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Business Communication Essentials

Chapter 11

Writing and Completing Reports and Proposals

Chapter 11 - 1

List the topics commonly covered in the introduction, body, and close of informational reports, analytical reports, and proposals.

Identify six guidelines for drafting effective website content and offer guidelines for becoming a valuable wiki contributor.

Chapter 11 - 2

Learning Objectives

Discuss six principles of graphic design that can improve the quality of your visuals and identify the major types of business visuals.

Summarize the four tasks involved in completing business reports and proposals.

Chapter 11 - 3

Learning Objectives

Writing Reports and Proposals

(LO 11.1) List the topics commonly covered in the introduction, body, and close of informational reports, analytical reports, and proposals.

Chapter 11 - 4

This chapter focuses on writing and completing reports, along with creating content for websites, collaborating on wikis, and creating graphical elements to illustrate messages of all kinds.

All the writing concepts and techniques you learned in Chapter 4 apply to the longer format of business reports. However, the length and complexity of reports call for special attention to several issues, starting with adapting to your audience.

Chapter 11 - 5

Adapting to Your Audience

•Formal Situations

•Informal Situations

•Cross-Cultural Situations

Using the

“You” Attitude

Reports and proposals can put heavy demands on your readers, so the “you” attitude takes on even greater importance with these long messages. In general, try to strike a balance between being overly informal and overly formal.

If you know your readers reasonably well and your report is likely to meet with their approval, you can generally adopt an informal tone. To make your tone less formal, speak to readers in the first person, refer to them as you, and refer to yourself as I (or we if there are multiple report authors).

When you need a more formal tone, use the impersonal journalism style:

Emphasize objectivity, avoid personal opinions, and build your argument on provable facts.

Eliminate personal pronouns, avoid humor, and use similes, metaphors, and colorful adjectives or adverbs with care.

Communicating with people in other cultures often calls for more formality in reports to respect cultural preferences and reduce the risk of miscommunication. Informal elements such as humor and casual language tend to translate poorly from one culture to another.

Chapter 11 - 6

Drafting Report Content

Three Main Sections

The Closing

The Introduction

The Body

You can simplify report writing by breaking the job into three main sections: an introduction (or opening), a body, and a close.

The introduction is the first section in the text of any report or proposal. It puts the report in context for the reader, introduces the subject, previews main ideas, and establishes the tone of the document.

The body of the report presents, analyzes, and interprets the information gathered during your investigation; and it supports your recommendations or conclusions.

The closing is the final section in the text of a report or proposal. It emphasizes your main points, summarizes benefits and courses of action, and brings action items together in one place.

The following six slides cover those three main sections.

Introduction to a Report (see Table 11.1)

Chapter 11 - 7

Authorization for Report

Problem/Purpose of Report

Scope of Report

Background of Report

Establish Context

**********

Identify Subject

**********

Preview Main Ideas

Note: This slide includes material taken from Table 11.1 in this chapter. It is intended to allow an instructor to explore the elements of a report in more detail.

The introduction to a report establishes context, identifies the subject, previews main ideas (if using the direct approach), and establishes tone and reader relationship. Typical report introductions include most if not all of the following elements:

Authorization. Recognize who authorized the report, if applicable.

Problem/purpose. Explain the reason for the report’s existence and what the report will achieve.

Scope. Describe what will and won’t be covered in the report.

Background. Review historical conditions or factors that led up to the report.

Introduction to a Report (see Table 11.1)

Chapter 11 - 8

Sources/Methods of Research

Key Terms and Definitions

Limitations of Report

Organization of Report

Establish Context

**********

Identify Subject

**********

Preview Main Ideas

Note: This slide includes material taken from Table 11.1 in this chapter. It is intended to allow an instructor to explore the elements of a report in more detail.

Sources and methods. Discuss the primary and secondary sources consulted and methods used.

Definitions. List terms and their definitions, including any terms that might be misinterpreted. Terms may also be defined in the body, explanatory notes, or glossary.

Limitations. Discuss factors beyond your control that affect report quality (but do not use this as an excuse for poor research or a poorly written report).

Report organization. Identify the topics to be covered and in what order.

The Body of a Report (see Table 11.1)

Chapter 11 - 9

Explain the Problem or Project

Facts, Evidence, and Trends

Analysis of Potential Action

Note: This slide includes material taken from Table 11.1 in this chapter. It is intended to allow an instructor to explore the elements of a report in more detail.

