communication
zl191474
building_a_speech_8th_edition.pdf
CENGAGE ADVANTAGE EDITION
BUILDING A SPEECH Eighth Edition
Sheldon Metcalfe Community College of Baltimore County
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Building a Speech, Eighth Edition, Advantage Edition Sheldon Metcalfe
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Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15 14 13 12 11
To my mother, who gave me the values, and my father, who gave me the vision
to write this book.
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Brief Contents
Preface xxi
Unit One SURVEYING THE LANDSCAPE
Chapter 1 Introducing the Study of Public Speaking 2
Chapter 2 Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension 15
Chapter 3 Building Your First Speech 28
Chapter 4 Analyzing Your Audience 43
Chapter 5 Improving Your Listening Skills 64
Chapter 6 Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking 81
Unit Two PREPARING THE FOUNDATION
Chapter 7 Selecting the Topic and Purpose 102
Chapter 8 Conducting Research 116
Chapter 9 Choosing Supporting Materials 141
Unit Three CREATING THE STRUCTURE
Chapter 10 Organizing the Body of the Speech 160
Chapter 11 Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion 179
Unit Four REFINING THE APPEARANCE
Chapter 12 Using Audiovisual Aids 206
Chapter 13 Considering Language 229
Chapter 14 Developing the Delivery 247
v
Unit Five CONSIDERING DIFFERENT TYPES OF STRUCTURE
Chapter 15 Speaking to Inform 270
Chapter 16 Speaking to Persuade 292
Chapter 17 Speaking to Persuade: Motivating Audiences 324
Chapter 18 Speaking for Special Occasions 340
Chapter 19 Speaking in Groups 357
v i Brief Contents
Contents
Preface xxi
Unit One Survey ing the Landscape
Chapter 1 Introducing the Study of Public Speaking 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE MODERN WORLD 3
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS 4
A Communication Model 5
The Sender: Encoding Ideas into Symbols 5
The Message 6
The Channel 6
The Receiver: Decoding Symbols into Ideas 6
Feedback 7
Setting 7
Noise 8
UNDERSTANDING THE TOOLS OF COMMUNICATION 10
APPLYING THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS 12
DESIGNING A PLAN FOR SUCCESS 13
SUMMARY 14
SKILL BUILDERS 14
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 14
Chapter 2 Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension 15 SPEECH ANXIETY IS COMMON 16
RESEARCH INTO STRESS AND COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION 17
REDUCING COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION 19
Face Anxiety Honestly and Overcome It 19
Develop a Positive Attitude 21
Adopt Constructive Behaviors 23
Maintain a Healthy Body 23
Be Thoroughly Prepared 24
Reward Yourself 24
Learn from Mistakes 25
Accept Constructive Criticism 25
vii
TAKING RESPONSIBILITY TO REDUCE APPREHENSION 26
SUMMARY 27
SKILL BUILDERS 27
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 27
Chapter 3 Building Your First Speech 28 EXTEMPORANEOUS DELIVERY AND SPEAKING STYLES 29
CREATING A BLUEPRINT 30
Step 1: Choose an Interesting, Well-Defined Topic 30
Step 2: Understand the General Purpose 31
Step 3: Conduct Extensive Research 31
Step 4: Write Specific Purpose and Thesis Statements 32
Step 5: Write a Comprehensive Outline 32
Step 6: Be Sensitive to Audience Members 33
Step 7: Understand Your Ethical Responsibilities 33
Step 8: Choose Extemporaneous Delivery 33
Step 9: Practice the Speech 33
Step 10: Be Confident and Prepared 35
THE CAREER SPEECH 36
Researching the Career Speech 36
Developing the Career Speech 37
SAMPLE SPEECH: CAREERS IN ANTHROPOLOGY 37
SUMMARY 41
SKILL BUILDERS 42
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 42
Chapter 4 Analyzing Your Audience 43 THE IMPORTANCE OF AUDIENCE ANALYSIS 44
Audience Perception of the Speaker 45
Audience Perception of the Topic 46
Motivations of the Audience 49
Physiological Needs 50
Safety Needs 50
Love Needs 50
Esteem Needs 50
Self-Actualization Needs 50
Impact of Social Groups on Listeners 51
Age 51
Gender 52
Religion 53
Cultural and Ethnic Origin 53
Educational Level, Occupation, and Interests 55
Income Level 56
v i i i Contents
Geographic Location 56
Social Organizations 56
Targeting Specific Groups 57
Impact of the Occasion on Listeners 58
The Purpose of the Occasion 58
The Physical Location of the Event 59
The Expectations of the Speaker 59
CONDUCTING AN AUDIENCE ANALYSIS 60
Collecting Demographic Data about the Audience 60
Informal Assessments 60
Surveys 60
Questionnaires 61
Interviews 61
Processing the Data with a Computer 62
Evaluating the Audience Profile 62
SUMMARY 62
SKILL BUILDERS 62
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 63
Chapter 5 Improving Your Listening Skills 64 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LISTENING 65
THE PROCESS OF LISTENING 66
KINDS OF LISTENING 68
Discriminative Listening 68
Evaluative Listening 69
Appreciative Listening 69
Empathic Listening 70
Active and Passive Listening 70
BARRIERS TO LISTENING: THE LACK OF BEING “PRESENT” 70
Yielding to Distractions 71
Blocking Out Communication 72
Listening Selectively 73
Overcriticizing the Speaker 74
Faking Attention 74
Avoiding Difficult or Unpleasant Listening Situations 74
HOW TO BECOME AN ACTIVE LISTENER AND SPEAKER 75
Withhold Judgment 75
Avoid the Appearance Trap 75
Don’t Be Easily Swayed by Delivery and Style 76
Give All Topics a Fair Hearing 76
Avoid Extraneous Mental Activity During the Speech 76
Give Honest, Attentive Feedback 76
Contents ix
Eliminate Distractions 78
Evaluate the Communication When It Is Finished 78
SUMMARY 79
SKILL BUILDERS 80
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 80
Chapter 6 Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking 81 THE NEED FOR ETHICS IN SOCIETY 83
EVALUATING A SPEAKER’S ETHICS 84
Honesty and the Speaker 84
The Speaker’s Reliability 87
The Speaker’s Motivations 87
The Speaker’s Policies 88
APPLYING ETHICAL STANDARDS 90
Be Honest 91
Direct Quotation 91
Paraphrased Passage 91
Plagiarized Passage 91
Advocate Ideas That Benefit Others 92
Evaluate Your Motives for Speaking 92
Develop a Speaking Code of Ethics 93
SAMPLE SPEECH: PRACTICE, PRACTICE, PRACTICE: KNOWING IS NOT THE SAME THING AS DOING 95
SUMMARY 99
SKILL BUILDERS 99
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 99
Unit Two Prepar ing the Foundat ion
Chapter 7 Selecting the Topic and Purpose 102 GETTING IDEAS 103
Your Own Knowledge and Experience 103
Brainstorming 104
Library Databases and the Internet 104
Ask for Help 104
SELECTING THE TOPIC 104
It Should Interest You, the Speaker 104
It Should be Sufficiently Narrow and Conform to the Time Limit 105
It Should Provide New Information 106
It Should be Appropriate 106
It Should Conform to the General Purpose 107
Speeches to Inform 107
Speeches to Persuade 107
Speeches to Entertain 108
x Contents
WRITING THE SPECIFIC PURPOSE 108
Be Clear, Concise, and Unambiguous 108
Include Only One Major Idea 109
Use a Declarative Statement 110
WORDING THE THESIS STATEMENT 110
Problems with the Thesis Statement 112
PUTTING IT TOGETHER 113
SUMMARY 114
SKILL BUILDERS 114
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 115
Chapter 8 Conducting Research 116 PREPARING FOR RESEARCH 117
ESTABLISHING CREDIBILITY 117
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES 118
ACCESSING THE LIBRARY 119
The Online Catalog 119
Databases 119
GUIDELINES FOR SEARCHING THE INTERNET 121
RESEARCHING REFERENCE SOURCES 123
Biographies 123
Directories and Handbooks 124
The Dictionary and Thesaurus 124
Encyclopedias 124
Almanacs, Yearbooks, and Statistical Publications 125
Collections of Quotations 125
Books 125
Magazines, Journals, and Newspapers 125
Legal Research 126
Audiovisual Aids 126
Interviews with Authorities 127
Legislative and Governmental Research 129
Institutional and Organizational Research 129
Specialized Libraries and Museums 130
KEEPING ACCURATE NOTES 130
INTERVIEWING 132
Preparing for the Interview 132
Conducting the Interview 133
Taking Notes During the Interview 134
THE BIBLIOGRAPHY: HOW TO RECORD AN ENTRY 134
AVOIDING PLAGIARISM 136
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT SPEECH RESEARCH AND CONSTRUCTION 136
Contents xi
Be Willing to Test Information 136
Be Organized 138
View Ideas from Different Perspectives 138
Think for Yourself 139
SUMMARY 140
SKILL BUILDERS 140
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 140
Chapter 9 Choosing Supporting Materials 141 MAKING THE APPROPRIATE SELECTION 142
STATISTICS, POLLS, AND SURVEYS 142
Using Statistics 142
Poll 143
Study 143
Startling Statistics 143
EXAMPLES, ILLUSTRATIONS, CASE STUDIES, AND NARRATIVES 144
Using Examples 144
Example 144
Hypothetical Example 145
Illustration 145
Case Study 146
Narrative 147
QUOTATIONS AND TESTIMONY 147
Using Quotations and Testimonies 148
Quotation 148
Expert Testimony 148
Prestige Testimony 149
Personal Testimony 149
VISUAL EVIDENCE 149
COMPARISONS AND CONTRASTS 149
Using Comparisons and Contrasts 150
PERSONAL EXPERIENCE AND OBSERVATION 151
Using Experience and Observation 151
HUMOR AND ANECDOTES 152
Using Humor and Anecdotes 152
ROLE-PLAYING 153
Using Role-Playing Techniques 153
SAMPLE SPEECH: THE FLAG RAISINGS ON IWO JIMA 154
SUMMARY 157
SKILL BUILDERS 157
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 157
xi i Contents
Unit Three Creat ing the Structure
Chapter 10 Organizing the Body of the Speech 160 APPROACHING ORGANIZATION LOGICALLY 161
PRINCIPLES OF OUTLINING 161
Building Block One: The Body Should Contain Between Two and Four Main Points or Numerals in a Five- to Seven-Minute Speech 162
Building Block Two: Main Points in the Body Should be Structured in an Organizational Sequence that is Logical, Interesting, and Appropriate to the Topic 162
Chronological Sequence 162
Spatial Sequence 163
Cause-Effect Sequence 164
Topical Sequence 164
Other Sequences 165
Building Block Three: A System of Roman Numerals, Letters, and Arabic Numbers Should be Combined with Indentation to Identify Main and Subordinate Levels 166
Building Block Four: The Outline Should Include Supporting Materials That are Coordinated and Subordinated in a Logical Manner 167
Building Block Five: Every Subdivision must Contain at Least Two Items 169
Building Block Six: Each Point Should Include Only One Topic or Idea 170
Building Block Seven: Main Points (Numerals) and Supporting Items Should be Linguistically Parallel 171
Building Block Eight: The Outline Should be Expressed in Either Sentences or Topics 172
Building Block Nine: The Outline Should Identify Sources for Major Supporting Materials 173
Building Block Ten: The Outline Should Include External Transitions Between Main Numerals 174
YOUR SPEAKING NOTES 175
SUMMARY 177
SKILL BUILDERS 177
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 178
Chapter 11 Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion 179 PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION 180
THE INADEQUATE INTRODUCTION 180
PLANNING AN EFFECTIVE INTRODUCTION 181
Examples, Stories, and Illustrations 182
Shocking Statement or Situation 183
Statistics 184
Questions 185
Quotation 186
Suspense 186
Contents xi i i
Personal Reference, Compliment, or Reference to the Occasion 187
Humor 188
The Flexible Introduction 189
Combination of Strategies 190
OUTLINING THE INTRODUCTION 190
PURPOSE OF THE CONCLUSION 191
THE INADEQUATE CONCLUSION 191
PLANNING THE EFFECTIVE CONCLUSION 192
Summary of Main Points 192
Quotation 193
Reference to the Introduction 194
Challenge or Appeal 194
Humor 195
Question 196
Story, Illustration, and Example 197
Statistics 197
OUTLINING THE CONCLUSION 198
SPEAKING NOTES FOR THE INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION 199
SAMPLE OUTLINE: RAISING THE MONITOR 200
SUMMARY 203
SKILL BUILDERS 203
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 203
Unit Four Ref in ing the Appearance
Chapter 12 Using Audiovisual Aids 206 TYPES OF AUDIOVISUAL AIDS 207
Electronic Media 207
The Data Projector and Computer 207
Devices for Capturing Text and Media 208
The Document Camera 208
The Touch Screen Monitor or Whiteboard 209
Audience Response Systems 209
Older Technologies 209
Graphs 213
Illustrations, Photographs, and Pictures 214
Posters, Flipcharts, and Chalkboards 218
Models and Objects 220
You as a Visual Aid 220
Copyright Cautions 223
xiv Contents
SAMPLE SPEECH: HOW DO AIRPLANE WINGS PRODUCE LIFT? 223
SUMMARY 227
SKILL BUILDERS 228
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 228
Chapter 13 Considering Language 229 DEVELOPING CLARITY 230
Avoiding Euphemisms 231
USING CONCRETE LANGUAGE 232
Denotation and Connotation 233
BUILDING A UNIQUE STYLE 234
Similes 234
Metaphors 235
Alliteration 236
Amplification 236
Antithesis 236
Repetition 237
Mnemonic Phrases 237
BEING APPROPRIATE 238
Be Aware of Cultural Differences 238
Recognize Differences Due to Gender 240
Avoid Offensive Terms 241
Eliminate Irrelevant Language 241
Avoid Trite Expressions 242
Eliminate Grammatical Errors 242
Build Vocabulary Skills 243
MAKING IDEAS MEANINGFUL AND INTERRELATED 243
Personal Pronouns 243
Transitions 244
SUMMARY 245
SKILL BUILDERS 246
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 246
Chapter 14 Developing the Delivery 247 DELIVERING THE SPEECH 248
PROPER BREATHING FOR VOCAL DELIVERY 249
VOCAL DELIVERY 250
Volume 250
Articulation 251
Pitch and Inflection 251
Quality 252
Rate 253
Contents xv
Pronunciation 253
Pauses 254
Emphasis and Phrasing 255
VISUAL, NONVERBAL DELIVERY 256
Eye Contact 256
Appearance 257
Gestures 257
Facial Expression 258
Body Position and Movement 259
Culture and Nonverbal Delivery 260
Gender and Nonverbal Delivery 261
COMBINING VOCAL AND VISUAL DELIVERY 263
BUILDING SKILLS IN DELIVERY 264
Know Your Material 264
Be Well Organized 264
Prepare Your Speaking Notes 264
Practice the Delivery 266
SUMMARY 267
SKILL BUILDERS 267
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 268
Unit Five Considering Dif ferent Types of Structure
Chapter 15 Speaking to Inform 270 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INFORMATION AND PERSUASION 271
TYPES OF INFORMATIVE SPEECHES 272
The Descriptive Speech 272
An Example 273
Outlining the Descriptive Speech 275
The Demonstration Speech 276
An Example 278
Outlining the Demonstration Speech 278
The Speech of Definition 280
Other Informative Types: Reports, Lectures, and Personal Experience 282
SAMPLE SPEECH: RAISING THE MONITOR 285
Alternative Introduction: Series of Questions 289
Alternative Conclusion: Quotation 290
SUMMARY 290
SKILL BUILDERS 291
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 291
xv i Contents
Chapter 16 Speaking to Persuade 292 PERSUASION IN TODAY’S SOCIETY 293
THE NATURE OF PERSUASION 293
Speeches to Convince 294
Speeches to Stimulate 294
Speeches to Actuate 294
Selecting the Persuasive Topic 295
Wording the Proposition Statement 295
Propositions of Fact, Value, and Policy 296
ETHOS, PATHOS, AND LOGOS: THE MEANS OF PERSUASION 297
Ethos: The Ethical Appeal 297
Pathos: The Emotional Appeal 299
Identify Emotions 300
Understand Audience Emotions 301
Express Your Own Feelings 302
Connect Emotions to the Occasion 303
LOGOS: THE APPEAL TO REASON 304
Arguments Based on Enumeration 305
Arguments Based on Analogy 306
Arguments Based on Causation 307
Developing Rebuttal Arguments 308
METHODS OF ORGANIZING PERSUASIVE SPEECHES 311
Reasons 311
Problem-Solution 313
Comparative Advantages 315
Motivated Sequence 316
SAMPLE SPEECH: COMPUTER-ENHANCED ADVERTISING SHOULD BE CLEARLY LABELED 318
SUMMARY 322
SKILL BUILDERS 323
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 323
Chapter 17 Speaking to Persuade: Motivating Audiences 324
STRATEGIES FOR MOTIVATING LISTENERS 325
Appeal to the Needs of the Audience 325
Physical 325
Safety and Security 325
Love 325
Esteem 326
Self-Actualization 326
Appeal to Listeners’ Beliefs and Values 326
Contents xv i i
Provide Listeners with Incentives 327
Involve the Audience Emotionally 328
THE SPEECH TO ACTUATE 329
Attention Step 329
Need Step 329
Satisfaction Step 330
Visualization Step 330
Action Step 330
Phrasing the Thesis 330
APPLYING THE MOTIVATED SEQUENCE 331
Attention Step 331
Need Step 331
Satisfaction Step 332
Visualization Step 332
Action Step 333
Outlining the Motivated Sequence 335
SAMPLE SPEECH: GENOCIDE IN SUDAN 336
SUMMARY 338
SKILL BUILDERS 339
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 339
Chapter 18 Speaking for Special Occasions 340 TYPES OF SPECIAL-OCCASION SPEECHES 341
The Speech of Tribute 341
Construct a Brief Biographical Sketch 341
Acknowledge Significant Achievements and Virtues 341
Convey Hope and Encouragement 341
The Presentation Speech 342
The Acceptance Speech 343
The Speech of Dedication 344
The Speech of Welcome 345
The Speech of Introduction 345
The Keynote Speech 346
The Nominating Speech 347
The Farewell Speech 348
The Victory Speech 348
The Commencement Speech 349
The After-Dinner Speech 349
Toasts 350
SAMPLE SPEECH: DEDICATION OF THE WORLD WAR II MEMORIAL 352
SUMMARY 355
SKILL BUILDERS 355
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 356
xv i i i Contents
Chapter 19 Speaking in Groups 357 CHARACTERISTICS OF SMALL GROUPS 358
Shared Goals 358
Group Interaction 359
Size 359
Time Period 359
Leadership 359
DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL GROUPS 360
Forming 360
Storming 361
Norming 361
Performing 361
SOLVING PROBLEMS IN GROUPS 361
Questions for Discussion 361
Questions of Fact 361
Questions of Value 362
Questions of Policy 362
Developing a Problem-Solving Agenda 362
Define the Problem 362
Narrow the Problem 362
Analyze the Issue 363
Set Up Criteria 363
Suggest Solutions 363
Apply Criteria to Solutions 364
Implement the Selected Solution 364
Monitor the Success of the Solution 364
A Sample Agenda 365
PARTICIPATING IN GROUPS 365
Group-Centered Behavior 366
Be an Active Observer 366
Support Group Procedure 366
Be Reliable 366
Be Willing to Compromise 366
Be Courteous and Respectful 367
Encourage and Energize Members 367
Self-Centered Behavior 367
LEADERSHIP IN SMALL GROUPS 369
Leadership Theories 369
Positive Leadership Behaviors 369
Be Prepared 369
Keep to Time Limits 370
Be Organized 371
Know When to Intervene 371
Contents xix
SPECIAL DISCUSSION FORMATS 374
Focus Groups 374
The Symposium 375
The Panel 375
The Forum 376
Buzz Groups 376
Role-Playing Groups 376
SUMMARY 376
SKILL BUILDERS 377
BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE 377
Notes 378
Glossary 387
Suggested Topic Areas 395
Index 400
xx Contents
Preface
Public speaking is a building process wherein students gradually acquire skills in speech research, organization, and delivery. Students learn these skills step-by-step from their own experiences, by observing the presentations of others, through peer criticism, and from the guidance of effective instructors. This book establishes a caring environment for the learning process using a conversational style that aims to both interest and moti- vate students while conveying encouragement through topics such as apprehension and listening that will help students to realize that they are not alone in their struggles. It is grounded in the philosophy that students can master the steps of speech construction if provided with a caring environment, clear blueprints, and creative examples.
