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PHI 208 Ethics and Moral Reasoning

Prof. Immanuel Kant

January 1, 2014

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Title

Your first sentence should establish the question that orients the essay, taking

account of any ways in which you may need to modify or refine it. The rest of this

paragraph provides an introduction to the topic. Your introduction should focus on setting

out the topic and scope of the discussion in a way that clearly establishes what exactly

you will be talking about and why it is significant, and provides any necessary context

such as the background, current state of affairs, definitions of key terms, and so on. You

want to try to do this in a way that stays as neutral as possible, avoids controversial

assumptions, rhetorical questions, and the like. In other words, you should try to

construct an introduction to the topic that could be an introduction to a paper defending

any position on the question at issue. Your introduction should include a brief remark

about the kind of theory you will be using to approach this question. The last sentence of

the introduction should briefly summarize the conclusion or position on this issue that

you think is best supported by this theory, and succinctly state what the objection will be.

Theory Explanation

You should explain the core principles or features of either utilitarianism or

deontology and the general account of moral behavior it provides. “You must quote from

at least one Required Resource that defends or represents that theory, drawn from the list

included with the assignment instructions” (Author, YEAR, p. ###). Make sure that you

first understand the theory that you are using, and that you have read the Instructor

Guidance and any additional resources from the Required and Recommended Resources

as needed. If you do not adequately understand and explain the theory, you will not be

able to apply it adequately to the topic. You will need to explain the core principles in

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such a way that the theory’s application to the question raised in the Week One

Assignment will be as straightforward and clear as possible.

Theory Application

Explain how the core principles or features of this theory apply to the problem or

question under consideration and identify the specific moral conclusion that results. Your

application should clearly show how the conclusion follows from the main tenets of the

theory as explained in the previous paragraph(s). An application involves showing how

general ideas about how to live and act ethically, when combined with the specific

circumstances under consideration, lead to conclusions about how one should act in those

circumstances. A very simple, non-moral example of such reasoning might start with the

general idea that “if I’m hungry, I ought to eat,” apply that to the specific circumstances

in which “I’m hungry,” leading to the conclusion that “I ought to eat.” The application of

an ethical theory to an actual moral problem will be much more complicated, nuanced,

and detailed, but that should give you a sense of how to proceed.

For example, if you were examining capital punishment from a utilitarian

perspective, you might start by explaining the general principle that we should do that

which leads to the greatest happiness. You would then consider the effects of capital

punishment, including not just the suffering and death of the punished, but also the

positive and negative effects on other individuals and society as a whole. You could

compare that with the effects of abolishing capital punishment, and demonstrate which

policy has the best overall outcomes.

Remember that when applying utilitarianism, you want to explain the benefits and

harms that would result from one action or policy, what the overall utility of that would

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be, and compare that with the same analysis of the available alternative action(s) or

policy. Doing this carefully will allow you to demonstrate the utilitarian conclusion as

clearly as possible.

On the other hand, if you were applying a deontological argument, you might

apply Kant’s Categorical Imperative, examining whether a maxim that involved capital

punishment could be willed as a universal law, or whether capital punishment treats

persons as ends-in-themselves.

Remember that when applying deontological theory, what you are looking for is a

kind of argument that say that we have a duty to do or not do to thus-and-such regardless

of the consequences. In other words, while doing something may indeed lead to a better

overall state of affairs, that's not the primary reason why we ought to do it. Similarly,

even if doing something leads to a better overall state of affairs, if it violates a duty we

have not to do a certain kind of action, we ought not do it.

You might show this by providing an explanation of Kant’s Categorical Imperative,

and an application of the "Categorical Imperative" test. For example, you might consider

the relevant maxim involved, and whether that is something that could be willed to be

universal law; or, you could determine whether people's humanity is being respected as

an end-it-itself or being used as a mere means.

You may have to provide evidence for your views, in which case, “I would expect

you to quote from the required resources on this topic, and any other relevant scholarly

resources” (Author, YEAR, p. ###). See the Required and Recommended Resources, as

well as the textbook and Instructor Guidance, for examples. By the end of your

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discussion, it should be clear what conclusion utilitarian or deontological reasoning

would lead to on the issue.

Objection

Raise a relevant objection to the argument expressed in your application. A

relevant objection is one that exposes a weakness in the argument or the theory, and so

you should explain how it brings out this weakness. Note that this does not necessarily

mean that the objection succeeds, or that the conclusion the theory supports is wrong. It

may be an obstacle that any adequate defense of the conclusion would have to overcome,

and it may be the case that the theory has the resources to overcome that obstacle. On the

other hand, you may find this objection to be a pretty conclusive argument against that

theory’s approach to the problem (and perhaps the theory itself). However, you shouldn’t

attempt to draw such larger conclusions from the objection (that’s for the Final Paper).

Your task here is simply to raise the objection or present the “obstacle.”

For example, if you were writing on capital punishment, you might find that

utilitarianism entails a certain position that you think is completely wrong, and so you

may find the objection to be persuasive. Or, you may agree with the utilitarianism

approach and think that ultimately the objection does not undermine it. Or, you might

think that utilitarianism's conclusion is right but their approach is wrong (sort of like what

Tom Regan thought regarding animal ethics), and so you think the objection is strong,

even though you end up agreeing with the conclusion. Again, you should not be trying to

explain whether you think the objection succeeds. Rather, the task is to show that you can

think critically about an issue from the perspective of the moral theory, and to raise

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questions and concerns about that theory based on how it applies to a concrete issue.

Please see the “notes and guidance” for additional direction on this part of your essay.

Conclusion

Conclude your paper with a brief review the main claims and accomplishments of your

essay.

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References

Required: Primary text in support of the theory, drawn from the list of acceptable

resources provided with the assignment instructions.

Required: Resource pertaining to the moral problem that is the primary topic of the paper,

drawn from the required or recommended readings in the course, or found in the

Ashford University Library.

Suggested: Other resources as needed.

Note that resources must be cited in the text as well as included in the bibliography to

satisfy the requirement.

The textbook and guidance do not count toward the resources requirement, though you

are free to use them as additional resources.