In the body of a report, present relevant information and support your recommendations or conclusions. The body section of a typical report will contain most if not all of the following elements:

Explanations. Give complete details of the problem, project, or idea.

Facts, statistical evidence, and trends. Lay out the results of studies or investigations.

Analysis of action. Discuss potential courses of action.

The Body of a Report (see Table 11.1)

Chapter 11 - 10

Analysis of Pros and Cons

Procedures or Processes

Methods and Approaches

Note: This slide includes material taken from Table 11.1 in this chapter. It is intended to allow an instructor to explore the elements of a report in more detail.

Pros and cons. Explain advantages, disadvantages, costs, and benefits of a particular course of action.

Procedures. Outline steps for a process.

Methods and approaches. Discuss how you’ve studied a problem (or gathered evidence) and arrived at your solution (or collected your data).

The Body of a Report (see Table 11.1)

Chapter 11 - 11

Criteria or Benchmarks

Conclusions/Recommendations

Support Statements

Note: This slide includes material taken from Table 11.1 in this chapter. It is intended to allow an instructor to explore the elements of a report in more detail.

Criteria. Describe the benchmarks for evaluating options and alternatives.

Conclusions and recommendations. Discuss what you believe the evidence reveals and what you propose should be done about it.

Support. Give the reasons behind your conclusions or recommendations.

The Close of a Report (see Table 11.1)

Chapter 11 - 12

Summary, Recommendations, Action

When Using the Direct Approach

When Using the Indirect Approach

When Seeking to Motivate Action

Note: This slide includes material taken from Table 11.1 in this chapter. It is intended to allow an instructor to explore the elements of a report in more detail.

In the closing section of a report, summarize key points, emphasize benefits of any recommendations, and list action items. This section is usually labeled as “Summary” or “Conclusions and Recommendations.” The following information will apply, depending on whether you’ve taken the direct or indirect approach and whether you’ve requested a specific course of action:

For direct approach. Summarize key points (except in short reports), listing them in the order in which they appear in the body. Briefly restate your conclusions or recommendations, if appropriate.

For indirect approach. If you haven’t done so at the end of the body, present your conclusions or recommendations.

For motivating action. Spell out exactly what should happen next and provide a schedule with specific task assignments.

Chapter 11 - 13

►Using Headings and Subheadings

►Employing Transitional Devices

►Providing Previews and Reviews

Helping Your Readers Find Information

Three tools are useful for giving readers a sense of the overall structure of your document and for keeping them on track: headings, smooth transitions, and previews and reviews.

Headings and subheadings are brief titles that cue readers about the content of the section that follows. They improve a document’s readability and are especially useful markers for clarifying the framework of a report. In addition, busy readers can quickly understand the gist of a document simply by scanning the headings.

Transitions are words or phrases that tie ideas together, show how one thought is related to another, and help readers move from one section of a report to the next. Depending on the length of the report, such transitions can be words, sentences, or complete paragraphs.

Using a preview section to introduce an important topic helps readers get ready for new information. Previews are particularly helpful when the information is complex or unexpected. Review sections come after a body of material and summarize the information for your readers. Reviews help readers absorb details while keeping track of the big picture.

Chapter 11 - 14

Using Productivity Tools

Templates

Graphics

Databases

Stylesheets

Spreadsheets

Media and Channels

Finally, make the process as easy on yourself as possible by taking advantage of all available productivity tools. For example, the size and complexity of many reports make templates and style sheets particularly helpful. If you include graphics, spreadsheets, or database records produced in other programs, make sure you know how your writing software handles the file connection. You might have the choice to maintain a “live” connection with these included files, so that any changes in the original automatically show up in your report.

And be sure to explore your media and channel options. Video clips, animation, presentation slides, screencasts (recordings of on-screen activity), and other media elements can enhance the communication and persuasion powers of the written word.

Chapter 11 - 15

Drafting Proposal Content

Use the AIDA plan.

Demonstrate your knowledge.

Provide examples and information.

Research your competition.

Show that your proposal is feasible.

Relate your proposal to reader needs.

Research report writing guidelines apply to proposals, too, but proposals have some unique considerations.

The general purpose of any proposal is to persuade the readers to do something. Your proposal must sell your audience on your ideas, product, service, methods, and company. Just as with any persuasive message, use the AIDA plan to gain attention, build interest, create desire, and motivate action. Here are some additional strategies to strengthen your argument:

Demonstrate your knowledge.

