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The Influence of Supervisors' Leadership Style on Telecommuters

Paul E. Madlock

Texas A&M International University • Laredo, TX

Abstract

The purpose of the current study was to extend prior scholarship by examin-

ing how employees who telecommute perceive their supervisor's leadership style

and the subsequent outcomes. Specifically, the way in which leadership sfyle in-

fluences employees' perceptions of their supervisors' communication competence

and communication satisfaction with their supervisor. Employees'job satisfaction

and organizational commitment was also assessed. Participants included 157 full

time telecommuters from a variefy of organizations across the United States. The

findings suggest that supervisors in the virtual workplace engaged in task oriented

more than relational oriented leadership sfyle. Also, task oriented leadership served

as the greatest predictor of the communication satisfaction, job satisfaction, and the

organizational commitment of telecommuters. Recommendations for practitioners

were also provided indicating that more might be done to enhance the task related

leadership competencies of supervisors in the virtual work setting.

Introduction

The emergence of technology in the workplace has provided both large and

small organizations with the abilify to compete on a global scale, while at the same

time, changed the way in which organizations interact and coordinate activities with

customers, suppliers, and its members. These changes involve the substitution of

everyday business activities which took place through face-to-face (FtF) interac-

tions with electronic information exchanged through the use of computer technology

(Sträub & Watson, 2001). Further, Herrmann (2006) argued that with the growth of

computer technology in the workplace, mediated communication has become in-

fused into nearly every business communication context. The introduction of com-

puter technologies into the organizational context has also brought about a number

of changes to both the organization and its members by altering core elements of

the organization, such as its structure, culture, and performance (Jackson, Poole, &

Kuhn, 2002).

These technological advances have also allowed for a greater level of au-

tonomy in the workplace, such as the ability to work away from the office. This work

arrangement is being embraced by more and more companies who intend on capital-

2 Journal of Business Strategies

izing on the benefits of techtiology wbile minimizing costly resources such as office

space (Wilkes, Frolick, & Urwiler, 1994). This alternative form of work has histori-

cally been called telecommuting, telework, or virtual work, wbicb is broadly defined

as "working at one's bome or another location where employees use computers and

communication technology to communicate with the main office, supervisors, co-

workers, and customers (Gibson, Blackwell, Dominicus, & Demerath, 2002, p. 76).

With over 20 million workers in the U.S. engaged in telecommuting and the number

of telecommuters growing by over 20 percent annually, still very little is known

about tbis increasingly popular work arrangement. One effect of tbis shift toward

telecommuting is that leaders must assume more responsibilify for working with

followers who are at a distance (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Bureau of Transporta-

tion Statistics, 2003; ITAC, 2000). According to Bass (1990) effective leadership

"depends on physical proximity, social and organizational propinquify, and networks

of open channels of communications" (p. 658). To date, much of the published lead-

ership research has been situated in contexts where leader/follower interactions take

place in traditional FtF work environments. Sucb research bas demonstrated tbat

leadership behaviors influence organizational performance, tbat strong leaders out-

perform weak leaders, and that relational oriented leadership sfyle generates higher

performance than does task oriented leadership (Bass, 1990; Madlock, 2010).

However, the lack of research in the virtual workplace has also raised ques-

tions about the performance implications of telecommuting (Neufeld & Fang, 2005).

Although, "leadership is enacted through communication" (Barge, 1994, p. 21), we

still do not have a very clear understanding of bow communication and leadership

in the realm of telecommuting are related. Therefore, leadership researcbers bave

called for developing an improved understanding of the links between leadersbip

and communication (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Mumford et al., 2000). Effective

leaders may tend to commutiicate using more metaphors, symbols, imagery and per-

suasive argumentation to sway otbers to accept their position (Bass, 1985). They

may also engage in interpersonal communication to help followers understand their

visions and strategies for action (Pondy, 1978).

Apart from a broad acknowledgement tbat leadersbip and communication

seem to be conceptually related, there has been little empirical research explicit-

ly examining leader communication effectiveness (Den Hartog & Verbürg, 1997).

Tbus, tbe objective of tbis paper is to improve our theoretical and practical under-

standing by engaging in a study of leadership and communication in tbe telecom-

muting setting. Specifically, tbe goal was to determine what form of leadersbip sfyle

(task and relational) and or communication behavior would elicit the most favorable

Volume 29, Number 1 3

outcomes in the realm of telecommuting. Therefore, the following section will offer

additional support for the relevance of telecommuting research.

