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USING VIDEO FEEDBACK TO IMPROVE MARTIAL ARTS PERFORMANCE

Angela BenitezSantiago and Raymond G. Miltenberger* Child and Family Studies, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA

This study used video feedback to enhance the martial arts performance of capoeira, an Afro-Brazilian martial art that utilizes acrobatic movements (revesado, au de costa, and macaco). A multiple baseline across behaviors was used for five participants where baseline conditions consisted of standard coaching. The intervention consisted of video feedback, in which the participants were filmed attempting a movement and immediately viewed the video afterwards, while receiving positive and corrective feedback from the instructor. The target behaviors were scored on a 15-item checklist, resulting in a percentage correct. A second video feedback condition similar to the first was also introduced to some participants, in which participants practiced the movements with live feedback before being filmed again. Results show that the video feedback conditions increased performance over baseline in most cases. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The use of video for feedback allows the benefit of preserving an audiovisual image of a performance, the ability to replay it at various speeds, and to stop or ‘freeze’ an image in time. Video recording has been used in two ways in the skill leaning process: first as feedback on a performance that has been completed and second to display a model of the correct performance to be completed (Dowirck, 1991). Research that has used video feedback to improve a performance has targeted peer interactions (Dunlap et al., 1992), parent training (Phaneuf & McIntyre, 2007), medical teaching (Nilsen & Baerheim, 2005; Roter et al., 2004), social communica- tion (Baily, Deardorff, & Nay, 1977; O’Reilly et al., 2005; Thiemann & Goldstein, 2001), performance in work settings (Sigurdsson, & Austin, 2008), and performance in sports such as swimming (Hazen, Johnstone, Martin, & Srikameswaran, 1990), gymnastics (Boyer, Miltenberger, Batsche, & Fogel, 2009), soccer (Zeigler, 1994), and tennis (Scott, Scott, & Howe, 1998). An athlete can acquire proficiency in the performance of a skill through the

automatic reinforcement of successful outcomes of the behavior (e. g., a successful

*Correspondence to: Raymond G. Miltenberger, Child and Family Studies, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA. E-mail: [email protected]

Behavioral Interventions Behav. Intervent. 31: 12–27 (2016) Published online 28 August 2015 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/bin.1424

soccer pass and a strike thrown by a pitcher) or through feedback provided about the performance (Dowrick, 1991). Feedback can be provided immediately after the performance or later through video. Dowrick (1991) suggests that video feedback should be provided by a coach who can draw the athlete’s attention to the important components of the performance. When using video, coaches should identify the critical elements of successful athletic performance and provide feedback about those critical elements. Few studies have evaluated video feedback with sports’ performance. Hazen et al. (1990) compared standard behavioral coaching with an individual

feedback and a group feedback package for swimmers. The package included model- ing, role-playing, videotape feedback, and verbal feedback. While the swimmer was watching his or her performance on tape, the experimenter provided positive feed- back for correct components and corrective feedback for incorrect performances. The results showed that an individual videotape feedback package was effective for producing improvements in performance with young competitive swimmers. Boyer et al. (2009) examined the effectiveness of video modeling by experts with video feedback on the development of three complex gymnastic skills by four female competitive gymnasts. Video modeling by experts with video feedback consisted of the gymnast performing the skill, immediately watching an expert performance and viewing her own performance side by side, and then attempting the skill again. The results show that the intervention improved skill performance more quickly than regular practice and coaching alone. Zeigler (1994) examined the effects of attentional shift training on the execu-

tion of soccer skills. The training procedures included watching videotapes of their team in soccer matches, evaluating correct tactical decisions made in a limited amount of time, and executing the skills in a practice session. Results showed that intervention yielded improvement in the performance of soccer skills. In each of these studies, video feedback was part of an intervention package. None of these studies have evaluated video feedback by itself as a means to improve a sports performance. Considering that few studies that have evaluated video feedback for improving

athletic performance, that video feedback is combined with other procedures, and that no research has been conducted evaluating video feedback procedures for enhancing skills related to martial arts, the purpose of this study is to evaluate video feedback for enhancing three skills associated with a type of martial art called capoeira. Capoeira is an Afro-Brazilian martial art, involving a system of self-defense that also has a dancelike, acrobatic movement style (Lewis, 1992). Lewis (1992) describes it as ‘at once game, sport, mock combat, and ritualized performance’; it involves two players who ‘play a game’ (or exchange movements of attack and defense in a constant flow) within a ring of musicians and singers.