Provide concrete information and examples.

Research competition to know what other proposals your audience will read.

Show that your proposal is appropriate and feasible for your audience.

Relate your product, service, or personnel to the reader’s exact needs.

Readers will prejudge the quality of your products and services by the quality of your proposal. Therefore, make sure your proposal is letter perfect, inviting, and readable. If your company submits proposals as a routine part of doing business, consider using proposal writing software.

Introduction to a Proposal (see Table 11.1)

Chapter 11 - 16

Problem or Opportunity

Background Information

Problem Statement

Proposed Solution

Scope of the Proposal

Proposal Organization

Note: This slide includes material taken from Table 11.1 in this chapter. It is intended to allow an instructor to explore the elements of a report in more detail.

In the introduction to a proposal, identify the problem you intend to solve or the opportunity you want to pursue.

Background or statement of the problem. Briefly review the situation at hand, establish a need for action, and explain how things could be better. In unsolicited proposals, convince readers that a problem or an opportunity exists.

Solution. Briefly describe the change you propose, highlighting your key selling points and their benefits to show how your proposal will solve the reader’s problem.

Scope. State the boundaries of the proposal—what you will and will not do.

Proposal organization. Orient the reader to the remainder of the proposal and call attention to the major divisions of thought.

The Body of a Proposal (see Table 11.1)

Chapter 11 - 17

Proposed Solution and Anticipated Results

Facts and Evidence

Proposed Approach

Work Plan Schedule

Qualifications Statement

Proposed Costs

Note: This slide includes material taken from Table 11.1 in this chapter. It is intended to allow an instructor to explore the elements of a report in more detail.

Use the body section to provide complete details on the proposed solution and describe anticipated results.

Facts and evidence to support your conclusions. Give complete details of the proposed solution and anticipated results.

Proposed approach. Describe your concept, product, or service. Stress reader benefits and emphasize any advantages you have over your competitors.

Work plan. Describe how you’ll accomplish what must be done (unless you’re providing a standard, off-the-shelf item). Explain the steps you’ll take, their timing, the methods or resources you’ll use, and the person(s) responsible. State when work will begin, how it will be divided into stages, when you’ll finish, and whether follow up will be needed.

Statement of qualifications. Describe your organization’s experience, personnel, and facilities—relating it all to readers’ needs. Include a list of client references.

Costs. Prove that your costs are realistic—break them down so that readers can see the costs of labor, materials, transportation, travel, training, and other categories.

The Close of a Proposal (see Table 11.1)

Chapter 11 - 18

Summary and Bottom Line

Review Your Argument

Review Reader Benefits

Review Your Approach

Restate Your Qualifications

Request a Decision

Note: This slide includes material taken from Table 11.1 in this chapter. It is intended to allow an instructor to explore the elements of a report in more detail.

In the closing section, summarize key points, emphasize the benefits and advantages of your proposed solution, ask for a decision from the reader.

Review of argument. Briefly summarize the key points.

Review of reader benefits. Briefly summarize how your proposal will help the reader.

Review of the merits of your approach. Briefly summarize why your approach will be more effective than alternatives.

Restatement of qualifications. For external proposals, briefly reemphasize why you and your firm should do the work.

Request. Ask for a decision from the reader.

In this section, we discussed the following:

Adapting to Your Audience

Drafting Report Content

Introduction to a Report

The Body of a Report

The Close of a Report

Helping Your Readers Find Information

Chapter 11 - 19

Summary of Discussion

(Continued on Next Slide)

Using Productivity Tools

Drafting Proposal Content

Introduction to a Proposal

The Body of a Proposal

The Close of a Proposal

The next section will cover Writing for Websites and Wikis.

Chapter 11 - 20

Summary of Discussion

Writing for Websites and Wikis

(LO 11.2) Identify six guidelines for drafting effective website content and offer guidelines for becoming a valuable wiki contributor.

Chapter 11 - 21

In addition to standalone reports and proposals, you may be asked to write in-depth content for websites or to collaborate on a wiki. The basic principles of report writing apply to both formats, but each has some unique considerations as well.

Chapter 11 - 22

Drafting Website Content

Build Trust with the Audience

Adapt to a Global Audience

Create Reader-Oriented Content

These six elements will help you draft effective online content:

Since careful readers can be skeptical of online content, build trust with your audience. Make sure your content is accurate, current, complete, and authoritative.

