What’s Your Impression? 2 Full Pages
Facial recognion with familiar people is easy, but trying to recognize someone based only on descripon is challenging.
Erik S. Lesser/Associated Press
Bullet striaons are disnct impressions that can be used to match bullets to the gun they were fired from. What are some other examples of striaons?
Alexandre Meneghini/Associated Press
Chapter 7
Pattern Evidence I: General Patterns and Fingerprints
Andy Carpenean/Laramie Boomerang/Associated Press
Learning Objecves
A�er reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
Describe paern evidence that can be used for idenficaon, individualizaon, and reconstrucon. Explain the collecon and preservaon of paern evidence. Explain how paern evidence is analyzed. Summarize the nature and history of fingerprints and their role in personal idenficaon. Discuss how fingerprint evidence is collected and preserved. Explain how fingerprints are analyzed.
Ch. 7 Introducon In this and following chapters, we will discuss paern evidence. Many of the topics concern paerns for individualizaon, including physical paerns, fingerprints, footprints, footwear and re impressions, handwring, firearms and tool mark idenficaon, bitemarks, and bloodstain paerns. This chapter looks closely at physical paerns (broken or torn objects) and fingerprints (a major category of individualizaon paern).
Paern evidence can be very important in an invesgaon, because it includes many types of evidence familiar to most people. Some types of paerns can potenally be individualized—that is, aributed to a specific source. In this way, people can be associated with or dissociated from specific places, like scenes, or from other people. Conclusions from paern evidence comparisons are usually more definive than those from trace or chemical evidence, and correspondingly more useful to juries and judges. Paern evidence is examined by the eye, for the most part. No complicated instruments, other than the occasional use of microscopes, are required. Somemes, a paern evidence match can be obvious to anyone, such as in a physical paern match (jigsaw fit), making the evidence easier to present to a court.
7.1 Classificaon of Paern Evidence Paern evidence can be classified into three overarching categories: paerns for idenficaon, paerns for individualizaon, and paerns for reconstrucon. This idea follows by analogy from the three acvies that can comprise the elements of a forensic invesgaon—idenficaon, individualizaon, and reconstrucon—that we discussed in Chapter 1. So, just as we can talk about idenficaon, individualizaon, and reconstrucon as elements of a criminaliscs invesgaon, so in the same way we can talk about paern evidence categories that have these elements as their goals.
Idenficaon (or classificaon) paerns, which are used to idenfy things in our everyday environment by general shape and form, are applied in forensic work to hair comparisons (Chapter 5) and handwring (Chapter 8). The different individualizaon paerns that are important in forensic work are discussed in detail in this and the next chapter. In later chapters, we briefly discuss some reconstrucon paerns, including bloodstain paerns. Before specific types of physical paerns are discussed, let’s go over each category of paern evidence.
Paerns for Idenficaon
Paerns for idenficaon are used to idenfy objects and people in our everyday life and experience. For instance, right now, you might be sing at a table. How do you know it’s a table? You might say: "I know it’s a table just by looking at it." The reasoning behind your knowledge is that your brain has a record of the paern of a table, which you learned when you were younger. This paern has to do with the shape and form of a table: its four legs and flat top. There are variaons of tables in the world, but on the basis of their general paern, we classify them all as "tables." When you see this parcular paern, it matches up with the brain paern that idenfies it as a "table." This works the same way for facial recognion. You recognize people you know instantly—even in a large crowd and even if you haven’t seen them in a long me. But what if one of your friends tries to describe someone new to you in enough detail for you to find this stranger in a crowded place, like an airport? No maer how much detail is provided, you may not find him or her.
It is very difficult to enumerate the features and properes of a person’s facial paern that one person recognizes in enough detail to allow someone else to do so. The human mind is very good at paern recognion, but it is not yet clear in a detailed way how it works. In forensic work, the examinaons that most closely resemble this type of paern are hair comparisons and handwring comparisons. In comparing hairs or handwring samples, the examiner looks at specific features in the known and the quesoned sample. But the comparison is more than just a checklist of which features match. The examiner incorporates the sum of all these feature comparisons into an overall paern comparison between the quesoned and known. It is a lot like the facial recognion example. Recognizing someone’s face is more involved than a simple checklist of the features that are compared. One of the important things that disnguish handwring and hair comparisons from the other evidence category comparisons is intra‐individual variability, which means that there is variability in the knowns themselves, and this must be taken into consideraon
in the comparison.
Paerns for Individualizaon
Paerns for individualizaon are characterisc of evidence that can be unique among the members of their class. This can be very important associave evidence in an invesgaon. We might be able to figure out that a parcular re made a re mark, or a parcular piece of footwear made an impression, or that broken pieces of a headlight lens came from a specific car in a hit and run, which may e a suspect to the scene of a crime. There are two major types of individualizaon paerns: physical match paerns and impressions.
Physical Matches
Physical match paerns are formed from the pieces of randomly broken objects and are somemes called jigsaw fit matches. The paerns are like a picture puzzle. For instance, if a glass was broken and there weren’t too many pieces, it wouldn’t take long to figure out how the pieces fit back together to form the original glass. Even if some pieces were missing, it would be likely that at least a few pieces would fit together. Note that this works for solid objects that fracture in a random fashion. In cases of solid objects, these physical matches are also known as fracture matches.
Suppose that several pieces of a broken glass were found at a crime scene. Later, a suspect was developed and police searched his apartment. In the cuff of a pair of pants, a piece of glass was found. The lab performed an analysis and physically matched the pants‐cuff piece to the glass pieces from the scene. This evidence goes a long way toward pung the owner of these pants at the scene around the me the glass was broken.
Think About It
In the previous example about the suspect and the piece of broken glass, are you convinced that this evidence places the suspect at the scene around the me the glass was broken? What if you were an expert witness and the suspect’s lawyer asked, "How do you know glasses break randomly? Why couldn’t there have been another glass in my client’s kitchen that broke in a way that produced the piece the police found, and it just happened to fit the scene pieces?" How would you answer the lawyer’s queson? How would you prove that glass breaks randomly and show that this is really an individualizaon?
When the object that fractures is solid and breaks in a random fashion, the physical matching of the pieces is called direct, or somemes primary. If an object or item isn’t solid or fractures in a way that doesn’t result in clean, smooth fracture surfaces—such as pieces of cut or torn fabric or a snapped piece of wood with ragged irregular ends—the physical match is called indirect, or secondary. Experts can work to try to fit these pieces back together, but even if the match looks right, there is uncertainty. It is much easier to imagine a piece of similar cut or torn fabric "matching" an unknown by chance than it is in the broken glass case. Experts will not generally say that secondary physical matches are true individualizaons. Instead, they might say the pieces fit, and are consistent with having been part of the same original, but they cannot confirm a common origin.