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METHOD

Participants and Setting

Five participants (capoeiristas), two men and three women, ages 24 to 32years, participated. The participants had at least five months of experience, where they had learned the basic movements of the sport and had exposure to the target behaviors but had not yet mastered the skills. The participants were training consistently throughout the study, receiving at least four hours of training a week. The intervention took place after the regular training sessions at the training center where the participants were members. The training center was an 8.8m×12.2m air-conditioned room with the majority of wooden floors, with one section of matted floors (3.2m×8.8m). A mirror covered the majority of the front wall.

Materials

The materials included a digital video camera, the Sony HD BloggieTM (Sony Corp, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan), to record the performance and a laptop computer, Acer Aspire 5515TM (Acer America Corp, San Jose, CA), with software (PICTURE MOTION BROWSER Sony PMB 2010TM) to display the performance clip.

Target Behaviors and Data Collection

Three movements were targeted for intervention because they are moves frequently taught to beginning students of capoeira. The target behaviors were the revesado (front walkover), au de costa (cartwheel to the back), and macaco (back walkover from the floor). Revesado is a movement done from standing position, where the person uses momentum to place the hands on the floor (to the side of the body) as the legs come over the body. The back is arched, so that when the legs land on the floor (one leg after the other), the person can lift his or her body upright as the hands come off the floor. The au de costa is a movement similar to a cartwheel, but the person puts the hand on the floor behind the body (so that the back is arched), with the other arm swinging over, and the person’s legs follow over the body, one leg at a time. It is also landed one leg at a time, as the arms come off the ground and the body comes upright again. The macaco starts from a squat position, when one hand is placed behind the body, as the back arches and the opposite arm is swung behind the body. The legs are straightened as they push off the floor to come over the body, one leg following the other, and landing as such as the hands come off the floor, bringing the upper body upright. Complete definitions of all three target behaviors are listed in the checklists (Appendixes A, B, and C).

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Data were collected using a 15-item checklist for each skill; each component scored as correct or incorrect. A percentage of the target behavior completed correctly was calculated for each trial. The observers were trained to score the target behaviors through instructions and practice scoring actual videos with feedback. A criterion of at least 90% accuracy between observers was required before scoring.

Interobserver Agreement

Two independent observers scored 30% of all sessions. The percentage of agreement was calculated by dividing the number of agreements for the components on the checklist of a skill by the number of agreements plus disagreements. The percentage of interobserver agreement was 84% for Gary, 86% for Jay, 83% for Gloria, 82% for Sarah, and 85% for Jane.

Design and Procedure

A multiple baseline design across behaviors was used to evaluate the effects of video feedback for each skill for each participant.

Baseline

Baseline data were collected after class at the training center that consisted of instruction, modeling, rehearsal, and verbal feedback. Class continued throughout the intervention phases. In a typical class, the instructor modeled capoeira movements while giving instruction, allowed time for students to practice the movements, and then provided feedback on how well they performed the movements. These practices were done either simultaneously (all students engaging in the same movements, lined up and facing a mirror) or one by one (in a manner of practicing the movement while going across the length of the practice floor). In baseline and across intervention phases, the target behavior was attempted, videotaped, and scored three to six separate times. No prompting or feedback was provided in baseline.

Video Feedback

The participant was filmed three separate times attempting the target behavior after the regular practice. Immediately after being filmed, the participant watched the clip with the instructor. The instructor gave positive and corrective feedback while utilizing the pause, slow motion, and replay controls. Positive feedback included praise for steps performed correctly, and corrective feedback included identifying steps that were not correct and providing instructions for completing them correctly.