Telecommuting

Telecommuting has become increasingly popular because it gives employees

increased flexibility in scheduling, less commuting time, and reduced work-family

conflict and provides businesses with reduced real estate expenses and maintenance

costs, increased productivity by employees, and access to global markets (Mano-

chehri & Pinkerton, 2003; Raghuram & Wiesenfeld, 2004). As previously noted,

improved productivity is probably the most widely touted beneñt associated with

telecommuting (Pinsonneault & Boisvert, 2001). The primary explanation for this

proposed advantage in performance is that doing tasks remotely also means fewer

disruptions while working (Bailey & Kurland, 2002). In addition to these benefits,

the possible disadvantages associated with telecommuting include reduced commu-

nication with staff, feelings of isolation, decreased connectedness to the organiza-

tion, and frustration at feeling 'out of the loop' in office politics (Gainey, Kelley, &

Hill, 1999; Wiesenfeld, Raghuram, & Garud, 2001). Also, increased reliance upon

electronic communication, such as email, may constrain the spontaneity and interac-

tivity that typically take place with others in the office (Daft & Lengel, 1986).

In response to these conflicting perspectives researchers have adopted Social

Identity Theory and Social Isolation Theory to better explain the detrimental social

consequences associated with telecommuting (Allen, Renn, & Griffeth, 2003; Feld-

man & Gainey, 1997). Similarly, scholars have commonly invoked media richness

theory and social presence theory to predict reduced meaningfulness of relationships

between telecommuters and their supervisors do to limitations found in computer

mediated communication (CMC) (Daft & Lengel, 1986; Short, Williams, & Chris-

tie, 1976; Workman, Kahnweiler, & Bommer, 2003). Unlike the theories previously

referenced that portray technology as a barrier to effective communication between

supervisors and telecommuters. Social Information Processing Theory (SIPT) ap-

pears to offer support for the use of technology as a viable means of communication

between supervisors and telecommuters (Walther, 1992). Since leadership style is

comprised of task and relational communication behaviors, SIPT served as a theo-

retical underpinning for the current study in order to better explain the possible use

and impact of relational oriented messages from leaders in the virtual work setting.

Journal of Business Strategies

Social Information Processing Theory

According to SIPT, communicators often form impressions about oth-

ers moods or state of mind despite the relatively limited nonverbal and physical

cues available through mediated communication (Walther, 1992). In essence, SIPT

rejects the view that the lack of physical cues limits individuals from effectively

exchanging relational oriented information through computer technology. Walther

(1992) argued that when denied these physical cues (e.g., nonverbal) that are avail-

able in FtF interactions, individuals sending and receiving messages via technology

encode and decode relational messages using the cue systems that are available in

the technology they are using. In sum, users of technology communicate in such a

way that they exchange social information through the content, style, and timing of

messages (Walther, 1992). In support of SIPT, several researchers have found that

on-line relationships develop in a similar way as they do in the physical realm (Wal-

ther & Boyd, 2002).

We know that in FtF interactions in traditional work settings leaders tended

to use a relational oriented leadership style more than they used a task oriented style

(Madlock, 2008). Further, it is also known that the use of relational oriented leader-

ship style has a greater positive influence on the job satisfaction and commitment of

workers than does task oriented leadership. However, we do not know which form

of leadership style is most frequently used, or has the greatest influence on commu-

nication and organizational outcomes in the realm of telecommuting. Therefore, in

order to better understand how supervisors effectively lead employees in the virtual

workplace, leadership style will be considered in greater detail below.

Leadership Style

Leadership has been defined in a number of ways, such as the ability to guide

followers toward shared goals and as a form of influence (Bryman, 1992; Hersey,

1984). Pfeffer and Salancik (1975) indicated that effective leaders' tend to exhibit

two distinct forms of communication (i.e., task and relational) when interaction with

subordinates. In other words, leadership can be divided into task and relational ori-

ented messages. The Ohio State and the Michigan studies were strong representa-

tives of the styles approach. The Ohio State studies identified two types of behav-

iors explaining what leaders do: leaders provide structure and nurture subordinates

(Hemphill & Coons, 1957). At nearly the same time, the Michigan studies identified

the behaviors of effective leaders to contain employee-oriented behaviors and pro-

duction-oriented behaviors (Cartwrite & Zander, 1960; Likert, 1961, 1967).

Volunte 29, Number 1 5

Prior research indicates that leadership is enacted through communication

and that it can be divided into the content of the message (task) and the presentation

(relational dimension) of the messages (Barge, 1994; Holladay & Coombs, 1993).