Impressions
Another major type of individualizaon paern is impressions. Impressions occur when two objects come in contact with one another, and one object leaves behind disnguishing markings on or in the other. There are three types of impressions, which are disnguished based on depth and how the marks are made. Impressions that are essenally stamped by an object into or onto another are called imprints if they are more or less flat (two‐dimensional). They are called indentaons if they have depth (three‐dimensional character). For example, many fingerprints and re impressions are imprints because they are le on hard surfaces. However, they can be indentaons if they are le in a so receiving medium, such as a fingerprint in so tar, or a re impression in so soil. If the receiving surface is marked by an object or surface moving across it—in effect, being scratched by it—the marks are called striaons. The markings on bullets that firearms examiners use to idenfy the gun from which a bullet came are striaons. Any sliding toolmark, like a mark made by a screwdriver scraping across a latch plate on a door, is also a striaon.
Paerns for Reconstrucon
Paerns for reconstrucon help create theories of the events that occurred at a scene. Reconstrucon paerns include glass fractures, furniture and objects at a scene, tracks, trails, trajectories of projecles, skid marks in auto accidents, and more. Fracture paerns in glass can help determine what caused the breakage. The distribuon and condion of clothing and objects at scenes can help to determine what happened, if there was a struggle, movements of persons involved, and so forth. Tracks and trails can help show the direcon of movement of people. Projecle trajectories, such as the path followed by a bullet in a shoong case, can help reconstruct the posion of the weapon with respect to the target. Skid marks help automobile accident reconstruconists determine the direcon and speed of vehicles just prior to an accident. Depending on the speed and direcon of a vehicle at the me its brakes are applied, a re skid mark with a parcular length and direcon is created. Documentaon and measurements of the marks can help reconstruct direcon and speed. There are computer programs now that assist traffic accident reconstrucon specialists in these tasks.
Snow prints are among the most difficult indentaon markings to collect and preserve. Can you think of any other environments where paern evidence would be extra hard to recognize, collect, and preserve?
Johner/SuperStock
Analysis of paern evidence, such as this sneaker sole, requires that the correct type of impression (posive or negave) and orientaon is used to make a comparison between the unknown and the known mark.
Bitemark evidence is not as accepted for individualizaon today as it was during Ted Bundy’s trial.
Associated Press
7.2 Collecon and Preservaon of Paern Evidence There are different ways of collecng paern evidence, depending on the markings or impressions le behind. Two important terms to know are posive and negave impressions. A posive impression is idencal to the object that made it, whereas a negave impression is its mirror image. The shoe prints le in the mud are negave impressions; they are negaves of the shoes’ soles. In this scenario, the posives would be the shoes’ soles. The same is true in the case of a re indentaon. This mark would be collected by casng. The resulng cast is a posive, like the re that made the mark, so the cast can be compared to the re.
In general, imprint markings are collected by first photographing the mark with and without a scale present, and then either collecng the whole object that has the mark, or if that is not possible, by tape liing. If the imprint markings are made up of dirt or grease or other residues, they can be lied from a surface with scky tape (similar to Scotch® tape). The tape must be placed onto the surface with care, to avoid creang any bubbles. A rubber roller can help in this process. Then the tape is carefully lied, so as to avoid any damage to or distoron of the mark, and placed onto a contrasng backing surface. A black mark, for example, would be placed onto a white backing surface. This item is then labeled with the usual required informaon and placed into a paper or plasc container and sealed. Liing tapes of various sizes and appropriate backings are commercially available.
Indentaon markings must also be photographed. As menoned earlier, side lighng helps give the impression beer contrast. Aer photography, the mark is cast. For this purpose, dental stone is used. This is a special finely ground plaster used by densts to make molds for restoraons. It is mixed with water to make a pancake‐ baer consistency mixture, then poured into the indentaon so as not to disturb any of the detail present. Once it hardens, it can be removed. It captures fine detail quite well. In addion to labeling the packaging of a cast, the collector can scratch a case number or item number into the top side of the hardening dental stone. There are special types of casng materials for tool marks, for marks in snow, and other specific types of marks. Tool marks are discussed in a later chapter, but for now, dental stone is not capable of capturing the very fine detail in a tool mark (like a striaon mark made by a screw driver on a lock plate). There are silicone‐based materials commercially available that are beer suited for this task. These silicone‐based materials can also be used for indentaon‐type fingerprints, such as a fingerprint in wax. Indentaon markings in snow pose a problem because dental stone gives off heat as it hardens, and the heat can melt the snow and destroy the impression detail. Products like Snow Print Wax can be sprayed onto the mark to protect it from this effect. An indentaon impression is a negave, and so the cast of the impression is a posive. Accordingly, the cast can be compared directly with the re or footwear or other item that is thought to have made the indentaon.
Both in collecng evidence and in thinking about how paern comparisons are done, it is important to remember that comparisons must be made between like impressions. Le with le, right with right, posive with posive, and negave with negave. The detailed individual characteriscs that help in individualizing the mark must be in the same orientaon as the original object that made the mark (or as its mirror image). Somemes, this requires that the lab create a known from the suspected item in order to make the comparison. For example, a lied footwear impression from a scene would be compared with an inked impression of the suspected footwear made in the laboratory.
Think About It
Imagine you are a paern evidence examiner, and the police bring you a tape‐lied impression of a re they have goen from a flat concrete surface. They have a suspect car, but it is up to you to figure out how to compare the res with the impressions. How would you make the known specimens from the res to use for comparison with the quesoned impression?
7.3 Analysis of Paern Evidence In Chapter 1.4 (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/sec1.4#sec1.4) , class and individual characteriscs were introduced. These concepts become very important in physical paern analysis. Consider items like shoes or res. There are hundreds, or maybe even thousands, of idencal shoes and res in the world. They were manufactured under quality control standards to be as similar as possible. So, if a brand new shoe or re leaves an impression, what characteriscs make up that impression? Class characteriscs. With a new shoe, the sole paern, manufacturer, size, type of shoe, etc., can be determined. However, it is impossible to disnguish any individual shoe in that class, because there are not yet any individual characteriscs. The same rule applies to res. Individual characteriscs come about as a result of wear. Sole or re paern features wear down in non‐uniform ways, parts of the sole or re can be cut or torn by wear, foreign objects can make unusual marks in the sole or re material, and so on.
The forensic examiner will make a comparison between a quesoned mark and a known object. If you recall, quesoned objects are found at the scene and have an unknown source. Known objects have a known source and can help to determine the source of a quesoned object. Here, the maer of quesoned and known specimens becomes a lile more complicated with the inclusion of posive or negave impressions. A sneaker sole itself, for instance, cannot be compared with the impression mark because posives and negaves cannot be compared directly. The features of interest would be mirror‐imaged. Take a good look at Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1: Sneaker sole impressions
The figure shows a right sneaker, but it is a mirror image with respect to the inked impression on the brown paper. To make a comparison, the sneaker must be used to make a known negave impression. This might be an inked impression on paper, or on transparent plasc. These are good surfaces for capturing the detail in the footwear in approximately the same way as it was captured in the evidence mark. Note that these inked impressions would be made by someone actually wearing the sneaker and taking a step, so that there would be weight on the shoe. The middle impression on transparent plasc in Figure 7.1 is turned to match the orientaon of the sneaker in the picture, but if it is turned over, it will match the orientaon of the paper print. As an inked sneaker impression, it is a negave, and therefore could be used as the known for an unknown imprint thought to have been made by that sneaker. You can also see from Figure 7.1 how it would be easy to confuse le and right if you don’t keep track of what you are doing when making these impressions on transparent surfaces.
