Social Contexts of Development: Peers and the Sociocultural World Schools, Achievement and Work

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Home >Psychology homework help >Social Contexts of Development: Peers and the Sociocultural World Schools, Achievement and Work

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A Topical Approach to
Life-Span Development 6e

John W. Santrock

Chapter Fifteen:

Peers and the Sociocultural Word

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Peer Relations in
Childhood and Adolescence

Exploring peer relations
Peer Group Functions
Peers: individuals about the same age or maturity level
Peer groups provide source of information and comparison about world outside the family
Peer influences and evaluations can be negative or positive

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Peer Relations in
Childhood and Adolescence

Adult-child and peer relations
Parent influences on peer relations
Choice of neighborhoods, churches, schools
Recommend strategies to handle disputes or become less shy
Encourage children to be tolerant or resist peer pressure
Provide emotional base from which to explore peer relations

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Peer Relations in
Childhood and Adolescence

Peer contexts
Interaction influenced by context; situation, location, culture
Individual differences affecting peer relations
Personality traits (shy, outgoing)
Trait of emotional negativity; easily angered
Status and power conveyed/afforded

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Peer Relations in
Childhood and Adolescence

Developmental changes in childhood
Early Childhood
Frequency of peer interaction increases
Middle/Late Childhood
Children spend increasing time in peer interaction
Average time spent
10% of time spent with peers at age 2
20% of time spent with peers at age 4
40% of time spent with peers during ages 7-11

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Peer Relations in
Childhood and Adolescence

Social cognition
Thoughts about social matters
Five steps in processing information about social world
Decode social cues
Interpret
Search for response
Select optimal response
Enact
Affects ability to get along with peers

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Peer Relations in
Childhood and Adolescence

Emotional Regulation and Peer Relations
Five peer statuses
Popular – often designated a best friend, rarely disliked
Average – receive average positive/negative ratings
Neglected – rarely nominated a best friend, not disliked
Rejected – actively disliked, infrequently nominated as best friend
Controversial – frequently nominated as best friend and being disliked

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Peer Relations in
Childhood and Adolescence

Bullying
Physical or verbal behavior with harmful intent
Significant numbers victimized
Boys and younger middle school students
Victims of bullies reported more loneliness and difficulty in making friends
Those who did the bullying more likely to have low grades, smoke and drink alcohol
Both victims and bullies had more health problems than other children

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Figure 15.1 - Bullying Behaviors
Among U.S. Youth

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Peer Relations in
Childhood and Adolescence

To reduce bullying
Use older peers as monitors
Develop school-wide rules and sanctions
Form friendship groups for victims
Be more aware of where bullying behaviors occur
Sponsor antibullying program in all settings
Parents reinforce positive behaviors, role model
Early intervention, teach bullies appropriate skills

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Peer Relations in
Childhood and Adolescence

Gender and Peer Relations
Gender composition
From age 3, children prefer same-sex groups
Group size
From age 6, boys prefer larger groups
Interaction in same-sex groups
Boys: organized group games, rough-and-tumble
Girls: collaborative discourse

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Peer Relations in
Childhood and Adolescence

Adolescent Peer Relations
Peer pressure — peers play powerful roles
Cliques and crowds — to be liked and included
Cliques: Small groups averaging 5 or 6; usually same sex and age
Crowd: larger than cliques, less personal than cliques
Important role in one’s development in all cultures
Cross-cultural comparisons and variations

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Friendship

Six Functions of Friendship
Companionship
Stimulation
Physical support
Ego support
Social comparison
Affection/intimacy
Intimacy in friendship: self-disclosure and sharing of private thoughts

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Friendship

Friendship during Childhood
Children use friends as cognitive and social resources
Not all friends and friendships are equal
Supportive friendships advantageous
Coercive, conflict-ridden friendships not
Friends generally similar: age, sex, ethnicity, and many other factors (“homophily”)

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Friendship

Friendship during Adolescence
Peer popularity is strong motivator
Younger teens prefer smaller groups, more intimacy
Sullivan: peers help shape development
Sources of attachment, play, intimacy, social fulfillment
Reassurance of worth, sharing of information
Peers have strong influence through association
Age range/knowledge of peers can influence behaviors

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Friendship

Friendship during Adolescence
Gender differences
Girls more intimate with friends than boys, more open in self-disclosure
Personal disclosure has negative and positive consequences for girls
More risk of delinquent behavior when friends are older, boys focus on power and excitement
Early maturing: more risk for delinquent behavior

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Figure15.3 - Developmental Changes in Self-Disclosing Conversations

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Friendship

Adult friendship
Comparison of childhood friends to adult friends: similarities preferred — occupational status, age, marital status, income, education, gender, religion, ethnicity
Gender Differences
Women: more close friends; more intimate; talk more
Men: more competitive; engage in activities (outdoors)
More cross-gender friendships; still prefer same-gender

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Friendship

Friendship in late adulthood
Choose close friends over new friends
Content with small, close social network
Tend to have less intense positive emotions with new friends; equal level with old friends
Research results:
Depression linked to social contacts limited to family
Close ties with old friends extends life span
Unwed older adults with friend-focused network healthier than unweds restricted to family, little friend contact

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Play and Leisure

Childhood
Play: enjoyable activity for its own sake
Piaget: cognitive development constrains the way child plays
Functions of play
Tension release, master anxiety and conflicts
Play therapy
Practice competencies and skills; learning that’s fun
Vygotsky: play is good for creative thought