PLAN OF THE BOOK The five units in this book organize skills in a sequence that is meaningful and under- standable to students.
Unit One, “Surveying the Landscape,” presents modern theories of communication and a brief overview of communication in our contemporary world. In addition, it con- siders apprehension, introduces students to their first speaking experience, and includes chapters on listening and ethics.
Unit Two, “Preparing the Foundation,” describes how to select topics, write purpose statements, conduct research, and choose supporting materials for speeches.
Unit Three, “Creating the Structure,” discusses outlining as well as speech introduc- tions and conclusions.
Unit Four, “Refining the Appearance,” describes the refinements necessary to com- plete speech construction. It helps students build skills in delivery and language, explains the use of visual aids, and includes a sample demonstration speech.
Unit Five, “Considering Different Types of Structures,” discusses descriptive and process speeches and includes a sample descriptive speech; examines persuasive speaking, with sample convincing and actuating speeches; considers presentations for special occa- sions, including the after-dinner speech; and explores the dynamics of speaking in group situations.
FEATURES OF THE EIGHTH EDITION The Eighth Edition retains all of the popular features of previous editions, including a conversational style, vivid examples, and guidelines for speeches. It retains essential chapters on apprehension, listening, ethics, and discussion of diversity. In addition, Building a Speech, Eighth Edition, includes the following new and revised features:
Expanded and Relocated Apprehension Chapter Since studies show that speech apprehension is among the top two fears of most Amer- icans, “Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension” is now presented as Chapter 2 to help students handle this anxiety early in the course. Chapter 2 has been
xxi
expanded as well. The section titled, “Accept Anxiety Honestly and Face It,” includes a three-column table that identifies a fear, asks challenge questions in response to the fear, and provides encouraging statements of affirmation to help students reduce their anxiety. In the section “Adopt Constructive Behaviors,” journaling before and after a speech is recommended and sample journal entries are provided for student practice. There are also updated examples of celebrities who have reported anxiety before per- formances and a new box with a statement about stage fright by actor Al Pacino.
Updated Chapter 1 Chapter 1, “Introducing the Study of Public Speaking,” includes a new discussion of past and present speakers who have influenced our modern world. In addition to well known leaders of the past such as Roosevelt, Kennedy, King, and Reagan, Chapter 1 describes how Elie Wiesel, Bono, Mother Teresa, Nelson Mandela, Princess Diana, Christopher Reeve, Michael J. Fox, Condoleezza Rice, Hillary Clinton, and Michelle Obama have used communication to shape our world. Reviewers suggested that the inclusion of con- temporary speakers replace discussion of ancient orators presented in earlier editions.
Boxed Examples in Audience Analysis Chapter Two example boxes have been added to Chapter 4, “Analyzing Your Audience.” One box includes a discussion of political lightening rods Nancy Pelosi and Sarah Palin and how public perception has changed over time regarding the policies and actions of these controversial political women. Another includes an example from Wall Street Journal col- umnist Jeffrey Zaslow who describes how a phrase he used as a college student was hurt- ful to the ethnicity of his Spanish professor.
New Boxed Examples and Building Strategies in Listening Chapter New example boxes have also been added to Chapter 5, “Improving Your Listening Skills.” “Caught by the Camera” describes how a sports writer for the Daily Herald in Arlington, Illinois was captured napping in a photograph when he should have been doing his job taking notes as a reporter and listening to a political speaker. A second boxed example presents an individual who is so absorbed in texting that she loses aware- ness and creates an embarrassing situation for herself. The chapter concludes with a new “building” box that summarizes skills that students need when listening to the content and delivery of a speech.
Updated Ethics Chapter Chapter 6, “Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking,” includes updated examples of the ethical lapses of prominent speakers in business and politics. The chapter also con- tains a boxed example describing accusations of plagiarism that caused Senator Joseph Biden to withdraw from the Democratic presidential primary race in the 1980s. There is also a boxed example describing an incident in which a Columbia University valedic- torian plagiarized a portion of his commencement address to his 2010 graduating class. In addition to an updated example of plagiarism, the chapter presents a new “building” box to help students develop a code of ethics for public speaking.
Revised MLA Examples in Research Chapter Since the Modern Language Association recently revised the format for bibliographic citations, all new bibliographic examples in Chapter 8, “Conducting Research,” conform to the new MLA standard. There are also updated examples for citing sources, new note card illustrations, and a new plagiarism example.
xxi i Preface
Revisions and Additions to Supporting Materials Chapter In Chapter 9, “Choosing Supporting Materials,” polls, studies, and startling statistics are more clearly defined and indicated. In addition, brief and hypothetical examples, illustra- tions, case studies, and narratives are more clearly differentiated. The chapter also now includes and explains the differences among expert, prestige, and personal testimony. Although visual aids are extensively presented and discussed in Chapter 12, visual evi- dence is introduced as a significant supporting material in Chapter 9.
Additional Development of the Introduction and Conclusion Chapter 11, “Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion,” further develops and clarifies the purpose of the introduction and conclusion. In addition, the chapter presents exam- ples of ineffective beginnings and endings and explains why they are poor. The chapter also clearly highlights the thesis to each sample introduction so students can see the sig- nificance of its placement as the last line of the introduction.
Updated Terminology in the Visual Aids Chapter In Chapter 12, “Using Audiovisual Aids,” terminology in the electronic media section has been updated and revised to help student speakers understand how current advance- ments such as audience response systems, document cameras, whiteboards, touch screens, and file capturing can help speakers create visuals more easily and stimulate added inter- est among listeners. A new section is also included titled, “Copyright Cautions,” to help students understand the important legal difference between “fair use” and “commercial use” for copyrighted visual and textual materials that require written permission.
Revised Speaking Notes in Delivery Chapter The section titled, “Prepare Your Speaking Notes,” in Chapter 14, “Developing the Delivery,” has been expanded and revised. Since extemporaneous delivery is so impor- tant for the beginning speaker to learn, this section provides five sample note cards to show students how to use key words and brief phrases to present a speech instead of a written manuscript. This section also explains and visually illustrates how students can use markings on their speaking notes to remind them where to state sources, use visuals, or emphasize significant words and phrases. The speech titled, “How Do Airplane Wings Produce Lift?,” from Chapter 12 is used for the sample note cards.
New Table Identifying Fallacies in Persuasive Chapter In addition to describing ethical and logical fallacies in Chapter 16, “Speaking to Persuade,” now contains a comprehensive table that identifies, defines, and provides examples of the principal ethical and logical fallacies presented in the chapter for easier student access. Additional logical fallacies are also included to help students avoid com- mon speaking errors. The chapter also contains an updated boxed example showing students how to construct persuasive arguments on opposing sides of the controversial issue, “The detention facility at Guantanamo Bay should be closed and detainees should be brought to trial in U.S. civilian courts.”
Original Cartoon Illustrations In addition to other updates and changes, the Eighth Edition includes original cartoons drawn by artist George Goebel whose Greek cartoon appears in Chapter 1 and was also featured in earlier editions. New cartoons in this edition include a nervous speaker in Chapter 2, texting in front of truck in Chapter 5, and gullible students in a strange med- ical lecture in Chapter 8.
Preface xxi i i
STUDENT RESOURCES Building a Speech, Eighth Edition, features an outstanding array of supplements to assist in making this course as meaningful and effective as possible. Available student resources include:
• Resource Center. This useful site offers a variety of rich learning assets designed to enhance the student experience. Organized by tasks as well as by chapter, these assets include self-assessments, Web activities, chapter outlines, and review questions. The Resource Center also features course resources such as Speech Builder Express™ 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and more.
• Speech Builder Express™ 3.0. This online program coaches students through the entire process of preparing speeches and provides the additional support of built-in video speech models, a tutor feature for concept review, direct links to InfoTrac College Edition, an online dictionary and thesaurus, and leading professional organizations’ online documentation style guidelines and sample models. Equipped with their speech type or purpose, a general topic, and preliminary research, students respond to the program’s customized prompts to complete interactive activities that require critical thinking about all aspects of creating an effective speech. Students are able to specify a speech purpose, identify an organizational pattern, write a thesis statement or central idea, establish main points, integrate support material, craft transitions, plan visual aids, compose their speech introduction and conclusion, and prepare their bibliography. Students are also able to stop and start work whenever they choose and to complete, save online, export to Microsoft Word®, or e-mail up to five outlines.
• InfoTrac College Edition with InfoMarks™. This online library provides access to more than 18 million reliable, full-length articles from over 5,000 academic and popular periodicals. Students also have access to InfoMarks—stable URLs that can be linked to articles, journals, and searches to save valuable time when doing research—and to the InfoWrite online resource center, where students can access grammar help, critical thinking guidelines, guides to writing research papers, and much more. For more information about InfoTrac College Edition and the InfoMarks linking tool, visit www.infotrac-college.com and click on “User Demo.”
• Book Companion Website. The website features study aids such as chapter outlines, flash cards, and other resources for mastering glossary terms as well as chapter quizzes that help students check their understanding of key concepts.
• iChapters.com. This online store provides students with exactly what they’ve been asking for: choice, convenience, and savings. A 2005 research study by the National Association of College Stores indicates that as many as 60 percent of students do not purchase all required course material; however, those who do are more likely to succeed. This research also tells us that students want the ability to purchase “a la carte” course material in the format that suits them best. Accordingly, iChapters.com is the only online store that offers eBooks at up to 50 percent off, eChapters for as low as $1.99 each, and new textbooks at up to 25 percent off, plus up to 25 percent off print and digital supplements that can help improve student performance.
• A Guide to the Basic Course for ESL Students. Written specifically for communi- cators whose first language is not English, this guide features FAQs, helpful URLs, and strategies for managing communication anxiety.
• Conquer Your Speech Anxiety. Learn How to Overcome Your Nervousness About Public Speaking by Karen Kangas Dwyer. Drawing from the latest research, this
xxiv Preface
innovative resource helps students understand and develop a plan to overcome their fear of public speaking. The CD-ROM includes both audio relaxation exercises and techniques for overcoming anxiety.
RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTORS Building a Speech, Eighth Edition, also features a full suite of resources for instructors. To evaluate any of these instructor or student resources, please contact your local Cengage Learning representative for an examination copy, contact our Academic Resource Cen- ter at 800-354-9706, or visit us at www.cengage.com/. Instructor resources include:
• Instructor’s Resource Manual. Written by the author, the Instructor’s Resource Manual provides a comprehensive teaching system. Included in the manual are a syllabus, criteria for evaluation, chapter objectives, in-class activities, handouts, and transparency masters. All of the Skill Builder and InfoTrac College Edition exercises included on the Resource Center and companion website are included in the Instructor’s Resource Manual in case online access is unavailable or inconvenient. The Instructor’s Resource Manual includes a printed test bank that features class- tested and reliability-rated multiple-choice, true-false, short-answer, essay, and fill-in-the-blank test questions. Print and electronic versions are available.
• Instructor’s Website. The password-protected instructor’s website includes electronic access to the Instructor’s Resource Manual and other tools for teaching. To gain access to the website, simply request a course key by opening the site’s home page.
• PowerLecture. This CD-ROM contains an electronic version of the Instructor’s Resource Manual, ExamView computerized testing, and videos associated with Building a Speech. This all-in-one tool makes it easy for you to assemble, edit, and present materials for your course.
• Turn-It-In®. This proven online plagiarism-prevention software promotes fairness in the classroom by helping students learn to correctly cite sources and allowing instructors to check for originality before reading and grading papers and speeches. Turn-It-In quickly checks student work against billions of pages of Internet content, millions of published works, and millions of student papers and speeches and within seconds generates a comprehensive originality report.
• Wadsworth Communication Video and DVD Library. Wadsworth’s video and DVD series for speech communication includes communication scenarios for critique and analysis, student speeches for critique and analysis, and ABC News videos and DVDs for human communication, public speaking, interpersonal communication, and mass communication.
• The Teaching Assistant’s Guide to the Basic Course. Written by Katherine G. Hendrix of the University of Memphis, this resource was prepared specifically for new instructors. Based on leading communication teacher-training programs, this guide discusses some of the general issues that accompany a teaching role and offers specific strategies for managing the first week of classes, leading productive discus- sions, managing sensitive topics in the classroom, and grading students’ written and oral work.
• The Art and Strategy of Service-Learning Presentations, Second Edition. Written by Rick Isaacson and Jeff Saperstein of San Francisco State University, this handbook provides guidelines for connecting service-learning work with classroom concepts and advice for working effectively with agencies and organizations.
Preface xxv
• TLC Technology Training and Support. Get trained, get connected, and get the support you need for seamless integration of technology resources into your course with Technology Learning Connected (TLC). This unparalleled technology service and training program provides robust online resources, peer-to-peer instruction, personalized training, and a customizable program you can count on. Visit www. cengage.com/tlc to sign up for online seminars, first days of class services, technical support, or personalized, face-to-face training. Our online or on-site training is frequently led by one of our Lead Teachers, faculty members who are experts in using Cengage Learning technology, and can provide best practices and teaching tips.
• Custom Chapters. Create a text as unique as your course—quickly, simply, and affordably. As part of our flex-text program you can add your personal touch to Building a Speech with a course-specific cover and up to 32 pages of your own content, at no additional cost. Bonus chapters available now include expanded discussions of group speaking and mediated speaking.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A writing project of this scope cannot be accomplished without the assistance of many individuals. My thanks goes to the reviewers whose comments helped in the revi- sion of the Eighth Edition: Lynda Brown, Texas A&M International University; Beth Conomos, Erie Community College—North Campus; Tim Kelley, Northwest-Shoals Community College; Terri Main, Reedley College; Josh Misner, North Idaho College; and Ken Sherwood, Los Angeles City College.
