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© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

A Topical Approach to
Life-Span Development 6e

Chapter Eight:

Intelligence

John W. Santrock

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Concept of Intelligence

  • Intelligence
  • Similar to thinking and memory skills
  • Cannot be directly measured
  • Ability to solve problems; adapt to and learn from everyday experiences
  • Individual differences are stable, consistent

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Concept of Intelligence

  • Intelligence tests
  • The Binet tests
  • Mental age (MA) — individual’s level of mental development relative to others
  • Chronological age (CA) — age from birth
  • Intelligence quotient (IQ) — individual’s MA divided CA, multiplied by 100
  • Normal distribution — symmetrical distribution of scores around a mean

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Figure 8.1 - The Normal Curve and
Stanford-Binet IQ Scores

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Concept of Intelligence

  • Intelligence tests
  • Wechsler scales
  • WAIS-III — for adults
  • WISC-IV — for children
  • WPPSI-III — for preschool and primary children
  • Overall IQ score with composite scores
  • Measures verbal and performance IQ

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Concept of Intelligence

  • Use and misuse of intelligence tests
  • Tests are tools; use depends upon skills of user
  • Real world use: predictors of school success
  • Moderately correlated with work performance; correlation decreases as experience increases
  • IQ tests can easily lead to false expectations and generalizations; self-fulfilling prophecies
  • Measures current performance
  • Other factors also affect success

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Concept of Intelligence

  • Theories of multiple intelligence
  • Controversy over breaking intelligence down into multiple abilities
  • Sternberg’s triarchic theory
  • Main types of IQ: analytic, creative, practical
  • Triarchic patterns differ among students; affects how each performs and is perceived by others
  • Most tasks require some combination of these

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Concept of Intelligence

  • Theories of multiple intelligence
  • Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
  • Identifies eight types; perceived as strengths in some situations, improved with experience
  • Verbal, mathematics, spatial, interpersonal, body-kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, and naturalist skills
  • Can be destroyed, survive brain damage
  • Can be exaggerated: gifted, autistic savants

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Concept of Intelligence

  • Theories of multiple intelligence
  • Social intelligence components included in Sternberg’s and Gardner’s theories
  • Emotional intelligence linked to social behaviors
  • Criticized as broadening IQ too much
  • Contributions of multiple intelligence theories cannot be ignored; they have much to offer
  • Many criticisms of these

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Concept of Intelligence

  • Theories of multiple intelligence
  • Spearman’s two-factor theory: Factor analysis correlates test scores into clusters or factors
  • Many argue there is a “general intelligence”’ and then some have additional “specific intelligence” abilities
  • Most agree all intellectual abilities are related to each other
  • IQ tests may be too narrow to measure them

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Controversies and Group Comparisons

  • Influence of heredity and environment
  • Genetic influences: Heritability is from genes
  • Refers to specific groups
  • Influences increase with age
  • Based on IQ tests and faulty assumptions
  • Truth: genes and experience work together

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Controversies and Group Comparisons

  • Influence of heredity and environment
  • Environmental influences
  • Experiences make a difference in intelligence
  • Modifications in environment can change IQ scores considerably; very complex
  • SES, parent communication, schooling
  • Intelligence test scores increase each year around the world; effects of technology?
  • Flynn effect

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Controversies and Group Comparisons

  • Research on early intervention
  • High quality intervention improves IQ and school achievement
  • Effects strongest for poor with low educated parents
  • Positive benefits continue into adolescence
  • Educates parents to be more sensitive
  • Abecedarian Project

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Controversies and Group Comparisons

  • Group comparisons and issues
  • Cross-cultural comparisons problematic
  • Intelligence definition varies by culture;
  • Cultural values influence development
  • Practical, academic IQ can develop separately
  • Cultural bias in testing
  • Language, environmental experiences, SES

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Controversies and Group Comparisons

  • Group comparisons and issues
  • Cultural bias in testing
  • Culture-fair tests: Unbiased IQ tests
  • First type: Questions on information common to all SES and ethnic groups
  • Second type: No verbal questions used
  • Results: The most educated still score higher
  • Sternberg: Can only make culture-reduced tests

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Controversies and Group Comparisons

  • Group comparisons and issues
  • Ethnic comparisons in IQ testing
  • African American and Latino children score lower than white children on average
  • SES may have more effect than ethnicity; gap narrows in college
  • Questions raised about measuring ability of tests; individual scores vary considerably
  • Influence of stereotype threat

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Controversies and Group Comparisons

  • Group comparisons and issues
  • Gender comparisons in IQ testing
  • Average scores for females and males overlap
  • Males score better in some nonverbal abilities; some females better in verbal abilities
  • Variability higher in male scores
  • Questions of how strong differences are

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The Development of Intelligence

  • Tests of infant intelligence
  • Focus on perceptual-motor, social interaction, and much less verbal than IQ tests for older children
  • Gesell: Distinguishes normal from abnormal
  • Four categories of behavior: motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social
  • Combined overall score is developmental quotient (DQ)