Much of the published leadership literature research has been situated in traditional

brick and mortar businesses. Research related to the styles approach to leadership

indicated that relationship oriented leadership was displayed more frequently, pre-

ferred more often, and had a greater impact on employees' communication and job

satisfaction than did task oriented leadership (Madlock, 2008). Additional research

involving the effects of leadership style includes its relationship with group satis-

faction, effective communication skills, interpersonal communication, and rapport

building (Anderson, Madlock, & Hoffman, 2006; Campbell, White, & Johnson,

2003; Fairhurst, 1993; Mintzberg, 1994; Quick & Macik-Frey, 2004). However,

results may differ for close versus distant leader/follower relationships (Shamir,

1995).

Some prior research that has dealt with leadership in the virtual workplace

has examined leadership impression management, leadership and communication

effectiveness, and leadership performance appraisal (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Fer-

ris et al., 1994; Neufeld, Wan, & Fang, 2008). According to Conger and Kanungo

(1998), the physical proximity to the leader to his or her followers may influence the

importance of certain behavioral components in attributions of leadership effective-

ness. Similarly, Shamir (1995) showed that rhetorical skills were more frequently

attributed as an important characteristic of physically distant leaders, while being

considerate of others and exhibiting unconventional behavior were more important

attributions for close leaders.

Research has yet to fully examine the link between leadership style and com-

munication in the realm of telecommuting. Based on what we do know, it could be

extrapolated that when interacting with telecommuters the leadership style of super-

visors and the associated outcomes may differ from those in traditional FtF work

environments. From the foregoing one baseline research question was advanced:

Research Question 1 : Which leadership style will be utilized most

often by supervisors of telecommuters?

Communication is most effective when it leads to shared understanding and

interpersonal communication skills are critical in determining whether a leader's

message will be recalled and embraced (Conger & Kanungo, 1998; Qureshi, Liu, &

Vogel, 2006). The most effective leaders interact and communicate with their fol-

lowers frequently, fostering mutual trust, respect, and commitment between leader

6 Journal of Business Strategies

and followers (Uhl-Bien & Graen, 1998). Effective leaders tend to craft their mes-

sages carefully, are open to followers' input, communicate candidly, and appeal to

followers' aspirations in order to gain followers' trust and commitment (Bass, 1998).

Leaders can also exercise their influence to motivate and inspire followers so as to

draw them toward a shared understanding (Avolio, 1999). However, the connection

between leadership style and communication competence has yet to be assessed in

the virtual workplace and their association may differ from that of traditional work

settings (Madlock, 2008). Given the task and relational component of communica-

tion competence its inclusion in the current study appeared warranted.

Communication Competence Communication competence has been conceptualized "as a form of interper-

sonal influence in which an individual is faced with the task of fulfilling commu-

nication goals (effectiveness) while maintaining conversational and interpersonal

norms (appropriateness)" (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1981, p. 1). In following with this

notion, communication competence has been conceptualized to encompass task re-

lated components, such as: knowledge and skill, as well as relational competencies,

including: motivation, negotiation, and listening (Cushman & Craig, 1976; Spitz-

berg, 1983). In a similar vein, Salacuse (2007) indicated that as a result of changing

work environments in which employees are more educated and intelligent than past

generations, leaders are now required to lead by negotiation. Specifically, Salacuse

(2007) noted that in order for leaders to persuade people to follow their vision, they

need to communicate effectively by appealing to the interests of the followers in

order to sell their vision.

Leaders in a virtual work setting may have greater difficulty in achieving high

levels of communication effectiveness. These leaders must rely more heavily on

explicit task oriented communication, whereas leaders in traditional work settings

may have at their disposal additional informal influence behaviors such as "standing

on furniture" or "hanging ideas on clotheslines" (Jaussi & Dionne, 2003, p. 475).

Leaders and followers communicate and work synchronously and asynchronous-

ly through all kinds of information and communication technologies (e.g., e-mail,

voice mail, video conferencing, and collaborative software systems), but technology

mediated communication may be less effective in conveying social presence (Dan &

Lengel, 1986). This may be related to limited opportunities for interaction, reduced

access to popular communication channels, time delays, and lack of shared language

among diversified members (Powell, Piccoli, & Ives, 2004). Therefore, distant lead-

Volume 29, Number 1 7

ers have to spend extra effort in converting and explicating what otherwise could be

shared with ease through social presence in a physically proximate situation (Avolio

& Kahai, 2003). Therefore, based on the limited amount of prior research, the fol-

lowing research question was advanced:

Research Question 2: Which form of leadership style displayed by

supervisors in a virtual work setting will be the greatest predictor

of their communication competence?