I also wish to thank the Wadsworth team who provided advice and assistance for this new edition: Monica Eckman, acquisitions editor, Larry Goldberg, development editor.
I am indebted to my outstanding colleagues in the Speech Communication Depart- ment at the Community College of Baltimore County. Jennifer Kafka Smith graciously offered the speech “How Airplane Wings Produce Lift” in the visual aids chapter as well as suggestions for Chapters 17 and 19. Tim Thompson and Drew Kahl provided helpful perspectives and suggestions as they used the text in their basic speech communication classes. And my wonderful basic speech students deserve special praise for their continued help, creative examples, and energetic suggestions.
Sheldon Metcalfe
xxv i Preface
UNIT ONE Surveying the Landscape
Chapter 1 Introducing the Study of Public Speaking
Chapter 2 Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension
Chapter 3 Building Your First Speech
Chapter 4 Analyzing Your Audience
Chapter 5 Improving Your Listening Skills
Chapter 6 Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCING THE STUDY OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Recognize the importance of communication in the modern world
2 Describe the communication process
3 Understand the tools of communication
4 Apply the communication process
5 Describe three overall objectives for studying public speaking
• His high school commencement speaker was so boring that Blake unzipped his academic gown and slumped down in his seat to get some extra z’s.
• Teneka never took public speakers seriously. She thought they were all scam artists and lumped them together with politicians and used car salespeople.
• After Brooke walked away from a disagreement with her Dad about the contribu- tions of the hip-hop music industry, she thought of more things she wished she had said to support her side of the argument.
• Otis gets so nervous before he has to give a departmental report at work that he sometimes calls in sick to avoid the presentation.
• Every time he listened to his favorite politician deliver a speech, Chavez always wanted to hear more.
• Tasha’s physics professor ended the lecture by asking, “Do you have any questions?” Even though Tasha didn’t understand the instructor’s concepts, she didn’t speak up because she thought she would look stupid in front of other students.
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“Talking and eloquence arenot the same; to speak,and to speak well are two things. A fool may talk, but a wise man speaks.”—Ben Jonson
2
If you identified with any of the people in these situations, you are not alone. Many individuals express a variety of these feelings when it comes to presenting or listening to public speeches. This text is designed to help you handle some of these issues. This text also gives you some strategies that can help you to succeed when building your own presentations.
We’ll introduce the study of public speaking in Chapter 1 by considering the importance of communication in today’s world and exploring a contemporary communication model. Finally, we will look at some historical perspectives about communication and briefly discuss how to apply communication today.
We wish you success. Welcome!
Communication in the Modern World
Think of the numerous circumstances in your life that require some form of communica- tion activity. You use your iPhone to e-mail a friend. You take notes in an economics class where the instructor supports her lecture with PowerPoint slides. You argue with an officer at an airport security checkpoint about the new pat-down search procedures. You follow the assertive commands from a GPS navigation system to get to a party. You watch a CNN news report about a war against Libya. You prepare for a job interview you’ve located on www.monster.com. Each of these situations requires some form of communication skill. The airport encounter and job interview require a knowledge of persuasion. The economics lecture requires you to know how information is organized. The news report calls for evaluation and judgment. And in all of these communication examples, active listening skills are critical.
Communication is vital to each of us, whether in our own worlds or in the world community. Think of the 2010 mid-term elections where candidates were arguing about the high unemployment rate and the merits of the new health care bill. Or consider the popular evangelist Joel Osteen who has a congregation of thousands and is highly influ- ential with his messages of inspiration to millions of viewers on television. When we see graphic images of sick cows being prodded into slaughter houses, we worry about buying steaks at the grocery store. When we see the price of oil exceeding $100 a barrel, we begin to think about purchasing the most fuel-efficient vehicle available. We donate food, clothing, and emergency aid when we view the results of a devastating tsunami in northern Japan. We experience horror when we see a mass murderer taking innocent lives at a congresswoman’s town meeting in Tucson, Arizona. We examine our living standard when home foreclosures reach record levels, food prices soar, and the stock market plummets. We laugh when we hear a comedian do an impression of a famous politician or actor. We become silent when we see the flag-draped caskets of deceased soldiers being carried to their final resting places.
Every day of our lives, we apply principles of communication. We inform, we shape, and we move others; we are equally informed, molded, and moved by others. Our success in these everyday situations often depends upon how effectively we speak and how carefully we listen.
Success will take some energy on your part. But if you are willing to spend the time, you can improve your speaking skills and be more successful in each situation you encounter. Remember that your goal is not to be Maya Angelou, Will Smith, Jennifer Lopez, Brad Pitt, Oprah Winfrey, or George Clooney. Your goal is to be you: a more confident and effective you.
Key Terms body channel communication model conclusion decoding encoding feedback introduction message noise receiver sender setting Shannon and Weaver source symbol
Communication in the Modern World 3
The Communication Process
When we speak or listen in any given situation, most of us take communication for granted. Sometimes we succeed and sometimes we fail. But communication is not just a haphazard, trial-and-error occurrence. Often there are very good reasons for our success or failure. The more we understand how communication works, the more we can improve our skills.
A great many experts have written about communication and have developed theo- ries called communication models. In the 1940s, Claude Shannon, an engineer at the Bell Telephone Company, and Warren Weaver, a mathematician, wrote The Mathematical Theory of Communication,1 which became a classic in the field. Shannon and Weaver stated that in order for communication to take place, there must be a source, a message, a channel, and a receiver (Figure 1.1).
Although this model was helpful in understanding communication, it was later criticized for its lack of flexibility. The communication model was often illustrated as a flat line with a source at one end, the message and channel in the middle, and the receiver at the other end. The model tended to give the inaccurate impression that
Affliated with Parkinson’s disease, Emmy Award-Winning Actor Michael J. Fox has raised over 224 million dollars for research and testified before congress, advocating for improved treatments for Parkinson’s patients.
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4 Chapter 1 • Introducing the Study of Public Speaking
communication is a static activity that does not change or develop. The model may accurately simulate mechanical transmission of signals over a telephone line, but it does not describe the fluid interaction of human beings.
More recent theories have emphasized the idea that communication is dynamic: it is always changing, growing, and developing.2 These communication models can be illustrated by a circle rather than a line (Figure 1.2). Senders can receive messages as they are sending them. Receivers can likewise send and receive at the same time. Human communication can be adjusted to new feedback and influenced by the environment. Communication changes and unfolds on the basis of ever-changing human experiences.
A Communication Model The fact that you’ve made it to this point in your life means that you probably commu- nicate well. But we take all kinds of things for granted when we communicate. It’s helpful to break down communication into its individual components in order to under- stand the process. That’s the purpose of a communication model. We’ll consider seven aspects: sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, setting, and noise. To understand each part of the model, we will look at a simple example that happens whenever you or your classmates deliver a speech.
The Sender: Encoding Ideas into Symbols The sender originates communication. Within the sender are the ideas, thoughts, feel- ings, and intentions that begin the process of communication. Suppose that your speech instructor has assigned you to prepare an informative, descriptive speech about a person,
FIGURE 1.2 Example of Communication Model
FIGURE 1.1 Shannon and Weaver’s Mathematical Theory of Communication
The Communication Process 5
place, object, or event. The idea-thought-feeling “place” and “Hawaii” have just popped into your brain since you recently returned from a family trip to the Big Island. You think about the idea for a while until you encode it. Encoding is simply the thought process and motor skill of the sender that changes an idea-thought-feeling into an under- standable symbol. Symbols are verbal and nonverbal expressions or actions that have meaning. In this case, words such as Big Island, volcano, snorkeling, and luau symbolize the verbal meanings, and visuals such as a photo and a flowered lei could symbolize nonverbal meanings.
The Message Even though symbols have meanings, they must be arranged in some kind of logical structure. If you simply jumbled all your words together and threw them out randomly at your listeners, your ideas would make very little sense. You need a message, that is, a set of structured symbols. This is where you begin the process of organizing your thoughts. You might start by writing a thesis to explain what aspects of Hawaii you want to cover. For instance you might encode your thoughts into the following sentence: “A trip to the Big Island includes viewing the volcano, snorkeling through lava tubes, and experiencing a luau.” You have now arranged your word symbols into an organized message. Your message is clear, precise, and understandable. It has meaning to you and potentially to someone else. But even though you have organized the appropriate message, you have not yet been able to communicate to your audience.
The Channel The next step in the communication process is the selection of a channel. A channel is the means of transporting the message. The channels we use to transmit messages are sensory; we convey our messages through the five senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. To communicate, you now choose one or more of these sensory channels to convey the message of your speech. The most obvious channel is verbal. You start with an introduction that catches your listeners’ attention and follow it up by your thesis statement. But there are other channels as well that can make your speech really inter- esting to your listeners. You could show PowerPoint photos or a Google Earth image of Kilauea Crater. You could display objects such as macadamia nuts or let the audience smell the aroma of Kona coffee beans. You might even have a volunteer from the audi- ence feel a sample from a black sand beach. Each decision presents you with a different combination of sensory channels. You therefore make the decision to use all the techni- ques in order to employ as many senses as possible to communicate to your audience.
The Receiver: Decoding Symbols into Ideas At this point in the process, there is a sender (encoding the ideas into symbols), a message, and several channels. However, communication is still incomplete because no connection has been made to the receiver. The receiver is the destination, the goal of communication. When you are standing in front of your class, you now have the poten- tial for communication because you have a destination for the message: your listeners. You deliver your speech using all five channels of communication.
Immediately, the process that occurred to generate communication within the sender now takes place in reverse within the receiver. The receiver decodes, or changes, the symbols in your organized message or speech into ideas-thoughts-feelings that the receiver can use to give meaning to the message. Although we now have a receiver and decoding to add to the communication model, we still need a response to complete the communication circle (Figure 1.3).
6 Chapter 1 • Introducing the Study of Public Speaking
Feedback Feedback is a verbal or nonverbal response. Feedback can tell you whether communica- tion has occurred, how it has been received, and whether it has been understood. Feedback is a reaction from the receiver to the sender. It can be positive and negative, verbal and nonverbal. The wonderful thing about feedback is that it transforms senders into receivers and receivers into senders; in other words, we can send and receive messages simultaneously and alter our messages based upon the responses that occur. Feedback provides dimension and transforms communication from a one-way process into at least a two-way experience. If there are numerous senders and receivers, as in your speech class, the communication is multidimensional.
The most obvious feedback to your speech is from your classmates, the receivers. Having gone to all the trouble you just did to send your multichannel message about Hawaii, you would hope for positive feedback from your audience, such as nod- ding heads of agreement or even some laughter if you tell a humorous story. We hate to mention this, but negative feedback can occur as well. You might see someone frowning, a couple of listeners whispering to each other, or even someone rudely text messaging during your speech. If you see a listener frowning, you might alter your mes- sage by more clearly defining an unfamiliar term. You might increase your volume to drown out or stop the listeners who are whispering and ignore the text messager. Messages continue to change on the basis of new information sent and received. Feedback circularizes communication, provides dimension, and allows us to adapt to new circumstances.
Setting The communication process does not exist in a vacuum. Instead, it occurs in a setting, which includes occasion, environment, space, and time. A speaker must consider how the occasion influences the message. The physical and psychological conditions differ for a business meeting, an anniversary, a marriage proposal, a birthday, or a Christmas
Descriptions, coffee beans, flowered lei, sand“M
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H ead nodding, smiles,
laughter FIGURE 1.3 Completing the Communication Circle
The Communication Process 7
party. When the occasion is clearly understood beforehand, the speaker adapts the message to the environment of the speech.
Think of your classroom as the setting for your speech. It might be a conference room where students are seated around a rectangle with a lectern at one end. Your speaking area might be a so-called “smart classroom” that contains a computer with internet access, a document camera (see Chapter 12), and a projector for enlarging visuals onto a screen. Or you might be presenting your speech in a large lecture hall in an amphitheater with a lectern set on a stage. Your class might meet first thing in the morning, after lunch, or late at night. The room might be lit by traditional fluorescent lighting or have floodlights that can be adjusted with dimmers.
You can see how important it is to understand the setting in supporting the commu- nication process. You need to adapt to the speech setting by making adjustments. In a small, intimate room with just a few students you could speak in a moderate volume and make eye contact with everyone. But in a large lecture hall you might have to increase your volume if there is no microphone and look at areas rather than each individual. The time of day might affect the level of audience alertness and you might need to make adjustments in speaking length as well as employ visuals or other channels to maintain your listeners’ attention. When thinking through any speaking situation, consider the aspects of occasion, environment, space, and time so that the setting will support your communication successfully.
Noise It is clear that in order for communication to take place there must be a sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, and setting. Noise, however, is a factor that can cause disruption or disturb the flow of communication. Noise is a distortion or a distraction to communication. It interferes with any part of the communication process and reduces the effectiveness of communication (Figure 1.4). There are three types of noise: external, internal, and semantic.
External Noise. External noise is any interference that can be perceived by the senses in the speech setting. It is important to emphasize that the word noise can, but does not always, refer to sound.
Any number of external distractions can occur while you are delivering a speech. The classroom may be too hot or cold, leaving the audience perspiring or shivering. A jazzy ring tone may go off on a listener’s cell phone. There may be an odor of melting tar because workmen are repairing the roof. Or you as a speaker could cause external noise by wearing something distracting, like long dangling earrings or a T-shirt with a bizarre graphic.
If the external noise is too great, listeners will stop paying attention and communi- cation will be lost. For communication to occur, either the interference must be elimi- nated or the sender must adapt to the situation. If you can control the environment, try to change it. Don’t wear clothing that causes external distractions, and turn the heat up if it’s too cold. Sometimes, however, you may not have control over the environment of your speech, but you can change how you relate to the situation. If the temperature is a problem, make a comment about it and condense your speech so your listeners (and you) don’t have to suffer. If the odor is offensive, make a joke about it. What is important is that you adapt to the external noise so that the audience sees that you are sensitive to it.
Internal Noise. Although you can usually sense the source of external noise, you may or may not always perceive the cause of internal noise. Internal noise is any inter- ference or disruption to communication that occurs within the sender or receiver. You may be nervous as you are giving the speech and you feel your heartbeat racing, your
8 Chapter 1 • Introducing the Study of Public Speaking
knees knocking, and your palms sweating. Your audience may have no idea what is going on inside you. In their minds you appear visibly calm and relaxed. As you are presenting the speech you may think that the scowling student in the back row is of- fended by something you said. But the frown may not be directed to you at all. He may have had a bad day, received a poor grade in a previous class, or simply be feeling sick.
Finding and resolving the source of the negative feedback is sometimes a way to un- derstand the disruption and restore communication. If you are the sender and nervous about a speaking event, try some deep breathing or relaxation exercises to take your mind off the occasion. If you are a receiver who is having personal conflicts, try to re- duce or resolve them as best you can so they do not take your focus away from paying attention to the speaker’s message.
Semantic Noise. One other disruption to communication is semantic noise. Semantic noise is any barrier to word or symbol meanings because of differences in envi- ronment, culture, language, pronunciation, values, or experiences. If one of your listeners is Japanese and speaks little English, there is an obvious language barrier to communica- tion. If one of the speakers in your class is a Boston native and tells the instructor “I’m sorry I’m late for class—I had to ‘paahk’ the ‘caah,’” the accent might create a semantic
FIGURE 1.4 How does this cartoon demonstrate the problem of noise in the setting? Can you relate the point of this illustration to any speaking situations that you’ve encountered? Ge
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The Communication Process 9
barrier. If a speaker uses the word soda, she could mean anything from a soft drink to an ice-cream-and-syrup concoction. If you are presenting your speech about Hawaii and use a huge word like humuhumunukunukuapua’a (really, it’s a word), you would need to explain to listeners that you are describing the Hawaiian state fish. If you gesture using the Hawaiian “shocka,” you would need to tell your audience that to Hawaiians, its meaning is similar to the thumbs-up motion. Whether verbal, nonverbal, cultural, or geographical, semantic noise interferes with communication. To be a more effective communicator, you must become aware of these disruptions and begin to adapt to the semantic noise that exists between sender and receiver.
Understanding the Tools of Communication
Now that you understand the process of communication, think of how leaders have used communication to shape and influence our world in the past and present.
When Franklin D. Roosevelt became president in 1932, the country was experienc- ing a severe economic depression with over 11,000 bank failures and almost 30% of all Americans out of work. In his Inaugural Address he confidently declared, “All we have to fear is, fear itself,” and he began a series of evening radio broadcasts he named “Fireside Chats” to comfort and reassure Americans that the nation’s problems would improve.
During the Civil Rights movement, Martin Luther King spoke out against racial discrimination and led protests against unjust laws and practices that treated African Americans unequally. On the steps of the Lincoln Memorial on August 28, 1963, he delivered his ringing speech, “I Have a Dream,” and stirred the conscience of a nation to overturn racial discrimination in all its forms.