Physical Matches
There are four criteria that must be met in order to state that evidence is individualized in a fracture match. The criteria include:
1. The objects must be broken or torn or cut. 2. They must be capable of being realigned. 3. There must be a jigsaw fit (or lock and key fit) surface to surface. 4. The match must be unique.
With indirect or secondary matches, such as torn fabrics, it is unlikely that individuality can be declared, even if the pieces appear to fit. It isn’t intuive that every fabric cut or tear will be completely random and thus unique. This means that there is a possibility of a chance duplicate. Two different cuts, or even tears, of a fabric could be so similar as to be indisnguishable in a comparison.
Physical matching is done by the eye, or with the aid of a magnifier or stereo microscope. This is a microscope with two eyepieces (enabling stereo vision) that is essenally a magnifier. This type of matching is intuive and quite familiar to people. As a result, it is very convincing for a jury or judge, because they can look at it and see it for themselves.
Impressions
With the other impressions that have been discussed, such as those from shoes or res, the comparison is more subjecve and will depend on the examiner’s training and experience. These comparisons are also done by the eye or with the aid of simple magnifiers. The individual characteriscs must be located and their posion within the overall paern noted. With experience, examiners develop a sense of what the different individual characteriscs are in each impression. They also learn to judge the quality of the impression and how many individual characteriscs it possesses. As you can imagine, not every impression gives good detail. It might be light, or smudged, or distorted. Examiners use these factors to determine if known and unknown markings match. There is no rule about how many matching individual characteriscs must be present to declare that the known is the source of the quesoned. This determinaon is up to the examiner and is thus more subjecve. Unlike a physical match, these comparisons are not intuive or obvious, and the skill to do them comes only from extensive training and experience.
As with the random fracturing of solid objects, individuality due to wear comes about because the accidentals, the individual characteriscs acquired by the item, are expected to be random. With a sneaker sole, for example, this might be a cut or a parcularly worn area. An examiner must use his or her training and judgment to assess the quality of the impression, and the number and distribuon of individual characteriscs that were transferred to the mark from the object. These factors help the examiner to decide what conclusion to draw from the comparison.
Other paerns can fall into this general category. Occasionally, a lip print or ear print is examined. These imprints are unusual, so there is not much examiner experience with or research on them. Thus, there is not much of a basis for finding enough individual characteriscs to reach an unambiguous conclusion. Sock prints or glove prints may be included here, as well as fabric impressions, such as when a blood‐ soaked fabric is pressed against a nonabsorbent surface and leaves an impression in blood. Somemes, in a hit‐and‐run case, the paern of the fabric from the clothing of a vicm can be impressed into the bumper of a vehicle.
Bitemarks can be included here, as well. Only forensic odontologists deal with bitemark comparisons, but these marks can be considered members of the paerns for individualizaon category. Bitemarks are complicated because different numbers of teeth might make them, they are frequently on curved surfaces that can change or shrink, and it is difficult to prepare truly proper knowns for comparison from a suspect’s teeth. One can make models (casts) of someone’s teeth, but it is not easy to reproduce the evidenary mark, because they are usually on living skin and the surfaces are oen curved. Up unl around ten years ago, forensic densts somemes declared that a bitemark could be individualized and could idenfy a parcular person. There were a number of cases where bitemark evidence figured in a criminal convicon.
One famous example of these cases occurred in the Florida trial of the serial murderer Ted Bundy. Ted Bundy was one of the most prolific serial murderers in U.S. history. He is known to have killed dozens of women in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Utah, Colorado, and Florida, and invesgators familiar with him think there were many others. His enre story is long and complicated, but the bitemark evidence against him came in the murder of two Chi Omega sorority sisters, and the assault on two others, in their sorority house at Florida State University in January, 1978. Two forensic odontologists tesfied that the bitemarks on the murdered women were from Bundy. Bundy was executed on January 24, 1989. Leading up to his execuon, he talked to invesgators from several of the western states where he had lived; he confessed to a long list of murders, some of which the police hadn’t even known about. He was such a skilled liar, however, that police could never be sure how many vicms there really were.
More recently, however, there were a couple of cases in which there was saliva around the bitemark on the vicm, and later DNA typing showed that the saliva did not match the person whom the forensic odontologist had posively idenfied. As a result, bitemarks are not generally aributed to a specific person any more. It is more likely that a denst will say that the person is excluded, or could not be excluded.
Think About It
Bitemarks are no longer considered to be a way to specifically idenfy someone, but they can be used to exclude or include a person of interest. Do you think that if Ted Bundy were on trial today, the bitemarks would sll be a key piece of evidence against him? If you were the odontologist tesfying in the trial, how would you explain the bitemarks to the court?
Individualizaon
The term individualizaon has been used frequently in this discussion. The term means uniqueness—one of a kind—the only one—to the exclusion of all others. Recently, there has been discussion among paern analysts about whether uniqueness is a realisc conclusion based on their knowledge of and experience with many of these paerns. How is anyone sure there is no chance duplicate anywhere? There has been a trend in the direcon of changing the terminology to describe persuasive matches as a single source (Polski et al., 2011). If a phrase like aributable to a single source were to be used and defined in an understandable way that suggested a strong possibility of individuality or common origin, but permied some uncertainty, it could be a beer reflecon of the state of knowledge. Experiments on paern matching will connue, but in truth there is no way to compare any given paern with every possible source. Even if a single paern were studied, for example, a striaon toolmark made by a screwdriver on a scratchable surface, it is nearly impossible to replicate. The angle, the pressure, the speed of movement—these could all affect the appearance of the final mark. And that is only in one surface! So, we have to rely on the scienfic concept of inducon. If we have good informaon on basic principles about a representave number of possible situaons, we can, by inducve logic, extend them to cover all the marks in that category.
Everyone is familiar with the noon of using fingerprint evidence to e a suspect to a crime. Do you think the idea of fingerprints is ever misconstrued by jurors as part of the CSI Effect?
Jeff Schrier/The Saginaw News/Associated Press
Can you see the differences between the fingerprint paerns? Which paern is on your fingers?
Now that you know the fingerprint paerns on your fingers, examine them again. Can you find examples of the key minua features?
The idea of the uniqueness of an individual’s fingerprints goes way back in history, as demonstrated by Thomas Bewick’s use of his thumbprint as his signature mark.
Michael Nicholson/Historical/Corbis
7.4 Fingerprints Among the oldest and best‐established individualizing markings, fingerprints remain one of the most important types of physical evidence in the repertoire. A fingerprint impression from a scene matched to the known fingerprint of a suspect essenally proves that the person was there at some point. Almost everyone believes that fingerprints are highly individual. It has become part of our unspoken culture. People talk about "DNA fingerprinng" and use the term "unique" to describe a fingerprint.
Fingerprints are a form of biometric idenfier, a biological measurement or feature of a person that has the potenal of being used as the basis for individualizaon. Other types of biometric idenfiers include DNA; facial features; parts of the eye, such as renas and irises; and even handwring.
