforts.

■ Dealing with conflict effectively is rarely about who is right and who is wrong; it is more about what different people need and want. If everyone’s needs are satisfied reasonably and everyone’s wants are considered fairly, conflict can be a gift of energy that can result in a new and better condition for all.

■ An important issue to address is, Do all parties want to resolve the conflict, and will all sides try with goodwill to settle their differences? If the answer is no, the best course is to agree to disagree, invite third-party resolution, and walk separate paths. Every student of history knows that war is the unacceptable alternative.

■ If people want to resolve the conflict, it helps to reframe the problem. Reframing can be done by having each person see things from the other person’s point of view. See things from the customer’s standpoint, the employee’s eyes, or the

The Ability to Manage Conflict

Rhetoric in a Nutshell

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owner’s perspective. In so doing, each party restates the problem from the other person’s standpoint. This process often provides the breakthrough needed for constructive dialogue and the resolution of the problem.

The effective leader knows that conflict is an inevitable fact of human life, that no two people will see eye to eye on every issue all the time, and that what is needed is creative conflict, not destructive conflict.

In dealing with conflict, people fall into habits and patterns by placing different emphasis on cooperativeness and assertiveness. Cooperativeness is the desire to satisfy another person’s needs and concerns; assertiveness is the desire to satisfy one’s own needs and concerns. Figure 12–4 shows five styles of conflict that result from various combinations of cooperativeness and assertiveness.58

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Figure 12–4 Styles of Conflict59

High

Low Low High

Accommodation Seeking harmony

at all costs

Compromise Bargaining to minimize

losses

Avoidance Denying conflict

exists

Collaboration Seeking solutions for mutual benefit

Domination Winning through

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Avoidance—Being both uncooperative and unassertive, downplaying disagreement, withdrawing from the situation, and staying neutral at all costs. Avoidance pretends that a conflict doesn’t really exist.

Accommodation—Being cooperative but unassertive, letting the wishes of others rule; smoothing over or overlooking differences to maintain harmony. Accommodation plays down differences and highlights similarities to reduce conflict.

Domination—Being uncooperative but assertive, working against the wishes of others, engaging in win–lose strategies, and forcing others through the exercise of authority. Domination uses force, skill, or authority to “win” a conflict.

Compromise—Being moderately cooperative and assertive, bargaining for acceptable solutions in which each party wins some and loses some. Compromise occurs when each party to the conflict gives up something of value to the other.

Collaboration—Being both cooperative and assertive, trying to satisfy everyone’s concerns as fully as possible by working through differences, finding and solving problems so that everyone gains. Collaboration involves working through conflict differences and solving problems so that everyone wins.

The various styles of conflict can have very different outcomes. Conflict by avoidance and conflict by accommodation often create lose–lose situations. No one achieves one’s true desires, and the underlying reasons for conflict often remain.

Conflict by domination and conflict by compromise tend to create win–lose situations. In extreme cases, one party achieves its desires to the complete exclusion of the other party’s desires. Trust and goodwill are two common casualties.

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Collaboration seeks to reconcile underlying differences. It results in win–win situations where issues are resolved to the mutual benefit of all parties. Collaboration offers the best chance of reaching mutually satisfactory solutions based on the ideas and interests of all parties, and of maintaining and strengthening relationships. Collaboration is the most preferred of the styles of conflict.60

To personalize the concept of styles of conflict, complete Exercise 12–4.

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Consider how you behave in conflict situations. In the space to the left of each statement, write the number that indicates how likely you are to respond in the manner indicated: 1 � very unlikely; 2 � unlikely; 3 � likely; 4 � very likely.

1. I am firm in pursuing my goals.

2. I try to win my position.

3. I give up some points in exchange for others.

4. I feel that differences are not always worth arguing about.

5. I try to find a position that is intermediate between the other person’s and mine.

6. I am considerate of the other person’s wishes.

7. I show the logic and benefits of my positions.

8. I consider the merits of all points of view.

9. I try to find a fair combination of gains and losses for both parties.

10. I try to achieve maximum benefit for all parties.

11. I try to avoid unpleasantness for myself or others.

12. I try to soothe the other person’s feelings and preserve our relationship.

13. I attempt to get all concerns and issues out in the open.

14. I avoid taking positions that would create controversy.

15. I try not to hurt others’ feelings.

Scoring:

Total the numbers assigned to items 1, 2, and 7 to find your domination score:

Total the numbers assigned to items 8, 10, and 13 to find your collaboration score:

Total the numbers assigned to items 3, 5, and 9 to find your compromise score:

Total the numbers assigned to items 4, 11, and 14 to find your avoidance score:

Total the numbers assigned to items 6, 12, and 15 for your accommodation score:

Exercise 12–4 Styles of Conflict61

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Interpretation:

Research indicates that each style has a role to play in work situations but that the best overall approach is collaboration. Only collaboration can lead to problem solving that is most beneficial to all parties, resulting in true conflict resolution. You should consider any patterns that may be evident in your scores and think about how to best handle the conflict situations in which you become involved. Remember, collaboration involves working through differences and solving problems so that everyone wins.62

To exercise the art of persuasion, a leader must consider each person as an individual, learn what motivates that person, and then act to satisfy personal needs while at the same time accomplishing the goal. This process requires an understanding of people, the effective use of words, and the ability to manage conflict—essential skills of the leader who has developed emotional intelligence.63

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T he character of U.S. culture has received much attention from historians,sociologists, and other scholars. Characteristics originally identified by anthropol-ogists have been confirmed by large-scale empirical and cross-cultural studies. The U.S. mainstream culture is consistently described as being individualistic, egalitar- ian, pragmatic, hardworking, action-oriented, data-based, and amenable to change.64

If there is one additional word that characterizes America’s culture, that word is diversity. People of Hispanic, African, and Asian heritage now constitute at least 35 percent of all new workers, and half of all new employees are women.65 The U.S. workforce is composed of more minorities, recent immigrants, and women than ever before, and this pattern is expected to continue in the years to come. Currently, two- thirds of global migration is into the United States.

