Socioemotional Processes and Development: Emotional Development, The Self, Identity, and Personality

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A Topical Approach to
Life-Span Development 6e

John W. Santrock

Chapter Eleven:

The Self, Identity, and Personality

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The Self

  • Self-understanding
  • Self: All characteristics of a person
  • Self-understanding, self-esteem, self-concept
  • Identity: Who a person is, representing a synthesis of self-understanding
  • Personality: Individuals’ enduring personal characteristics

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The Self

  • Self-understanding
  • Cognitive representation of the self, substance of self conceptions
  • Infancy:
  • Visual self-recognition tests infants
  • Emerges gradually up to age 2; first in mirror
  • By age 3: forms of self-awareness include "mine, me big, me do it"

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Figure 11.1 - Self-Recognition in Infancy

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The Self

  • Self-understanding and early childhood
  • More psychologically aware of self and others
  • Self-recognition includes visual and verbal
  • Five main characteristics of self-understanding
  • Confusion of self, mind, and body
  • Self described in size, shape, color, etc.

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The Self

  • Self-understanding in childhood
  • Five main characteristics of self-understanding
  • Concrete descriptions: “I live in a big house”
  • Physical descriptions: “I’m not tall like her”
  • Active descriptions: "I can play games”
  • Unrealistic positive overestimations: “I know my ABCs” when s/he doesn’t know them
  • Occurs in older children as social comparison

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The Self

  • Self-understanding
  • Early childhood and understanding others
  • By age 4: realize others make untrue statements to get something or avoid trouble
  • Individual differences in social understanding; some linked to caregivers’ conversations
  • More aware of others’ feelings, desires

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The Self

  • Self-understanding
  • Middle and Late Childhood
  • Increased awareness of social standing
  • Self-understanding becomes more complex
  • Understanding others
  • Realize others have access to more information
  • Assume others understand them, too.

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The Self

  • Self-understanding
  • Perspective-taking: Ability to assume another’s perspective and understand his or her thoughts and feelings
  • Important in children developing prosocial and antisocial attitudes and behaviors
  • Affects peer status and quality of friendships

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The Self

  • Middle and Late Childhood
  • Self-understanding: five key changes
  • Internal characteristics emphasized
  • More referencing in social descriptions
  • More use of social comparisons
  • Distinguish between real self and ideal self
  • Realistic in self-evaluations

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The Self

  • Self-understanding in adolescence
  • Abstract and idealistic
  • Self-conscious; preoccupied with self
  • Contradictions within the self: has multiple roles
  • Fluctuating self over time and situations
  • Real and ideal selves: constructed, compared
  • Thoughts of “possible selves”
  • Self-integration in sense of identity

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The Self

  • Self-understanding in adulthood
  • Self-Awareness
  • Awareness of strengths and weaknesses
  • Possible Selves
  • What one could or wanted to be, afraid to be
  • Life Review
  • Review, evaluate life’s successes and failures
  • Can be intense, quiet; common in old age

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The Self

  • Self-esteem and self-concept
  • Self-esteem: Self-worth, self-image
  • Refers to global self-evaluation
  • Self-concept: Domain-specific evaluations of self
  • Distinct: not really interchangeable

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The Self

  • Issues in self-esteem
  • Modest correlation with school performance
  • Linked to job performance; correlations vary
  • Related to perceived physical appearance across life-span
  • Depression lowers high self-esteem
  • Self-esteem in adolescence appears linked to adjustment and competencies in adulthood

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The Self

  • Issues in self-esteem
  • Narcissism: Too much self-esteem
  • Self-centered, self-concerned, conceited
  • Lack of awareness linked to adjustment problems
  • Happiness strongly linked to self-esteem

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The Self

  • Developmental changes in self-esteem
  • Childhood and adolescence
  • Self-evaluation accuracy increases across elementary school years; more realistic
  • Majority of adolescents have positive self-image cross-culturally
  • Girls: small decreases in self-esteem may be related to relationship authenticity

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The Self

  • Developmental changes in self-esteem
  • Concern today: Unmerited praise as child linked to inflated self-esteem in college students; difficulty handling competition and criticism
  • Adulthood
  • Results vary on self-esteem decreasing
  • Individual coping skills affects perceptions of changes, events; social context matters

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Figure 11.3 - Self-Esteem Across the Lifespan

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The Self

  • Developmental changes in self-esteem
  • Adulthood: Older adults
  • Emotion-related goals increase
  • Health evaluation based on peer comparisons
  • May help maintain positive self-image
  • Low self-esteem linked to being widowed or institutionalized; experiencing physical decline/impairment; low religious commitment

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The Self

  • Strategies for increasing self-esteem
  • Identify causes of low self-esteem
  • Provide/seek emotional support, social approval
  • Develop self-confidence and initiative
  • Achieve
  • Develop coping skills

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The Self

  • Self-regulation
  • Ability to control one’s behavior without having to rely on others for help
  • Includes self-generation and cognitive monitoring of thoughts
  • Self-regulation linked to higher achievement and satisfaction over the lifespan

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The Self

  • Self-regulation: Infancy and early childhood
  • 12 to 18 mons.: Depend on caregivers for reminder signals about acceptable behaviors
  • 2 to 3 yrs: Begin to comply with the caregiver’s expectations in the absence of monitoring
  • Preschool: Learn to resist temptation and give themselves instructions that keep them focused

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The Self

  • Self-regulation: Middle/late childhood and adolescence
  • Capacity for self-regulation increases
  • Few studies done on adolescents
  • Increased self-control, introspection, risk-taking
  • More independence, advanced cognitive skills
  • Better at delaying gratification
  • More social comparison may increase risks