Adapt your content for a global audience. This can be complicated and expensive. Some companies compromise by localizing the homepage and key secondary pages while keeping the deeper, more detailed content in its original language.

Compelling, reader-oriented content is crucial to success. Wherever possible, use the inverted pyramid style. Cover the most important information briefly at first, then gradually reveal successive layers of detail.

Chapter 11 - 23

Drafting Website Content

Use a Concise, Skimmable Format

Include Effective, Relevant Links

Create a “Living” Website

Present your information in a concise, skimmable format. Effective websites use a variety of means to help readers skim pages; such as including lists, using color and boldface, providing informative headings, and including helpful summaries.

Compose effective links, since they serve for both site navigation and content skimming. Clearly identify where a link will take readers.

Make your website a “living” document by adding fresh content and deleting content that is either outdated or no longer relevant to your audience.

Collaborating on Wikis

Rethinking your authorship expectations

Editing and improving the team’s work

Using templates and formatting options

Using editing and commenting features

Taking advantage of the “sandbox”

Chapter 11 - 24

The benefits of wikis are compelling, but they do require a unique approach to writing. To be a valuable wiki contributor, keep these points in mind:

Writers need to let go of traditional expectations of authorship, including individual recognition and control. The value of a wiki stems from the collective insight of all its contributors.

Team members sometimes need to be encouraged to edit and improve each other’s work.

Use templates and other formatting options to ensure that your content fits the same style as the rest of the wiki.

Many wikis provide both editing and commenting capabilities, and participants should use the appropriate tool for each.

New users should take advantage of the sandbox—a “safe,” non-published section of the wiki where team members can practice editing and writing.

Contributing to Wikis

Chapter 11 - 25

•Starting a New Wiki

•Adding Material to a Wiki

•Revising Wiki Material

Wikis usually have guidelines to help new contributors integrate their work into the group’s ongoing effort. Read these guidelines and don’t be afraid to ask for help.

If you are creating a new wiki, think through your long-term purpose carefully, just as you would with a new blog or podcast channel. Doing so will help you craft appropriate guidelines, editorial oversight, and security policy.

If you are adding a page or an article to an existing wiki, figure out how this new material fits in with the existing structure of the wiki. Find out if any similar material already exists; it might be better to expand an existing article or add a subpage than to create a new item. Also, learn the wiki’s preferred style for handling incomplete articles.

If you are revising or updating an existing wiki article, and you don’t agree with published content and plan to revise it, use the wiki’s discussion facility to share your concerns with other contributors. A well-run wiki encourages discussions and even robust disagreements, as long as everyone remains civil and respectful.

In this section, we discussed the following:

Drafting Website Content

Collaborating on Wikis

Contributing to Wikis

The next section will cover Illustrating Your Reports with Effective Visuals.

Chapter 11 - 26

Summary of Discussion

Illustrating Your Reports with Effective Visuals

(LO 11.3) Discuss six principles of graphic design that can improve the quality of your visuals and identify the major types of business visuals.

Chapter 11 - 27

Well-designed visual elements can enhance the communication power of textual messages and, in some instances, even replace textual messages. Generally speaking, in a given amount of time, visuals can convey much more information than text. Using pictures is also an effective way to communicate with multilingual audiences.

Chapter 11 - 28

Consistency

Balance

Convention

Contrast

Emphasis

Simplicity

Understanding Visual Literacy

Visual literacy is the ability to create visual images and interpret visual messages. It has become an essential business skill. Creating effective visuals requires the use of six basic principles:

Consistency. Audiences view a series of visuals as a whole and assume that design elements will be consistent from one page to the next. You can achieve visual parallelism through the consistent use of color, shape, size, texture, position, scale, or typeface.

Contrast. Readers expect visual distinctions to match verbal ones. To emphasize differences, depict items in contrasting colors. To emphasize similarities, use more subtle colors.

Balance. Images that appear to be out of balance can be unsettling. Balance can be formal, in which the elements in the images are arranged symmetrically around a central point or axis. Balance can also be informal, in which stronger and weaker elements are arranged in such a way that achieves an overall effect of balance.

Emphasis. Make sure that the visually dominant element really does represent the most important information, and visually downplay less important items.

Convention. Visual communication is guided by generally accepted rules or conventions, just as written communication is guided by spelling, grammar, punctuation, and usage conventions. Many conventions are so ingrained in a given culture that people do not even realize they are following them.