In addition, business has become increasingly global, so leaders are challenged to deal effectively with a wide variety of people and customs. The cross-cultural leader must be patient, understanding, willing to learn, and flexible. All these characteristics are part of cultural sensitivity, an awareness of and a willingness to investigate the reasons people of another culture act as they do.66

Researchers Adler and Bartholomew have identified five competencies needed by cross-cultural leaders: (1) understanding business, political, and cultural environ- ments worldwide; (2) knowing the tastes, trends, and technologies of other cultures; (3) working simultaneously with people from many different countries; (4) adapting to living and traveling in foreign lands; and (5) learning to relate to people from other cultures on the basis of equality and mutual respect.67

Table 13–1 presents a sampling of appropriate and inappropriate behaviors in a variety of countries. It is important to emphasize the word sensitivity because cultural stereotypes do not always apply with every individual. The caring leader knows that each person must be considered as a unique individual, case by case.

CHAPTER

13

Table 13–1 Protocol Do’s and Don’ts68

Do’s Don’ts Europe

Great DO hold your fork (tines pointed down) in the left hand DON’T ask personal questions. The British protect their privacy. Britain and your knife in the right hand throughout the meal. DON’T gossip about royalty.

DO say please and thank you—often. France DO be punctual for appointments. DON’T expect to complete any work during the French

DO shake hands (a short, quick pump) when greeting, two-hour lunch. being introduced, and leaving. Only close friends kiss cheeks. DON’T try to do business during August—les vacances

(vacation time). Italy DO write business correspondence in Italian for priority attention. DON’T eat too much pasta, as it is not the main course.

DO make appointments between 10 A.M. and 11 A.M., DON’T hand out business cards freely. Italians use them or after 3 P.M. infrequently.

Spain DO write business correspondence in English, unless DON’T expect punctuality. Your appointments will arrive 20 your Spanish is impeccable. to 30 minutes late. DO take business lunches at 2:30 P.M. and dinner at 9 P.M. DON’T make the American sign for “OK” with your thumb or 10 P.M. Be prepared to dine until midnight or later. and forefinger. In Spain, this sign is vulgar.

Continued

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Other cross-cultural don’ts inlcude: In Buddhist cultures, never touch someone’s head, which is believed to be sacred; in Muslim cultures, never touch or eat with the left hand, which is thought to be unclean; in Germany or Switzerland, don’t point your finger toward yourself—it insults the other person.

A Brief History of Diversity Diversity is not a new issue in the American workplace. From the late 1800s to the early 1900s, most of the groups that migrated to the United States were from Italy, Poland, Ireland, and Russia. Members of these groups were considered outsiders be- cause they did not speak English. They struggled, often violently, to gain acceptance in industries such as coal, steel, automobiles, insurance, and finance.

As late as the 1940s, and in some cases later than that, colleges routinely dis- criminated against immigrants, Catholics, and Jews, establishing strict quotas that limited education and employment prospects. It wasn’t until the 1960s that the struggle for acceptance by the various white ethnic and religious groups had on the whole succeeded.

The most difficult struggle for equality has involved America’s nonwhite minori- ties. Rigid segregation remained a fact of American life for 100 years after the Civil War, and racial discrimination in education, employment, and housing throughout the United States was a harsh, daily reality.

Then, in 1954, the unanimous Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court deci- sion declared segregation unconstitutional, setting the stage for the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Many rights all Americans take for granted today—equal employment opportunity, fair treatment in housing, the illegality of religious, racial, and sex discrimination—received their greatest impetus from the civil rights movement.

The traditional American image of diversity is one of assimilation. The United States is idealized as a “melting pot of the world,” a place where religious, ethnic, and racial differences are blended into an American identity. As all Americans know, this journey is filled with challenges, setbacks, and, yes, victories too.69

Managing Diversity Most large corporations today are multinational firms that maintain manufacturing, marketing, service, or administrative operations in many different countries. In fact, virtually all of the 500 largest U.S. industrial corporations maintain operations in more than one nation. Knowing the cultural tendencies of business partners, competitors, and

Table 13–1 Continued

Asia

Japan DO find a highly respected third party to act as your introducer DON’T attempt to get a deal going by directly approaching to the lower-ranking person with whom you need to work. a target who is below the top level in the organization.

China DO print your business cards and stationery without DON’T use black borders because in China, black is associated black borders. with death.

Korea DO say “yes,” “perhaps,” or “I will carefully consider DON’T say “no.” Koreans feel it is important to have visitors your suggestion.” leave with good feelings.

Mexico and Latin America

Mexico DO meet two or three times before expecting to consummate DON’T fly into a Mexican city in the morning and expect to a deal. close a deal by lunchtime.

Brazil DO create a good impression by expressing an interest in the Don’t attempt to impress Brazilians by speaking a few words Portuguese language. of Spanish; Portuguese is the official language of Brazil.

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customers is important for success. For example, for traditional Navajos, enculturated as collectivists, saving money is a dishonorable act of selfishness. A successful sales pitch for individual retirement accounts will be tailored to the benefits for the family, not for the individual.70

On the basis of common language, geography, religion, and history, 10 distinct cultural clusters emerge: Anglo, Latin Europe, Nordic Europe, Germanic Europe, Eastern Europe, Latin America, Middle East, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern Asia, and Confucian Asia.

Leadership characteristics and the needs of followers vary across cultures in the areas of value-based leadership, team-oriented leadership, participative leadership, humane leadership, independent leadership, and self-protective leadership. The ma- jority of U.S. employees prefer the first four and oppose the last two characteristics of leadership.71

Leadership itself is valued to different degrees across cultures. The Dutch place emphasis on egalitarianism and are skeptical of the value of leadership. Terms like leader and manager carry a stigma. If a father is employed as a manager, Dutch chil- dren are reluctant to admit it to their schoolmates.72

Although diversity is the new reality, many leaders are unprepared to handle it. Often their previous experiences have not covered the kinds of situations that arise in today’s multicultural settings.73 One short example gives diversity a human perspec- tive, showing how difficult it can be for employer and employee as well:

An American nursing supervisor gave a directive to one of her Filipino nurses, and the supervisor wanted it to be done stat! For the supervisor, that meant now, immediately, before anything else. The Filipino nurse, meaning no disrespect but with a different time orientation, completed what she had been doing and then complied with the supervisor’s request—five to ten minutes later than expected. To the nurse, stat meant soon. A few minutes delay was acceptable. She could complete her work in a short time, then take care of the supervisor’s request. She certainly did not see her behavior as insubordinate. The supervisor saw this situation differently. The nurse was either casual about her duties or disrespectful of authorities.74

In addition to different perceptions about time, people can have different ideas about work habits, communication patterns, social roles, and a myriad of other workplace issues. For example, employee motivation practices continue to reflect white male experiences and attitudes. Some of these methods can be highly dysfunctional when applied to women or to African Americans, Asians, Hispanics, or Native Americans. Consider a few examples:75

■ A manager was pleased with a new breakthrough achieved by one of his Native American employees. Therefore, he recognized her with great fanfare and personal praise in front of all the other employees. Humiliated, she didn’t return to work for days.