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The participant then attempted the skill two more times while being filmed, and the instructor provided feedback in the same manner. The first attempt was not scored, but instead served as the first video to watch for the video feedback phase. The subsequent two attempts were videotaped for scoring. This video feedback procedure was performed separately for the second target

behavior once an increase in correct performance was observed in the first target behavior. Video feedback was then applied to the third behavior after improvement was noted in the second behavior.

Video Feedback with Practice

This condition was the same as video feedback, with the added component of participants practicing the movement two to five times between videotaping. Each time they practiced the movement, they received live feedback, where the coach described what the participant did correctly and what he or she needed to improve.

Social Validity Measures

A social validity measure, similar to one used by Boyer et al. (2009), consisted of a questionnaire with items scored using a 5-point Likert-type scale. The participants were asked questions such as how much they liked the procedure, how much time it took out of class, and how helpful it was (see Table 1 for the social validity survey).

Table 1. Questions and responses on the social validity measures for Gary, Gloria, and Sarah.

Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree

1. I liked the procedure. 1 2 2. The procedure took too long. 1 1 1 3. I felt the procedure was helpful

in learning the movements. 1 2

4. I liked using video feedback to learn the movements.

5. I can do the revesado. 1 2 6. I feel comfortable doing the

revesado in the roda. 1 1 1

7. I can do the au de costa. 1 1 1 8. I feel comfortable doing the

au de costa in the roda. 1 2

9. I can do the macaco. 2 1 10. I feel comfortable doing the

macaco in the roda. 1 1 1

Note: The numbers represent the number of participants endorsing each item.

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RESULTS

Results are shown in Figures 1–5. After participating in the video feedback intervention, the acrobatic movements for all capoeiristas increased from baseline levels to consistently higher levels. Video feedback plus practice resulted in even higher levels of performance.

Figure 1. Percentage correct skill performance across revesado, macaco, and au de costa for Gary.

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This study, similar to Boyer et al. (2009), reports two types of baseline means: total baseline mean and the end of baseline mean. Total baseline mean consists of the average percentage of the movement performed correctly across the entire baseline

Figure 2. Percentage correct skill performance across revesado, macaco, and au de costa for Jay.

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phase, and the end of baseline mean is the average of the second half of baseline. These end of baseline means are reported because some skills showed an increase dur- ing lengthy baseline periods, presumably because of regular coaching and practice. Gary’s revesado scores increased from a baseline mean of 48% to an intervention

mean of 69%, although there was a decreasing trend in this phase. During the video feedback with practice condition, the behavior gradually increased to a mean of 81%

Figure 3. Percentage correct skill performance across macaco, revesado, and au de costa for Gloria.

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for the last 7 data points. His means for macaco were 43% for baseline with a decreas- ing trend, and 68% for intervention, although the last 4 data points of the intervention phase were all at 80%. Gary’s baseline au de costa showed an increasing trend, but the end of the baseline was stable with a mean 53% for the last 9 data points. The percentage correct increased immediately during intervention to a mean of 84%.

Figure 4. Percentage correct skill performance across macaco, revesado, and au de costa for Sarah.

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Jay’s revesado scores increased from a baseline mean of 56% to an intervention mean of 75% with no overlap in the data (Figure 2). His scores for macaco increased from a mean of 48% in baseline to a mean of 64% during intervention, although there were only 2 data points and they overlapped with baseline. Jay did not receive the intervention for the au de costa because of factors unrelated to the study.

Figure 5. Percentage correct skill performance across au de costa, revesado, and macaco for Jane.

