Gender and Sexuality Moral Development, Values, and Religion

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A Topical Approach to
Life-Span Development 6e

Chapter Twelve:

Gender and Sexuality

John W. Santrock

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Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

Biological Influences
Gender: Characteristics of being female or male
Gender role: Set of expectations prescribing how females and males should act, feel, and think
Gender typing: Process by which children acquire thoughts, behaviors, and feelings culturally appropriate for their gender
Sex: Designates the biological aspects of being female or male

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Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

Biological Influences
Chromosomes: 23rd pair with X and Y
Hormones
Estrogens
Influences development of female physical sex characteristics and helps regulate menstrual cycle
Androgens
Testosterone promotes development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics

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Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

Biological Influences
Examples of conditions from unusual levels of sex hormones early in development
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
Androgen-insensitive males
Pelvic field defect
Failed sex reassignment

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Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

Evolutionary psychology view
Differing roles in reproduction placed different pressures on males and females
Key gender differences in sexual attitudes and sexual behaviors
Males — competition, violence, risk-taking
Females — parenting effort, selection of successful mate

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Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

Social influences
Differences due to social experiences
Social role theory: Gender differences result from contrasting roles of men and women
Psychoanalytic theory of gender: Claims child identifies with same-sex parent by age 5 or 6
Many disagree, claiming gender learned much earlier (even in absence of same-sex parent)

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Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

Social influences
Differences due to social experiences
Social cognitive theory of gender — gender development results from observation and imitation, use of rewards and punishments for gender-appropriate behaviors
Mothers’ socialization strategies
Fathers’ socialization strategies
Exposure to media, peers, other adults in culture

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Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

Cognitive influences
Gender schema theory
Gender typing emerges gradually in gender schemas of what is culturally gender-appropriate and inappropriate
Gender-typed behavior can occur before children develop gender constancy
Schema: cognitive structure
Gender schema: organizes world in terms of female and male

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Cognitive Influences

Gender schema theory

Gender typing emerges gradually in gender schemas of what is culturally gender-appropriate and inappropriate
Gender-typed behavior can occur before children develop gender constancy
Schema: Cognitive structure
Gender schema: Organizes world in terms of male and female

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Gender Stereotyping,
Similarities, and Differences

Gender stereotyping
General impressions and beliefs about females and males
Traditional masculinity and femininity
Males — instrumental traits
Females — expressive traits
Roles and traits — unequal social status, power
Developmentally
Gender stereotyping present in 2-year-olds
Stereotyping varies with culture

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Figure 12.2 - Young Children’s Judgments about Competency in Stereotyped Occupations

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Gender Stereotyping,
Similarities, and Differences

Gender similarities and differences
Physical differences
Females
have longer life expectancy
less likely to develop mental or physical disorders
Resistant to infections, more elastic blood vessels
Males have higher levels of stress hormones causing faster clotting and higher blood pressure

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Gender Stereotyping,
Similarities, and Differences

Gender similarities and differences
Physical differences
Female brains are smaller, have more folds
Part of hypothalamus involved in sexual behavior is larger in men
Area of parietal lobe functioning in visuospatial skills is larger in males
Areas of brain involved in emotional expression show more activity in females

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Gender Stereotyping,
Similarities, and Differences

Cognitive similarities and differences
Some claim males better at math and visuospatial skills and females better at verbal skills
Others claim no differences or exaggerated
National standardized tests
Boys slightly better at math and science
Girls better at reading and writing
Overall, girls superior students to boys
More males placed in special/remedial classes

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Figure 12.3 - Visuospatial Skills of Males and Females

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Gender Stereotyping,
Similarities, and Differences

Socioemotional similarities and differences
Aggression
Males more physically aggressive in all cultures
Females may be verbally aggressive; use relational aggression more than men
Self-Regulation
Males show less self-regulation, can lead to behavioral problems
Controversies over psychological differences

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Gender Stereotyping,
Similarities, and Differences

Socioemotional similarities and differences
Meta-analysis
Gender differences: small to nonexistent
Physical aggression differences were moderate
Largest difference in motor skills favoring males
Males more sexually active than females

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Gender Stereotyping,
Similarities, and Differences

Socioemotional similarities and differences
Gender in context
Gender varies across contexts
Males more likely to help in perceived danger
Females more likely to volunteer to help with child
Girls show more care-giving behaviors than boys
Males more likely to show anger towards strangers and turn anger into aggression
Cultural backgrounds influence socialization