■ After learning that a friendly pat on the back would make employees feel appreciated, a manager took every chance to pat his subordinates. His Asian employees, who hated being touched, avoided him like the plague.

■ A new employee’s wife, an Eastern European, stopped by the office with a bottle of champagne, fully expecting everyone present to stop and celebrate her husband’s new job. When people merely said “hello” and then returned to work, she was mortified. Her husband quit within a few days.

An interesting finding is that some qualities are universally endorsed as character- istics of outstanding leaders, and some attributes are universally viewed as obstacles for effective leadership. Positive qualities include trustworthiness, intelligence/skill, and motivational ability. Negative qualities include dishonesty, incompetence, and egocentricity. Across all cultures, the qualities of integrity, knowledge, and interper- sonal skill are valued.76

Dealing with diversity effectively means behaving in a way that creates trust and respect among people, and gains benefits from their differences. An analogy makes

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the point well: If you were planting a garden and wanted to have a variety of flowers, you would never think of giving every flower the same amount of sun, the same amount of water, and the same type of soil. Instead, you would cultivate each flower according to its needs. Neither the rose nor the orchid is more or less valuable because it requires unique or special treatment.77

Leaders of diverse work groups may wonder, How can I possibly learn about all these people? The answer is that although you can’t learn all there is to know about every culture, the more you know, the more successful you will be. In addition, people will appreciate your efforts.

It can be difficult to change the habits of people. Those in power have established or been rewarded by conditions as they are, so there is a tendency to resist efforts to change. A video that can raise consciousness, influence people to value diversity, and help build community is A Class Divided.

A Class Divided is a dramatic account of an experiment on prejudice performed by grade school teacher Jane Elliot, in which eye color becomes the basis for discrimi- nation. This theme is played out in the adult world as well with live interaction in a prison institution. The two primary lessons are (1) to recognize the evil of discrimina- tion, and (2) to realize the power of the self-fulfilling prophecy whereby beliefs can create reality. The prescription for the viewer is to adopt an eyes-level approach in all human dealings—never look up and never look down at anyone on the basis of age, race, sex, or any other physical attribute. Also, because people tend to fulfill the ex- pectations of others and live up or down to their image, stack the cards and expect the best. On a scale of 1 to 10, this video is a 10 for impact, connecting on a human plane with all audiences.

In 2010, Jane Elliot reported on her 40-year quest to stamp out prejudice and cru- elty in human relations: “spotty success in a never-ending battle.” She points to the evils of racism, sexism, and nationalism that harm human beings throughout the world, saying it is a global problem. Elliot states that, “Too often, people judge others based on where they live and what they look like without knowing anything about them as individuals.” She believes no one is born a bigot and there is no gene for racism. She believes all isms are learned responses and you have to be taught to hate someone. Her solution is education. She encourages us to remember the words of Nathan Rutstein, social justice advocate and author of Healing Racism in America, “Prejudice is an emotional commitment to ignorance.”78

Diversity Prescription Today, diversity refers to more than race, religion, gender, and ethnicity. It is a broad term that encompasses many differences, including age, disability status, military experience, sexual orientation, economic class, educational level, personality charac- teristics, and lifestyle. In the enlightened workplace, there is a philosophy of pluralism and a relentless effort to eliminate racism, sexism, ageism, and other discriminations. Where this occurs, all people have reason to believe that they are accepted and respected and that their voices will be heard. The prescription is to turn walls in our minds and hearts into bridges that join and make a structure that is stronger than its individual cells. The prescription is to value diversity as a strength. To that end, remember:

■ All people should be treated with respect and dignity—we must have an eyes-level approach rather than an eyes-up or eyes-down approach in our dealings with people, regardless of social status.

■ Every person should model and reinforce an essentially democratic character and humanistic approach to life.

■ Valuing diversity provides strength and a positive advantage for organizations operating in multicultural environments.

A Class Divided

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In The New Leaders: Guidelines on Leadership Diversity in America, Ann Morrison reports the results of her study on diversity practices in U.S.-based private and public organizations. The practices considered most important are:

1. Top management’s personal involvement. 2. Targeted recruitment. 3. Internal advocacy groups. 4. Emphasis on Equal Employment Opportunity statistics. 5. Inclusion of diversity in performance evaluations. 6. Inclusion of diversity in promotion decisions. 7. Inclusion of diversity in management succession. 8. Diversity training groups. 9. Networks and support groups.

10. Work and family policies that support diversity.79

Many companies have embraced the concept of diversity and have made enormous efforts to capitalize on the strengths of a diverse workforce. Consider the experiences of Apple Computer.

Apple Computer Apple has been able to incorporate diversity at every level of the organization. Key components include: • Communication—between employees and senior management about diver-

sity issues. For example, African American employees meet with upper-level officers to discuss empowerment strategies, networking, and ways to assist the company in meeting its business goals.

• Involvement—with multicultural communities through company-sponsored and employee volunteer groups.

• Celebration—of multicultural holidays and events. Festivities are open to everyone, and these are held on the corporate campus.

• Recruitment—of talent from multicultural communities. Apple has formed ongoing relationships with minority, women’s, and disability-oriented organizations.

• Education—about the meaning and benefits of diversity. Each manager is provided guidance that outlines what constitutes good management be- havior from a multicultural perspective. These programs and others have raised diversity as a highly visible issue at

every level of the corporation.80

For the second time in three years, Verizon has ranked number one on DiversityInc magazine’s Top 50 Companies for Diversity. Minorities make up 35 percent of Veri- zon’s 230,000 employees and 38 percent of management positions. Magda Yrizarry, vice president of workplace culture and diversity, states, “As a company, we serve wide and diverse markets and people; so from our leadership to our frontline employ- ees, we understand and value diversity.” Verizon is a model employer and a reflection of the increasing diversity of people living in the United States and in many other countries.81

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Benefits of Diversity The following are benefits organizations receive by valuing and managing diversity as an asset: increase in workforce creativity; broader range of knowledge and skill; bet- ter decisions based on different perspectives; better services provided to diverse pop- ulations; ability to recruit excellent talent from the entire labor pool. Meta-analyses of the relationship between diversity and outcomes show that diversity can provide organizations with a competitive advantage when it is used in selecting and compos- ing work teams. Far from being a stumbling block, diversity in the workplace can be a springboard for opportunity and excellence.82

Diversity Strategies and Techniques The following are strategies and techniques that can help individuals and organi- zations manage diversity effectively.83

■ Connect with and value your own culture. Assess how your background translates into your own lifestyle, values, and views.