There is interest in biometrics as individuality markers because they are difficult to reproduce or forge. All documentary idenficaon systems have been subject to forgery, including driver’s licenses, passports, credit and debit cards, and employee idenfying cards or badges, making it possible for a criminal to change his or her identy. This is more difficult and less common with biometric markers.
Fingerprints are an aracve biometric because they are formed during a person’s development in the womb, are permanent and unchanging throughout life, easy to record and scan unobtrusively, and involve a bare minimum of privacy invasion to record. Something to remember about the use of fingerprints as biometric idenficaon vehicles is that the goal is not to individualize the person among everyone in the world. That is not necessary. A system might be put in place to disnguish employees who work in a large, secure defense plant, or every airline passenger who is a frequent flyer with United Airlines. It is possible to determine how many features an automated scanning system has to disnguish on how many different fingers to tell apart some specific number of people. The theory behind this technology is, of course, the basis for automated fingerprint idenficaon systems. And, it is important in geng at the queson of fingerprint individuality, because it represents an automated method for comparing large numbers of prints for individual characteriscs.
Nature of Fingerprints
The beginning of the recognion of fingerprints as a unique personal idenfier is shrouded in the mists of history. Fingerprints are the result of a type of skin, fricon ridge skin, which is found on the ends of the fingers, in the palms, and on the soles of the feet of primates, including humans. Though palm prints and footprints can be compared and analyzed, the most work has been done on fingerprints.
As shown in Figure 7.2, there are three basic fingerprint paerns: arches, loops, and whorls.
Figure 7.2: Three basic fingerprint paerns
An important development in the history of fingerprints was classificaon systems. Classificaon schemes are based on all ten prints from an individual. The basic paern is determined from each print and within the basic paerns, fingerprints have certain ridge features that they all share. Fingerprint examiners call these features minuae (singular: minua) and three of them are important to fingerprint examiners when they compare prints. These are the dot, the bifurcaon, and the ridge ending (see Figure 7.3). Note that these minuae can be present in more than one place in the print paern, and that the locaon varies from print to print. The type, number, and locaon of minuae within a print form the basis of its individuality.
Figure 7.3: Key minua features
Think About It
Compare the paerns and minuae of your fingerprints with friends or family members. Do you see the differences? Do you think fingerprints are an accurate and reliable way to idenfy people?
Can Fingerprints be Altered?
History of Fingerprints for Idenficaon
There are indicaons from archaeological excavaons that the use of fingerprint and handprint paerns as methods of personal idenficaon dates back thousands of years (Berry & Stoney, 2001). They are thought to have been used as signatures and marks of authencity.
The study and use of fingerprints as unique idenfiers can be traced to the 17th and 18th centuries in Europe. The English plant morphologist Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) published very accurate drawings and descripons of ridge paerns in a paper called "The Descripon and Use of the Pores in the Skin of the Hands and Feet," in the Philosophical Transacons of the Royal Society of London (1684). Then Johannes Evangelista Purkinje (1787–1869), a Czech physiologist, wrote about fricon ridge paerns and described a number of fingerprint paerns in his thesis in 1823. Thomas Bewick (1753–1828) was primarily known as a wood engraver whose engravings appeared in books. He appears to have "signed" his work with his own thumbprint, believing it to be as unique as his signature.
Brish civil servants in India, beginning around 1850, were important contributors to the development of fingerprints as a means of personal idenficaon. Sir William Herschel, one such person, is oen credited with being the first European to recognize the value of fingerprints as a means of idenfying individuals. Dr. Henry Faulds, a Scosh physician, is known to have been involved in the study of fingerprints at least by 1879. Faulds noted that fingerprints could be classified and that ridge detail appeared to be unique, and he menoned the idea of apprehending criminals by locang fingerprints at scenes. He wrote to Charles Darwin (the scienst responsible for proposing the theory of evoluon) about fingerprints, who then forwarded the leer on to Francis Galton. Galton was a well‐known scienst and early genecs researcher, who has been said to have put the study of fingerprints on scienfic foong. Galton became interested in the subject of fingerprints and put much thought into figuring out how to show that fingerprints were individual. Fingerprint minuae are somemes called Galton features in recognion of his contribuons. Thomas Taylor, a U.S. Department of Agriculture microscopist, noted in a scienfic journal arcle in 1877 that fingerprints and palm prints might be used as idenficaon features, especially in criminal maers.
To understand and appreciate how fingerprints came into widespread use, some background on a technique called anthropometry is necessary. Anthropometry involves the measurement of the human body and its parts, and can be regarded as the first recognized biometric idenficaon method. This method was created by Alphonse Berllon (1853–1914) and laid the foundaon for the eventual acceptance of a biometric parameter as an objecve basis for personal idenficaon in a law enforcement context. Berllon came up with this concept while working with the Paris Police Prefecture, where his dues included filling out and filing criminal informaon cards. The criminals were skilled at avoiding idenficaon by using disguises and aliases. It occurred to Berllon that individual physical features could be used to uniquely idenfy people on criminal records, and he developed a system of measurements that included head size, finger length, and so forth, ulmately choosing 11 different measurements. The informaon was recorded on file cards and a system was devised for organizing the files. His superiors doubted the system, but it soon proved its value by enabling the police to idenfy repeat arrestees even if they provided alias names. Berllon eventually became director of the idenficaon bureau of the Paris Police. Police agencies in many other places began to use his system— oen called Berllonage. Its ulmate undoing was the unequivocal proof that different individuals could have the same anthropometric measurements.
A well‐known example of this chance duplicaon came at the Leavenworth Prison in the U.S. A new prisoner named Will West was having his measurements taken when a staff member began to suspect that he had encountered this profile before. Upon invesgaon, he found that the same measurements fit a man named William West who was already incarcerated at the prison (and unrelated to Will West, although they looked a lot alike). However, the two did have different fingerprints. This incident, and others like it, eventually convinced police idenficaon specialists that fingerprints represented the basis for a superior method of personal idenficaon.
Around 1893, the Brish Home Office, parent agency of the London Metropolitan Police (Scotland Yard), decided to add fingerprints to the Berllon cards for criminals in their idenficaon system. Before long, the success of fingerprints overshadowed that of Berllonage in criminal idenficaon, and anthropometry was abandoned in 1901.
Sir Edward Henry (1850–1931) was a member of the Brish Indian Civil Service, beginning in about 1873. In 1891, he became inspector general of police for Bengal province, where anthropometry was in use for criminal idenficaon. He became interested in fingerprints, read Galton’s book, and corresponded with and later visited him. Galton shared all the informaon he had about fingerprints with Henry, including materials he had obtained from Herschel and Faulds. Henry is widely known for working out a fingerprint classificaon system that was adopted in Brish India, and presented to people in the U.K. in 1899. He wrote a classic book entled Classificaon and Uses of Fingerprints.