In the telecommuting setting there also appears to be a gap in the research ex-

amining supervisor task and relational oriented leadership and employee outcomes

such as communication satisfaction. As a result, communication satisfaction was

considered here and will be discussed in greater detail below.

Communication Satisfaction

Communication satisfaction in the workplace has been defined as satisfaction

with various aspects of the communication that occurs in the organization, such as

the amount and quality of information available (Crino & White, 1981). Various

studies highlighted the importance of communication on organizational success and

have shown that communication quality is associated with employees'job satisfac-

tion and motivation, job performance, productivity and organizational commitment

(Clampit & Downs, 1993; Gruneberg, 1979; Joshi & Sharma, 1997; Orpen, 1997;

Putti, Aryee, & Phua, 1990). Research also indicated that employees who experience

low levels of communication satisfaction experience reduced commitment, great-

er absenteeism and turnover, increased industrial unrest, and reduced productivity

(Hargie, Tourish, & Wilson, 2002). More recent research involving communication

satisfaction indicated an association between supervisor leadership style and the

communication satisfaction of their subordinates, with relational oriented leadership

having a greater positive impact on the communication satisfaction of subordinates

than did task oriented leadership (Madlock, 2008).

In the virtual work setting research indicated that as a result of lower social

presence telecommuters experienced sharply diminished perceptions of intimacy

and immediacy and a reduction in communication quality (Kurland & Cooper, 2002;

Short et al., 1976). However, there appears to be a lack of research involving leader-

ship and communication satisfaction in the realm of telecommuting. Based on the

nature of the telecommuting work environment, it could be extrapolated that the

communication interactions between leaders and telecommuters may differ from

those found in the traditional brick and mortar work setting. Coupled with the lack

8 Journal of Business Strategies

of prior research involving communication satisfaction in the virtual workplace, the

following research question was advanced:

Research Question 3 : Which behavior displayed by supervisors;

task leadership style, relational leadership style, or communica-

tion competence, will serve as the greatest predictor of a telecom-

muter's communication satisfaction?

In addition to communication satisfaction, other outcomes of interest here in-

clude the job satisfaction and organizational commitment of telecommuters related

to their supervisors' leadership style and communication competence. Therefore,

the following section will highlight the value of job satisfaction and organizational

commitment to the current study.

Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment

Job satisfaction has been defined as "a pleasurable or positive emotional state

resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences" (Locke, 1976, p. 1297).

The most common factors leading to worker stress and dissatisfaction are those ema-

nating from the nature of the job itself, within which interpersonal relationships be-

tween employees and management take place (Kenny & Cooper, 2003). According

to Korte and Wynne (1996), a deterioration of relationships in organizational settings

resulting from reduced interpersonal communication between workers negatively

influences job satisfaction, and sometimes leads to employees leaving their jobs.

Previous research in the traditional work setting has consistently demonstrat-

ed that work-related attitudes are important for individual performance as well as

overall organizational productivity. Two specific groups of work related attitudes;

job satisfaction and organizational commitment, have been examined for their re-

lationship to the attitudes employees hold about their work and the organization

(Miller & Mange, 1986). While there has been considerable speculation as to the

antecedent factors related to job satisfaction, its major effects on employees are quite

clear. Low job satisfaction has been shown to be associated with high rates of absen-

teeism, tardiness, and turnover (Porter & Steers, 1973).

While job satisfaction deals with a person's attitudes toward the job, organi-

zational commitment addresses the person's attitudes toward the organization. Or-

ganizational commitment is characterized by a strong belief in and acceptance of the

organization's goals and values, a willingness to exert considerable effort for the or-

ganization, and a desire to retain membership in the organization (Sager & Johnston,

1989). Research has indicated positive relationships between organizational com-

Volume 29, Number 1 9

mitment and job satisfaction, job performance, and leadership (Bateman & Strasser,

1984; Cohen, 1992; Morris & Sherman, 1981). Prior research has also indicated

that both job satisfaction and organizational commitment are directly related, in that

the more satisfied employees are, the more committed to the organization they ap-

pear to be (Firth et al., 2004). More recently, Madlock (2008) found that both task

and relational leadership styles had a positive influence on the job satisfaction and

commitment of employees. In the realm of telecommuting, both job satisfaction

and commitment have often been cited as advantages of telecommuting (Covey-

duck, 1997; Pratt, 1999). Specifically, Coveyduck (1997) found that telecommuters

derived relatively high level of job satisfaction, work autonomy, commitment, and

feelings of organizational support. Tucker (1997) reported that telecommuters had

high levels of job satisfaction and Hill (1995) found that productivity, morale, and

organizational commitment were positively influenced by telework.