■ Think about how it feels to be different by remembering times when you felt that you were in the minority. Examine how you felt and the impact on your behavior.

■ Try to understand each person as an individual, rather than seeing the person as a representative of a group.

■ Participate in educational programs that focus on learning about and valuing different cultures, races, religions, ethnic backgrounds, and political ideologies.

■ Make a list of heroes in music, sports, theater, politics, business, science, and so forth. Examine your list for its diversity.

■ Learn about the contributions of older people and people with visual, hearing, or other impairments. Consider how their contributions have helped us all.

■ Learn about other cultures and their values through travel, books, and films, and by attending local cultural events and celebrations.

■ Continually examine your thoughts and language for unexamined assumptions and stereotypical responses.

■ Include people who are different from you in social conversations, and invite them to be part of informal work-related activities, such as going to lunch or attending company social events.

■ When dealing with people, try to keep in mind how you would feel if your posi- tions were reversed.

■ Include employees from a variety of backgrounds in decision-making and problem- solving processes. Use differences as a way of gaining a broader range of ideas and perspectives.

■ Develop strategies to increase the flow of applicants from a variety of backgrounds. For example, if you commonly recruit students from college campuses, ensure that the student populations represent a diversity of backgrounds.

■ Look for opportunities to develop employees from diverse backgrounds and prepare them for positions of responsibility. Tell them about the options in their present careers, as well as other career opportunities within the organization.

■ Show sensitivity in the physical work environment. Display artwork and literature representing a variety of cultures, and make structural changes to ensure accessibility.

■ Form a group to address issues of diversity. Invite members who represent a variety of backgrounds.

What Organizations Can Do

What Individuals Can Do

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■ Implement training programs that focus on diversity in the workplace—programs designed to develop a greater awareness and respect for differences.

■ Pay attention to company publications such as employee newsletters. Do they reflect the diversity of ideas, cultures, and perspectives present in the organization?

■ Evaluate official rules, policies, and procedures of the organization to be sure all employees are treated fairly.

■ Develop mentoring and partnering programs that cross traditional social and cul- tural boundaries.

■ Talk openly about diversity issues, respect all points of view, and work coopera- tively to solve problems.

Exercise 13–1 can be used to develop understanding and appreciation of the rich variety of individuals in a group. It highlights the uniqueness of each person’s experiences and the special talents each person has.

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Form discussion groups whose members reflect the diversity one might encounter in the workplace. Using the topics in the Diversity Wheel, group members, one at a time, may share information on a particular topic with other members. As each topic is discussed, members can learn to understand and respect others’ points of view, backgrounds, and cultural differences.

Exercise 13–1 The Diversity Wheel

Diversity Wheel

Best friend

Most influential teacher/ leaderMost

unusual interest/ attribute

Most influential

bookMilitary experience

High school

attended

Best skill/ talent

Favorite music/art

Current goal in life

Personal motto to live by

Favorite food

Birthplace/ birth order

Job/ profession

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Why Tolerance Is Important Tolerance is important because intolerance can lead to discrimination, and discrimination can have harmful effects. Put yourself in the shoes of writer–psychiatrist Alvin Poussaint:

A white policeman yelled, “Hey, Boy, come here.” Somewhat bothered, I retorted: “I’m no boy.” He then rushed at me, inflamed, and stood towering over me, snorting, “What d’ja say, Boy?” Quickly he frisked me and demanded, “What’s your name, Boy?” Frightened, I replied, “Dr. Poussaint. I’m a physician.” He angrily chuckled and hissed, “What’s your first name, Boy?” When I hesitated, he assumed a threatening stance and clenched his fists. As my heart palpitated, I muttered in profound humiliation, “Alvin.” He continued his psychological brutality, bellowing, “Alvin, the next time I call you, you come right away, you hear? You hear?” I hesitated. “You hear me, Boy?”84

Poussaint was humiliated and, in his words, “psychologically castrated.” Frustra- tion and powerlessness are burdens prejudiced people may intentionally or unknow- ingly place on others. Poussaint was the victim of discrimination born of intolerance.

For an example of the problem of prejudice, consider the experience of golfing cham- pion Tiger Woods: “I became aware of my social identity on my first day of kindergarten. A group of sixth graders tied me to a tree, spray-painted the word “nigger” on me, and threw rocks at me. That was my first day of school. It was an eye-opening experience, being just five years old. We were the only minority family in all of Cypress, California.”85

Most people would agree that the direction of progress is toward assimilation and multiculturalism (pluralism). For progress to occur, there truly must be social toler- ance. The need for social tolerance is captured best in the following story:

The Cold Within

Alexander Pope

Six human beings were trapped one day In black and bitter cold. Each one possessed a stick of wood, Or so the story’s told.

With dying fire in need of logs, The first one held hers back; For of the faces around the fire, She noticed one was black.

The next one looking across the way Saw one not of his church, And couldn’t bring himself to give The fire his stick of birch.

The third one sat in tattered clothes; He gave his coat a hitch. Why should he give wood to use To warm the idle rich?

The richest man sat back and thought Of the gold he had in store, And how to keep what he had earned From the lazy, shiftless poor.

The black man’s face bespoke revenge As the fire passed from his sight; For all he saw in his stick of wood Was a chance to spite the white.

And the last man of this forlorn group Did naught except for gain. Giving only to those who gave Was how he played the game.

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The logs held tight in death’s still hands Was proof of human sin. They didn’t die from the cold without; They died from the cold within.86

Can People Change? Once attitudes form, can people change? Is it possible to change behavior in the areas of tolerance and discrimination? Consider the story of Claiborne P. Ellis.