Juan Vucech (1858–1925) was the western hemisphere’s fingerprint pioneer. An employee of the police department in La Plata, Argenna, he became convinced of the value of fingerprints as a means of criminal idenficaon and wrote a book on the subject in 1894. By 1896, the Argenne police had abandoned Berllonage in favor of fingerprints in criminal records. The first recorded case in which fingerprints were used to solve a crime took place in Argenna in 1892. A woman named Francisca Rojas alleged that her two children were murdered by a man named Velasquez. Invesgators examined her home and found a bloody thumb print on the bedroom door. Vucech compared the fingerprints of Rojas and Velasquez to the bloody fingerprint, and found it belonged to Rojas, linking her to the murder of her children. Vucech devised a classificaon system for fingerprints that was used in Argenna and throughout South America.
In North America, fingerprints were in use by the New York City civil service (to prevent impersonaons during examinaons) by 1903, and fingerprints were introduced about the same me in the New York State prison system and at the Leavenworth Penitenary. A number of police departments began using fingerprints as idenfiers in criminal records as well. The 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair provided the venue for a chance meeng between Inspector Edward Foster of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and Detecve John Ferrier of Scotland Yard. As a result of what he learned in St. Louis, Foster convinced his superiors in the R.C.M.P. of the ulity of fingerprints. In 1910, a man called Thomas Jennings was arrested in Chicago and brought to trial for murder. The primary evidence against him was fingerprints. The state wanted to ensure that the fingerprint idenficaon evidence would survive the ancipated appeal to the Illinois Supreme Court, and they called Edward Foster as an expert witness. The defendant was convicted, the evidence did survive, and the Jennings case is considered a landmark fingerprint case in criminal jurisprudence.
Fingerprint Idenficaon Organizaons
Now that fingerprints have become a major biometric indicator and play an important role in criminal invesgaons, there are a couple of important organizaons that fingerprint examiners may choose to become a part of. The Internaonal Associaon for Idenficaon (IAI) is the primary professional organizaon for fingerprint examiners. It has extensive cerficaon programs and its latent print cerficaon is difficult to obtain. Many physical paern comparison specialists also belong to the IAI.
Another important group is the Scienfic Working Group on Fricon Ridge Analysis, Study and Technology (SWGFAST). This commiee is a consensus standard seng body for all comparisons involving fricon ridge skin (fingerprints, footprints, palm prints, etc.). It has already adopted a number of consensus standards, including standards for assigning single source aribuon.
Fingerprint Classificaon and File Storage
When all fingerprint records consisted of inked impressions on a ten‐print card, a classificaon system was very important. How else could the cards be filed so that they were easily found? Classificaon was based on a ten‐print card, not on a single print. You needed all ten prints from a person to classify the prints.
In most criminal cases where fingerprints are recovered, there is only one—or somemes only a paral—impression of one finger. In such a case, how would you locate it in your card file? Simply put, you couldn’t, which was the problem. Somemes, there might be one or more suspects, and their fingerprints could be pulled for comparison. But if there weren’t any suspects, there was no realisc way to search drawers that were full of files to look for one fingerprint. That is why the advent of automated fingerprint idenficaon systems (AFIS) revoluonized the use of fingerprints.
The system consists of a scanner that records images of all ten prints and stores them on a server. It includes many workstaons from which operators can enter new fingerprints, and search the system for exisng ones. The way in which the system works is relavely simple. The examiner begins by scanning a fingerprint and computerized algorithms mark the minuae to search for. The computer then calculates a score based upon the degree of match. Most of the me, the matching print will appear in the first few entries, if it is in the system. The examiner must pull up the likely matches and compare them with the fingerprint in queson. The computer is not used for the purposes of matching prints for court purposes. That is something only an examiner can do. AFIS is used to provide possible matches, helping narrow down the list of individuals the fingerprint could belong to. An examiner will then need to compare the fingerprint and the possible matches provided to make the final decision on the idenficaon of the fingerprint.
Think About It
Do you think that ten‐print cards and/or AFIS systems are a good way to organize and store fingerprint data? What other ways can you think of that could improve the filing system?
Fingerprint collecon done the old‐fashioned way consisted of inking each individual finger and organizing the impressions onto a single card. How has modern technology improved this process?
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
If fingerprints are to be found at the scene of a crime, they are most likely to be latent ones found a�er an invesgator has dusted for fingerprints.
Joe Johnston/The Tribune (of San Luis Obispo)/Associated Press
Don Ryan/Associated Press
7.5 Collecon and Preservaon of Fingerprints There are two topics that must be considered in terms of collecng and preserving fingerprints for a case. The first is collecng or taking fingerprints from known individuals. The second is collecng fingerprints from crime scenes and objects.
Collecon and Preservaon of Knowns
At one me, fingerprints were taken from known individuals by inking the fingers and impressing them onto fingerprint cards. In addion to including a labeled box for each finger, there was space on the boom of the card to reprint the thumbs, and to impress the four fingers of each hand. These impressions served as back‐ups if the main boxed impressions were not of high enough quality for a comparison. Fingerprints from these ten‐print cards can be scanned into AFIS systems to build the single print databases.
Today, most fingerprints are collected by Live Scan technology. The person places each finger (and thumb) onto a small scanning plate. Somemes, there is an on‐screen guide to help the person adjust the posion and pressure of each finger. The device then scans the prints directly into an AFIS. These devices can be seen at ports of entry into the United States, such as in internaonal airports.
Fingerprints are also preserved electronically. The largest database of fingerprints is contained in the FBI’s integrated AFIS (IAFIS) system. The system contains over 70 million print files from criminal histories, and about 35 million other files. People who are arrested are fingerprinted. But many other people may be fingerprinted as well, like those who have firearms permits or security clearances or have undergone background checks for a variety of reasons.
Collecon, Preservaon, and Processing of Evidenary Prints
Collecng fingerprints from scenes is similar to collecng evidence from a scene, but it is more complicated than collecng known prints. Somemes, prints at scenes are visible, but oen they are not. The ones which are not require some sort of development or processing to render them visible. The first decision an invesgator must make is whether to use development (visualizaon) techniques for prints at the scene, or bring the object bearing the print back to the lab. The larger and more unmovable the object or surface, the more likely an invesgator would employ development techniques in the field. Aer locang and/or developing the print or prints, the crime scene processor must either collect the whole object the print resides on, or collect the fingerprint alone. Photography and sketches are used to document the locaon of the fingerprint, or the object containing it, at the scene. The print or developed print must also be photographed. It is best if the photo can be 1:1 (life size image). That way there is no compression of the details. If a print has required development, it may be possible to tape li the print, depending on the type of development. All the usual rules about chain of custody pertain here. The item bearing the print or the tape li must be carefully packaged, labeled, and sealed. Items have to be packaged so as to provide maximum protecon of an undeveloped print impression. Nothing should touch or rub the impression during storage or transport. Some type of wood or plasc trough would have to be used to protect the ridge impressions from the package during transport. Developed latents must also be protected. Tape lis are placed onto backings, and are thus protected.
There are three kinds of fingerprint impressions encountered: visible, plasc, and latent.
Visible Fingerprints
Visible prints are also somemes called patent. Visible prints are made in dirt, ink, blood, or some other medium that is visible to the eye. These would be photographed and, if possible, the object on which they are deposited would be collected.