Despite the positive association between telecommuting and job satisfaction

and commitment, there has been a lack of research examining the influence of lead-

ership on these outcomes. However, Gibson et al. (2002) did suggest that situational

leadership could be applicable to the virtual workplace and may produce similar

positive outcomes as it has in traditional work settings. It was further argued that

this type of leadership would make telecommuters feel comfortable and connected

which could be linked to their job satisfaction and retention (Gibson et al., 2002).

Therefore, the following hypotheses and research questions were advanced:

Hypothesis 1 : There will be a positive relationship between a su-

pervisor 's task and relational leadership style and their telecom-

muters 'job satisfaction.

Hypothesis 2: There will be a positive relationship between a su-

pervisor 's task and relational leadership style and their telecom-

muters ' organizational commitment.

Research Question 4: Which behavior displayed by a supervisor,

task leadership, relational leadership, or communication compe-

tence, will serve as the greatest predictor of a telecommuter's job

satisfaction?

Research Question 5: Which behavior displayed by a supervisor;

task leadership, relational leadership, or communication compe-

tence, will serve as the greatest predictor of a telecommuter's or-

ganizational commitment?

10 Journal of Business Strategies

Method

Participants and Procedures

The data collection procedure followed that of (Hartman, Stoner, & Arora, 1991). Based upon a review of the telecommuting literature 21 organizations be- lieved to have telecommuting programs were contacted by the author for possible participation in this study. Of the organizations contacted, seven agreed to par- ticipate in the current study. Participants included full-time non-management em- ployees working for companies with established telecommuting programs in which employees worked from home using technology (i.e., telecommuters) to conduct business and communicate with their supervisors. The organizations that agreed to participate in the study either distributed copies of the questionnaire, allowed the author to distribute copies of the questionnaire, or made copies of the ques- tionnaire available to employees on a volunteer basis. Respondents mailed com- pleted questionnaires to the author. Based on distributions of questionnaires and on reports from site managers, approximately 400 telecommuters were invited to participate in the study; 157 telecommuters (approximately 39.2%) provided use- able completed surveys. Participants were comprised of (48% female, n = 85) and (52% male, n = 92), whose overall tenure at their current job ranged from 3 to 12 years (M= 7.65,50=3.27). Participants ranged in age from23to49(M=30.86,SD=6.59) and reported working for a variety of organizations including; insurance (30.5%, n = 54), healthcare (26.5%, n = 47), high tech (26.0%, n = 46), and banking/finance (17%, n = 30). Of the technology used, all of the participants reported using a combination of technologies when communicating with their supervisors. These technologies included the most frequently reported form being cell phones (Black- berry®) (68%), followed by computers (desktop and laptop) (29%), and landline telephones (3%). The most prevalent forms of communication used were text mes- sage, instant message (IM), voice (primarily via cell phone), email, blogging, and video calls (e.g., Skype®).

Measures

All measures used in this study were submitted to principal component fac- tor analysis using Varimax rotation. Criteria for factor and item retention were: 1) eigenvalues greater than 1.0 for retained factors, 2) primary factor loadings of .60 or greater, 3) no secondary loadings exceeding .40, 4) loading on a factor with a minimum of two items, and 5) theoretical interpretability (Comrey & Lee, 1992). All the items for the following measures met the aforementioned criteria.

Volume 29, Number 1 11

Leadership style was measured by the 20-item Leadership Style Question-

naire developed by Northouse (2001). The instrument measures the task and rela-

tional leadership styles and, when summed, represents a general leadership profile.

A 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) was used

in this study, which was the same as the original measure. Prior research reported

scale reliabilities ranging from .92 to .95 (Anderson et al., 2006; Madlock, 2008).

Cronbach's alpha for the current study found that task leadership style was .91

(M= 3.88, SD = .58), and relational leadership style was .92 (M= 2.6, SD = .56).

Communication competence was measured by the 12-item Communica-

tor Competence Questionnaire developed by Monge et al. (1982). The items were

measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from (1 = strongly disagree to

5 = strongly agree), which was the same as the original measure. Prior research

reported scale reliability of .93 (Madlock, 2006a). Cronbach's alpha for the current

study was .91 (M= 4.10, SD = .62).

Communication satisfaction was measured with the 19-item Interpersonal

Communication Satisfaction Inventory (ICSI) developed by Hecht (1978). A 7-point

Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree) was used here, which was

the same as the original measure. A slight modification was made to the original

scale with a lead in sentence (When communicating with my supervisor I feel...)

preceding each statement. Prior studies reported reliabilities ranging from .72 to .93

and strong validity (Rubin, Palmgreen, & Sypher, 1994). Cronbach's alpha for the

current study was .89 (M= 5.65, SD = 1.67).