John F. Kennedy was known for his power and eloquence during his brief presidency. In his Inaugural Address, he exhorted Americans to serve their country with the words, “Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.” His strong language and actions averted the Cuban missile crisis of 1962 and his speech in front of the Berlin Wall reassured millions of Europeans that America would stand against communism.
SEMANTICS: The Power of Words After the horrendous terrorist attacks of September 11, America began to prepare a military response to the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. President George W. Bush referred to America’s military retaliation as a “crusade” and used this term to rally Americans and gain the support of America’s allies. But when many of the world’s Islamic people heard this remark, they reacted with hostility because they remem- bered the Crusades of the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries when Christians murdered thousands of Muslims in the effort to stop the spread of Islam and retake the Holy Land. Aware of the negative reaction, the president changed the name of the war to “Operation Infinite Justice.” This phrase was no more successful, because it appeared to many Muslims as if America was equating its military might with God’s divine justice. The president finally settled on the inoffensive term “Operation Enduring Freedom” to describe the military campaign in Afghanistan.3
10 Chapter 1 • Introducing the Study of Public Speaking
As president, Ronald Reagan also took a hard line against communism, referring to the Soviet Union as an “evil empire.” Like Kennedy, he stood at the Berlin Wall and challenged a new Soviet leader with the words, “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall.” The Soviet Union fell and democracy blossomed in Russia after Reagan’s presidency due to the failure of the Soviet economy and successful negotiations with western leaders such as President Reagan.4
Think of contemporary leaders and celebrities who have also used the power of communication in their responsibilities or careers.
Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu was born in Yugoslavia and joined a Catholic order of nuns who sent her to India as a teacher. Quickly deciding that she had experienced a call from God, Mother Teresa, as she came to be known, began caring for the destitute and terminally ill in Calcutta’s slums. She founded outdoor schools and numerous centers where the blind, aged, and disabled could be cared for. She established a hospice where terminally ill patients could die with dignity, and her order, the Missionaries of Charity, constructed a leper colony known as the “Town of Peace.” During her life, Mother Teresa’s compassionate deeds for the poor and suffering became known world- wide and she received numerous awards for her humanitarian work, including the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979. At the time of her death in 1997, her order had established centers in over ninety countries with about 4,000 nuns and thousands of workers.5
Born in South Africa at the beginning of the twentieth century, Nelson Mandela took correspondence courses from the University of South Africa and studied law in Johannesburg. When segregation and apartheid became the official policy of the white, minority-ruled government, South Africa practiced blatant repression and discrimination against the black South African majority. An articulate and eloquent spokesman against racism, Mandela fought for his fellow South Africans through speeches, strikes, violation of travel restrictions, and illegal actions against official installations. He was brought to trial several times and was finally convicted of sabotage and treason. After serving twenty-six years in prison, Mandela was released in 1990 and became the leader of the African National Congress. He began negotiations with the minority government for black majority rule and shared the Nobel Peace Prize with the South African President. In 1994, Mandela became President of South Africa in the nation’s first completely free election and he served until his retirement in 1999.6
The late Princess Diana was a beautiful role model to millions in the world as she raised awareness about the dangers of land mines, children afflicted with HIV, and world hunger. In 1987, she helped to break the stigma of AIDS when she was photographed shaking hands with an AIDS sufferer. Her simple act of kindness promoted greater understanding and fought the ignorance and prejudice that was prevalent about HIV at the time.7
Raised in the segregated city of Birmingham, Alabama, Condoleezza Rice became Provost of Stanford University, National Security Advisor to President George W. Bush, and the first African American woman to be Secretary of State. With a firm, straight forward communication style, Secretary Rice helped to shape and articulate American foreign policy after the difficult events of September 11, 2001.8
Hillary Clinton was the first woman in American history to occupy the roles of First Lady, senator from New York, unsuccessful candidate for President, and Secretary of State. She travels the world as Secretary of State and is known for her frank and direct style when meeting with world leaders and negotiating treaties.
Born in Dublin, Ireland, Bono (Paul David Hewson) has been the lead singer and song writer of the group U2 for almost thirty years. But in the last decade, he has spent much of his time campaigning against poverty in the Third World and raising awareness
Understanding the Tools of Communication 11
and money to fight AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria. He has been nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize and was voted as Time magazine’s “Person of the Year” in 2005.9
Although noted for his acting roles in the Superman movies, the late Christopher Reeve became better known for his fight against his own paralysis and his tireless efforts to increase funding for Parkinson’s, Alzheimers, Multiple Sclerosis, and spinal cord regeneration. He testified before a Senate Appropriations Subcommittee in favor of federally funded stem cell research. For his book, Nothing Is Impossible: Reflections on a New Life, he received a Grammy nomination for Best Spoken Word Album.10
Canadian Michael J. Fox was an Emmy Award–winning actor in the 1980’s television sitcom, Family Ties, and he became a well-known Hollywood celebrity for his comic role in the Back to the Future movie series. Other movies followed as well as a starring role in the hit TV comedy, Spin City, before he was diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease, which virtually ended his full-time acting career. As a result of his disease, which affects speech, balance, and movement, Fox became an advocate, testifying before Congress on behalf of stem-cell research and establishing the Michael J. Fox Foundation that has raised over 224 million dollars for research to find better treatments for Parkinson’s patients.11
Born in Romania, Elie Wiesel is a Jewish-American and a survivor of the Holocaust. In 1944, the Nazis uprooted his family and 20,000 fellow Jews from their homes and deported them to the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp, where he never saw his mother and sister again. He has written and spoken extensively about the beatings, star- vation, and slave labor that victims suffered in Hitler’s death camps at Buchenwald and Auschwitz. He has authored over fifty books and has become a political activist regard- ing peace in the Middle East, genocide in Sudan, and other worldwide injustice. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1986.12
Describing her most important role as a mother of Malia and Sasha, First Lady Michelle Obama is respected for her campaign against childhood obesity and her support of better nutrition in American schools. She has also spoken on behalf of the needs of military families and those wounded in battle. Other priorities for Mrs. Obama have been to encourage Americans to engage in national service and to promote the arts and art education.13
Each of these public figures teaches us the powerful tools that are necessary to communicate ideas and shape opinions. We can learn from the reassurance of Roosevelt, the resounding phrases of King and Kennedy, the boldness of Reagan, the compassion of Mother Teresa and Princess Diana, the selflessness of Reeve and Fox, the courage of Mandela and Wiesel, the generosity of Bono, the firmness of Rice, the frankness of Clinton, and the service of Obama. When you understand the tools of communication and practice the skills introduced in this text, you can be more successful in the messages you develop in the workplace, at home, and in your relationships of everyday life.
Applying the Communication Process
Think back to the situations we presented at the beginning of the chapter. Blake is bored with his commencement speaker. Is it Blake’s problem or is it the speaker’s? Maybe it’s both. Blake has shut off all communication and has decided to go to sleep instead of listening. There is no possibility that he will receive any communication from the speaker by turning off. But commencement speakers are too often insensitive to their listeners. Graduations frequently take place in non-air-conditioned auditoriums during the month of June and graduates, dressed in hot academic gowns, are in no mood to
12 Chapter 1 • Introducing the Study of Public Speaking
hear a long-winded speech full of trite phrases. The most successful commencement speakers are those who connect to their audiences and recognize that the occasion is about the graduates—not the speech. Remember the discussion of external noise earlier in this chapter? In this circumstance, the effective commencement speaker would acknowledge the distractions of the setting, attempt to make audience members more comfortable, and emphasize her intention to be brief.
Then there is Teneka who thinks that public speaking is performed by scam artists. Modern society has certainly produced many ruthless leaders, such as Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, Osama bin Laden, and Jim Jones, who have misused their speaking gifts to victimize people. But as we’ve seen in this chapter, there are just as many others, such as Martin Luther King, Jr., Nelson Mandela, Princess Diana, and Mother Teresa, who have used their speaking power and actions to improve the lives of millions. We will explore more about the ethical considerations of public speaking in Chapter 6.
Otis and Tasha have similar problems: they are both very anxious about speaking in public. Tasha lacks confidence in her ability and Otis is so afraid of delivering a speech that he’d rather take his sick leave than give a report to his coworkers. As we’ll discover in Chapter 5, fear of speaking in public ranks among the top two fears of most Americans. But there is good news! Taking a basic speech course as you are doing can actually help to reduce your anxiety.
Brooke wanted to stand her ground when arguing about hip-hop with her Dad. But she went away feeling that she didn’t make the strongest case to support her ideas. In Chapter 16, you can learn how to build credible persuasive arguments so you can be more confident in the strength of your positions.
Finally, there is Chavez, who absorbs every word of a politician he admires. But when listening to a speaker, it is critical to weigh variables such as emotion, ethics, and charisma to determine what part they play in persuasion. In Chapters 4, 6, and 16, we’ll discuss how these factors can interact positively or negatively to influence an audience.
Designing a Plan for Success
You now find yourself in a course where you will be required to present speeches to an audience. This experience is important for your growth and development as a communicator. Learning from your classroom successes and failures should help you in communication situations beyond the course. We will discuss many concepts and principles, but there are three overall objectives for you to achieve:
1. You should be able to critically evaluate speaking situations. Be able to understand and evaluate the speaking situation. What makes a “good” speaker? What constitutes a “good” speech? What are some aspects of the audience you need to consider when preparing a speech? What are some factors about the occasion you should know before making a presentation? When you can survey the landscape and answer some of these questions about the speaking situation, you are well on your way to delivering successful speeches.
2. You should be able to plan, prepare, and organize speeches. To speak effectively, you must prepare effectively. An architect draws a set of blueprints with clear specifications before a builder can erect a house. And although it may seem time-consuming, a speaker must structure ideas into a coherent plan that forms an introduction, body, and conclusion before presenting a speech to an audience. Effective planning takes effort, but the process is not necessarily difficult.
Designing a Plan for Success 13
In fact, if you have put sufficient time into researching and outlining your speech, you may find that speechmaking is a lot easier than you expected.
3. You should be able to deliver speeches in front of an audience with ease. How well do you communicate your ideas in public? Do you appear confident, knowledgeable, and enthusiastic about your topic? Are you able to deliver different types of speeches in different speaking situations? Are you able to progress logically from one idea to another? When you look at members of the audience, do you actually “see” them? Do you concentrate on what you are speaking about at a given moment, or does your mind wander? Do you employ gestures and facial expressions, or do you have nervous man- nerisms? Do you rehearse the speech before presenting it to the audience?
Build your speaking ability block by block. Survey the landscape, prepare the foun- dation, create a skeletal structure, refine the appearance, and, finally, develop different types of structures. Learn from your mistakes, profit from your achievements, and effec- tively communicate to benefit yourself and others. When you develop the speech step by step, block by block, you will build a functional, pleasing structure.
Summary Communication, which is so important in our society, includes modern theories like the Shannon and Weaver communication model as well as a more recent communication model comprised of seven components: sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, setting, and noise. Recognize how the tools of communication have been used in our modern world and develop the ability to apply these tools in your daily speaking situations. The three objectives of this course will help you to: (1) evaluate speech situations; (2) plan, prepare, and organize speeches; and (3) effectively deliver speeches in front of an audience.
Skill Builders 1. Name an example of a good speaker you have heard in the past several weeks.
Describe the qualities that you feel made this person effective as a communicator. 2. Keep track of the communication process in your classroom, listing all the different
senders and receivers during one class period. What types of noise can you detect as you are recording this exercise?
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter 1, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www.cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources give you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
14 Chapter 1 • Introducing the Study of Public Speaking
CHAPTER
2UNDERSTANDING AND REDUCING YOUR APPREHENSION
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Recognize that speech anxiety is common
2 Be aware of research into stress and communication apprehension
3 Adopt an eight-point plan for reducing speech apprehension
A student came to the speech instructor at the beginning of the semester with these worried comments: “I am so nervous when I get up in front of people that I freeze up—I can’t remember what I am going to say and I start to fumble with my words. I live in fear that I will try to open my mouth and nothing will come out. I’m really good with speaking in one-to-one situations and I would do fine if I could just give my speeches to you in an empty classroom or in your office.”
This student’s fear of speaking in public is shared by many Americans, as you will see in this chapter. The good news is that if you understand speech apprehension, you can begin to develop a program that helps to reduce its effect on your speaking presentations. In this chapter, we will survey the territory of speech anxiety: public speaking fears, research about anxiety, and ways to reduce your nervousness as you build your speeches.
“… if you’re the averageperson, if you have to be ata funeral, you would rather be in the casket than doing the eulogy.” —Jerry Seinfeld
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Speech Anxiety is Common
A student began his first classroom speech. His voice trembled, his mouth seemed parched, and his hands visibly shook as he presented the introduction. At one point, he tried to control his quivering hands by placing them in his pockets; but he started to rattle his change, calling even further attention to his stage fright. When he decided to make a gesture, he suddenly withdrew his hand from his pocket, spilling change all over the floor.
If you have ever felt this kind of anxiety or if you have ever lost sleep because you had to give a report in class or in front of an organization, you are normal. Several researchers have conducted studies to determine some of the greatest social fears among Americans. In a 1986 study of about 1,000 individuals, researchers discovered that peo- ple identified public speaking as their number one fear.1 Public speaking anxiety even outranked such fears as going to the dentist, heights, mice, and flying. In a study con- ducted in 1984, investigators asked 3,000 people to list situations that caused the most anxiety.2 Individuals ranked fear of public speaking as their second greatest anxiety and attending a party with strangers as their greatest social fear. Table 2.1 summarizes the fears identified in the survey.
Almost everyone experiences some type of anxiety about public speaking. Many celebrities have also experienced stage fright about public speaking or performance. Con- sider these examples:
• Actress Kim Basinger was unable to deliver her well-prepared acceptance speech for receiving the Best Supporting Actress award for her role in L.A. Confidential in 1998 because of her speech anxiety. Instead, she blurted out, “I just want to thank everybody I’ve ever met in my entire life.”
• During his American singing debut in 1981, a terrified Rod Stewart hid behind a stack of speakers when he sang his first song.
• While performing at a 1967 concert in Central Park, New York, Barbara Streisand forgot the lyrics to a song and was so traumatized by the disaster that she didn’t perform again in public for 27 years.
• Opera singer Andrea Bocelli has had performance anxiety all his life. He once responded in an interview, “The only way is to go onstage and hope.”
• Distinguished British actor Sir Lawrence Olivier had lost so much confidence in his acting abilities that in order to go on stage, he had to be pushed by the stage manager.3
TABLE 2.1 Ten Social Situations Causing Greatest Anxiety
Situation Percent
A party with strangers 74 Giving a speech 70 Being asked personal questions in public 65 Meeting a date’s parents 59 First day on a new job 59 Victim of a practical joke 56 Talking with someone in authority 53 Job interview 46 Formal dinner party 44 Blind date 42
Key Terms awfullizing communication
apprehension general adaptation
syndrome negative self-talk positive self-talk systematic
desensitization
16 Chapter 2 • Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension
John F. Kennedy was considered to be one of the most effective presidential speakers in the twentieth century. Yet even President Kennedy could be nervous when delivering a speech. Biographer William Manchester cites a specific incident:
The president [Kennedy] laughed, apparently relaxing. But he wasn’t relaxed. In press conferences he could be at ease, despite the size of the television audience. Question-and-answer sessions were a challenge, a test of intellect. He had never learned to enjoy formal speeches, however, and his casual appearance was a triumph of the will. Unlike Lyndon [Johnson, then vice president], he was not an extrovert. To his audiences his easy air seemed unstudied. Very few knew how hard he had toiled to achieve it. On a rostrum, the illusion of spontaneity was almost perfect; only his hands would have betrayed him, and he was careful to keep them out of sight … they were … vibrating so violently at times that they seemed palsied. Now and then the right hand would shoot up and out, the index finger stabbing the limelit air to make a point. The moment it dropped the trembling would begin again. Several times he nearly dropped his five by seven cards. Why, the President’s nervous.4
Research into Stress and Communication Apprehension
As you begin to deal with your anxiety about public speaking, it is helpful for you to understand some of the research that has been done in the field. In 1936, Hans Selye conducted research that has become classic in the field of stress reduction. From his lab- oratory experiments, Selye concluded that the human body reacts to stress in stages known as the general adaptation syndrome.5
The initial alarm reaction is a physical “call to arms” for the body to release various chemicals in response to the fight-or-flight situation. When you deliver your first speech, you will probably experience some of these physiological alarms:
PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS OF NERVOUSNESS
1. Increased heart rate 2. Thickening speech due to decreased flow of saliva 3. “Butterflies” in the stomach 4. Increased sweating 5. Tiredness or yawning 6. Jumpiness or jitteriness 7. Tightening of muscles 8. Shaky hands and legs, twitching in some muscles
The body’s alarm reaction is often the extra shot of adrenaline that enables you to face your audience or allows you to perform superhuman feats of strength in times of emergency.