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Gender Development
Through the Life Span

Childhood
Children form many ideas about what the sexes are like from about 1½ to 3 years of age
Boys receive earlier and more intense gender socialization (e.g., “boy code”)
Boys could benefit from more socialization to express emotions and better regulation of aggression
Children show clear preference for same-sex peers

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Gender Development
Through the Life Span

Adolescence
Transition point; changes in puberty
Gender-intensification hypothesis
Psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence
Psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence
Mixed messages and special problems

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Gender Development
Through the Life Span

Adulthood and aging
Gender and communication
Rapport talk
Language of conversation, a way to establish connections and negotiate relationships
Preferred by women
Report talk
Language designed to give information, including public speaking
Preferred by men

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Gender Development
Through the Life Span

Adulthood and aging
Women’s gender development
Women often try to actively participate in others’ development
Emotionally
Intellectually
Socially
Women maintain competency, self-motivation, and self-determination in relationships

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Gender Development
Through the Life Span

Adulthood and aging
Men’s gender development
Male roles are contradictory and inconsistent
Can cause role-strain in
Health (may be considered: hazardous)
Male-female relationships (affected by traditions)
Male-male relationships (fathers have impact)

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Gender Development
Through the Life Span

Gender and aging
Decreased masculinity in most men; decreased femininity may occur in some women
Impacted by cohort effects
Older women face double jeopardy of ageism and sexism
Older ethnic minority women face triple jeopardy: ageism, sexism, racism

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Exploring Sexuality

Biological and cultural factors
Biological
Sexual behavior is influenced by sex hormones
Sexual behavior is so individualized in humans that it is difficult to specify hormonal effects
Sexual motivation also influenced by cultural factors

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Exploring Sexuality

Biological and cultural factors
Cultural factors
Range of sexual values across cultures is substantial
Ines Beag: small island off coast of Ireland
Extreme sexually repressive conditions
Mangaian culture in South Pacific
Sexual behavior encouraged very open

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Exploring Sexuality

Biological and cultural factors
Cultural factors
Sexual scripts — stereotyped expectancy patterns for how people should behave sexually
Traditional religious script — sex is accepted only within marriage; sex is for reproduction and sometimes affection
Romantic script — sex synonymous with love

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Figure 12.4 - Sex in America Survey

Cohabiting (married)

Noncohabiting

Men

Women

2 to 3 times a week

Never

A few times a year

A few times a month

4 or more times a week

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Exploring Sexuality

Sexual orientation
Heterosexual attitudes and behavior
Different categories for frequency of sex
Married couples have sex more often
Most couples enjoy traditional sex
Adultery is exception, not the rule
Men think about sex more than women
Most lead conservative sexual lives

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Exploring Sexuality

Sexual orientation
Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males
Bisexual: Sexually attracted to both sexes
Research on biological and hormonal differences on sexual preferences unclear
Anatomically — area of hypothalamus governing sexual behavior 2x larger in heterosexual males
Sexual orientation: most likely results from mix of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, environmental factors

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Exploring Sexuality

Sexual orientation
Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males
Gender differences appearing in heterosexual relationships also occurs in homosexual relationships
Importance of trust, affection, sharing of friends
Sexual attraction more important to men
Lesbians have fewer partners, have sex less often
More equal in labor and power than traditional couple

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Exploring Sexuality

Sexual orientation
Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males
Gay and lesbians experience life as minorities in dominant culture, with bicultural identity
Special concern:
Hate crimes
Stigma-related experiences; verbal harassment

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Exploring Sexuality

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
Gonorrhea
Syphilis
Chlamydia
Genital Herpes
HPV — causes genital warts
HIV and AIDS — sexually-transmitted disease caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

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Exploring Sexuality

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
AIDS has impact worldwide
Sub-Saharan Africa has epidemic proportions
Little use of condoms
High infection rate for adolescents
Orphans left with o caregivers
12 million orphans in 2006
In United States — prevention targeted at specific groups
Drug users, STD infected persons, young gay males

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Exploring Sexuality

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
Protecting against STIs
Education and development of effective drug treatments
Only safe behavior is abstinence
Know your and your partner’s risk status
Obtain screening tests for STIs
Have protected, not unprotected, sex
Don’t have sex with multiple partners