Job satisfaction was measured by the eight-item Abridged Job In Gen-

eral Scale (AJIG) (Russell et al., 2004). A 5-point Likert-type response format

(1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) was used in the current study instead

of the original scale formatting (i.e., using 0 for "no," 1 for "?" and 3 for "yes") to

be consistent with other parts of the questionnaire. The scale is comprised of single

word or short statements regarding an employee's overall perception of their job

(e.g.. Good, Better than most. Undesirable). Prior research used the modified scale

formatting and the study indicated that the AJIG Scale had strong reliability with a

Cronbach's coefficient alpha of .90 (Madlock, 2010). Cronbach's alpha for the cur-

rent study was .87 (M = 3.83, SD = .54).

Organizational commitment was measured with the 15-item Organizational

Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) (Mowday et al., 1979). The items were mea-

sured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly

agree), which was the same as the original measure. The scale is intended to measure

employee attachment to the organization, for example, "I am proud to tell others that

12 Journal of Business Strategies

I am part of the organization". Prior research indicated scale reliability of .93 (Mad-

lock, 2006b). Cronbach's alpha for the current study was .90 (M= 3.81, SD = .53).

Results

Hypothesis One predicted there would be a positive relationship between

the task and relational leadership style of supervisors and the job satisfaction of

their telecommuters. Results of Pearson's correlational analysis showed that the data

were consistent with the hypothesis by indicating a significant positive relationship

between the variables. The strength of all the correlational relationships examined

in this study were based on the guidelines set forth by Cohen (1988, pp. 77-81).

Specifically, a strong relationship was indicated between telecommuters'job satis-

faction and their supervisor's task oriented leadership style (r = .65, p < .01) and a

weak relationship with their supervisor's relational oriented leadership style (r = .22,

p< .01) (see Table 1 for all the correlational results).

Hypothesis two predicted there would be a positive relationship between the

task and relational oriented leadership style of supervisors and the organizational

commitment of their telecommuters. Results of Pearson's correlational analysis

showed that the data were consistent with the hypothesis by indicating a significant

positive relationship between the variables. Specifically, a strong relationship was

indicated between telecommuters' organizational commitment and their supervi-

sor's task oriented leadership style (r = .42, p < .01), whereas a weak relationship

was indicated between telecommuters' organizational commitment and their super-

visor's relational oriented leadership style (r = .20, p < .05).

Table 1

Pearson Correlations among Variables (Mean scores)

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 Task Leadership

2 Relational Leadership

3 Job Satisfaction

4 Communication Satisfaction

5 Communication Competence

7 Organizational Commitment

.—

.15

.65**

.58**

.31**

.42**

.—

.22**

.18*

.29**

.20*

.—

.49**

.42**

.32**

.—

.22*

.20* .36** . -

Note: ** statistically significant at p < .001, * statistically significant at p < .05

Volume 29, Number 1 13

Research question one sought to answer the question of which leadership style would be utilized most often by supervisors of telecommuters. Results indicat- ed that supervisors engaged in greater task oriented leadership (M= 3.88, SD = .58) than they engaged in relational oriented leadership behaviors (M= 2.6, SD = .56).

Research question two sought to answer the question of which form of lead- ership style displayed by supervisors in a virtual work setting would be the greatest predictor of their communication competence. Using multiple regression, supervisor communication competence was regressed on a linear combination of the two pre- dictor variables. Results indicated that (R^ = .10) 10% of the variance in communi- cation competence was accounted for by task oriented leadership style, F{1, 155) = 16.24,/? < .001, whereas (R^ = .15), 15% of the variance in communication compe- tence was accounted for by the model containing both task and relational leadership style, F(2, 154) = 14.54,;? < .001. Overall, task oriented leadership style was found to be a greater predictor of communication competence, ß = .27, p < .001, than was relational oriented leadership style ß = .25, p < .001.

Research question three sought to answer the question of which behavior displayed by supervisors; task leadership style, relational leadership style, or com- munication competence, would serve as the greatest predictor of a telecommuter's communication satisfaction. Using multiple regression, communication satisfaction was regressed on a linear combination of the three predictor variables. Results in- dicated that {R' = .049) 4.9% of the variance in communication satisfaction was accounted for by a supervisor's communication competence, F{1, 155) = 7.93, p < .01; (R^ = .063), 6.3% of the variance in communication satisfaction was ac- counted for by the model containing both communication competence and relational leadership style, F(2, 154) = 5.19,/» < .01; (/?̂ = .34), 34% of the variance in com- munication satisfaction was accounted for by the model containing communication competence, relational leadership style, and task leadership style, F(3, 153) = 26.57, p<.00\. Overall, task oriented leadership style was found to be the greatest predictor of communication satisfaction, ß = .56,p < .001, whereas communication competence ß = .02,/) > .05 and relational leadership style ß = .09, p > .05 were not found to be a significant predictor of communication satisfaction.