During the resistance stage, the body reduces the general physiological alarms and chan- nels energy to those organs that are most capable of handling the tension. The body stabilizes, maintains itself, and begins to adapt to the stress. For instance, once you have been speaking for a minute or two, you may notice that your physical symptoms begin to decrease.
In the final phase of exhaustion, the body systems that were summoned to cope with the stress are depleted. The body can endure tension for only so long; when tension is
Research into Stress and Communication Apprehension 17
chronic and continues for a period of days or years, serious damage can result. People who are under severe chronic pressure can develop ulcers, hypertension, and heart dis- ease. Your public speaking class will not create any prolonged anxiety, only relaxation and mild fatigue after you have finished your speeches.
Although Selye’s conclusions represent a classic contribution to understanding ten- sion, there is more recent research related to public speaking. In the 1970s, James C. McCroskey, a university speech instructor, coined the term communication apprehen- sion to describe an individual’s anxiety about speaking to another person or a group.6
McCroskey found that most college students experience some level of apprehension about public speaking and he determined that at least 20% of these students experience high levels of anxiety.
McCroskey also found that apprehension can be reduced. Many people who experi- ence normal levels of anxiety can actually decrease apprehension and build self- confidence by taking and successfully completing a public speaking course. For instance, the anxious students mentioned in the opening examples were able to overcome many of their fears as they progressed through speech classes and other public speaking experiences. McCroskey also discovered that individuals who experienced high apprehension levels could lower anxiety through behavior modification techniques known as systematic desensitization. In systematic desensitization, a trainer administers a test to determine indi- viduals with high levels of communication anxiety. Subjects chosen for treatment are seated comfortably in a quiet room where they are told to close their eyes while a relaxa- tion tape is played. When the tape is finished and individuals are relaxed, the trainer reads
FIGURE 2.1 How does this illustration relate to apprehension in your basic speech classroom? Ca
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18 Chapter 2 • Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension
the first item on a list of anxiety-producing situations (such as presenting a speech, being interviewed for a job, conducting a meeting). There is a 15-second silence while subjects mentally visualize the stressful situation. If no anxiety is reported, the trainer reads the next item from the list. If trainees report anxiety, they are asked to put the situation out of their minds while the trainer conducts additional relaxation exercises. The trainer then returns to the situation producing stress, repeating the process until no tension is indicated. McCroskey found that after five to seven 50-minute sessions, almost all subjects had responded favorably to the process and reduced or overcame their apprehension.7
Reducing Communication Apprehension
Although you may not have severe apprehension, you will probably experience normal levels of speech anxiety. Here are eight suggestions that, if practiced, will help you to reduce your fear and build your self-confidence.
Face Anxiety Honestly and Overcome It Try to understand your apprehension and determine your specific fears. Write down a list of things you fear about speaking in public. Here are some examples of common per- formance anxieties that students often express in speech classes:
I’m afraid … I’ll fall flat on my face. I’ll babble like an idiot. that people will see my knees knocking together. that people won’t like me. I’ll make a mistake. I’ll forget everything I’m trying to say. I’ll make people angry. I’ll get sick. I’ll faint.
When you’ve completed your list, take a good long look at each statement and ana- lyze it carefully. You will probably discover that you are creating irrational fears and that most of your anxieties have no basis in fact. Look at your fears squarely and challenge them with questions. Once you have explored your questions, answer them with positive statements that affirm and encourage you to redirect your thinking. For example:
FEAR CHALLENGE AFFIRMATION
“I’ll fall flat on my face.” How many times in your life have you literally fallen on your face? When you were a kid? On the ski slopes? When you feel you’ve done badly, how do you handle yourself?
There’s a good chance you won’t fall on your face either physically or emotion- ally. And you probably picked yourself up when you fell and life went on.
“I’ll babble like an idiot.” How often have you said stupid things? Do you think that your classmates have never said or done anything dumb?
You graduated from high school, entered college, registered for this speech class, and you probably can effectively order food from a menu. You will likely say quite a few things that are perceptive and intelligent.
Reducing Communication Apprehension 19
“My knees will knock together”
How often are you conscious of your knees knocking? Do you think your audience can detect if your knees are shaking? Have you ever been stressed when you learned to do something for the first time like swimming, bicycling, sky div- ing, bungee jumping, or gymnastics? How did you get through the activity?
Nervousness is a normal part of any stressful behavior and fears tend to reduce when the activity is repeated. You may be aware of your own nervousness, but many in your audience will not be able to detect your symp- toms. So if your knees knock, you are probably the only one who knows it.
“People won’t like me.” Why won’t your classmates like you? If you like them, won’t they like you?
Your classmates are in the same boat as you. Youwill discover that theywill not dislike you. They want you to succeed and they will be supportive of your efforts.
“I’ll make a mistake.” Are you perfect? Have you ever made a mistake in your life? Do you think your classmates have made mistakes? How have you handled your past mistakes and what was the result?
Everyone makes mistakes and no one is perfect. Youwillmakemistakeswhen you speak and so will your classmates. Being perfect is unrealistic, irrational, and will probably cause you a lot of unhappiness. The important thing is that you learn from your mistakes and try to change. If you can do that, you will be successful.
“I’ll forget everything I’m trying to say.”
Do you feel you need to memorize everything? Are you going to prepare notecards? If you are interested in the topic, do you really think you will forget everything?
You don’t need to memorize your speech and you will be able to prepare note- cards that include an outline. You may forget or “flub” some portions of the speech but if you practice the speech with your notes you can be successful.
“I’ll make people angry.” How could you make people angry? Are you going to insult or disrespect your classmates? Will they be angry at your topic?
You will find that your classmates will have great respect for you if you respect them because people repeat what they see and feel. If you speak about a controversial topic, some inyour audiencemay disagree with you but they can disagree without being angry or disagreeable.
“I’ll get sick.” Do you usually get sick in public? Do you intend to eat something that upsets your stomach?
It is doubtful that you will get sick as you present your speech. The feeling of “butterflies” in the stomach is normal and some people may misinterpret this symptom as illness. So unless you ate something that doesn’t agree with you, you probably won’t get sick.
“I’ll faint.” Do you usually faint when performing stressful tasks like driving in traffic, dealing with the public in a job environment, or working in groups?
You probably have not fainted in any stressful situations before. Your body has a wonderful way of summoning the adrenalin needed to meet the stress directly. Let your body work for you and give you the energy and drive it needs to perform when you are anxious.
20 Chapter 2 • Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension
Two well-known psychotherapists, Albert Ellis and Robert Harper, refer to the dread of the future as the concept of awfullizing.9 The future is awfullized when people worry that something terrible will happen to them. These fears about tomorrow usually have no basis in fact. Awfullizing causes people to paralyze themselves with anxiety, create worst-case scenarios to avoid situations thought to be unpleasant, and to stop performing constructive activities important to their growth.
Whatever you do in this speech class, don’t run away from your fear or from your speaking experiences. Don’t use some of these lines employed by students who try to avoid giving speeches:
I’ve lost my note cards, so I can’t give my speech today. I didn’t have time to prepare my speech last week, so I just can’t go through with it. I’ve developed a severe headache—may I be excused from the speech? I’ve been having car trouble all week and I’m terribly upset, so I don’t think I’m in any condition to present a speech.
I have an awful case of laryngitis and there is no way I can talk today.
While we do not want to ridicule legitimate problems that people may experience, it is human nature for people to create excuses to avoid fearful and unpleasant situations. If you run away from apprehension, you are simply creating a greater problem for yourself. In addition to postponing your performance, you will turn anxiety into a monster that will be more difficult for you to conquer the next time. Don’t run away—face your fear. Stare down anxiety; you will discover that you can control the monster so that it won’t control you.
Develop a Positive Attitude When you begin to face your fear, you may also need to examine the attitudes you have about public speaking. Psychologists and speech instructors alike have discovered that many people fail at public performance simply because they think negatively and develop negative self-talk.10
I’m really not smart enough to speak in front of people. I don’t do well speaking in groups. I seem to have bad luck. I can’t finish a coherent sentence in public. I say some really ridiculous things at times.
Researchers have discovered that if people can transform their negative self-talk into positive self-talk, anxious people can unlearn old patterns and reeducate themselves into thinking more constructively.11 Monitor the way you talk about yourself. Keep a journal or diary of the feelings you experience before every speech in your course. When you find yourself talking negatively about yourself, consciously begin to change your attitudes
Actor Al Pacino on Stage Fright>>> “You’ve got to put yourself out there. If you feel as though you are presenting some- thing to an audience that you feel good about, it takes a little bit of the edge off the fear. You want to communicate this play to them. Serving the play becomes the thing that bails you out of any real stage fright.”8
Reducing Communication Apprehension 21
by writing down positive statements to replace the old negatives. The previous negative attitudes can become positive self-talk:
I’m intelligent and I usually have something to contribute to people. I can do well speaking in groups if I prepare. Good things happen to me all the time if I look for them. I can finish my thoughts and my sentences if I’m patient with myself. While I know I’ll make mistakes at times, I know I’ll also say some important things in my speeches.
In addition to thinking positively about yourself, begin to develop positive attitudes about your speech course. Look at this course as a challenge—an opportunity for you to grow from other people’s experiences as well as from your own. You can even develop a positive attitude about the opportunity to make mistakes in a helpful, constructive cli- mate. When your communication is critiqued in a supportive environment, there is much less anxiety than in a competitive atmosphere, such as your job. In your class, communication mistakes mean simply that you try to improve when you speak again. In your job, communication mistakes may mean that you lose your livelihood.
Begin now to replace negative self-talk with positive self-talk. By reeducating your- self in this fashion, you can start to think more rationally about yourself and you can open yourself up to good experiences that will help you to grow.
One student placed these words of encouragement at the beginning of his speaking notes:
Calm yourself. Look at them. They are not vicious! Take deep breath. You can always do better next time. Begin.12
Thorough preparation, listening to con-
structive criticism, and a positive attitude
can reduce apprehension and help you
become a successful public speaker.
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22 Chapter 2 • Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension
Adopt Constructive Behaviors Once you begin to think more positively about yourself, start doing something construc- tive related to your speaking assignment. Jot down speech topics when they pop into your mind. Think about some of your interests and abilities and ask yourself a few ques- tions: What ideas would I like to share with an audience? At what activities am I suc- cessful? What do I feel confident about? What subject areas would I like to know more about? Go to the library and leaf through some magazines that interest you. Write down some ideas under a few different subject headings. Look at these rough outlines and decide which areas you want to pursue.
Journaling is one way to help you understand your anxiety and reduce it. Write down everything you are afraid of before you give your speech. Once the speech is over, write what you felt during and after the speech. Compare the two entries and look for the differences. For example:
BEFORE THE SPEECH… AFTER THE SPEECH…
I can’t believe I’m doing this. I’m so nervous. I’m looking around the class and there are all these eyes peering up at the lectern. It looks awful. I’m going to forget EVERYTHING! My hand is shaking. I don’t know if I can even hold the note- cards. Why did I have to sign up for this class? My heart is pounding! I just want this to be over with! Well here goes. I’m afraid I’m going to sink like the Titanic!
Well, that wasn’t as bad as I thought it would be. I felt awful when I started and I stumbled some over the thesis, but the audience was really friendly and some actually laughed at my jokes. I felt more at ease. It felt good to have it over with though. I’m not looking forward to the next speech, but at least I know that I can get through it. Maybe it won’t be as bad next time.
Whatever you do, do something.13 Distract yourself from apprehension by performing constructive activities. Even if you do something that you may think is insignificant, such as sketching a rough list of ideas or doing a few deep-breathing exercises to relax, you will help yourself. Remember that apprehension is circular; it feeds on itself and defeats your growth. Develop an active program that helps you to make progress toward your goal. When you adopt constructive behavior, you will begin to forget your worries and start advancing toward your objective of successful speechmaking.
Maintain a Healthy Body Exercise can help us to relax and reduce stress. If you jog, lift weights, do aerobics, par- ticipate in team sports, or have a consistent exercise program, you are already aware of the tremendous physical and mental benefits you gain from these activities. The night before giving a speech, exercise so that you can relax, feel tired, and get some sleep rather than drink five cups of coffee to stay up all night cramming for the presentation.
Occasionally in speech classes a student will say, “I think I need a couple of tranqui- lizers to relax before the speech” or “I think I’ll fix a good stiff drink to loosen me up.” The worst thing you could possibly do is to cloud your head with artificial remedies before you perform in public. You can learn to relax naturally rather than chemically. Remember that the body has its own unique chemicals that will give you the shot of energy you need.
To speak clearly, you need a clear head. There are even a few exercises you can do to help control your breathing and to relax. Singer Barbra Streisand listens to relaxation tapes before a performance in order to calm down and “think about positive things.”14
Reducing Communication Apprehension 23
If you don’t have an exercise program, this is your excuse to start one. Physical activity can relieve tension and help you to maintain a healthy body.15
Be Thoroughly Prepared One of the best ways to reduce anxiety is to be completely prepared for a speech. Being prepared means that you have worked on every aspect of the speech as much as you pos- sibly can: the research, the outline, and the delivery. When you have selected a subject, you need to thoroughly investigate it. The more research you put into your topic, the more confident you will be when you speak about it. You must also prepare a clear and well-organized outline. When your thoughts are structured in a coherent and logical for- mat, you can relax because you know where you’re headed in the speech.
It is also important that you practice the speech several times before you deliver it to an audience. Practice doesn’t always mean you’ll be perfect, but it does mean that you will feel more comfortable with the wording of the speech when you’re in front of an audience. There are several ways to practice the delivery. One of the best ways to rehearse is to simulate the setting of your classroom. Set up a speaking lectern (a music stand, dresser, or table) in an empty room and conduct a stand-up rehearsal using your speaking notes. Rehearse the speech several times and make whatever changes will improve the presentation. Use your own judgment if you want your friends or family to be your audience. Another way is to use a digital video camera and record yourself as you are speaking. You can review the digital video, looking for problem areas, and then rehearse the speech again correcting the mistakes. You can also use an audio recorder and listen to your speech to critique yourself. Some students practice their speeches in front of a mirror to view their facial expressions, gestures, and emotions while speaking. No matter what approach you take, practicing the delivery before you speak will help you build confidence when you deliver your presentation in your classroom.
Many bright and capable college students do poorly in public speaking simply because they don’t take the course seriously enough. The student who rushes into class late or scrib- bles an outline down on paper five minutes before the speech is not respecting the audience or his or her own abilities. If you fail to research your topic, the audience will detect that you are delivering an impromptu rather than a prepared speech. If you don’t outline your thoughts, you will be disorganized and rambling. If you don’t practice the delivery, you will create unnecessary external noise, such as vocalized pauses (“and,” “ah”), stumbling over words or sentences, and distracting mannerisms. There is no substitute for preparation; one thing you can control in a speech is the amount of time you are willing to invest. The more time you spend, the more confidence you will gain; the less time you spend, the more inse- curity you’ll experience. Careful research, clear organization, and a prepared delivery will help you to build confidence and security in each speaking assignment.
Reward Yourself One public speaking student was a chronic worrier. She always sat in the front row, taking furious notes on every detail of classroom discussions. After presenting a speech, she would focus on her negative points and never give herself credit for doing anything well. During the critique, as the instructor began to point out some of the positive improvements in her speaking, she reacted by saying, “Yes, but I know I did poorly, I just know it! My eye contact was rotten, I had all kinds of mannerisms, and I didn’t statemy purpose—howmuchworse can you get? Now I’m really going to have to work doubly hard to improve on the next speech.”
It is important to take your public speaking course seriously, but not so seriously that you destroy the educational value of learning. This student was so obsessive that she was actually defeating herself and causing more anxiety.
24 Chapter 2 • Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension
When you have finally arrived at the night before the speaking assignment and you have done everything you possibly can to prepare, don’t create more apprehension by dreading the assignment. Do something nice for yourself. Go out to a movie, go to din- ner, or treat yourself to a hot fudge sundae. If it makes sense to prepare thoroughly for a speech, it also makes sense to relax so that you can take your mind off the event. Speak- ing shouldn’t be drudgery; it should be enjoyable and positive.
But you should reward yourself only if you’ve worked hard and deserve it. If you have neglected some aspect of preparation or if you have waited until the last minute to cram for the speech, don’t reward your negligence. If you have been successful, reward the success and you’ll look forward to the next speaking event.
Learn from Mistakes You must face the fact that sometimes you will make mistakes when you speak in public. When you make a mistake, analyze it, understand it, and then learn from it. Life goes on. You’ll have another chance to improve.