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Exploring Sexuality

Forcible Sexual Behavior
Rape
Forcible sexual intercourse without consent; legal definitions vary by state
Victims reluctant to report rape; stats vary
Date or acquaintance rape: Coercive sex activity with acquaintance; concern for college students
Rape of male victims is rare, does occur
Constitutes almost 5% of all rapes

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Figure 12.5 - Rape Victim-Offender Relationships

Friend

Percentage of sample

Classmate

Boyfriend/ ex-boyfriend

Acquaintance

Offender

Other

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Exploring Sexuality

Sexual Harassment
Ranging from remarks to physical contact, blatant propositions to sexual assaults
Most victims are women in educational and workplace settings
Has serious psychological effects on victim
One person’s manifestation of power over another

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Sexuality through the Life Span

Child sexuality
Majority of children engage in some sex play
Usually with friends or siblings
Exhibiting or inspecting the genitals
Most motivated by curiosity
Sex play declines, but sexual interest remains high in elementary school years

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Sexuality through the Life Span

Sexuality in adolescence
Time of sexual exploration, experimentation, fantasies, and incorporating sexuality into one’s identity
Most have insatiable curiosity about sex
Majority develop mature sexual identity; most have times of vulnerability and confusion
Societies vary in response to adolescent sexuality

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Sexuality through the Life Span

Sexuality in adolescence
Developing a Sexual Identity
Multifaceted, lengthy challenge to manage new feelings, develop identity and self-regulation
Great variety in orientations, interest levels, anxiety levels, activity, and reasons for choices in activity
Gay or lesbian identity: gradual coming-out
Homosexual behavior in adolescence may not continue into adulthood

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Sexuality through the Life Span

Sexuality in adolescence
Timing and frequency of sexual behaviors
First initiation experience varies by country, culture
Cross-culturally: majority of females and males have first experience by age 17

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Sexuality through the Life Span

Sexuality in adolescence
Timing and frequency of sexual behaviors
U.S. study:
African American and inner-city youth most active
Asian American youth most restricted
Males more active than females
Casual oral sex is common, increasing; believed to be safer and not really “having sex”

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Sexuality through the Life Span

Sexuality in adolescence
Personal risk factors
Emotionally unprepared for sexual experiences
Other risky behaviors linked to early sexual activity
Drug use, delinquency, school-related problems
Risky behavior patterns can continue as disorders in emerging adulthood
Contextual factors
SES, parenting styles, peer factors
Having sibling engaging in early activity

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Sexuality through the Life Span

Sexuality in adolescence
Cognitive factors are linked to sexual risk taking
Contraceptive use can reduce risks; increased use of contraceptives by adolescents
Age affects choice and consistency of use
3 million U.S. adolescents acquire STIs annually
U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates decreasing; but one of highest rates in developed world
Negative consequences for teen mother and child

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Figure 12.7 - Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Pregnancy

Births per 1,000 women 15 to 19 years old

1975

1990

1970

1980

1995

2000

Year

1985

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Sexuality through the Life Span

Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy
Health risks for mother and child
Low birth rate in newborns linked to infant mortality, neurological problems, childhood illness
Young mothers more likely to
Drop out of school; were low achievers in school
Have history of conduct problems
Come from low-income backgrounds
Live in poverty

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Sexuality through the Life Span

Emerging adulthood
Patterns of heterosexual behavior
Time frame for sexual activity and singlehood
Males have more casual sex; females more selective
Most limit sex partners to one or two persons annually
Casual sex more common in “hooking up”
The earlier the age of first sex, the more sexual activity in emerging adulthood
Religious adults have fewer sexual partners
Alcohol use loosens inhibitions, decreases caution

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Sexuality through the Life Span

Sexuality and aging
Middle adulthood
Climacteric: Midlife transition, fertility ends/declines
Women: Menopause late forties or early fifties;
Perimenopausal is transitional time
Hormone replacement therapy (HRT): Risks involved
Men: less testosterone, less desire, possible erectile dysfunction (Viagra and similar drugs have appeared)
Ability to function slows little, frequency drops in old age

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Sexuality through the Life Span

Sexuality and aging
Late adulthood
Aging does have some effects on sexual performance
Men experience more changes than women
Orgasm less frequent
More direct stimulation needed
Erection problems more likely after 65
Sexuality can be lifelong; most older adults report being satisfied

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The End