14 Journal of Business Strategies

Table 2 Summary of Regression Analysis for

Variables Predicting Communication Competence

Predictor

Relational leadership style

Task leadership style

(Constant)

B

.15

.29

2.60

F{2.

Communication Competence

SEB

.04

.08

.32

154) = 14.54, p < .001

ß

.25**

.27**

*p<.05. "p< .001.

Research question four sought to answer the question of which behavior dis- played by supervisors; task leadership style, relational leadership style, or commu- nication competence, would serve as the greatest predictor of a telecommuter's job satisfaction. Using multiple regression, job satisfaction was regressed on a linear combination of the three predictor variables. Results indicated that (R^ = .l 79) 17.9% of the variance in job satisfaction was accounted for by a supervisor's communica- tion competence, F(l, 155) = 33.74,;? < .001; {R^ = .188), 18.8% of the variance in job satisfaction was accounted for by the model containing both communication competence and relational leadership style, F(2, 154) = 17.80,/» < .001; (R^ = .479), 47.9% of the variance in job satisfaction was accounted for by the model containing communication competence, relational leadership style, and task leadership style, F(3, 153) = 46.84,;? < .001. Overall, task oriented leadership style was found to be a greater predictor of job satisfaction, ß = .57, p < .001 than was communication competence, ß = .23,;J < .001. Relational oriented leadership style was not found to be a significant predictor of job satisfaction ß = .06, p > .05.

Research question five sought to answer the question of which behavior dis- played by supervisors; task leadership style, relational leadership style, or communi- cation competence, would serve as the greatest predictor of a telecommuter's orga- nizational commitment. Using multiple regression, organizational commitment was regressed on a linear combination of the three predictor variables. Results indicated that (R^ = .130) 13% of the variance in organizational commitment was account- ed for by a supervisor's communication competence, F(l, 155) = 23.12,;? < .001; (R^ = .140), 14% of the variance in organizational commitment was accounted for by the model containing both communication competence and relational leadership

Volume 29, Number 1 15

style, F(2, 154) = 12.55,/» < .001; (R^ = .239), 23.9% of the variance in organi-

zational commitment was accounted for by the model containing communication

competence, relational leadership style, and task leadership style, F(3, 153) = 16.06,

/? < .001. Overall, task oriented leadership style was found to be a greater predictor

of organizational commitment, ß = .33,/? < .001 than was relational oriented leader-

ship style, ß = .23,/? < .001. Relational oriented leadership style was not found to be

a significant predictor of organizational commitment ß ^ .08,/? > .05.

Table 3

Summary of Regression Analysis for

Variables Predicting Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment

Predictor

Communication compétence

Reiational leadership style

Task leadership style

(Constant)

*p< .05. **p<.001.

B

.20

.03

.53

.88

F(3,

F(3,

Job Satisfaction

SEB

.055

.031

.03

.057

153) = 46.84,

153) = 16.06,

ß

.23**

.06

.34**

1

p < .001

p < .001

Organizational Commitment

B

.20

.04

.30

.72

SEB

.07

.04

.07

.31

ß .23*

.05

.33**

Discussion

Today, with the anyplace and anytime nature of mobile technology, telecom-

muting has become more common and a more important work arrangement for or-

ganizations, and that there will be well over 90 million of these technology mediated

jobs in the U.S. by 2030 the study of telecommuters appears to be warranted (Wilkes

et al., 1994). One effect of this shift toward virtual work arrangements is that leaders

must assume more responsibility for working with followers who are at a distance

and leaders may find it more difficult in achieving high levels of communication

effectiveness (Antonakis & Atwater, 2002; Bass, 1990). Thus, the objective of this

paper is to improve our theoretical and practical understanding by engaging in a

study of leadership and communication in the telecommuting setting. Specifically,

the goal was to determine what form of leadership style (task and relational) and or

16 Journal of Business Strategies

communication behavior would elicit the most favorable outcomes in the realm of

telecommuting.