Even presidents make speaking mistakes that they’d like to forget. In a 1976 tele- vised debate with Governor Jimmy Carter, President Ford mistakenly stated that there is “no Soviet domination of eastern Europe.” Four years later, President Carter said in a debate with Governor Ronald Reagan, “I had a discussion with my daughter Amy the other day [to ask her about] the most important [governing] issue…. She said she thought it was nuclear weaponry and the control of nuclear arms.” Even President Rea- gan, the Great Communicator, made his share of speaking errors. As technicians were taking a voice level from the president for his weekly radio address to the nation, Reagan joked into a microphone that he thought was not being broadcast: “My fellow Ameri- cans, I’m pleased to tell you today that I’ve signed legislation that will outlaw Russia for- ever. We begin bombing in five minutes.” And in the 1988 presidential campaign, Vice President Bush misstated the date when he said: “On this day, September 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor.” (It was in fact December, unfortunately.) The son of the 41st President, former President George W. Bush, often made numerous speaking mistakes with vocalized pauses and a halting delivery. In a television interview, President Obama joked about his bowling abilities as being similar to the Special Olympics.16
Presidential speakers often pay a price for their verbal mistakes. Ford’s and Carter’s gaffes contributed to their election losses. Reagan’s blunder received harsh criticism from the Soviet Union, and political cartoonists enjoyed ridiculing former Vice President Bush’s brief lapse. The verbal flaws of former President George W. Bush were often mim- icked and impersonated by comedians in TV monologues or skits. President Obama had to apologize for offending Americans with special needs.
If seasoned professionals can make speaking errors, remember that you are no differ- ent. Don’t dwell on the past or on your failures—just try not to repeat them. Whenever you prepare for a new speaking situation, try to profit from both the positive and nega- tive aspects of your past efforts. Don’t place too much importance on any one speaking event; each will benefit you in some way if you let it. Life will not end if you make an error—pick yourself up and keep going. Learning from your mistakes helps you to keep your mind on improvement and makes room for success.
Accept Constructive Criticism You are in a classroom situation where you will probably be asked to evaluate other peo- ple. In these evaluations, you will critique both positive and negative elements you have found in the speeches. You will be expected to be honest in your critiques but not per- sonal or vindictive. Your classroom instructor wants to build a supportive atmosphere
Reducing Communication Apprehension 25
where every student can feel comfortable. You can help in this process if you accept con- structive criticism from others. It is important that you listen to each critique as objec- tively as possible so that you can improve.
Sometimes people block out criticism by being defensive or by exhibiting hostile behavior. Here are a few common statements that block out criticism, create tension, and inhibit growth:
Criticism in this class is destroying me. I don’t have poor eye contact, I don’t care what anybody says. I’ve seen good speakers slouch in public and it doesn’t bother me at all. Politicians read their speeches word for word, so why can’t I? I already know enough about public speaking and I’m not going to learn much of anything in this class.
Speaking is a snap—all you have to do is throw a few things together. People in this class don’t know anything anyway, so why should I pay any attention to them?
Who do these people think they are, telling me what’s wrong with my speeches? I’ll just sit here and let everybody say what they please. It doesn’t really matter anyway.
These types of comments can cause tension in a classroom and can be harmful to the individual who states them. Individuals who cannot accept constructive criticism cannot look at themselves honestly and cannot grow—they are held captive by their fear.
Now notice the positive approach that helps speakers to accept constructive criti- cism, learn from their mistakes, and make changes that help them to be more successful.
I now know I need to speak more loudly since people in the back row said they couldn’t hear me.
I didn’t know that I said so many “um’s.” I didn’t know that my hand was tapping nervously on the side of the lectern when
I was speaking. I didn’t realize I was turning my back to the audience so much when I was using the
PowerPoint until someone told me. When someone pointed out that the graphic T-shirt I was wearing was distracting,
I realized I need to think more about my appearance for the next speech. My instructor said that I need to use more vocal and facial expression. For the next
speech, I’m going to practice using more inflection and enthusiasm so that I sound and look more interested in my topic.
Help yourself and your class by allowing yourself to hear and absorb constructive criticism. Remember that criticism is meant to promote success and to help you over- come failure. Criticism might be hard to take at first, but you’ll learn to develop the abil- ity to bounce back and improve after hearing critiques of your speeches. If you accept constructive criticism, you will help to create a positive classroom environment and you will also help to reduce tension within yourself.
Taking Responsibility to Reduce Apprehension
Begin to adopt the eight-point plan (summarized below) to reduce apprehension as you prepare to build your first speech. This approach can help you to overcome your anxiety by getting your mind on other issues related to the speech. When you use this plan
26 Chapter 2 • Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension
actively, you’ll begin to feel more confident. Recognize that reading theory is easy, but making theory work is totally up to you.
Summary Most people fear public speaking, as several studies and McCroskey’s research into commu- nication apprehension have concluded. You must understand your fear and utilize the eight- point plan to help control and reduce your apprehension:
1. Accept your anxiety and face it. 2. Develop a positive attitude. 3. Adopt constructive behaviors. 4. Maintain a healthy body. 5. Be thoroughly prepared. 6. Reward yourself. 7. Learn from mistakes. 8. Accept constructive criticism.
It is important that you take responsibility for yourself and your own growth in public speak- ing by putting this program into effect.
Skill Builders 1. Write down all the negative self-talk you experience in your mind before you give
a speech. Then, next to each negative item, write an opposite positive statement that you can achieve. After you have presented your speech, write down all the things that actually happened. Which positive statements were you able to accomplish? Which ones still need work?
2. Using InfoTrac College Edition or another library database, locate an article on speech apprehension, stage fright, or speech anxiety that can help you understand and manage your fear of public speaking.
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter 2, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com by using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www. cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
Taking Responsibility to Reduce Apprehension 27
CHAPTER
3 BUILDING YOUR FIRST SPEECH
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Understand extemporaneous speaking and styles of delivery
2 Create a blueprint of ten building blocks for constructing a speech
3 Understand how to research and develop a career speech
Candita Chapman was an international student from the island of St. Kitts in the Caribbean. Candita’s classmates in the basic speech course always enjoyed hearing her outstanding presentations, which ranged from preparing authentic Caribbean potato pancakes to warning listeners about the evils of fast food. When asked why she was successful in developing her speeches, Candita offered this blueprint:
When I get the assignment, I read over it and then I start brainstorming. Sometimes the topic just hits me. When I’m sitting on the bus, vacuuming, or watching TV, a key word pops up. After I get the topic, I Google. I go to the library and look for information in the catalog and in books. Research is very important because you want to be credible. I look for statistics and I look for other supporting materials like stories. I look for a cute picture that I’d like to use. I call my parents in St. Kitts. For instance, when I did the Caribbean potato pancake speech, I called my mother and she e-mailed me the recipe.
When I actually write the speech, I dedicate a whole day, a Saturday. I sit at the computer and I write a thesis and an outline and then I add a couple of sentences
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“Speech is like any otherclass. You have to spendthe time.” —Candita Chapman
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to develop each point. Then I write the introduction and the conclusion—you want to start strong and end strong. After I’ve written the speech, I practice it, and then I develop a PowerPoint presentation. I go through the speech paragraph by para- graph and I say to myself, “OK, I can add a picture here, a picture there, or I can add a statistic here.” Then I put it all together. Then I practice the speech with the PowerPoint program.
When I practice, first I just read it to myself. Then I read it and time it. If it’s too long, I go back over the speech and take out the least relevant information. If it’s too short, I’ll find a point that can be elaborated on. Usually it ends up with good timing. Then I practice it two times the night before. Then in the morning when I’m coming to school, I read it through and practice it on the bus so I can use good eye contact. I don’t want to read it word for word from the note cards, but I want to use different words. You have to put it across so that it’s interesting, exciting, and people want to listen to you. The gestures, the facial expression, the eye contact are all very important. In our culture we’re very emotional, and I guess the delivery part of the speech just comes naturally for me. Putting the speech together takes time and dedi- cation. I try to put into the effort exactly what I want to get out.1
Candita was a hard worker who followed the basic steps of speech preparation. In this chapter, we look at the importance of extemporaneous speaking and examine
ten general guidelines to help you build your first speech. We also present a career speech to help you research and develop a speech on a specific profession. If you are willing to work and spend the time, you can be just as successful as Candita.
Extemporaneous Delivery and Speaking Styles
Whenever you make a speech, you will need to choose a style of delivery that is appro- priate to the speech setting. The style of delivery refers to your method of presenting the material—that is, whether the speech is extemporaneous, manuscript, impromptu, or memorized.
As you build your first presentation, you will find that extemporaneous delivery is the most helpful to you. As Candita Chapman’s story indicates, an individual using this style researches a topic, prepares an outline, and employs speaking notes—the method we sug- gest in this chapter and describe throughout the text. Extemporaneous delivery allows the speaker to develop eye contact with the audience, adapt to feedback, and concentrate on the sequence of ideas rather than on word or sentence order. Speakers in business and industry select this approach to help them project confidence and credibility to their listen- ers. An accountant presenting a quarterly report to corporate executives or an office man- ager training new employees wants the freedom to look at listeners, yet have the security of a clear, well-organized outline. With an extemporaneous delivery, these speakers can be relaxed, spontaneous, and well prepared, yet maintain eye contact with their listeners.
In addition to extemporaneous delivery, there are other styles of delivery that speak- ers use for various purposes. In situations where precision and detail are extremely impor- tant, speakers often choose to read word-for-word manuscripts to audiences. A scientist reporting on the results of fusion research at a convention or a physician describing a new vaccine for sufferers of Alzheimer’s disease to medical professionals would write out the entire speech in advance. President Obama employs manuscript delivery because his words are analyzed and interpreted by millions of people around the world.
You may already have had to present an impromptu or “surprise” speech without any notes or prior preparation. If your supervisor requested you to “say a few words”
Key Terms body conclusion delivery entertaining speech ethical responsibility extemporaneous general purpose impromptu informative speech introduction manuscript memorized persuasive speech specific purpose thesis statement topic transition
Extemporaneous Delivery and Speaking Styles 29
about your current work project at a department meeting or a friend asked you to pro- pose a toast at a birthday party, you were required to organize your thoughts and ideas on the spur of the moment. An impromptu speech is good to experience occasionally and helps you to develop the ability to think on your feet.
In situations where constant eye contact and accurate timing are necessary, speakers frequently use memorized delivery. Tour guides, stand-up comics, after-dinner speakers, and individuals presenting or receiving awards are often more effective if they memorize their material. In a David Letterman–style monologue, for instance, the speaker wants to convey the punch line smoothly, without distractions from notes. In this setting, memo- rization can help a speaker to respond quickly to audience feedback and to judge the right moment to deliver the humorous line.
Although these approaches can be effective in various speaking situations, they have some clear disadvantages. In manuscript delivery, speakers often use their notes as a crutch and forget to look at the audience. These speakers may also tend to sound mechanical, forced, or monotone when reading material that is written out word for word. Audiences rarely like speakers to read to them; they enjoy being acknowledged with eye contact in a spontaneous and conversational manner. Speakers often use memorized delivery to pro- mote the secure feeling that they have it all down in their heads. In practice, however, memorization causes speakers to spend large amounts of time concentrating on word, phrase, and sentence order rather than on ideas. This style of delivery can even contribute to fear and insecurity about forgetting some crucial portion of the speech. An impromptu speech works in a surprise setting, but it is not advisable to create this type of speech when the situation requires a carefully researched and structured presentation. You can’t make up a speech as you go along when you must show research and preparation.
An extemporaneous style of delivery is the best approach to public speaking in a college classroom. This style allows you to be more spontaneous and spend more time looking at your listeners and connecting with them visually.
Creating a Blueprint
To assist you in your first assignment, this section provides a blueprint for building a speech. Although these ten guidelines are presented in a suggested sequence, not all speeches will follow this arrangement. In some presentations, the steps may overlap or even reverse. You might select and narrow a topic while you are conducting library research or you might analyze the audience before writing the specific purpose. The pro- cess is similar to constructing a building: some steps—such as preparing the foundation and erecting the walls—occur in a prescribed order; other steps, however, are more flex- ible. The guidelines are presented as a suggested sequence for you to follow.
Step 1: Choose an Interesting, Well-Defined Topic The first step in building your speech is to choose a topic that is interesting to you, has potential interest to your audience, and is limited in scope. As you think about the topic, examine some of your past experiences and present concerns—areas that challenge you and stimulate your enthusiasm. Review your background and life experiences, places you’ve traveled, professional expertise, career goals, practical knowledge, or unique inter- ests and hobbies. Your chosen topic should also challenge your listeners and relate to their needs or curiosities. Audience members tend to be motivated by issues that involve their personal survival or their physical and emotional well-being. Finally, narrow the topic to a specific area, which you can develop in some detail within your allotted time limit. See Chapter 7, “Selecting the Topic and Purpose,” for a more complete discussion.
30 Chapter 3 • Building Your First Speech
Step 2: Understand the General Purpose Once you have chosen your topic, you must clearly understand the general purpose of the speech. A general purpose represents the direction of the material presented: general purposes can be informative, persuasive, or entertaining.
Informative speeches enlighten and educate audiences. Informative speeches can define concepts, demonstrate procedures, or describe people, places, events, and experi- ences. For example, a speech about the Big Island of Hawaii would be informative because it would describe a place. Persuasive speeches influence and alter the beliefs, feelings, or behavior of listeners. In persuasive presentations, speakers seek to convince audiences to change beliefs, actuate people to perform an action that solves a problem, or stimulate and intensify listeners’ feelings. For instance, a speaker advocating the legal- ization of gay marriage would be presenting a persuasive, convincing speech on a contro- versial issue. The goal of an entertaining speech is to gain a humorous response by poking fun at people, places, or events. A “roast” at a fiftieth birthday party or a Stephen Colbert–style stand-up routine are examples of entertaining presentations. Entertaining speeches may contain biting satire or convey serious underlying messages, but the mate- rial itself should be lighthearted and enjoyable rather than persuasive or seriously infor- mative. See Chapter 7 for more discussion about the general purpose of a speech.
Step 3: Conduct Extensive Research Your next step is to find interesting factual materials to support the topic and establish your credibility as a speaker. Thorough research involves using resources such as the library cat- alog or library databases like Proquest or Academic Search Premier to find books and period- icals that contain testimonies, examples, and statistics relating to the topic. Your research
Some speakers start their careers early. In a YouTube video that went viral, three-year-old Jesse Koczon cried that he was too small to be Governor of New Jersey. Among the amused viewers was Governor Chris Christie who declared Jesse Governor and his twin brother Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey for a day.
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Creating a Blueprint 31
may also require you to conduct interviews with experts on the topic or to gather informa- tion from institutions, businesses, or specialized organizations. The research process helps you to gain the respect and trust of your listeners; audiences tend to believe speakers who are knowledgeable about their topics and back up their ideas with facts or documented evi- dence. For more information, see Chapter 8, “Conducting Research.”
Step 4: Write Specific Purpose and Thesis Statements When you have researched the topic, you need to determine the specific purpose and thesis statements of the speech. The specific purpose represents the main objective, which joins all ideas to one common theme and enables the speaker to keep on target. The specific purpose statement includes the general purpose (or its paraphrase) and one topic idea stated in clear and concise language.
Specific purpose: To inform listeners about my interest in skateboarding. The thesis statement, often called the central idea or the central objective, expands
the specific purpose and tells the audience exactly which main points the speech will develop.
Thesis statement: I want you to know how I became interested, my experience in tournament competition, and some of my most challenging stunts.
This thesis clearly indicates that the speech is organized around three major headings. For more examples of specific purpose and thesis statements, read Chapter 7, “Selecting the Topic and Purpose.”
Step 5: Write a Comprehensive Outline Once you have determined your purpose and thesis, structure your thoughts by writing a logical outline. The outline will help to keep you on track throughout the presentation and still allow you to maintain contact with the audience. A speech has three basic parts: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.
Since the body is the longest portion of the speech, it should be developed first before either the introduction or conclusion. The body contains the main headings that were identified in the thesis statement. For example, the speech about skateboarding identifies the following three headings:
BODY
I. How I became interested II. My experience in tournament competition III. My most challenging stunts
Each numeral is then reinforced by subordinate points containing the examples, testimo- nies, and/or statistics you collected in your research. Your time limit often dictates the number of main points the body should develop. Generally, the shorter the speech, the fewer the main points. A 1- to 2-minute speech would probably contain no more than two or three main points, while a speech of 6 to 7 minutes could expand upon as many as four headings. In order to provide clarity between each main point of the body, it is helpful to state a transition that acts as a listening cue to tell listeners that one main point is ending and the next point is beginning.
Although the introduction and conclusion are much shorter than the body, they must also be carefully organized. The introduction should get attention and promote curiosity as well as prepare the audience for the topic and thesis statement. You can gen- erate listener curiosity by beginning with a catchy quotation, shocking statement, thoughtful case study, or stimulating question that relates to the issue. The conclusion
32 Chapter 3 • Building Your First Speech
resolves the ideas you have presented in the speech. You can summarize the main points, appeal to the emotions, cite a quotation, or use an illustration. The important thing is for your audience to sense finality and a resolution of the topic. For more complete infor- mation about outlining, read Chapter 10, “Organizing the Body of the Speech,” and Chapter 11, “Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion.”
Step 6: Be Sensitive to Audience Members As you organize the speech, consider carefully the needs and feelings of your audience. Present the topic at their intellectual level without talking over their heads or beneath them. Use language that they understand, and define any terms that may be unfamiliar. Be sensitive to the diverse backgrounds and experiences of your listeners. Does your audience include individuals from different countries or geographical regions? Will men or women view your topic with contrasting attitudes? Could age differences or marital status affect listeners’ perceptions? Are your listeners’ values and ideals shaped by their cultural, ethnic, or religious heritage? Be aware of the values and ideals that motivate the members of your audience. Avoid statements or examples that stereotype individuals and stay away from offensive language. Let the audience know that you are genuinely interested in them, responsive to their differences, and concerned about their welfare. For additional information, read Chapter 4, “Analyzing Your Audience.”