Plas�c Fingerprints
Plasc prints are three‐dimensional and are made in so receiving materials like silly puy or tar. These are indentaon prints. They are first photographed. Then, the object bearing the print is collected, if possible. If not, this type of fingerprint impression can be cast in the same manner as footwear indentaons, only the casng materials are silicone‐based and capable of capturing fine detail much beer than any type of plaster.
Think About It
What do the techniques and procedures for evidenary fingerprint collecon and preservaon have in common with the collecon and preservaon techniques for other paern evidence? What are the differences?
Latent Fingerprints
Latent fingerprints cannot be clearly seen or visualized without some development or processing. There are three basic methods of processing or developing latent fingerprints: physical, chemical, and instrumental. The most common and familiar physical method is powder dusng. Here, a fingerprint powder (usually black) is applied with a fine brush to the latent print residue. The powder parcles adhere to the fay components in the residue and make the ridges visible. Another technique used is called magna‐brush. Here a small magnet is used to apply magnec parcles to the print residue. These parcles adhere to the latent residue the same way as the powder parcles. Powder‐dusted (including magna‐powder dusted) prints can generally be lied using transparent tape. The tape must be placed carefully onto the dusted print to avoid any air bubbles. This can be done with a rubber roller. The tape is lied all in one slow moon, and the transparent tape li is then placed onto a contrasng background, such as a white surface. Another more complex technique uses molybdenum disulfide parcles in a soluon. This is known as "small parcle reagent" and works on surfaces that are wet. Liing of a small parcle reagent developed print can be accomplished without leng the surface dry if the tape is carefully applied to the center and pressure applied in all direcons outward, pushing away the liquid droplets in the process. Latents on wet surfaces aren’t common, but the situaon does arise. Think of a can of beer with a latent on it, taken from the refrigerator and allowed to sit out in a humid environment for a while where water can condense onto it.
The classical chemical techniques for print development were silver nitrate, iodine fuming, ninhydrin, and super glue. Silver nitrate development works on the same principle as the development of photographic film, where silver chloride is chemically reduced to metallic silver. Iodine fuming is based on iodine molecules going from solid to vapor without becoming liquid (a process called sublimaon). The iodine vapor can interact with fingerprint residue and give it a temporary color. The color can be made permanent with other chemicals. Neither silver nitrate nor iodine are used for latent prints anymore because the other techniques are beer or equivalent. Silver has goen expensive, and it creates a disposal problem aer use. Other techniques are beer than iodine because they have the potenal for greater sensivity.
Today, ninhydrin or super glue treatment is followed by an addional treatment with other chemicals to make the visualizaon more sensive—that is, lesser amounts of residue can be detected. Ninhydrin is a chemical that reacts with the amino acids in fingerprint residue. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Super glue can be fumed onto fingerprint residue where it reacts to form a semisolid, whish deposit on the ridge paerns. Super glue will vaporize by itself, and the process can be accelerated with heat. The vapors, or fumes, interact with the fingerprint residue. The super glued fingerprint is fairly permanent, but can be powder dusted, and the dusted print lied. This is done in the same way as liing dusted fingerprints as described earlier. Super glued prints can also be further treated with other chemicals by dipping or spraying to make the visualizaon more sensive. Ninhydrin is the method of choice for absorbent surfaces like paper or sheet rock. Super glue will work on praccally any surface.
The most common instrumental technique is called laser illuminaon. With this process, fingerprints are commonly developed with super glue, on which a chemical called laser dye is applied. When a laser is shined on a fingerprint processed in this way, a very small amount of residue can be visualized, and then photographed. Somemes, laser illuminaon is used directly on fingerprint residues, but this technique is used less frequently. Laser procedures are usually performed in the lab. Portable lasers do exist, but these techniques are very cumbersome in the field. Laser‐illuminated prints would typically be photographed for comparison. The laser dye procedure is indicated if the ridge paerns are not clear enough for a comparison following super glue alone.
Fingerprints in blood can be a special case. Somemes, they are plainly visible (in these cases these would be considered visible prints), but at other mes they may require special enhancement techniques. The enhancement procedures make use of chemicals that produce color in the presence of blood. They also contain a scky substance to make them adhere to the residue and a rapidly evaporang solvent so that bloody prints on a vercal surface don’t run when the chemical is sprayed. These enhancement techniques have the potenal of interfering with DNA profiling of the blood as the chemicals in the enhancement mixture can adversely affect DNA. It is important for invesgators to consider the value of DNA profiling and fingerprint idenficaon to the case in these situaons. A small specimen of blood could be collected, for example, without disturbing the ridge paerns a fingerprint examiner would need.
Think About It
If you had to choose a single method for processing latent prints in the laboratory, which one would you choose, and why?
7.6 Analysis of Fingerprints For forensic and legal purposes, fingerprint analysis or comparisons are the heart of the maer. The comparison of a quesoned print with a known, and the ability to form an unequivocal conclusion, make fingerprints valuable as evidence.
Trained examiners complete the comparisons. The training is lengthy. It can take up to two years before a new examiner is allowed to operate without supervision. There is a specific protocol to be completed for each comparison. The first thing to be decided is whether the print is suitable for comparison. This decision is based on the clarity of the ridges and the examiner’s judgment that a proper comparison can be completed. For example, the examiner must determine if there is enough of the print present in the impression and if there are enough visible details (minuae). The examiner must also determine if the print is easily viewed, is not smudged, and does not have too many impressions overlaid on one another. If the print is judged to be unsuitable for comparison, the examinaon ends. If the print is judged to be suitable, the quesoned print must be properly oriented for comparison with a known (a whole fingerprint). To perform an accurate examinaon, the print cannot be upside down or rotated 90 degrees. Next, it goes through analysis, comparison, evaluaon, and verificaon (ACE‐V). Analysis consists of judging suitability, arranging correct orientaon, and judging the minuae content of the print. The comparison part is carefully figuring out if every minua feature in the quesoned impression is also in the known, and in the same locaon. The evaluaon step is based on the examiner’s knowledge of and experience with print comparisons. How common or rare is this paern? If the examiner is sasfied that there is enough detail, and there are no unexplained differences between the quesoned and known, an idenficaon can be made. In the verificaon step, another examiner is asked to look at the prints and verify the first examiner’s conclusion.
As shown in Table 7.1, the main category to which the fingerprint belongs (arch, loop, whorl, etc.), is somemes called First Level, or Level 1. The minuae present and their locaon is somemes called Second Level, or Level 2. There is a Level 3 as well, consisng of pores and ridge features. Level 3 is not always used because the first two levels are nearly always sufficient for making an idenficaon or determining an exclusion.
Table 7.1: Fingerprint paern levels
Level Paern category
1 Arch, loop, or whorl
2 Minuae (such as dot, bifurcaon, and ridge ending)
3 Pore and ridge features
An examiner may reach three possible conclusions following a comparison: exclusion, inconclusive, or idenficaon. Exclusion means that the quesoned print does not match the known print and therefore the person to which the known print belongs is excluded. Inconclusive means the examiner can neither make the idenficaon nor exclude the person. There isn’t enough informaon in the quesoned print. Idenficaon means that this quesoned print is aributable to the person who furnished the known.