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The Self

  • Self-regulation: Adulthood
  • Increase in self control in middle years
  • Older adults have decline in perceived self-control
  • Aware of age-related losses
  • Decline of physical and cognitive skills may be buffered by flexible adaptation
  • Selective optimization with compensation effective when pursuing successful outcomes

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The Self

  • Self-regulation
  • Selective Optimization with Compensation
  • Selection: Reduction in performance
  • Optimization: Continue practice, use of technology
  • Compensation: Concealment; offsetting or counterbalancing a deficiency

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The Self

  • Self-regulation: Personal control
  • Primary control striving
  • Try to change external world for needs and desires
  • Attain personal goals, overcome obstacles
  • Secondary control striving
  • Targets one’s inner worlds: motivation, emotion, and mental representation

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Figure 11.5 - Changes in Primary and Secondary Control Strategies Across the Life Span

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Identity

  • What is identity?
  • A self-portrait composed of many pieces
  • Vocational/career, political, religious
  • Relationship, achievement/intellectual
  • Cultural/ethnic, sexual, physical
  • Personality and interests

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Identity

  • Erikson’s view
  • Need to understand adolescent development
  • Identity versus identity confusion
  • Adolescents examine who they are, what they are about, and where they are going in life
  • Psychosocial moratorium
  • Gap between childhood security and adult autonomy, part of exploration for identity

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Identity

  • Contemporary thoughts on identity
  • Lengthy process, gradual and not crisis
  • Begins as attachment in infancy
  • Involves commitment/purpose, making decisions
  • Years of physical, cognitive, socioemotional development can be merged into one path
  • Some emerge with multiple identities
  • Concerns today: many not resolving identity

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Identity

  • Developmental changes
  • Identity statuses by Marcia
  • Crisis: Period for exploring alternative identities
  • Commitment: Personal investment in identity
  • Young adolescents primarily in statuses of diffusion, foreclosure, or moratorium

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Figure 11.6 - Marcia’s Identity Statuses

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Identity

  • Developmental changes
  • Early adolescence to adulthood
  • Key changes occur in early adulthood
  • Most dramatic change — vocational
  • Increased complexity in reasoning, experiences
  • Increased freedom has impact
  • Higher education linked to positive outcomes
  • Identity consolidation complete in middle age

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Identity

  • Family influences
  • Individuality: Two dimensions
  • Self-assertion: Ability to have, give opinions
  • Separateness: Communicates individuality
  • Connectedness: Two dimensions
  • Mutuality: Respect, sensitivity to others’ views
  • Permeability: Openness to others’ views

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Identity

  • Ethnic identity
  • Ethnic minority groups struggle to blend into dominant culture and keep cultural identities
  • Enduring aspect of self with sense of membership in ethnic group; related attitudes and feelings
  • Affected by sociocultural contexts
  • Positive ethnic identity linked to:
  • HS achievement, low aggression, good coping
  • Affected by higher education

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Personality

  • Definition: Enduring personal characteristics
  • Trait theories
  • Traits: Ways to describe a person by behaviors
  • Basic units/building blocks of personality
  • Five big factors: OCEAN
  • Led to advancements in assessing personality
  • Most believe personality is result of trait-situation interaction

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Figure 11.7 - Big Five Factors of Personality

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Personality

  • Views on adult personality development
  • Stage crisis view: Erikson, Levinson
  • Levinson’s seasons of a man’s life
  • Stage and transitions occur in life span
  • Tasks/crisis in each stage shape personality
  • Levinson’s midlife crisis in 40s: try to cope with gap between past and future
  • Vaillant’s Grant Study

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  • Early Adult Transition: 17 to 22
  • Entry life structure for early adulthood: 22 to 28
  • Age 30 transition: 28 to 33
  • Culminating life structure for early adulthood: 33 to 40
  • Middle Adult Transition: ages 40 to 45
  • Entry life structure for middle adulthood: 45 to 50
  • Age 50 transition: 50 to 55
  • Culminating life structure for middle adulthood: 55 to 60
  • Era of late adulthood: 60 to ?
  • Late Adult Transition: 60 to 65

Levinson’s Seasons of Life

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Personality

  • Individual variations
  • Individuals have different experiences, ways of adapting, expectations, perceptions of needs, and giving meaning to one’s life
  • Stage theories stress stage crises too much
  • Too much emphasis on midlife crisis
  • Great variation in how individuals experience stages (coping abilities, emotions)

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Figure 11.9 - Emotional Instability and Age

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Personality

  • Life events approach
  • Alternative to stage approach
  • Contemporary life-events approach
  • How a life event influences individual’s development depends on
  • The life event
  • Individual’s adaptation to the life event
  • Life-stage context
  • Sociohistorical context

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Figure 11.14 - Life Events Framework

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Personality

  • Generativity
  • Erikson’s generativity versus stagnation
  • Seventh stage; important dimension in middle age
  • Generativity: Taking care of next generation
  • Middle-aged adults develop in many ways
  • Stagnation
  • Self-absorption, develops when one senses s/he has done nothing for next generation

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Figure 11.12 - Changes in Generativity from the Thirties to the Fifties

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Personality

  • Stability and change
  • Many longitudinal studies have found evidence for both change and stability in personality in adulthood
  • Costa and McCrae’s Baltimore Study
  • Stability of big five factors in college educated
  • Berkley Longitudinal Studies
  • Helson’s Mills College Study
  • Vaillant’s studies

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Personality

  • Cumulative Personality Model
  • With time and age, people become more adept at interacting with environment in ways that promote stability
  • Overall, personality is affected by
  • Social contexts
  • New experiences
  • Sociohistorical changes

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Figure 11.13 - Links Between Characteristics at Age 50 and Health and Happiness at Ages 75-80

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The End