Attitudes Can Change Claiborne P. Ellis describes his journey from childhood to becoming president of the Durham, North Carolina, chapter of the Ku Klux Klan to becoming the regional business manager of the International Union of Operating Engineers. The story illustrates a series of attitude changes. Ellis began by hating blacks, Jews, and Catholics, and ended by evaluating members of these groups based on their individual behavior.

Ellis was born in Durham, North Carolina. His family struggled constantly with poverty, and many of his early memories involve the economic depres- sion of the 1930s. He was very close to his father, who worked during the week in a textile mill, but drank a great deal on weekends. When C.P. was around 17 years old, his father died. C.P. had to leave school to help support his family. He took a series of low-skilled jobs and eventually borrowed $4,000 to buy a service station. By then he had married and was working “my butt off and just never seemed to break even.” Two months before the final loan pay- ment was due, he had a heart attack. Despite his wife’s efforts, the service sta- tion was lost. He had been taught ”to abide by the law, go to church, do right and live for the Lord, and everything will work out.” But it didn’t work out. The continuing failure to lift his family into minimal economic security turned a smoldering bitterness into hatred. He wanted to blame something or some- one for his failures and soon found a convenient group as a target.

While Ellis owned the service station, he was invited to join the Ku Klux Klan. It was an opportunity he seized eagerly because, “It gave me an oppor- tunity to be part of something.” Not only did he enjoy belonging to a group, but also his long-standing sense of inferiority began to disappear. His father had been a member of the Klan, and Ellis was well versed in their attitudes. The Klan hated blacks, Jews, and Catholics. And so did Ellis. He quickly rose through various offices to the presidency of the local chapter. Because the civil rights movement was becoming active in Durham at this time, Ellis’s hatred was directed mostly at blacks. In particular, he despised a woman named Ann Attwater, who seemed involved in every boycott and demonstration he went to watch.

Although the Klan is notorious for protecting the anonymity of its mem- bers, Ellis unashamedly brought the local chapter out into the open. He began attending meetings of the city council and county commissioners to represent the Klan’s point of view. He and his group had numerous confrontations with representatives of the black community at various board meetings.

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Members of these boards would not publicly agree with the attitudes of the Klan, but many privately shared these views. The people who called to praise him also avoided him in public. While searching for an explanation for this in- consistency, Ellis began to reconsider his role. It struck him that he was being used. “As a result of our fighting one another, the city council still had their way. They didn’t want to give up control to the blacks, nor to the Klan.” It was at this point that Ellis recalled doing ”some real serious thinkin’.” Although he was becoming convinced of the correctness of his beliefs about being used, he could not persuade other Klansmen. He had to struggle with the inconsistency on his own, and it caused him many a sleepless night.

During this period, a critical event occurred. The state AFL–CIO received a federal grant to assist them in finding solutions to the racial problems in the public schools. To his amazement, Ellis was asked to join a citizens’ panel to discuss these problems. As soon as he learned that members of the black com- munity would also be invited, he refused the invitation by saying, “I am not going to be associated with those types of people.” On a whim, however, he attended the first evening meeting. Many of the participants, including Ann Attwater, were familiar to him because of past confrontations. The moderator of the meeting was a black man who encouraged everyone to speak freely. During the meeting, Ellis did just that, repeating his extreme anti-black atti- tudes. To his surprise, some of the black members who did not agree with a single one of his attitudes praised him for his honesty in expressing his views. Ellis’s involvement in the group began to grow. On the third night, with back- ing from some of the black participants, he was elected co-chairperson of the group along with Ann Attwater.

Despite mutual reluctance, Ellis and Attwater agreed to put aside their per- sonal differences and to work together toward the common goal of finding solutions. Through their joint work, they began to see many similarities be- tween themselves. Their efforts to recruit more panelists from among members of their respective groups were met with the same suspicion and rejection. Furthermore, the children of both had come home from school in tears. Ellis’s child was ridiculed by his teacher for being the son of a Klansman, while Attwater’s child was ridiculed by her teacher for being the daughter of an ac- tivist. The discovery of such commonalities and their joint work led Ellis to a feeling of respect and liking for Attwater. Through their leadership, the panel agreed on a number of resolutions. Although the school board did not imple- ment all of them, the panel members had worked together effectively.

Ellis’s attitudes did not change immediately. His initial justification for work- ing on the panel was that school integration was the law and that all people should be law-abiding. In the hope of implementing the panel’s recommen- dations, he ran for the school board. He was still associated with the Klan, but he did not campaign for Klan themes. His platform was simply that before making any decisions, he would listen to the voice of all of the people. The campaign brought him into contact with many blacks. At long last, he began seeing people as individuals. With this change came a sense of rebirth. He no longer had sleepless nights and enrolled in an evening program that resulted in his receiving a high school equivalency diploma. During this period, he helped to organize the first labor union at his place of employment. When the opportu- nity arose, he gladly switched his career to labor union work, where he felt he could help the poor, both black and white.87

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Gender Diversity in the Workplace Diversity takes many forms, and one of the most obvious is gender. The participation of women in the workplace continues to increase. Today’s leaders must address the changing composition of the workforce and the special needs of women.

Of the approximately 150 million people employed in the United States, almost half (46.7 percent) are women.88 With the changing role of women in American soci- ety from wife and mother, to wife and mother and career person as well, there has been a merging of the sexes in the workplace. This has brought the need for better understanding between men and women as work associates. Communication plays an important part in this equation.

In You Just Don’t Understand: Women and Men in Conversation, linguist Deborah Tannen builds a strong case for her hypothesis that boys and girls grow up in differ- ent worlds of words. Tannen notes that boys and girls play differently, usually in same-sex groups, and that their ways of using language in their games are separated by a world of difference:

Boys tend to play outside, in large groups that are hierarchically structured. Their groups have a leader who tells others what to do and how to do it, and resists doing what other boys propose. It is by giving orders and making them stick that high status is attained. Another way boys achieve status is to take center stage by telling stories and jokes, and by sidetracking or challenging the stories and jokes of others. Boys’ games have winners and losers and elaborate systems of rules that are frequently the subjects of arguments. Finally, boys are frequently heard to boast of their skill and argue about who is best at what.