Step 7: Understand Your Ethical Responsibilities Whenever you present a speech, you are claiming to have knowledge about a topic that could benefit the audience. At the same time, you have an ethical responsibility to con- vey this knowledge fairly and accurately without misleading your listeners.
Speakers who plagiarize or steal information without giving proper credit, withhold or distort facts, engage in name-calling, or advocate harm are employing unethical prac- tices designed to deceive or manipulate their audiences. These tactics demonstrate a lack of respect for individuals and will eventually destroy the speaker’s credibility.
As an ethical speaker, you want to gain your listeners’ confidence. Be reliable and fair when you report information and avoid deceptive practices. You will earn the respect and trust of your audience if you are honest and respectful. To read more infor- mation about ethics, see Chapter 6, “Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking.”
Step 8: Choose Extemporaneous Delivery Remember that the extemporaneous style is the most helpful type of delivery for both speaker and listener in a basic speech course. The topic is researched, structured, and delivered from speaking notes that are written in outline form. The speech is not written out or memorized word for word. Extemporaneous delivery allows you to make greater eye contact with your listeners and respond more effectively to audience feedback. For more information, read Chapter 14, “Developing the Delivery.”
Step 9: Practice the Speech Success in presenting a speech requires practice. Transfer your outline to speaking notes and double—or triple—space between lines for easy scanning. Good notes will allow you to maintain eye contact with your audience and still proceed logically through your material. As Candita Chapman suggests at the beginning of this chapter, go over the speech several times so you are confident with the order and placement of ideas. If you can, rehearse your speech in the setting where you will deliver it. Work to eliminate dis- tractions such as fidgety mannerisms, standing on one foot, or vocalized pauses like
Creating a Blueprint 33
Building Your First Speech>>> To assist you in building your first assignment, the 10 guidelines presented in this chapter are summarized here as a blueprint for speech construction.
1. Choose an interesting, well-defined topic. a. Examine past, present, personal, and professional experiences. b. Narrow the topic to a specific area within the time limit.
2. Understand the general purpose. a. The general purpose is the direction of material presented in a speech. b. General purposes are informative, persuasive, and entertaining.
(1) Informative speeches enlighten and educate; they can describe, demonstrate, or define.
(2) Persuasive speeches seek to influence; they can convince listeners to change beliefs, move people to action, or stimulate and intensify feelings.
(3) Entertaining speeches poke fun at people, places, or events to gain a humorous response.
3. Conduct extensive research. a. Establish credibility by conducting thorough research; use library
search engines to investigate books and periodicals, interview experts, and gather information from institutions.
b. Gather factual supporting materials such as examples, quotations, statistics, and audiovisual aids.
c. Be certain that your supporting materials are verifiably clear, correct, and complete.
4. Write specific purpose and thesis statements. a. The specific purpose includes the general purpose and one topic idea,
stated clearly. b. The thesis statement is a one-sentence preview of the main points that
are developed in the body of the speech. 5. Write a comprehensive outline.
a. Write a logical outline that includes three basic parts: introduction, body, and conclusion. (1) Since the body is the longest part and includes the main headings
identified in the thesis, it should be developed before either the introduction or conclusion.
(2) The introduction gets attention, promotes curiosity, and introduces the thesis.
(3) The conclusion resolves ideas in the speech by summarizing, appealing to emotions, and reinforcing the ideas in the speech.
b. The outline keeps you on track and helps you to maintain eye contact with the audience.
6. Be sensitive to the audience. a. Consider diversity of background: culture, ethnicity, geographical region,
gender, age, religion, politics, interests, attitudes, values, and ideals. b. Connect to listeners at their level. c. Avoid offensive language or stereotypes.
7. Understand your ethical responsibilities. a. Gain credibility by conducting thorough research and reporting
information fairly and accurately.
34 Chapter 3 • Building Your First Speech
“uh, uh, um.” Convey words and sentences so listeners can hear and understand you eas- ily. Be accurate and descriptive in your use of language and know how to pronounce difficult terminology. Let gestures and facial expressions flow spontaneously from your natural enthusiasm. If circumstances do not allow you to rehearse in the speech setting, look over your speaking outline and conduct a mental review of your presentation. Remember that your goal in speech rehearsal is to unite all of your research and organi- zation into a coherent, unified construction. For more information about speech practice and delivery, read Chapter 14, “Developing the Delivery.”
Step 10: Be Confident and Prepared On the day of the presentation, arrive at the speech location early enough to avoid any last-minute scramble. Look through your notes to see if they are in the proper order. Relax and take a few deep breaths as you wait for your turn. When it is time for your speech, walk calmly to the speaker’s stand, placing your notes securely in front of you. Don’t start the speech while you are still on the way to the lectern or while you are arrang- ing your material. Take your time and don’t rush. Make certain that you are ready to begin. Look at the audience and then state the first line of your speech with conviction. Project confidence when you speak. Avoid making excuses or apologizing for mistakes.
b. Avoid deceptive practices such as plagiarizing, withholding or distorting facts, or name-calling.
c. Earn the confidence and trust of listeners by being honest and respectful.
8. Use extemporaneous delivery. a. When using extemporaneous delivery, a speaker researches, structures,
and delivers the speech from notes that are written in outline form. b. Extemporaneous delivery allows the speaker to show more spontaneity
and enthusiasm as well as maintain eye contact without reading or memorizing a manuscript word for word.
c. The extemporaneous style helps the speaker to view and adapt to feedback from listeners during the speech.
9. Practice the speech. a. Transfer your outline to double-spaced speaking notes for easy
scanning. b. If possible, rehearse in the setting of the speech or have several verbal
and mental run-throughs of your presentation. c. Work to maintain eye contact with listeners and avoid distractions
such as vocalized pauses (“um,” “ah”) and fidgety mannerisms. d. Pronounce words clearly, use descriptive language, and let gestures and
facial expressions flow spontaneously. 10. Be confident and prepared.
a. Arrive at the speech setting on time, prepared, and in control, avoiding any last-minute rush or scramble.
b. Review speaking notes, take deep breaths, and walk calmly to the speaker’s stand, placing notes securely in front of you.
c. Look at the audience, state the first line of the speech with conviction, and take your time.
d. Project confidence, speak clearly, stand up straight, and avoid making excuses or apologies.
Creating a Blueprint 35
Speak clearly and distinctly. Try to make eye contact with all segments of your audience between brief glances at your notes. Stand up straight and show the audience that you are prepared and ready to make the presentation. When you finish, don’t pack up your notes while you are still talking or walk off in the middle of a concluding line. Wait until you have completed every part of the conclusion. When the last line of the speech is over, collect your notes and walk calmly to your seat. To help you establish more confidence, read Chapter 2, “Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension.”
The Career Speech
A study released by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 2002 found that workers held an average of 9.6 jobs from age 18 to age 36.2 These statistics indicate that you may change jobs and even careers several times during your life. This startling information means that you need to be knowledgeable about different fields of study and the future pro- spects for employment in specific professions. The career speech gives you the opportu- nity to research different fields and investigate one profession in depth for a classroom presentation. A sample career speech is also provided later in this chapter to help you organize and deliver this type of presentation.
Researching the Career Speech As a student in a college or university, you may still be undecided about a field of study or you might be well along in your selected major. No matter what your phase of career planning, you can begin your speech research into areas of interest at your institution’s career center. An appointment with a career specialist can provide testing about your skills and interests, inform you about types of careers, and give you information about training needed in specific fields. A good career counselor can also help you narrow your interests, focus on a specific career topic, and provide additional resources for fur- ther investigation.
In addition to your career center, you can research a number of credible online sites. The U.S. Department of Labor publishes an Occupational Outlook Handbook at its web- site, http://www.bls.gov/oco. This valuable resource is revised every two years and offers a wealth of information about hundreds of occupations, training and education require- ments, potential earnings, working conditions, and expected job prospects. In addition, there are links to related sites that provide information about the job market in each state, jobs in industries, and career publications.
Another useful site is http://www.online.onetcenter.org/. This web address is a national occupational information network that provides comprehensive information about employees and occupations. It matches your skills and interests with related occupations. This site is also helpful if you need to identify occupations requiring skills that are difficult for people with health issues or disabilities.
Career information at http://www.acinet.org/acinet helps you build a profile combin- ing employment, wages, and skills. It also assists you in finding industries with the largest employment and the fastest projected growth. You can find state labor market informa- tion and links to educational, cultural, and recreational resources.
An interesting and creative site is the University of Missouri Career Center at http://www.career.missouri.edu. This website provides a Career Interests Game that matches your abilities and interests with a variety of corresponding careers. (The game is located in a drop-down menu at the bottom corner.)
36 Chapter 3 • Building Your First Speech
As you are conducting research for your speech, look for information that can be grouped into categories. For example, the first area you might want to describe is the nature of the work—for example, the areas of opportunity, the responsibilities, and/or the skills required for the career. The next category could be the requirements for the career, such as the education, training, and/or experience needed. Finally, you might talk about the outlook for the occupation, such as job growth, salary potential, and trends in the field.
Remember that the better your research, the more credible, interesting, and clear your speech will be to your listeners.
Developing the Career Speech Once you have completed your research, you are ready to develop the rest of the speech. Remember that the general purpose of a career speech would most probably be informa- tive since you are not necessarily trying to persuade listeners to choose a particular occu- pation. Next, you want to write your thesis statement, which previews the main points of the body of your speech. The following sentence presents a clear, three-point thesis for a career in law:
Thesis statement: The law profession is a rewarding career that requires extensive education but provides unlimited potential.
As you remember from the ten guidelines, you write the outline once you have com- pleted the thesis. The three categories in the thesis make developing the outline easy:
I. Nature of a law career II. Education required III. Unlimited potential
When you have written your main and supporting points, think of an introduction, such as a quotation, example, or startling statement that gets your listeners’ attention and piques their curiosity about the career. Also, end the speech with a conclusion that summarizes your main points and reinforces the ideas stated during your presentation.
Once you have finished the outline, you are then ready to complete the process of building your speech. Consider the audience by relating your topic to their diverse needs or interests and define any difficult terms that may be unfamiliar. Report your information ethically by citing your resources clearly and stating facts fairly and completely. Finally, as we’ve described in this chapter, speak extemporaneously from brief note cards and practice the speech thoroughly to develop your confidence.
SAMPLE SPEECH: Careers in Anthropology As an honors student in a basic speech communication course, Jamie Garonzik was inter- ested in a career in anthropology and the variety of occupations related to that field. His speech was well organized with an introduction, a clear thesis, main points of the body separated by transitions, and a brief conclusion. As you read the speech, notice how Jamie uses examples, statistics, and visual aids with credible sources to keep listeners interested in his topic.3
AN INFORMATIVE DESCRIPTIVE SPEECH Jamie Garonzik
The Career Speech 37
1. It is impossible to deny that the modern world is more interconnected than ever due to the advancement of computers and technology. (slide 1) Innovations such as the Internet have allowed each of us to actively communicate with and learn about other countries and cultures. American businesses of today have branches half-way around the world and rely on other foreign companies for essential goods and services. They’ve erased many boundaries over the past two decades. You may think that I’m leading into a career in business or technology, but instead I’d like to talk about the field of work that has helped us to confront our own ignorance and shed light on those cultures unlike our own, both past and present, with the intention to come to a greater understanding of our fellow man. I’m speaking of the field of anthropology, which, simply put, is the study of humans and primates.
2. I will discuss various forms and functions of anthropology, the skills and education required, and the level of pay that one may receive.
3. There are two major fields (slide 2) of anthropology—biological and cultural. There are many subfields, but I’d like to discuss only a few today. Paleontologists study prehistoric life, the beginning of human existence, and how humans developed.
SLIDE 1
Fields of Anthropology
Biological Anthropology
•Paleontologists •Primatologists
Cultural Anthropology
•Ethnographers •Archaeologists
SLIDE 2
SLIDE 3 SLIDE 4
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1. The speaker begins the introduction.
Jamie uses a PowerPoint slide to create audience interest in the topic.
The speaker uses suspense as a strategy to generate curiosity.
2. The speaker states a three-point thesis.
3. Jamie uses a slide to introduce his point.
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38 Chapter 3 • Building Your First Speech
They also study plant and animal fossils. (slide 3) I’m sure you’re familiar with Charles Darwin, the famous naturalist and paleontologist who founded the evolution theory. (slide 4) This theory states that humans evolved from primates, such as chimpanzees, and we now know that chimpanzee DNA differs by only 1 percent from that of humans. Evolutionary theory leads directly into the study of primates, known as primatology. (slide 5) Jane Goodall, the most famous primatologist of all, studied chimpanzees for over thirty years. She focused on behavioral and social aspects, which confirmed many similarities to humans, according to the Minnesota State University website.
We’ll now move from biological to cultural anthropology. (slide 6)
4. Ethnographers have the job of living with, observing, and recording the many aspects of foreign culture. They provide detailed, unbiased research to determine the similarities and differences in the cultures they study. One example of a famous ethnographer is Colin Turnbull. He lived with and studied the African Pygmies in the Congo for many years—the Bambuti and the Ilk. He wrote books called The Rain Forest People and The Mountain People which opened our eyes to the ways of indigenous peoples. (slide 7) And what can we learn from ethnographers?
SLIDE 5 SLIDE 6
What Can We Learn From an Ethnographer?
Holistic research method considers all aspects of a society
Attitudes, Behavior Patterns, Values
Gender roles in different cultures
Marriage (various forms & functions)
Rituals & their meanings
Environmental impacts on different cultures – African Americans & Milk Proteins
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The speaker cites the names of Darwin and Goodall as examples of different kinds of anthropologists.
The visuals and the cited source add interest and credibility to the ideas.
4. Jamie cites an example of a famous ethnographer and names the books he authored about the Pygmies. The PowerPoint slides again add interest to the speech.
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The Career Speech 39
We learn that they use holistic research methods that include gender roles, mar- riage, the forms and functions of rituals and their meanings, and the environmental impacts on different cultures.
5. Next we move on to archeologists, and for lack of a famous, (slide 8) identifiable archeologist, we’re all familiar with Indiana Jones, who taught us that they find and study artifacts to piece together history, understand the changes that took place, and provide a greater understanding of the rise and fall of civilization. Arche- ologists also work with museums to piece together historical representations.
6. In order to accomplish these goals, anthropologists must receive the proper educa- tion and training to develop certain skills.
7. According to the American Anthropology Association, (slide 9) you can get away with a Bachelor’s degree, but you have to sell yourself. You usually have to work with businesses and product marketing and you learn to think holistically and appreciate diversity. It is more advisable, though, to earn a Master’s or a Ph.D. in order to accomplish things such as Colin Turnbull’s achievements. The skills you
Bachelor's degree is possible
Masters’ or Ph.D. is highly recommended
Skills Acquired*
Learn to be flexible Careful Record Keeping Observant Able to think on a more holistic level Oral & Written skills Independence of thought
• • • • • •
SLIDE 9 SLIDE 10
SLIDE 11
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5. The speaker’s reference to the fictitious movie character keeps listeners interested.
6. A transitional sentence ends the first main point and introduces the second.
7. Jamie begins the second main point by citing a source.
The speaker describes the degrees required and reinforces the information with a visual.
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40 Chapter 3 • Building Your First Speech
acquire from your education help you to be flexible and observant. You learn to think independently, become analytical, and think on a deeper, more holistic level. You are trained to keep careful records and develop good oral and written communication skills.
8. After your education has been completed, the goal is to find a self-satisfying job that pays money.
9. (slide 10) Anthropologists and archeologists will experience the majority of job growth in the management, scientific, and technical consulting services industries. As construction projects increase, more archeologists will be needed to monitor the work and ensure that historical sites and artifacts are preserved, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics website. As for income, a Bachelor’s degree will earn you about $30,000, a Master’s could start at about $43,000, and a Ph.D. could start at about $50 to 60,000, and if you move on to become a professor you could earn up to $100,000 per year.
10. (slide 11) Well hopefully, you now have an idea of the requirements and rewards of being an anthropologist. The variety of jobs and skills make this career very appeal- ing and you will gain many useful skills and the pay can be good. Anthropologists not only research, analyze, and recover details from the past so we can have a better understanding of history but they also help us to understand each other so that we may move together towards a more unified future.
Summary There are four styles of delivery: extemporaneous, manuscript, impromptu, and memorized. One of the most effective styles is extemporaneous delivery, which requires research and organization, but enables the speaker to use a brief outline and maintain eye contact and spontaneity.