Simplicity. Keep business communication visuals simple. Remember that you are conveying information, not creating artwork. Furthermore, avoid chartjunk; i.e., decorative elements that clutter documents without adding any relevant information.

Chapter 11 - 29

Choosing the Right Visual for the Job

Once you've identified which points would benefit most from being presented visually, your next decision is choosing which type of visual to use for each message point. For certain types of information, the decision is usually obvious. If you want to present a large set of numeric values or detailed textual information, for example, a table is the obvious choice in most cases. Also, certain visuals are commonly used for certain applications; so, for example, your audience is likely to expect line charts and bar charts to show trends in variables or relationships between them.

Large Sets of Numeric Values

Detailed Textual Information

Trends and Relationships in Variables

	Multicolumn Heading			Single Column Heading
	Column Subheading	Column Subheading	Column Subheading
Row Heading	xxx	xxx	xxx	xxx
Row Heading	xxx	xxx	xxx	xxx
Row Subheading	xxx	xxx	xxx	xxx
Row Subheading	xxx	xxx	xxx	xxx
Row Heading	xxx	xxx	xxx	xxx
Row Heading	xxx	xxx	xxx	xxx
TOTALS	xxx	xxx	xxx	xxx

Chapter 11 - 30

The Parts of a Table

When you have to present detailed, specific information, choose a table, a systematic arrangement of data in columns and rows. Tables are ideal when the audience needs the information that would be either difficult or tedious to handle in the main text.

Most tables contain the standard parts illustrated above (see illustration in this chapter).

Chapter 11 - 31

Preparing Tables

Use Common, Understandable Units

Put All Items in a Column in the Same Unit

Label Column Headings and Subheadings

Use the following guidelines to create clear, effective tables:

Use common, understandable units, and clearly identify them (such as dollars, percentages, price per ton, etc.).

Express all items in a column in the same unit, and round off for simplicity.

Label column headings clearly, and use a subhead if necessary.

Chapter 11 - 32

Preparing Tables

Separate Columns/Rows With Lines/Space

Make Online Tables Readable on Screen

Document the Source of Data in a Table

Separate columns or rows with lines or extra space to make the table easy to follow.

Keep online tables small enough to read comfortably on the screen.

Document the source of the data using the same format as a text footnote.

Chapter 11 - 33

Using Line Charts and Surface Charts

Line

Charts

Trends Over Time

Relationship of Variables

Surface

Charts

Cumulative Effect

Changes in Composition

Line charts are commonly used to show trends over time or the relationship of two or more variables. In line charts showing trends, the vertical (y-axis) shows the amount, and the horizontal (x-axis) shows the time or other quantity against which the amount is being measured. You can plot just a single line or overlay multiple lines to compare different entities. Two or three lines on a single chart are usually easy to read, but beyond that, things can get confusing, particularly if the lines cross.

A surface chart, also called an area chart, is a form of line chart with a cumulative effect; all the lines add up to the top line, which represents the total. This form of chart helps you illustrate changes in the composition of something over time. When preparing a surface chart, put the most important segment against the baseline, and restrict the number of strata to four or five.

Average Kiln Temperatures, North Island Facility, Day Shift

Chapter 11 - 34

Temperature °F

This two-line chart compares the temperatures measured inside two cement kilns from 8:00 am to 5:00 pm (see illustration in this chapter).

Kiln A 0.333333333333333 0.375 0.416666666666667 0.458333333333333 0.0 0.541666666666667 0.583333333333333 0.625 0.666666666666667 0.708333333333333 700.0 900.0 1200.0 1400.0 1600.0 2000.0 2000.0 2000.0 2000.0 2000.0 Kiln B 0.333333333333333 0.375 0.416666666666667 0.458333333333333 0.0 0.541666666666667 0.583333333333333 0.625 0.666666666666667 0.708333333333333 550.0 750.0 950.0 1125.0 1425.0 1800.0 1850 .0 1850.0 1850.0 1850.0

Home Game Ticket Sales

Chapter 11 - 35

Average Per Game

Surface or area charts can show a combination of trends over time and the individual contributions of the components of a whole (see illustration in this chapter).