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Gloria’s macaco scores (Figure 3) increased slightly from a baseline mean of 35% to an intervention mean of 50%. When video feedback with practice was implemented, the behavior increased in the second half of the phase to a mean of 69%. Her revesado mean was 48% in baseline. During the video feedback interven- tion, there was an increasing trend resulting in an end of intervention mean of 81%. Gloria’s au de costa increased during baseline but stabilized at a mean of 47% in the second half of baseline. Video feedback resulted in an immediate increase to a mean of 65%. Sarah’s macaco scores increased from a baseline mean of 56.5% to an intervention

mean of 69% with substantial overlap between baseline and data in the first half of intervention. Her performance increased during video feedback with practice to a mean of 81% with overlapping data points with the second half of the first interven- tion (Figure 4). Her scores for revesado increased from a mean of 44% in baseline to a mean of 76% during video feedback with an immediate increase and no overlap. Sarah did not receive the intervention for the au de costa because of factors unrelated to the study. Her performance gradually increased across the extended baseline phase, likely because of ongoing training she received in the class. Jane’s au de costa scores increased from a baseline mean of 24% to an intervention

mean of 46%, although her performance was highly variable during intervention and the mean of the last 5 data points was 44% (Figure 5). Her revesado means were 35% for baseline and 70% for intervention, although she had only 2 data points during intervention. Jane did not receive the intervention for the macaco because of factors unrelated to the study, and her performance showed a slight increase over the course of the phase. The social validity questionnaire results only included Gary, Gloria, and Sarah,

and can be found in Table 1. Overall, the participants liked using video feedback to learn the movements (Questions 1 and 4) and found it to be helpful (Question 3). However, they did not feel like they could do the majority of the movements and did not feel comfortable doing the movements in the roda (actual game of capoeira; Questions 5 through 10).

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of video feedback on the performance of three acrobatic movements unique to the martial art of capoeira. The results indicate that exposure to the intervention improved skill performance more rapidly than regular class that included the unsystematic use of behavioral skills training. However, the results were modest for the most part as the increases did not approach 100% correct performance of the moves. During the baseline phase, some

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skills were practiced as long as 45 sessions under regular class conditions and showed gradual increasing trends indicating a learning effect from participating in the ongoing classes. Each of the skills receiving intervention for each capoeirista increased to levels above baseline, usually within the first few sessions of receiving the intervention for that skill. All participants showed improvement, and in some cases even doubled their baseline levels, following video feedback sessions. These results suggest that adding video feedback to typical coaching and practice tech- niques could reduce the number of class sessions required to improve a difficult skill. Video feedback with practice also helped improve the percentage of the movement completed correctly, either immediately (such as with Sarah) or gradually (such as for Gary and Gloria). Although the video feedback intervention enhanced the skill performance to levels

above baseline, near flawless skill performance (80–100% correct) was only occasionally achieved by the participants in this study, which was similar to the find- ing from Boyer et al. (2009). The skill checklists were designed so that a score of 100% would be equivalent to a perfect score for an expert capoeirista performing that skill. The data also showed a good amount of variability, with some capoeiristas substantially improving in one movement, while showing gradual or minimal improvement in another movement. This variability may be due to difficulty of the specific components of the movement or the capoeirista’s learning history of similar movements. Typically, these three skills required some level of mastering backbend movements, which could be physically limiting if the participant is not comfortable with that skill. It could be argued that some of the capoeiristas had not yet reached the level of physical conditioning to perform the skills to criterion because of strength limitations, which can account for some variability in the skill. This study extends research utilizing video feedback for improving athletic skill

execution (Boyer et al., 2009; Hazen et al., 1990; Scott et al., 1998; Zeigler 1994). Hazen et al. (1990) compared standard behavioral coaching with an individual feedback and a group feedback package for swimmers. Their study showed that individual packages had the best effect on improving swimmers performance. This study singles out the video feedback component without the use of the other compo- nents of the package. Boyer et al. (2009) examined the effectiveness of combining video modeling by experts with video feedback on the development of three complex gymnastic skills, while the current study examines the use of video feedback without video modeling. There were a few limitations in this current study. First, the amount of time it took

to do video feedback for all three movements in the same session was 45min to an hour because of the time it took to upload the video onto the laptop, watch the video once, then watch the video using the other controls (such as pause), the actual verbal feedback, and repeating this process multiple times for each movement. Also, there

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may have been some distractions from other students staying after class to practice other movements. Future researchers should utilize technology that could upload the video more quickly and conduct the video feedback free from potential distrac- tions. Second, some minor and major injuries were incurred from doing other skills related to capoeira, but not as a result of the study, which may have impaired the performance of some skills being measured or have taken the participants out of the study altogether. As a result, intervention could not be evaluated for all three behaviors for three of the five participants. Fortunately, intervention showed an effect with all behaviors for which it was implemented. Furthermore, the behaviors with which the intervention was not implemented served as control behaviors showing the natural course of training as usual. These results allowed us to see that some improvement occurred over time, but that the improvement was small and gradual in comparison with improvements seen with the intervention. Another limitation is that interobserver agreement was lower than desired.