Dues of a Latent Print Examiner
In recent years, there have been quesons as to whether there is a sufficient scienfic underpinning to fingerprint comparisons to warrant the idenficaon conclusion (Naonal Research Council, 2009; Koehler & Saks, 2010). How do we know fingerprints are individual? The standard answer is that hundreds of thousands of prints have been compared, and no two have been found that are alike. This standard answer is correct, but one person did not analyze all of these pairwise comparisons. That is, the sum total of all the pairwise comparisons was done by many different people at different mes. Furthermore, an examiner doesn’t compare a quesoned print with millions of knowns; the quesoned print is compared with only a few. With AFIS systems, the mulple pairwise comparison argument is much more supportable. If a quesoned print is searched within IAFIS and found, that quesoned print was compared with all the prints in the database. To date, no one has found two or three matches—only one (or none, if the print isn’t in IAFIS). The fact that so many searches have been completed lends considerable support to the individuality idea.
Think About It
From everything you have learned so far, do you think there are two people who have exactly the same ten fingerprints? What about two people who have one fingerprint idencal to one of the other person’s? What about two people who have a paral of one fingerprint idencal to the paral fingerprint of the other person?
Nevertheless, a high profile case from 2004 has caused the thinking to be reconsidered. The real queson is not so much whether complete fingerprints are duplicated to the extent that a trained examiner can’t tell them apart, but whether there is a chance to get a paral duplicate. That is, presented with an incomplete quesoned impression, could there be two prints out in the world that could be interpreted to "match"? See what you think aer reading the case of United States v. Brandon Mayfield.
Case Illustraon: United States v. Brandon Mayfield
Brandon Mayfield was a Muslim aorney praccing in Oregon. He was a U.S. cizen and Army veteran. He converted to Islam aer meeng and marrying his Egypan‐born wife. On March 11, 2004, a series of coordinated bombings did extensive damage to Spain’s commuter train system in Madrid, killing 191 people and wounding around 1,800 others. The aack was perpetrated by a local terrorist cell, inspired by but not directly connected to Al Qaida. In the subsequent invesgaon, a bag containing detonang devices was recovered by the Spanish police and latent fingerprints were found. These were shared with other countries’ law enforcement agencies to help with the case.
The FBI fingerprint unit ran an AFIS search and generated a number of potenal matches. Mayfield’s prints were among them. Possibly because he was Muslim and had provided legal assistance to some Muslim clients, he became a principal suspect. FBI fingerprint experts working on the case came to the conclusion that the evidenary latents matched Mayfield, and several of them—all highly experienced and seasoned examiners—agreed on this conclusion. The FBI conducted a detailed invesgaon of Mayfield, and eventually arrested him. There were discussions and at least one meeng between FBI examiners and Spanish fingerprint examiners, in which the laer told the FBI that the prints did not match Mayfield. However, the FBI connued the invesgaon unl it became clear that the FBI was incorrect on this idenficaon. It was found that the prints belonged to an Algerian naonal named Ouhnane Daoud.
The FBI released and apologized to Mr. Mayfield and the government seled a suit he filed against it for $2 million. There was a public discussion involving federal overreach in the invesgaon, aside from the fingerprint issue. Mr. Mayfield sued the government seeking to overturn parts of the PATRIOT Act (New York Times,
2006).
Reflect On It
Analyzing palm prints is not as common as fingerprints, as fingerprints are more prevalent. Do you think fingerprints show more differences between individuals than palm prints do?
Orlin Wagner/Associated Press
Reflect On It
What do you think about the misidenficaon of this case? Was it bias, incorrect examinaon of the fingerprints, or a combinaon of both that led to the wrong arrest? What do you think could have prevented this?
It has been suggested by fingerprint crics that misidenficaon occurred in this case because of examiner bias. They state that FBI experts knew all about the case, and thought it should be a match, and that knowledge ended up deeply prejudicing them. In any event, it does show that idenficaon errors can happen.
You may be thinking as you read this secon and this case example, why isn’t there a minimum number of points to define a match? It sounds easy, but it isn’t. There was such a criterion in the United Kingdom for quite some me. But, it turned out that non‐matching fingerprints could have the minimum required number of points. It is also the case that an examiner may not always have the minimum number, but is convinced the prints match. For these reasons, the IAI, the professional organizaon that makes internaonal consensus statements about these maers, has long taken the posion that there should not be a specified number of matching minuae or points to declare a match. As noted, the IAI is connuing to examine its principles regarding fingerprint idenficaon (Polski et al., 2011).
Another way of looking at examiner accuracy is through proficiency tests. Examiners are subjected to these proficiency tests for cerficaon and recerficaon. Some agencies and accredited forensic labs also parcipate in proficiency tesng for their examiners. At mes, the tests can be done for research purposes as well. In proficiency tests, examiners are given sets of quesoned prints or parals along with known prints, and told to complete pairwise comparisons and form conclusions. The vast majority of tests and studies of this type show that the examiners get the right answers. One study involving the fingerprints of idencal twins resulted in a few misidenficaons (Grieve, 1996). Idencal twin fingerprints are disnguishable, but they can be very similar.
Analysis of Other Fricon Ridge Impressions
Fricon ridge skin impressions, such as palm prints and footprints, are compared in the same way as fingerprints are compared. To clarify, oenmes people refer to "footwear impressions" as footprints, but this is incorrect. Footprints are made by bare feet. The main difference between these types of fricon ridge skin impressions and fingerprints is that files of palm or footprints are not maintained because these
impressions are less frequently encountered than fingerprints. Generally, invesgators must develop one or more suspects, then arrange to collect inked palm or foot impressions as knowns for comparison. The methods used for comparison and the criteria for conclusions are the same as for fingerprints.
Ch. 7 Conclusion Paerns are an important class of evidence. Idenficaon paerns refer to the mental images used to classify objects in the environment. Individualizaon paerns can be physical paerns or impressions. The most commonly seen impressions are footwear and re tracks. Reconstrucon paerns help invesgators form theories about events that took place in the past, based on the physical evidence record.
Paern evidence is collected by photography, liing, and casng, as appropriate. It is analyzed by comparing a quesoned impression with a known impression or object. A proper comparison requires that only like impressions be compared (posives, negaves, le, right, etc.). Some paern evidence can somemes be individualized.
Fingerprints are an important category of evidence, and have a lengthy history of use as a means of personal idenficaon. Automated fingerprint idenficaon systems have enabled the storage and search of single fingerprints, and rendered ten‐print cards and classificaon systems obsolete. At scenes, visible, plasc, and latent prints can be found. Latent prints require some visualizaon techniques to make the ridge detail suitable for comparison. There are physical, chemical, and instrumental methods for developing latent prints. Quesoned fingerprints are compared with known prints, and examiners can oen individualize the print to a person, or exclude a person as the source. Somemes, prints are not suitable for comparison, or there is insufficient detail to reach a conclusion. There has been discussion about the scienfic basis for fingerprint individuality, and whether individualizaon is jusfied in fingerprint comparison, parcularly with quesoned paral prints. Palm prints and footprints are somemes encountered at scenes, and they may be compared to knowns in the same way as fingerprints.