Girls, on the other hand, play in small groups or in pairs; the center of a girl’s social life is her best friend. Within the group, intimacy is the key, and differentiation is measured by relative closeness. In their most frequent games, such as jump rope and hopscotch, everyone gets a turn. Most of girls’ activities, such as playing house, do not have winners or losers. Although some girls are certainly more skilled than others, they are expected not to boast about it, or show that they think they are better than the others. Girls don’t give orders; they express their preferences as suggestions, and suggestions are likely to be accepted. Whereas boys say, “Gimme that!” and “Get outta here!” girls say, “Let’s do this,” and “How about doing that?” Anything else is put down as “bossy.” They don’t grab center stage—usually, they don’t want it—so they don’t challenge each other directly. Much of the time, they simply sit together and talk. Girls are not accustomed to jockeying for status in an obvious way; they are more concerned with being accepted and liked. Girls learn that by displaying differences, they jeopardize acceptance by their peers. They strive to appear the same as, not better than, their friends, thus creating power that is dead even. In contrast, boys, from the earliest age, learn that they can get what they want—higher status—by displaying differences, especially superiority, therefore favoring hierarchical power.89

Tannen believes differences developed in childhood cast a long shadow into adult- hood. When men and women talk to each other about troubles, for example, there is a potential problem because each expects a different response. Men may ignore or avoid dealing with feelings and emotions, preferring instead to attack underlying causes. Women, expecting to have their feelings supported, may misconstrue men’s aggressive approach and feel that they themselves are being attacked. In general, where men seek status, women seek connection.90

Tannen explains that from childhood, there is a tendency for men to use conversa- tion to negotiate status; women talk to create rapport. The clash of the two styles can lead to frustration—in personal relations, of course, but in the office as well, from the female manager who feels she isn’t heard in meetings, to the male executive who is baffled when his gruff orders spark resentment or anger.91

To the question, Who talks more, women or men? seemingly contradictory evi- dence is reconciled by differences between public speaking and private speaking. Men generally are more comfortable doing public speaking, whereas women usually feel more comfortable doing private speaking. Another way of capturing these differ- ences is by using the terms report talk and rapport talk. For most men, report talk is primarily a means of preserving independence or negotiating and maintaining status in a hierarchical social order. To the man, talk is for information that can equate to

Communication across Genders

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power. For most women, the language of conversation is primarily a language of rapport. To the woman, talk is for interaction that can equate to love. Telling things is a way to show involvement, and listening is a way to show she is interested and cares.92

It is interesting to note how terms used in traditionally male sports permeate the language of the American workplace: When your team is on offense, you’ll need a strategy to score. This may include an end run around the opposition and a knockout punch. When the ball is in your court, it’s time to step up to bat and hit a home run. When you are playing hardball, you’ll need a game plan to get the ball rolling so you can get to first base. You may have to punt, pass the ball, and touch bases with team- mates, or tackle the problem yourself. Your goal may be the whole nine yards, but be careful not to step out of bounds. If you strike out, you may have to throw in the towel; but if you win, you can make it into the big leagues.

What should we do about differences in the way men and women communicate? Should women try to change to be more like men, or vice versa? Neither change is the answer. It is important to simply recognize that natural differences exist. When people don’t know there are differences in communication styles, and that they are formed in the normal course of growing up, they end up attributing communication problems to someone’s bad intentions or lack of ability.93

Historically, women in high leadership positions have come from nonprofit organi- zations, educational institutions, and public office; increasingly, they come from the business world. Census data reveal that women constitute 15.7 percent of the corpo- rate officer ranks of Fortune 500 companies. During the past decade, women have started businesses at twice the rate of men, and today 44 percent of small businesses in the United States are owned or operated by women. Women now constitute nearly half of the managerial workforce.94 In government, women serve in a growing num- ber of leadership capacities, including 12 percent of state governors, 17 percent of U.S. senators, and 16.8 percent of members of the U.S. House of Representatives.95

The Center for Creative Leadership has identified six success factors for women in high leadership positions:

■ Help from above. Women in high levels of leadership have typically received the support of influential mentors.

■ A superior track record. Held to high standards, executive-level women have usu- ally managed effectively and have developed an excellent record of performance.

■ A passion for success. Senior-level women have been determined to succeed. They worked hard, seized responsibility, and achieved their objectives.

■ Outstanding people skills. Successful women executives typically utilize participa- tive leadership, employee empowerment, and open communication to foster trust and high levels of morale among subordinates.

■ Career courage. Successful women leaders have demonstrated courage to take risks, such as taking on huge responsibilities.

■ Mental toughness. Senior-level women are seen as tenacious, demanding, and willing to make difficult decisions.96

Meta-analysis and individual studies show that women leaders tend to be more partic- ipative and less autocratic in leadership style than male leaders, and this approach is well suited to middle-management positions in twenty-first-century organizations. Analysis of leadership effectiveness shows that female and male leaders do not differ in overall effec- tiveness, although there remains a slight effectiveness advantage for male leaders in mas- culine domains and female leaders in feminine domains.97 Comparison studies between men and women show essential similarity in motivation to be a leader, job satisfaction, and employee satisfaction. However, research shows women are less likely to promote themselves and initiate negotiation for opportunities, resources, and advancement.98

Although women have made progress in attaining and being successful in leadership roles, Figure 13–1 shows that each rung on the responsibility pyramid is progressively more difficult to climb. At each level, a higher percentage of women are sidetracked.99

Women in Leadership Positions

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Several factors can sidetrack women in the workplace. The “glass ceiling” is a catchphrase for the impediments women face as they seek top leadership positions. Sidetracking mechanisms include:

■ Lack of encouragement. Women are often ignored in the grooming of executives for senior-level jobs. Men are more often moved around and cross-trained within the company to learn about different aspects of the business.101

■ Lack of opportunity followed by disillusionment. In a national poll of middle- management women, 71 percent reported not having the same chances for promo- tion to top executive jobs as their male counterparts. Once there, unequal rewards can be a demotivator. At the managerial level, on average, for every dollar earned by white men, white women earn 74 cents, African American women earn 58 cents, Hispanic women earn 48 cents, and Asian and other women earn 67 cents.102

■ Closed corporate culture. Many women who enter the executive suite do so by modeling established behavior patterns and management customs. Those who do not conform find that the alternative is to leave the organization.103

■ Women’s ghettos and the feminization of jobs on the corporate staff. Some women accept or are shunted into staff jobs that are difficult to exchange for line jobs, where salaries and responsibilities are usually greater. Many of these staff jobs are devoid of responsibility for finance and operations, two important disciplines for senior leaders to master.104