The first finding of interest centers on the correlational findings, which indi-

cate that there was a greater emphasis placed on task oriented leadership in the virtu-

al workplace compared to traditional work settings. This may be the result of distant

leaders having to rely more heavily on explicit communication, whereas leaders in

traditional FtF work settings may have at their disposal additional informal influence

(Jaussi & Dionne, 2003). Leaders and followers communicate and work synchro-

nously and asynchronously through all kinds of information and communication

technologies (e.g., e-mail, voice mail, video conferencing, and collaborative soft-

ware systems), but technology mediated communication may be less effective in

conveying nuances of meaning that are essential to the development of interpersonal

relationships (Kiesler et al., 1987). This may lead to a reduction in emotional tone

and feeling being both expressed by the communicator and understood by the re-

ceiver (Kiesler et a l , 1987). Therefore, distant leaders have to spend extra effort in

converting and explicating what otherwise could be shared with ease through social

presence in traditional work settings (Avolio & Kahai, 2003). This finding may also

shape the expectations of telecommuters to the extent that they do not expect rela-

tionship oriented communication when conversing with leaders because it is thought

to be less possible, hence they evaluate their leaders in task terms because that is

what is expected.

Although these findings appear to contradict SIPT, another interpretation cen-

ters on the nature of the telecommuting work environment (Walther, 1992). Mean-

ing, that the kinds of work that can effectively done via technology are more heavily

task oriented, therefore valued leadership is one that is focused on tasks. Therefore,

communication in this technologically mediated environment lends itself to the ex-

change of task related information. It is also possible that employees who are effec-

tive and comfortable with this type of work are themselves more task-oriented and

as a result, appreciate like-minded leadership. Not to discount relational oriented

leadership, but it seems that in the realm of telecommuters, effective leadership style

may be perceived differently than in traditional work settings.

Additional findings of interest that buttress with the correlational results were

found in the regression models indicating that task oriented leadership style was a

greater predictor of the communication satisfaction, job satisfaction, and commit-

ment of telecommuters than was communication competence and relational oriented

leadership. This finding again suggests that in order for supervisors to be perceived

as effective leaders they must possess the knowledge and skills associated with the

Volume 29, Number 1 17

job in order to be able to communicate task relevant information to telecommuters.

Lastly, as organizations and employees become increasingly dispersed, communica-

tion becomes the principal means by which individuals exercise leadership (Penley

& Hawkins, 1985). Since communication effectiveness has also been broadly linked

with leadership effectiveness, it is possible that communication competence may be

associated more with task oriented leadership in the virtual work setting than in the

traditional work environment (Klauss & Bass, 1982).

Based on the current findings recommendations for practitioners indicate that

more might be done to enhance the task related competencies of supervisors in the

realm of telecommuting. These recommendations include, additional training on task

related competencies and how to effectively communicate task related knowledge

to telecommuters through the use of technology. Supervisors also need to be aware

that it is possible that telecommuters prefer task oriented leaders because of the

limitations found in technology, the expectations of telecommuters, the nature of the

telecommuting work environment being heavily task oriented, and that telecommut-

ers themselves may be more task-oriented and appreciate like-minded leadership.

Limitations and Future Directions

Although the current study adds to our understanding of leadership and com-

munication in the realm of telecommuting work it is not without limitations. In order

to fully understand the impact of the current findings a qualitative study needs to be

considered in which the researcher can ask probing questions to uncover nuances

not found in a quantitative study. Another limitation found here involves a level of

uncertainty about the amount of time telecommuters spent in the office. This infor-

mation may indicate whether telecommuters who frequented the office felt more

connected and satisfied than those telecommuters who rarely visited the office.

Another limitation connected to this study is that all the forms of technology

were chained together as if they had the same characteristics of emotional tone.

However, there are some differences in voice based on the form of technology used

and with heavy and long term use (Walther, 1992). In order to tease out these possi-

ble differences in technology, future researchers may want to collect a larger sample

and compare the leadership styles and communication of supervisors based on the

form of technology used.

Given the relevance of telecommuting, there are a number of additional re-

search directions that one could pursue. One possible direction centers on a dialogic

approach to examine the communication interactions that take place between su-

18 Journal of Business Strategies

pervisors and telecommuters. This may allow researchers to better understand how

and why specific communication behaviors shape the perceptions of telecommuters

more than others. Further, a dialogic approach may also shed light on the reasons

why task oriented leadership has such a positive impact on telecommuters and their

work related outcomes. Another possible direction for future researchers involves

cross-cultural studies of leadership and communication in the virtual workplace.

Given, today's global economy, these research findings may prove to enhance lead-

ership training programs.

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Biographical Sketch of Author

Paul Madlock Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor in the College of Business Ad-

ministration at Texas A&M International University. He has published numerous

articles on technology, communication, leadership, and other management areas.

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