Because research assistants were not familiar with the acrobatic movements from capoeira, a substantial amount of training was provided. Interobserver agreement also may be somewhat low because the angle at which the movement was filmed on occasion made scoring difficult. Finally, follow-up assessment of the movements was not collected because of time constraints and injuries incurred by the partici- pants, and generalization probes could not be conducted because of the lack of opportunities to record training rodas (actual games) in which these movements would be utilized. A final limitation was the low social validity rating for items related to competence

in performing the skills. The participants rated their competence low following training, probably because they never mastered all steps in the skills. As such, their scores were probably an accurate appraisal of their performance. Future research should utilize video feedback for more experienced capoeiristas

who have nearly mastered the movement, to see if it can bring unmastered skills to criteria. Also, generalization should be probed to see if the participants can success- fully execute the skills in a game of capoeira. Lastly, a follow-up assessment should be conducted to evaluate whether the improvements are maintained over time. The present study evaluated the effects of using video feedback to improve three

acrobatic movements unique to the Brazilian martial art, capoeira. This study demonstrated that the capoeiristas improved their performance of each movement when the video feedback intervention was used in addition to regular practice conditions. The participants learned the movements more quickly with video feedback than with regular practice conditions. Video feedback was liked by the participants and was found to be helpful in learning these movements. Based on these results, it is hypothesized that this intervention has the potential to improve other skills for other sports as well.

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REFERENCES

Baily, K. G., Deardorff, P., & Nay, W. R. (1977). Students play therapist: Relative effects of role playing, videotape feedback, and modeling in a simulated interview. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 257–266.

Boyer, E., Miltenberger, R. G., Batsche, C., & Fogel, V. (2009). Video modeling by experts with video feedback to enhance gymnastic skills. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 42, 855–860.

Dowrick, P. W. (1991). Practical guide to using video in the behavioral sciences. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Dunlap, L. K., Dunlap, G., Clarke, S., Childs, K. E., White, R. L., & Stewart, M. P. (1992). Effects of a videotape feedback package on the peer interactions of children with serious behavioral and emotional challenges. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 355–364.

Hazen, A., Johnstone, C., Martin, G. L., & Srikameswaran, S. (1990). A videotaping feedback package for improving skills of youth competitive swimmers. The Sport Psychologist, 4, 213–227.

Lewis, J. L. (1992). Ring of liberation: Deceptive discourse in Brazilian capoeira. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Nilsen, S., & Baerheim, A. (2005). Feedback on video recorded consultations in medical teaching: Why students love and loathe it—A focus-group based qualitative study. BMC Medical Education, 5, 28. doi:10.1186/1472-6920/5/28.

O’Reilly, M. F., O’Halloran, M., Sigafoos, J., Lancioni, G. E., Green, V., Edrisinha, C., Cannella, H., … (2005). Evaluation of video feedback and self-management to decrease schoolyard aggression and increase pro-social behaviour in two students with behavioural disorders. Educational Psychology, 25, 199–206. doi:10.1080/0144341042000301157.

Phaneuf, L., & McIntyre, L. L. (2007). Effects of individualized video feedback combined with group parent training on inappropriate maternal behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 737–741.

Roter, D. L., Larson, S., Shinitzky, H., Chernoff, R., Serwint, J. R., Adamo, G., & Wissow, L. (2004). Use of an innovative video feedback technique to enhance communication skills training. Medical Education, 38, 145–157.