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Play and Leisure

Childhood
Types of play
Sensorimotor – infant behavior for exploring
Practice – repetition for physical and mental mastery
Pretense/symbolic – “golden age” of make-believe
Social – interaction with peers, sharing and cooperating
Constructive – self-regulated creation of something, focus and concentration
Games – engaged in for pleasure, have rules to follow

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Play and Leisure

Adolescence
Leisure:
Pleasant times after work or school when individuals are free to pursue activities and interests of their choosing
U.S. adolescents spend more time than those in other industrialized countries
Most time in unstructured leisure activities
Most time in voluntary structured activities
Critics: too much unstructured leisure activity — TV and “hanging out”

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Play and Leisure

Adulthood
Leisure
Can include reading, hobbies, sports
Many adults do not engage in activities
Mid-life changes may produce expanded opportunities for leisure
Adults at midlife need to begin preparing psychologically for retirement
Vacations extend life span, lowers risk of heart disease

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Aging and the Social World

Social theories of aging
Disengagement theory
To cope effectively, older adults should gradually withdraw from society
Lessen emotional ties, have more self-preoccupation
Outdated for today’s world
Activity theory
The more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are to be satisfied with their lives
Today’s older adults are more active than ever before

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Aging and the Social World

Stereotyping of older adults
Ageism
Prejudice against other people because of age, especially prejudice against older adults
Most based on assumed frailty and ailments of age
Personal consequences of negative stereotyping can be serious

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Aging and the Social World

Social Support and Social Integration
Important physical and psychological impact
Social convoy model of social relations — go through life embedded in personal network of individuals that give social support
Helps those of all ages cope
Improves mental and physical health
Linked to reduced symptoms of disease
Linked to longevity
Emotionally positive contact lowers depression

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Aging and the Social World

Successful aging
Positive dimensions ignored too long
Proper diet, technology, medical advances, and active lifestyle prolong and enhance quality of life
Related to perceived control over one’s environment (self-efficacy)
Social integration is very important
Being lonely and isolated – a significant health factor
Centenarians – optimistic and very happy

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Sociocultural Influences

Culture
A broad concept
Behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group of people that are passed on from generation to generation
Ideas, values, assumptions that guide one’s behavior
Global interdependence is inescapable reality
All are citizens of the world
Better understanding promotes effective interactions

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Sociocultural Influences

Culture
Relevance for life span development
Individualism — giving priority to personal goals rather than to group goals; emphasizing values that serve the self
Collectivism — emphasizing values that serve the group by subordinating personal goals to preserve group integrity, interdependence of members, and harmonious relationships

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Sociocultural Influences

Culture
Consider self-terms of psychology
Individualistic focus
Self-actualization, self-awareness
Self-efficacy, self-doubts
Self-reinforcement, self-criticism
Self-serving, selfishness
Individualistic cultures
Personal choice, intrinsic motivation, self-esteem, and self-maximization

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Sociocultural Influences

Technology, media and culture
Major impact on many children in the world
Positive and negative effects
Criticisms:
Books about today’s youth — Dumbest Generation
Employers spending $1.3 billion to teach employees writing skills
iPods and YouTube impair thinking skills?

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Sociocultural Influences

Aging and Culture
Older persons
Have valuable knowledge
Control key family/community resources
Remain useful and valued as long as possible
Have role continuity throughout yje life span
Engage in age-related role changes
Is integrated into the extended family
Get greatest respect in collectivistic cultures

kollmlar (k) - what's this word supposed to be?

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Sociocultural Influences

Socioeconomic Status
Grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics
Number depends on community’s size, complexity
Low SES and middle SES
Each could have many subcategories
SES variations in neighborhoods, schools
Each level views education differently

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Sociocultural Influences

Psychological Ramifications of Poverty
Poverty: U.S. rates continue to increase
Tends to follow ethnic lines
Highest for children of all industrialized nations
Psychological effects of poverty
Powerless, vulnerable, no financial resources
Inadequate housing, at-risk environment, etc.
Long term effects: chronic health problems

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Sociocultural Influences

Ramifications of Poverty
Who is poor?
Women — feminization of poverty
Single mothers; single fathers
Families and poverty
Economic pressure linked with parenting
Benefits to parents help children
Poverty, aging, and ethnicity
Overall more among women and ethnic minorities; more than 25% of older women
Ethnic diversity continues to increase

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Sociocultural Influences

Ethnicity
Ethnicity and socioeconomic status
Difficult to separate influences of ethnicity and SES
Minorities overrepresented in lower SES may cause exaggeration of negative ethnic influences
Links between acculturation and adolescent problems
Poverty higher among minority immigrants

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Sociocultural Influences

Ethnicity
Ethnicity and families
Families vary by size, structure, composition, levels of income and education, kinship networks, and how family monitors/regulates behaviors
More single families in some groups
Ethnic minority parents are less educated
Children experience double disadvantage
Do not escape prejudice and discrimination
Stressful effects of poverty felt

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Sociocultural Influences

Ethnicity
Ethnicity and differences
Recognizing differences important to getting along in diverse world
Differences among ethnic groups too often conceived by majority as deficits of minorities
Damaging to minorities
Diversity within ethnic groups

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The End