Other 2004.0 2006.0 2008.0 2010.0 2012.0 2014.0 2016.0 49000.0 44000.0 48000.0 52500.0 48000.0 45000.0 43500.0 Students 2004.0 2006.0 2008.0 2010.0 2012.0 2014.0 2016.0 10000.0 10200.0 10650.0 11500.0 10500.0 10000.0 9500.0 Families 2004.0 2006.0 2008.0 2010.0 2012.0 2014.0 2016.0 9000.0 9300.0 9650.0 10000.0 9600.0 9000.0 8800.0 Alumni 2004.0 2006.0 2008.0 2010.0 2012.0 2014.0 2016.0 5000.0 5500.0 6000.0 6650.0 6100.0 6000.0 6000.0 Staff 2004.0 2006.0 2008.0 2010.0 2012.0 2014.0 2016.0 1600.0 1725.0 1800.0 1900.0 1800.0 1700.0 1650.0

Using Bar Charts

Chapter 11 - 36

Portraying Numbers

Using Height or Length of Bars to Show a Series of Numbers

Depicting Relationships

Showing and Comparing Quantities Over Time

A bar chart portrays numbers by the height or length of its rectangular bars, making a series of numbers easy to grasp quickly. Bars can be oriented vertically (aka, column charts) or horizontally. Bar charts show a variety of relationships among two or more variables. Bar charts are particularly valuable when you want to show or compare quantities over time.

CommuniCo Staff Computer Skills

Chapter 11 - 37

Bar charts can appear in various forms: this example is singular (as CommuniCo Staff Computer Skills). See illustration in this chapter.

East E-mail Instant Message Graphics Blogs Desktop Publish Podcasts HTML/XML Programs 0.88 0.77 0.51 0.44 0.17 0.11 0.07

CommuniCo Stock Price

Chapter 11 - 38

This example shows deviation (CommuniCo Stock Price). See illustration in this chapter.

Open 38326.0 38327.0 38328.0 38329.0 38330.0 38.0 37.0 38.0 35.0 32.5 High 38326.0 38327.0 38328.0 38329.0 38330.0 48.0 49.0 47.0 48.75 45.0 Low 38326.0 38327.0 38328.0 38329.0 38330.0 33.0 34.5 36.0 32.0 30.0 Close 38326.0 38327.0 38328.0 38329.0 38330.0 46.0 46.25 43.0 43.0 34.0

CommuniCo Preferred Communication Media

Chapter 11 - 39

This example shows segmented (CommuniCo Preferred Communication Media). See illustration in this chapter.

IM Sales Engineering Administration 0.09 0.05 0.25 Email Sales Engineering Administration 0.14 0.2 0.25 Phone Sales Engineering Administration 0.28 0.08 0.15 Texting Sales Engineering Administration 0.08 0.0 0.0 Face-to-Face Sales Engineering Administration 0.41 0.1 0.2

CommuniCo Employee Training Costs

Chapter 11 - 40

Head Count

Training Costs

This example illustrates combination (CommuniCo Employee Training Costs). See illustration in this chapter.

Head Count 2011.0 2012.0 2013.0 2014.0 2015.0 2016.0 13000.0 14000.0 11500.0 11500.0 13000.0 13100 .0 Training Costs 2011.0 2012.0 2013.0 2014.0 2015.0 2016.0 5000.0 6500.0 7000.0 3850.0 6000.0 6500.0

Chapter 11 - 41

Using Pie Charts

•Illustrate Distribution

•Highlight Dominance

•Compare Percentages

A pie chart is a commonly-used tool for showing how the parts of a whole are distributed. Although pie charts are popular and can quickly highlight the dominant parts of a whole, they are often not as effective as bar charts or tables. For example, comparing percentages accurately is often difficult with a pie chart but can be fairly easy with a bar chart. Making pie charts easier to read with accuracy can require labeling each slice with data values, in which case a table might serve the purpose more effectively.

Employment Distribution by Corporate Function

Chapter 11 - 42

Pie charts are used frequently, but they aren’t necessarily the best choice for many data presentations. This pie chart does make it easy to see that assemblers are the largest employee category, but other comparisons of slice sizes (such as Sales, Engineers, Admin, and Shipping) are not as easy to make and require a numerical rather than a visual comparison. In contrast, the bar chart gives a quick visual comparison of every data point (see illustration in this chapter).