Scott, D., Scott, L. M., & Howe, B. L. (1998). Training anticipation for intermediate tennis players. Behavior Modification, 22, 243–261.

Sigurdsson, S. O., & Austin, J. (2008). Using real-time visual feedback to improve posture at computer workstations. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 365–375.

Thiemann, K. S., & Goldstein, H. (2001). Social stories, written cues, and video feedback: Effects on social communication of children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 425–446.

Ziegler, S. G. (1994). The effects of attentional shift training on the execution of soccer skills: A prelim- inary investigation. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 545–552.

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APPENDIX A: REVESADO CHECKLIST

Revesado: Was this behavior completed correctly? Correct Incorrect

1. Start from the base position (left leg back). 2. Move into center position. 3. Simultaneously bend the left leg and straighten the right leg

(so that the upper body is leaning towards the left). 4. The left arm reaches for the ground, next to the left leg. 5. Right arm also reaches to the ground, parallel to the left hand. 6. The right leg lifts off the ground as the left hand touches the

floor (flat palm). 7. The right leg lifts (slightly bent) over the body as the left leg

pushes off the ground (goes from bent to straight). 8. The right hand prepares to touch the ground (flat palm). 9. As the right leg continues to go over the body, the left leg

lifts off the ground. 10. The right hand lands on the floor, next to the left hand. 11. As the right leg goes over the body and starts returning

to the ground, the back begins to arch. 12. The left leg goes over the body and the left hand begins to

lift off the ground. 13. When the right leg lands, the back is arched, the right hand

begins to lift off the ground. 14. The left leg begins returning to the ground, passing the

right leg so that it lands behind the body, raising the upper body, with arms to the side.

15. Back to the base position.

APPENDIX B: AU DE COSTA CHECKLIST

Au de costa: Was this behavior completed correctly? Correct Incorrect

1. Start from the base position (left leg back). 2. Move into center position. 3. Bring the right leg next to the left so that the right leg

passes the left and is placed on the floor. 4. As the right leg is placed (and is slightly bent), the left leg

lifts to the front of the body. 5. The right arm stays straight as it reaches towards the floor

behind the body (and the palm is flat on the floor), so that the back arches.

6. The left arm is opposite of the right arm (in the air to the front). 7. The left arm is swung back, behind the body. 8. As the left leg begins to swing over the body, the right leg

pushes off the ground (goes from bent to straight) and lifts from the floor, beginning to follow the left leg over the body.

(Continues)

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APPENDIX B: (Continued)

Au de costa: Was this behavior completed correctly? Correct Incorrect

9. The left hand reaches behind the body and is placed on the ground in a 45 degree angle from the right hand.

10. The legs follow over the body, the left leg leading the right leg. 11. The left leg is straightened as it lands parallel to the right hand. 12. The right hand comes off the ground as the right leg is parallel

to the ground. 13. The left hand comes off the ground right before the right leg reaches

the ground and is parallel to the left leg. 14. The upper body comes off the ground and moves to the right

until it is upright. 15. The body is now back in the center position.

APPENDIX C: MACACO CHECKLIST

Macaco: Was this behavior completed correctly? Correct Incorrect

1. Start from the base position (left leg back). 2. Move into center position. 3. Bring the right leg next to the left so that both

feet are facing to left. 4. Bend knees so that the body is close to the floor. 5. The right arm stays straight as it reaches towards

the floor behind the body (and the palm is flat on the floor). 6. The left arm is opposite of the right arm (in the air to the front). 7. The left arm is swung back. 8. Simultaneously, the legs are straightened so that the back is

arched and the feet push off the ground. 9. The left hand reaches behind the body and is placed on the

ground in a 45 degree angle from the right hand. 10. The legs follow over the body, the left leg leading the right leg. 11. The left leg is straightened as it lands parallel to the right hand. 12. The right hand comes off the ground as the right leg is parallel

to the ground. 13. The left hand comes off the ground right before the right leg reaches

the ground and is parallel to the left leg. 14. The upper body comes off the ground and moves to the right

until it is upright. 15. The body is now back in center position.

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