■ Demands of parenthood. In the majority of families, women are the first line of defense in raising children. When the school calls or a child is ill, it is usually the mother who responds. Women experience more career interruptions than men, largely because they assume more domestic responsibility. The demands of family life can require enormous energy and time that may interfere with business performance.105

■ Double standards. Women may have to be more competent than men to be accepted by the dominant group. This double standard can be seen when mistakes made by males are tolerated, but mistakes made by females are not tolerated, and when, to be selected or promoted, a woman must be clearly superior to every male candidate.106

An example of gender bias and a creative solution is seen in the evaluation of men and women auditioning for symphony orchestras. Traditionally male-dominated orchestras made one change: all applicants were required to audition while hidden behind a screen. This small change greatly increased the proportion of female musi- cians in symphony orchestras.107

Figure 13–1 Long-Term Perspective on Change: Few New Cracks in the Glass Ceiling100

Sources:Sources: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008 Catalyst, Statistical Overview of Women in the Workplace, 2009.

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Empirical data show that the numbers of women in the workforce and in leadership positions are growing. Gender stereotyping remains, however, and this often leads to biased judgment. Gender stereotypes can alter the perception and treatment of women in negative ways. Women with self-confidence in their abilities, commitment to achieve their goals, and the help of individuals in higher positions are increasingly successful in overcoming gender stereotypes.108 The examples of CEO Anne Mulcahy and President Ursula Burns of Xerox are inspirational and instructive; see www.xerox.com.

For more information about women in the workplace, visit the Web site for the Women’s Bureau of the U.S. Department of Labor: www.dol.gov/wb/. See also the Web site of the National Association for Female Executives: www.nafe.com.

Generational Differences One important dimension of diversity is age difference. Leading, following, and working across generations is a challenge for people of all ages. It is difficult for older people to realize this about younger people: They do not know what Sputnik is; Tiananmen Square means nothing to them; they don’t remember the 1960s, let alone the 1950s. It is difficult for younger people to realize this about older people: They grew up before MTV, AIDS, the microwave, and the iPod.

Many labels and time periods have been used to identify employees across genera- tional cohorts since management author and speaker Morris Massey produced his influential and helpful video series in 1970, “What You Are Is Where You Were When,” designed to bridge the gap between people of different ages. Today’s cohorts and their different attitudes and expectations are: (1) Baby boomers, born between 1946 and 1964, seem to expect and desire more job security and are more focused on economic and social status than younger cohorts; (2) Generation X employees, born between 1965 and 1979, expect less job security and are motivated more by work- place flexibility, the opportunity to learn (especially new technology), and egalitari- anism and “fun” organizations; (3) Generation Y employees, born after 1979, are noticeably self-confident, optimistic, multitasking, and more independent than even Generation X workers. These statements don’t apply to everyone in each cohort, but they do reflect shifting values and expectations across generations in society today.109

In dealing with younger generations, older people should remember when their own behavior tested the tolerance and often the patience of their elders. Those who lived value-based lives of responsibility, courage, and justice, but were relaxed about such mat- ters of style as music and dress, were role models for dealing with young people today.

For their part, young people should adopt the example of principled living and ap- preciation for generational differences shown by all enlightened people. The result will be social structures that enjoy the knowledge and wisdom of older people, as well as the spirit and vitality of younger generations. How can this happen? Not by legislation, edict, or force; but by the understanding and respectful behavior of each individual.

Leadership, Diversity, and Personal Example Leadership plays a pivotal role in dealing with diversity. To be most effective, leaders should:

■ Empower others. Share power and information, solicit input, and reward people on the basis of performance, without regard to race, gender, age, personality, job clas- sification, and so on; encourage participation and share accountability.

■ Develop people. Provide opportunities for growth, and then model and coach desired behaviors; delegate responsibility to those who have the ability to do the work; individualize training and development efforts.

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■ Value diversity. View diversity as an asset; understand diverse cultural practices; facilitate integration among people; help others identify their needs and options to be productive contributors.

■ Communicate. Clearly communicate expectations, ask questions to increase under- standing, and show respect through listening; develop communication across cultural and language differences; provide ongoing feedback with sensitivity to individual differences.110

The effective leader has an integrative approach. This involves bringing together people of different cultures, races, genders, personalities, and stages of development, and integrating them into a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. This inte- gration is not simply a melting-down process; rather, it is a building up in which the identity of the individual is preserved, yet simultaneously transcended. The effective team that results does not eliminate diversity. Instead, it welcomes other points of view, embraces opposites, and seeks to understand all sides of every issue.

As important as leadership is, in the final analysis, it falls on each person to do the right thing. In The Measure of Our Success, Marian Wright Edelman writes:

Remember that the fellowship of human beings is more important than the fellowship of race and class and gender. Be decent and fair and insist that others be so in your presence. Don’t tell, laugh at, or in any way acquiesce to racial, ethnic, religious, or gender jokes, or to any practices intended to demean rather than enhance another human being. Walk away from them; stare them down; make them unacceptable. Through daily moral consciousness, face up to rather than ignore voices of division. Remember that we are not all equally guilty, but we are all equally responsible for building a decent and just society.111

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Part Six Summary After reading Part Six, you should know the following key concepts, principles, and terms. Fill in the blanks from memory, or copy the answers listed below.

Business leader Lee Iacocca’s prescription for success focuses on

(a) , , and , with the emphasis on

(b) as the most important aspect of the formula. Psychological

determinants of behavior include five human needs identified by Abraham Maslow—

needs for (c) , , ,

, and . There are many principles of human

motivation, including (d) , , , and

. Leadership success requires the ability to understand people and

deal with them effectively, and this requires (e) , a term developed

by Daniel Goleman. Elements of the art of persuasion include (f) ,

, and . Effective speaking requires speaking from

the (g) . Managing conflict most effectively requires

(h) , versus avoidance, accommodation, domination, and even

compromise. The American workplace is increasingly diverse and increasingly global;

thus leaders are challenged to deal with a wide variety of people and customs. Managing

diversity requires (i) , elements of which are patience, understanding,

willingness to learn, and flexibility. There are 10 practices that are most important in

tapping the constructive potential of diversity, including (j) ,

, , , and . The

effective leader in a multicultural environment is (k) , embracing other

points of view and seeking to understand all perspectives of every issue, while

developing a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts.