East

Assembly Sales Engineers Admin Shipping 67.0 28.0 27.0 25.0 17.0

Chapter 11 - 43

Data Visualization

Dynamism

Complexity

Interactivity

Meaning

Conventional charts and graphs are limited in several ways: Most types can show only a limited number of data points before becoming too cluttered to interpret. Furthermore, they often can’t show complex relationships among data points, and they can represent only numeric data. A diverse class of display capabilities known as data visualization can overcome all these drawbacks.

Unlike charts and graphs, data visualization is less about clarifying individual data points and more about extracting broad meaning from giant masses of data or putting the data in context.

Many data visualization tools are also interactive, meaning you can perform such tasks as zooming in on specific areas, changing the orientation of a display to view it from different angles, or exploring the connections of particular elements within the data set.

In addition to displaying large data sets and linkages within data sets, other visualization tools combine data with textual information to communicate complex or dynamic data faster than conventional presentations. For example, a tag cloud shows the relative frequency of terms or tags in an article, a blog, a website, survey data, or another collection of text.

Tag Cloud

Chapter 11 - 44

Here is a sample tag cloud using data visualization to depict the relative frequency of terms or tags in a sample of text taken from this chapter.

Flowcharts

Chapter 11 - 45

Keyboard

Input

First

Hard Copy

Style and

Spelling

Style and

Spelling

Keyboard

Input/Edit

Submit

Report

Edit

Add?

OK?

Yes

Keyboard

Input/Edit

A flowchart illustrates a sequence of events from start to finish; it is indispensable when illustrating processes, procedures, and sequential relationships.

The flow chart above diagrams the report-writing process. It shows that the various elements in the process you want to portray may be represented by pictorial symbols or geometric shapes.

Note: For general business purposes, you don’t need to be too concerned about specific shapes on a flowchart. Just use them consistently. However, if you’re communicating with computer programmers, follow the protocol used in formal flowcharting language and use the correct symbols to avoid confusion.

Chapter 11 - 46

Organization Charts

District

Region

Vice

President

Vice

President

Vice

President

Vice

President

Vice

President

Chief Executive

Officer

Executive

Vice President

Executive

Vice President

President

An organization chart illustrates the positions, units, or functions in an organization and the ways in which they interrelate. Organization charts can be used to portray almost any hierarchy, such as the topics, subtopics, and supporting points needed to organize a report.

An organization's normal communication channels are almost impossible to describe without the benefit of an organization chart like the one above.

Chapter 11 - 47

Maps, Drawings, Diagrams, Infographics, and Photographs

Maps

Drawings

and Diagrams

Infographics

Photographs

•Location, Distance, Points

•Business Concepts, Technical Topics

•Data, Concepts, Ideas

•Function, Decoration, Appearance

Maps can show location, distance, points of interest, and geographic distribution of data. In addition, maps are useful for showing market territories, distribution routes, and facilities locations. When combined with databases and aerial or satellite photography in geographic information systems (GIS), maps become extremely powerful visual reporting tools.

Drawings and diagrams can show an endless variety of business concepts, such as the network of suppliers in an industry or the process for completing payroll each week. Complex diagrams can convey technical topics such as the operation of a machine or repair procedures.

Infographics can convey data as well as concepts or ideas. In addition, they contain enough visual and textual information to function as independent, standalone documents. Broadly speaking, there are two types of infographics, those that are stylized collections of charts or graphs and those that have a structured narrative. The first type doesn’t convey any more information than basic charts and graphs, but its communication value lies in catching the audience’s attention and easy online distribution. The second type tells stories or shows processes. These infographics can be powerful communication tools.

Photographs offer both functional and decorative value, and nothing can top a photograph when you need to show exact appearances. However, in some situations, a photograph can show too much detail, which is one reason repair manuals frequently use drawings instead of photos. Because audiences expect photographs to show literal visual truths, you must take care when using image-processing tools such as Adobe Photoshop.

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Visual Impact

Production Demonstrations

Company Overviews

Promotional Presentations

Training Seminars

Branded Channels

Animation and Video

Computer animation and video can offer unparalleled visual impact when they offer appropriate content in a well-produced package. At a simple level, you can animate shapes and text within Microsoft PowerPoint. At a more sophisticated level, software such as Adobe Flash enables the creation of multimedia files that include computer animation, digital video, and other elements.

Product demonstrations, company overviews, promotional presentations, and training seminars are among the most popular applications of business video. Branded channels on YouTube allow companies to present their videos as an integrated collection in a customized user interface.