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The Development of Intelligence

  • Tests of infant intelligence
  • Bayley Scales of Infant Development (v. III)
  • Has five scales:
  • Cognitive, language, motor, adaptive, and socio-emotional
  • Three scales are direct measurement
  • Two are questions answered by caregiver
  • More suitable for clinical setting

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The Development of Intelligence

  • Tests of infant intelligence
  • Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence
  • Use is increasing
  • Focuses on infant ability to process information
  • Encoding objects’ attributes
  • Detecting object similarities and differences
  • Forming, retrieving mental representations

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The Development of Intelligence

  • Stability and change in intelligence through adolescence
  • IQ score correlation statistically significant between preadolescence and age 18
  • IQ test scores can fluctuate dramatically across childhood
  • Children are adaptive and change
  • IQ not as stable as theorists once thought

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The Development of Intelligence

  • Intelligence in adulthood
  • Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
  • Crystallized intelligence
  • Accumulated information and verbal skills, which increase with age
  • Fluid intelligence
  • Ability to reason abstractly, which steadily declines from middle adulthood on
  • Cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cohort testing

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Figure 8.7 - Fluid and Crystallized Intellectual Development Across the Life Span

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The Development of Intelligence

  • Intelligence in adulthood
  • Seattle Longitudinal Study — 500 adult subjects
  • Since 1956: focused on
  • Vocabulary
  • Verbal memory
  • Number (math): declined in middle age
  • Spatial orientation
  • Inductive reasoning
  • Perceptual speed: showed earliest decline

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The Development of Intelligence

  • Intelligence in adulthood
  • Seattle Longitudinal Study

Intellectual abilities decline more in cross-sectional rather than longitudinal assessments

Middle-age was time of peak performance

When two generations assessed at ages 60-67, second generation showed higher cognitive functioning

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Figure 8.8 - Longitudinal Changes in Six
Intellectual Abilities

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Figure 8.9 - Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Comparisons of Intellectual Change

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The Development of Intelligence

  • Cognitive mechanics and pragmatics
  • Cognitive mechanics
  • Hardware of the mind
  • Speed and accuracy of processes involved in sensory input
  • More biological influenced; declines with age

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The Development of Intelligence

  • Cognitive mechanics and pragmatics
  • Cognitive pragmatics
  • Culture-based; “software” of the mind
  • Reading/writing, language comprehension
  • Educational qualifications
  • Professional skills
  • Knowledge about self and life skills
  • Can improve with age

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The Development of Intelligence

  • Wisdom
  • Expert knowledge on practical aspects of life permitting excellent judgment about important matters
  • High levels of wisdom are rare
  • Emerges late adolescence and early adulthood
  • Factors other than age are critical
  • Personality-related factors better predictors of wisdom

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Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

  • Mental retardation
  • Condition of limited mental ability
  • Low IQ on traditional test of intelligence
  • Difficulty adapting to everyday life
  • Onset by age 18; range of impairments vary
  • Some causes include
  • Organic retardation
  • Cultural-familial retardation

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Figure 8.12 - Classification of Mental Retardation Based on IQ

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Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

  • Giftedness
  • Above-average intelligence; figures are arbitrary
  • IQ of 130 is often used as low threshold
  • Generally not related to mental disorder
  • Individuals tend to be more mature, have fewer emotional problems, grow up in positive family

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Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

  • Giftedness
  • Distinct characteristics of gifted children
  • Precocity
  • March to their own drummer
  • Passion to master
  • Innate ability needs support of deliberate practice
  • Needs to be with others like themselves

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Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

  • Creativity
  • Ability to think in novel/unusual ways, and come up with unique/good solutions
  • Requires divergent thinking
  • Intelligence and creativity not same thing; most creative people are quite intelligent but reverse not necessarily true
  • Conventional IQ tests measure convergent thinking

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Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

  • Steps in the creative process
  • Preparation
  • Incubation
  • Insight
  • Evaluation
  • Elaboration
  • Not all creative people follow linear sequence

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Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

  • Characteristics of creative thinkers
  • Flexibility and playful thinking
  • Brainstorming
  • Inner motivation
  • Willingness to risk
  • Objective evaluation of work

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Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

  • Teaching in schools
  • Help students become more creative
  • Encourage brainstorming, taking intellectual risks
  • Provide environments that stimulate creativity
  • Don’t overcontrol students; build confidence
  • Encourage internal motivation, persistence, and delayed gratification
  • Introduce children to creative people

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Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

  • Changes in adulthood
  • Individuals’ most creative products were generated in their thirties
  • 80% of most important creative contributions completed by age 50
  • Researchers found creativity often peaks in forties before declining
  • Age of decline varies by domain

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Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity

  • Living a more creative life
  • Try to be surprised by something every day
  • Try to surprise at least one person every day
  • Write down the surprises of each day
  • Follow sparked interests
  • Wake up in the morning with a specific goal
  • Take charge of your schedule
  • Spend time in stimulating settings

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The End