Answer Key for Part Six Summary

a. people, products, profit, page 249 b. people, page 249 c. survival, security, belonging, respect, fulfillment, page 249 d. (any four) a satisfied need is not a motivator; employee motivation and company

success are related; psychological needs and social values are not the same; the same act can satisfy any of the five motivation levels; all people have the same needs; a person can be deficiency-motivated; unsatisfied needs can harm your health; leadership is important in meeting employee needs; the ideal is to integrate individual needs with organizational goals, pages 261–263

e. emotional intelligence, page 265 f. an understanding of people, the effective use of words, the ability to manage

conflict, page 269 g. heart, page 271 h. collaboration, page 275 i. cultural sensitivity, page 279 j. (any five) top management’s personal involvement, targeted recruitment, internal

advocacy groups, emphasis on Equal Employment Opportunity statistics, inclusion of diversity in performance evaluations, inclusion of diversity in promotion decisions, inclusion of diversity in management succession, diversity training groups, networks and support groups, work and family policies that support diversity, page 283

k. integrative, page 296

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Reflection Points—Personal Thoughts on Human Behavior, the Art of Persuasion, and the Diversity Challenge

Complete the following questions and activities to personalize the content of Part Six. Space is provided for writing your thoughts.

■ What motivational needs do you feel in the workplace? Does your job allow the satisfaction of your motivational needs?

■ Discuss what a company should do to meet employee needs for (a) survival, (b) security, (c) belonging, (d) respect, and (e) fulfillment. What policies and prac- tices would you recommend?

■ How important is emotional intelligence for leadership success? Do you know a leader who is a master at understanding and dealing with people?

■ Consider the elements of the art of persuasion in the leadership process. Evaluate yourself in the areas of understanding others, using words effectively, and dealing with conflict. Which areas are your strengths? Which do you need to improve?

■ Discuss the role of leaders in the U.S. Civil War in the context of position, power, and social influence. Examples are Lincoln, Davis, Lee, Grant, and Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain.

■ In the 1990s, South Africa experienced tremendous societal and governmental change without the level of violence that many anticipated. Efforts at reconcilia- tion and building consensus were exemplary acts of leadership. Discuss the roles of Nelson Mandela, Desmond Tutu, and F. W. De Klerk in facilitating change, rec- ognizing diversity, and leading courageously.

■ What experiences have you had in dealing with diversity? Have you ever witnessed firsthand the harmful effects of intolerance and discrimination?

■ Discuss gender diversity in the workplace, including the increasing numbers of women in the workforce and in leadership positions. If you have ever had an opposite-sex leader, discuss the pros and cons of your experience.

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Part Six Video Case Cirque du Soleil: A Truly Global Workforce

In 1984, Guy Laliberté left his home in Canada to make his way across Europe as a circus performer. There he and other artists entertained in the street. The troupe was called Cirque du Soleil—circus of the sun. It started with a simple dream: a group of young artists getting together to entertain audiences, see the world, and have fun doing it. Laliberté and company quickly found that their entertainment form without words—stilt-walking, juggling, music, and fire-breathing—transcended all barriers of language and culture. Though he understood that an entertainer could bring the exotic to every corner of the world, Laliberté did not envision the scope to which his Cirque du Soleil would succeed. Today, Cirque performs five permanent shows—four in Las Vegas and one in Walt Disney World—and five traveling shows. In 20-plus years of live performances, 44 million people have seen a Cirque show. Despite a long-term decline in the circus industry, Cirque has increased revenue 22-fold over the last 10 years. Growth plans include additional tours in Asia and permanent shows in New York, Tokyo, and London.

Cirque du Soleil is a family of more than 3,000 individuals—700 of whom are the shows’ artists—from 40 different countries. Each of Cirque’s employees is encour- aged to contribute to the group. This input has resulted in rich, deep performances and expansion into alternative media outlets such as music, books, television, film, Web sites, and merchandising. The company’s diversity assures that every show reflects many different cultural influences. Different markets will have an exotic experience at a Cirque show, regardless of which show is playing where. Cirque does target specific markets with products designed to engage a particular audience. Yet Cirque has little need to adapt its product to new markets; the product is already a blend of global influences. The result is a presentation of acrobatic arts and traditional, live circus with an almost indescribable freshness and beauty.

Cirque du Soleil’s commitment to excellence and innovation transcends cultural dif- ferences and the limits of many modern media. Its intense popularity has made Cirque both the global standard of live entertainment and the place for talented individuals from around the world to perfect their talents. The extent of the diversity, however, does pose a host of unique challenges. Every employee must be well-versed in various forms and styles. To foster cultural enrichment, Cirque purchases and shares a large collection of art with employees and gives them tickets to different events and shows.

The performers work in the most grueling and intimate situations, with their lives depending on one another. The astounding spectacles they achieve on stage result from hours of planning, practice, and painstaking attention to detail among artists from diverse cultures who speak 25 different languages. Sensitivity, compromise, and hunger for new experiences are prerequisites for success at Cirque. The organization has learned the art of sensitivity and compromise in its recruiting. Cirque du Soleil has had a presence in the Olympics for a decade. It works closely with coaches and teams to help athletes consider a career with Cirque after their competitive years are over, rather than luring talent away from countries that have made huge investments in athletes. This practice has given Cirque a huge advantage in the athletic community, a source of great talent from all over the globe.

Guy Laliberté has not forgotten his humble beginnings as a Canadian street performer. Now that Cirque du Soleil has achieved an international presence and incredible success—the group earned over $1 billion in annual gross revenue in 2011—it has chosen to help at-risk youth, especially street kids. Cirque allocates 1percent of its revenues to outreach programs targeting youth in difficulty, regardless of the location in the world. Laliberté understands that to be successful in a world market, one must be a committed and sensitive neighbor. Cirque’s Montreal head- quarters is the center of an urban revitalization project that the company sponsors. Community participation and outreach bring international goodwill and help Cirque du Soleil prevent many of the difficulties global brands often face when spanning cultures.

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Questions for Discussion

1. Why is Cirque du Soleil successful throughout the world? Why does the product transcend cultural differences between countries?

For more information, see www.cirquedusoliel.com.

Action Assignment As a bridge between learning and doing, complete the following action assignment.

1. What is the single most important idea you have learned in Part Six? 2. How can you apply what you have learned? What will you do, with whom, where,

when, and, most important, why?

300 6 / Understanding People

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