Ch. 7 Learning Resources
Key Ideas
There are paerns for idenficaon, for individualizaon, and for reconstrucon. Important paerns for individualizaon include physical matches, as well as imprint and indentaon markings, of which footwear and re impressions may be the most common. Fingerprints are an important class of physical evidence and an example of a biometric idenfier. AFIS systems enable rapid search and retrieval of single fingerprints. Latent fingerprints require visualizaon or processing steps in order to be suitable for comparison. There is a method for fingerprint (and other fricon ridge print) comparisons called ACE‐V, which describes the steps an examiner follows to compare quesoned and known prints. Fingerprints are individual. With very rare excepons, idenficaons or exclusions can be made following a comparison by a qualified examiner. Foot and palm prints are compared in the same manner as fingerprints.
Crical Thinking Quesons
1. In a criminal aggravated assault case, the accused ripped off the vicm’s dress, and in the process, a piece became completely separated and got stuck on the back of the perpetrator’s shirt. The police later recovered the shirt, which sll had the fragment of dress on it. Imagine that you are the lab examiner, comparing the fragment to the dress. This is a summer‐weight, light material with a disncve, decorave paern on it. The fragment lines up almost perfectly with a missing area on the vicm’s dress. Color and paern are the same. Thread count is the same. It definitely could be the missing piece. How would you tesfy to this finding?
2. In a criminal case, a suspect is thought to have kicked in a metal door while wearing a sneaker. The police successfully use an electrostac dust lier to li a good dust print of the sneaker from the door. They also have a suspect, and the sneaker they think probably made the mark. How would you, as the examiner, make the "known" sneaker impression to compare with the dust print?
3. A government agency is willing to fund a study to establish that fingerprints are really individual. How would you design this study? Describe the study design, the results that might be expected, and the conclusions that could be drawn from them.
4. In a homicide case, the police find a good bloody footprint on a bathroom floor le. They think the footprint belongs to the perpetrator. They have a suspect in custody, but they cannot prove he was at the scene at the me of the crime. You are the examiner and are given the le with the quesoned footprint on it. How would you tell the police to collect the known footprints from the decedent and from the suspect? Do you think the police need a search warrant to collect the known footprint from the suspect?
5. You are the fingerprint expert witness in a criminal trial. An object from the crime scene had a good latent print on it, and you were able to match the latent to the known print from one of the defendant’s fingers. You have tesfied that the latent fingerprint came from the defendant. The defense lawyer now says to you the following: "The police had a ten‐print card on file containing the defendant’s fingerprints. At the me the police arrested the defendant, they had very lile evidence that he was actually at the scene, but they were convinced he was their guy. Suppose they took some liing tape and carefully lied off one of the prints from the ten‐print card, then used that tape to place the ‘latent print’ on the object from the scene that was submied to you for examinaon. Do you concede that this scenario is possible? If so, would you agree that the latent match to the defendant does not then prove that he was actually at the scene?"
Key Terms
Click on each key term to see the definion.
accidental (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
An individual characterisc in an item of footwear, a re, or other object that occurs as the result of wear and exposure, and that can be detected in an imprint or indentaon of the item.
Analysis, Comparison, Evaluaon, and Vericaon (ACE‐V) (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
The process followed by fingerprint examiners in their comparisons of known and quesoned fingerprints, as well as foot or palm prints.
biometric (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
Literally, any biological feature that might be used to disnguish people. Fingerprints are an example of a biometric idenfier.
bitemark (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
A mark made in a so receiving surface by human teeth. Human teeth, and thus the mark paerns they make, are believed to have individual characteriscs.
direct physical match (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
A physical match of pieces of a randomly fractured solid material, such as glass or plasc, in the manner of a jigsaw fit.
exclusion (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
A conclusion by an examiner that a quesoned specimen cannot have originated from a known specimen with which it has been compared.
idenficaon (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
In paern evidence comparisons, this term means individualizaon, a conclusion that the quesoned specimen originated from the known with which it was compared.
impression
(hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
Any mark made by an object impressing its shape and form into or onto another object or surface. Impressions can be imprints or indentaons.
imprint (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
An effecvely "two‐dimensional" impression.
inconclusive (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
In paern evidence comparisons, this conclusion means that there is not sufficient informaon to draw a definite conclusion; that is, we cannot say for sure whether the quesoned is excluded or there is an idenficaon.
indentaon (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
A three‐dimensional impression.
indirect physical match (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
A physical match of pieces of a non‐solid item or object that has been cut or torn, or of a solid object that fractures in such a way that the pieces cannot be directly realigned.
latent (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
Literally, "hidden." A latent fingerprint is one that requires processing or development in order to be visible and suitable for comparison.
minuae (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
(singular: minua) The individualizing characteriscs of a fingerprint paern. Primarily, examiners use dots, bifurcaons, and ending ridges.
ninhydrin (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
A chemical that reacts with amino acids to form a visible, violet‐colored product. It is used to visualize latent fingerprints.
patent (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
Literally, "visible" or "obvious." A patent fingerprint is visible.
plasc (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
An indentaon fingerprint that has been impressed into a so receiving surface so as to have depth.
striaon (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
A sliding tool mark, resulng from one surface sliding on another and thus creang a mark.
super glue (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
A commercial adhesive, chemically a cyanoacrylate ester, which can be used to develop latent fingerprints by fuming the glue onto the print residue.
ten‐print card (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
Formerly, fingerprints from individuals were collected on cards formaed to hold informaon about the person plus inked fingerprints from all ten fingers. The ten‐print card was the basis of classificaon systems, and the cards were kept in physical files.
visible (hp://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer/books/AUCRJ311.13.1/secons/front_maer#)
Able to be seen. A visible print can be seen with no development or processing.
Web Resources
Website for the Scienfic Working Group on Fricon Ridge Analysis, Study and Technology (SWGFAST): hp://www.swgfast.org/ (hp://www.swgfast.org/)
Smithsonian Channel video on where fingerprints came from: hp://www.smithsonianchannel.com/site/sn/show.do?series=826#where‐do‐fingerprints‐come‐from (hp://www.smithsonianchannel.com/site/sn/show.do?series=826#where‐do‐fingerprints‐come‐from)
Smithsonian Channel video clip on the use of lasers to visualize fingerprints: hp://www.smithsonianchannel.com/site/sn/show.do?episode=141423 (hp://www.smithsonianchannel.com/site/sn/show.do?episode=141423)
Smithsonian Channel video clip on fingerprints: hp://www.smithsonianchannel.com/site/sn/video/player/science‐and‐nature/related/where‐do‐fingerprints‐come‐from/1628666392001/ (hp://www.smithsonianchannel.com/site/sn/video/player/science‐and‐ nature/related/where‐do‐fingerprints‐come‐from/1628666392001/)
Federal Special Report on the case of Brandon Mayfield: hp://www.jusce.gov/oig/special/s0601/PDF_list.htm (hp://www.jusce.gov/oig/special/s0601/PDF_list.htm)