Designing Effective Visuals

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Style and Quality

Integration with Text Elements

Accuracy

Ethical Implications

Computers make it easy to create visuals, but they also make it easy to create ineffective visuals. However, by following the design principles discussed in this chapter, you can create basic visuals that are attractive and effective.

The style and quality of your visuals communicate a subtle message about your relationship with the audience. If possible, have a professional designer set up a template for the various types of visuals you and your colleagues need to create.

In addition to being well designed, visuals need to be integrated with the text in the document. First, try to position visuals so that your audience will not have to flip back and forth (in printed documents) or scroll (on-screen) between the visuals and the text. Second, clearly refer to visuals by number in the text of your report before readers encounter them in the document or on-screen. Third, write effective titles, captions, and legends to complete the integration of your text and visuals.

Check your visuals carefully for accuracy. Look for typos, inconsistent color treatment, confusing or undocumented symbols, and misaligned elements. Make sure your visuals are properly documented.

Finally, consider the ethical implications of your visuals. To avoid ethical lapses, consider all possible interpretations, include background information to help readers interpret the visuals, and include the visual information that readers will need to make informed judgments.

In this section, we discussed the following:

Understanding Visual Literacy

Choosing the Right Visual for the Job

The Parts of a Table

Preparing Tables

Using Line Charts and Surface Charts

Using Bar Charts and Pie Charts

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(Continued on Next Slide)

Summary of Discussion

Data Visualization

Flowcharts and Organization Charts

Maps, Drawings, Diagrams, Infographics, and Photographs

Animation and Video

Designing Effective Visuals

The next section will cover Completing Reports and Proposals.

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Completing Reports and Proposals

(LO 11.4) Summarize the four tasks involved in completing business reports and proposals.

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When you have finished your first draft, you need to perform four tasks to complete your document: revising, producing, proofreading, and distributing.

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Revising Reports and Proposals

Evaluate Organization, Style, and Tone

Improve the Report’s Readability

Assemble the Report in Its Final Form

Review the Final Report Thoroughly

The revision process is essentially the same for reports as for other business messages, although it may take considerably longer, depending on the length and complexity of your reports. Evaluate your organization, style, and tone, making sure that your content is clear, logical, and reader oriented. Then work to improve the report’s readability by varying sentence length, keeping paragraphs short, using lists and bullets, and adding headings and subheadings.

After assembling your report or proposal in its final form, review it thoroughly one last time, looking for inconsistencies, errors, and missing components. Don’t forget to proof your visuals and make sure they’re positioned correctly. For online reports, make sure all links work as expected and all necessary files are active and available.

Producing Formal Reports and Proposals

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Prefatory Elements

Supplementary Elements

Formal reports and proposals can include a variety of features beyond the text and visuals. Most of these elements provide additional information; a few are more decorative and add a degree of formality. These elements can be classified in two ways: prefatory elements (before the introduction) and supplementary elements (after the close).

Prefatory Elements of Formal Reports (see Table 11.2)

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Cover

Title Page

Letter of Transmittal

List of Illustrations

Title Fly

Letter of Authorization

Table of Contents

Synopsis or Executive Summary

Note: This slide includes material taken from Table 11.2 in this chapter. It is intended to allow an instructor to explore the elements of reports and proposals in more detail.

Cover. Include a concise title that helps readers grasp the purpose and scope of the report. For a formal printed report, choose cover stock.

Title fly. Some formal reports open with a plain sheet of paper that has only the title of the report on it, although this is certainly not necessary.

Title page. Typically includes the report title, name(s) and title(s) of the writer(s), and date of submission; this information can be put on the cover instead.

Letter of authorization. If you received written authorization to prepare the report, you may want to include that letter or memo in your report.

Letter of transmittal. This “cover letter” introduces the report. It can include scope, methods, limitations, and report highlights, offer follow-up information or assistance, and acknowledge help received while preparing the report.

Table of contents. List all section headings and major subheadings to show the location and hierarchy of the information in the report.

List of illustrations. Consider including if the illustrations are particularly important, and you want to call attention to them.

A synopsis (aka, abstract) is a brief overview (one page or less) of a report’s most important points. It can be informative (presenting the main points in the text) with the direct approach, or descriptive (describing what the report is about, without “giving away the ending”) with the indirect approach.

Rather than a synopsis, a longer report may include an executive summary, which is a fully developed “mini” version of the report, for readers who lack the time or motivation to read the entire document.

Supplementary Elements of Formal Reports (see Table 11.2)

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