Ten general guidelines may assist you in constructing your first speech:
1. Select a topic that is interesting to you and to your audience and is sufficiently limited in scope.
2. Be aware of the three general purposes or directions of a speech. 3. Conduct research into your topic to obtain appropriate testimonies, statistics, and
examples to support your ideas. 4. Write a clear, specific purpose or speech objective followed by a thesis statement that
states the two, three, or four main points the speech will include. 5. Write a comprehensive outline of the introduction, body, and conclusion to develop
your ideas in a logical sequence. 6. As you construct the speech, be sensitive to the needs and motivations of your
audience. 7. Be ethical and credible when speaking. 8. Use the extemporaneous style of speaking to maintain eye contact with your audience. 9. Transfer your outline to speaking notes and practice the speech to develop a conversa-
tional, spontaneous delivery. 10. Project confidence in yourself and in the material when you deliver the speech.
8. The transition introduces the third main point of the body.
9. Jamie uses a slide to reinforce salary information he cited from the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
10. The speaker ends with a brief concluding summary and a stimulating last sentence.
The Career Speech 41
When developing a career speech, conduct research by consulting your campus career center as well as several Internet sources. Follow the ten building blocks for constructing the speech.
Skill Builders 1. Develop and present a short 2- to 3-minute speech introducing yourself to your
class. Topic suggestions might include a unique interest, experience, place you’ve traveled, or an embarrassing incident.
2. Develop and present a 4- to 6-minute informative, descriptive speech about a possible career choice you may have selected following the ten guidelines pre- sented in this chapter. Make an appointment with your campus career center to gather information about possible career topics. For additional research, you may use your library’s databases and Internet sources, such as www.acinet.org/acinet, www.bls.gov/oco, www.onetcenter.org, or www.career.missouri.edu, as well as an expert in the career you’ve chosen. Organize the thesis and body of your speech around the following three key points: I. Nature of the career; II. Requirements or training; and III. Occupational outlook.
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter 3, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com by using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www.cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources give you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
42 Chapter 3 • Building Your First Speech
CHAPTER
4ANALYZING YOUR AUDIENCE
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Recognize the importance of audience analysis
2 Describe five factors that can influence audience reactions to a speech
3 Conduct an audience analysis
• Radio shock host Don Imus referred to the Rutgers University women’s basketball team as “nappy- headed hos.” He later apologized for the remark but was forced out of his job at CBS radio.
• Actor Isaiah Washington referred to a fellow cast member on the TV show Grey’s Anatomy as a “faggot.” Washington later apologized, but was fired from the show.
• Comedian Michael Richards used racial slurs against African Americans in a com- edy routine. Even though he apologized for saying the “n” word, he was publicly scorned and his career spiraled downward.
• After being detained for driving while intoxicated, actor and director Mel Gibson made defamatory remarks, saying that “Jews are responsible for all the wars in the world.” He apologized, blamed the comments on alcoholism, and checked himself into a rehab facility.
• BP oil company CEO Tony Hayward told a news reporter, “I’d like my life back,” even though thousands of Americans living near the Gulf of Mexico had lost their livelihoods due to the massive BP oil spill.1
M as
te rfi
le “The public is like a piano.You have to know whatkeys to poke.” —Al Capp
43
Unfortunately each one of these prominent people violated an important principle of audience analysis repeated by Abraham Lincoln more than 100 years ago:
It is an old and a true maxim that a “drop of honey catches more flies than a gallon of gall.” So with men. If you would win a man to your cause, first convince him that you are his sincere friend. Therein is a drop of honey that catches his heart.”2
Our objective in this chapter is to help you analyze your audience in a speech setting. We will explore several ways for you to build strategies that encourage listeners to receive your messages favorably.
The Importance of Audience Analysis
When individuals or companies decide to invest millions of dollars in developing new pro- ducts or services, they conduct a market analysis to determine consumers’ needs, their characteristics, their buying habits and motives, and their receptivity to new products.3
A developer, for instance, who intends to build a high-rise condominium must determine the nature of potential buyers and what they want in housing. Will home- owners be older individuals who can afford spacious living environments with cathedral ceilings, Jacuzzis, and wraparound balconies? Or will prospective buyers be young profes- sionals who want housing that is inexpensive, convenient, and practical?
We see the results of successful market research all around us. Automakers introduce new hybrid and “green” vehicles or reinstate vintage “retro” models. Food companies produce dietetic and low-cholesterol products for health-conscious consumers. Political campaigns sway voting blocs such as senior citizens, women, recreational hunters, farm- ers, or minorities with special-interest advertising.
Like the investor, you must analyze your particular “market”—your audience. Audi- ence analysis refers to the speaker’s examination of audience characteristics to determine the most appropriate means of motivating them to share or participate in the speaker’s
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44 Chapter 4 • Analyzing Your Audience
concerns.4 You need to understand your listeners’ needs, their environment, and their perceptions of you as a speaker. If you understand at least some of these characteristics, you will be able to adapt your speech to gain the most favorable hearing. Knowledge of the audience helps you to choose topics that are interesting, connect to listeners’ needs, select supporting evidence that contributes to clarity and vividness, and use language that is appropriate. Audience analysis does not mean that you must compromise your values or tell your listeners what they want to hear. The point is to adapt and adjust your presentation. The audience is your most valuable asset in the speech setting; it is the listeners whom you ultimately want to inform, persuade, or entertain.
Audience analysis involves understanding five principal factors that can significantly influence listeners’ reactions to a speech (Figure 4.1):
1. Their perception of the speaker 2. Their perception of the topic 3. Their needs and motivations 4. Social groups to which they belong 5. The occasion
Audience Perception of the Speaker Audiences develop very clear perceptions of speakers. They like or dislike speakers based on the content of their presentations or reputations created through past speeches or actions. We return to the same doctor, hairdresser, insurance agent, or accountant because of favorable perceptions and positive relationships we have built with them over a period of time.
FIGURE 4.1 Five Princi- pal Factors Influencing Listeners’ Reactions
The Importance of Audience Analysis 45
Your audience will likewise develop a perception of you as a speaker. They will eval- uate what they hear in your presentations, and they will form attitudes about your choice of topics and your manner of delivery. If your speeches are usually interesting and well prepared, the audience will anticipate those qualities even before you speak—they will be receptive unless you prove them wrong. At the same time, speakers who are poorly prepared, who make illogical arguments, or who use unethical methods will create nega- tive expectations that will be hard to overcome.
A student presented a speech demonstrating shoplifting. He wore a long trench coat with large inside pockets and proceeded to tell his audience in great detail how to stuff various sizes of merchandise into the garment. He explained how to avoid discovery by store detectives and by mechanical devices. Some members of the class giggled nervously during the speech; others sat in frozen silence. After his conclusion, the speaker added, “Oh, this was only a joke; I didn’t really mean it. I don’t believe in shoplifting.” But it was too late; the speaker had severely damaged his reputation. When he delivered his next classroom speech, his negative image still influenced listeners. It took several presen- tations for the speaker to earn back his credibility with the audience.
Audience perceptions are not necessarily etched in stone; they can be changed or even reversed over time. In the race for the Republican presidential nomination in 2008, former New York City Mayor Rudolph Giuliani was the front-runner. His extraor- dinary leadership and compassion during and after the attacks of 9/11 on the World Trade Center earned him the title of “America’s Mayor.” Many voters saw him as a leader who could stand up to terrorists and keep America safe. During the campaign, however, information surfaced about his personal life, including two divorces and three marriages as well as some estranged children. In addition, Giuliani had submitted the name of his former police commissioner to President Bush as a nominee for Secretary of the Department of Homeland Security. The commissioner’s name, however, was later withdrawn by the Bush administration due to a scandal. Primary election voters became disenchanted with the former mayor and Giuliani lost his front-runner position, never winning a single primary election.5
An audience may be unfamiliar with a speaker and feel hesitant about accepting the speaker’s ideas or viewpoints. An expert in fire safety who informs listeners how to pro- tect their homes may project interest and concern, but if the audience has never heard of the “expert,” the speaker may need to increase believability by describing his or her pro- fessional qualifications and experience.
Positive audience attitudes work to your advantage in a speech. If you have devel- oped a favorable reputation, listeners won’t be resistant to your influence. If listeners believe your ideas are supported by solid evidence and sound reasoning, they will be more open to you. If you appear confident and relaxed in your delivery, the audience will relax and listen to you. The attitudes the audience forms about you play an impor- tant role in your ability to educate and influence them.
Audience Perception of the Topic If a large company hired a computer consultant to lecture on “Innovations in Informa- tional Technologies” to 100 administrative assistants and clerks, the speaker might assume the entire audience was knowledgeable about computer technology. That assumption might be erroneous, however. Administrative assistants, like people in many skilled occupations, have become highly specialized professionals. In many companies, certain employees, known as information specialists, have received advanced computer training and supervise the computer and data area of an office. Other personnel, such as receptionists or clerks, may perform only data entry and possess
46 Chapter 4 • Analyzing Your Audience
limited technical knowledge. The consultant who assumes that every administrative assistant is literate in every type of software or computer hardware may present a speech that is far too complex for a significant segment of the audience.
As you build your speech, don’t make assumptions about the audience until you ask questions. If you understand the level of awareness about a topic, you can gear the speech toward more listeners by not isolating or losing any audience segment.
You also need to consider the attitudes of listeners toward your topic. Attitudes are prior inclinations people have about issues, and opinions are verbal expressions of these attitudes.7 When you deliver a persuasive speech, for instance, you may have listeners who agree, disagree, or have no opinion concerning your point of view.
Suppose that you want to present a speech favoring the death penalty for convicted drug dealers. You conduct judicious research. You obtain statistical evidence from the U.S. Justice Department regarding the amount of illegal drugs entering the country every year. You also include some examples of specific drug dealers who have profiteered from the broken lives of dependent addicts. You even use some emotional appeals— “Would you want these drug dealers making profits from your son or daughter, brother or sister?” But when you deliver the speech, you find yourself facing listeners with tight
Pelosi and Palin: Public Perceptions of Political Lightning Rods>>> Representative Nancy Pelosi of San Francisco became the first woman Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives and second in line for the presidency when the Dem- ocratic Party took control of Congress in the election of 2006. At first there was great enthusiasm for her strong, progressive leadership. But as the U.S. economy continued to stagnate and unemployment grew worse, voters became increasingly disenchanted with Pelosi. Laws, such as stimulus spending, health care reform, and financial reform, that she guided through Congress were controversial. Statements she made about health care, such as, “We have to pass the bill in order to find what is in it away from the fog of the controversy,” were viewed negatively in the press and pub- lic. In a CBS poll taken before the midterm election of 2010, only 15 percent of voters viewed her favorably as opposed to 44 percent who perceived her unfavorably. Even though she lost her job of Speaker when the Republican Party won sixty-three seats and regained control of the House, Pelosi remains a controversial minority leader of her party in the House.
As a little-known Governor of Alaska, Sarah Palin first captured the interest of Americans when John McCain asked her to be his vice-presidential running mate in 2008. This “Momma Grizzly,” as she characterized herself, delivered an electrifying acceptance speech at the Republican National Convention, and her youthful image as an attractive, tough, hard-working mother, as well as her speaking skills, seemed to increase the chances that the McCain-Palin ticket might be successful. But as the presidential campaign wore on, Palin’s lack of experience surfaced in her mediocre debate performance with Democratic vice-presidential candidate Joseph Biden and her disastrous TV interview with CBS anchor Katie Couric. Near the end of the campaign, voters’ perceptions of her changed from 27 percent negative to 47 percent unfavorable and her party lost the election due to a variety of factors. With a book, a TV reality show, and presidential ambitions, Palin remains a strong yet controver- sial force in American politics.6
The Importance of Audience Analysis 47
lips and unfriendly frowns. Once the speech ends, you discover too late that most of your evidence and emotional appeals were irrelevant—your audience is strongly opposed to the death penalty, period. The one piece of research that is missing for this topic is audi- ence analysis. If you don’t know how your audience feels about an issue, you are less likely to use your supporting data to the best advantage.
It is crucial for a speaker to ask questions about listeners, either verbally or through surveys, before delivering a speech. The information helps the speaker to determine audience attitudes in order to adjust the approach of the presentation. Generally speak- ing, the stronger their attitudes against an issue or idea, the harder it is to influence the audience.8 It is unreasonable to expect individuals to move from extreme opposition to approval after a 5- or 10-minute speech. With hostile audiences, the best you can do is to establish common ground and focus on areas of agreement as well as the need for change. If people are mildly against your topic, you have a good chance of changing their minds provided that the evidence is forceful. If your listeners are neutral, you are in the best position. Neutrality often means that the audience may not know enough about the issue or simply has not yet formed clear opinions. You have a good chance of exerting influence through strong evidence and sound reasoning. And if the audience completely supports your viewpoint, you can change the focus of your speech to moti- vate them to act—to contact their legislators, form political action committees, or edu- cate the greater public about the problem.
With many issues, you will find audience attitudes ranging from strong agreement to equally strong disagreement. If you found a variety of audience perceptions about capital punishment, for example, you would focus most of your persuasive appeals on the neutral group, including those who mildly agree and disagree. You would want to maintain contact with those who favor your position strongly and, at the same time, indicate that you respectfully disagree with your extreme opposition.
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48 Chapter 4 • Analyzing Your Audience
Motivations of the Audience As they are listening to your speech, the audience will ask some mental questions: “Can I use this? Will this help me? Does the topic relate to my interests?” Your answer is to appeal to the needs that are most important to your listeners. Needs and goals provide incentives to your audience to become interested and involved in your information. When you focus on significant needs, audience members realize that they can benefit from the speech, that they have something to gain by allowing the speaker to influence them.
One way to discover your listeners’ strongest needs is to understand their beliefs and values. Beliefs are conclusions people have about the world based on observations, knowl- edge, and experiences.9 The following statements would qualify as individual beliefs:
“An exercise program prolongs life.” “God answers prayers.” “Abstinence prevents STDs.” “Democrats are more sympathetic toward social problems.” “Censorship of the Internet violates the Constitution.”
Collections of beliefs, called values, cause us to behave in certain ways and to achieve goals or states of mind.10 Most people have general values in common— physical, social, love, ego, security, and moral needs. All of us have basic physical needs such as food, water, shelter, rest, sex, and security, which include safety and social order. Abraham H. Maslow, a psychology professor at Brandeis University, recognized that needs are strong motivating forces in human beings. Figure 4.2 identifies the five levels of basic drives, called a hierarchy of needs, that Maslow believed influence our thinking and behavior. Maslow suggested that people must satisfy the lowest order of needs (physiological) before they are able to progress to the next level (safety, then love, then esteem, and finally, self-actualization).11
Even though all of us have similar needs, our values cause us to give these drives differ- ent priorities. Some who put a high emphasis on family-type love needs will change jobs and move long distances to be near better schools or help sick relatives. Others who value ego needs will uproot families and change jobs to increase status and responsibility. Those who place strong emphasis on physical needs may spend a great deal of time exercising, choosing well-balanced foods, and getting the appropriate amount of rest. Individuals who place a high priority on moral or spiritual values may cherish religious services, daily meditation, and participation in religion-centered activities. When you analyze your audience, try to determine their values so that you can connect your topic to their most significant goals.12
Esteem needs
Self- actualizaton
Love needs
Safety needs
Physiological needsFIGURE 4.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
The Importance of Audience Analysis 49
The following list identifies the five principal needs in Maslow’s hierarchy and provides a sample appeal designed to motivate listeners within each step. Notice how speakers phrased appeals to link topics to specific audience values.13
Physiological Needs
Imagine, it’s midnight, and you still have four chapters of sociology to study. You decide to take a break. You turn on the TV and all you see is food commercials. And what does your mind go to? Cheeseburgers? Naw. Chicken? Naw. PIZZA! Just a phone call away is a sauce-filled, cheese-covered, crisp-crusted pizza pie.
—Evan Feinberg, student speaker
Safety Needs
Imagine your doctor shooting up drugs before your major surgery. —Heather Hay, student speaker
Love Needs
Without the volunteer coaches, officials, and huggers, the Special Olympics would not be able to operate. These Special Olympians would not be gaining the physical exercise and emotional support that is crucial to their self-esteem. As I’ve listened to your speeches over the last two months, I know that many of you are interested in athletics. Volunteering would be a great way for you to continue your love of athlet- ics and, in turn, you’d be helping others.
—Colleen V. Deitrich, student speaker
Esteem Needs
Not only will you feel better if you exercise, how would you like to look better? —Kristine Ozgar, student speaker
Self-Actualization Needs
How many people in this room can say that they love their jobs—I mean truly love their jobs? I am here to tell you that there is a career field that you can go into and actually enjoy your job. It is the aviation industry. In the May 2000 issue of Private Pilot magazine, professional pilot Chris Baker makes this statement: “There is one thing for certain: a job in aviation is a dream career for many. I mean, think about it. How many industries out there can say that they actually have employees serving lawsuits [that have reached as far as the Superior Court] in order to prevent their retirement?”
—J. Luke Snow, student speaker
The preceding quotations present positive and negative appeals as well as one that is psychologically threatening. Each approach, however, seeks to connect the topic to a specific audience need. Listeners’ attention is aroused because speakers have motivated them to care by telling them that they are directly or indirectly involved with their topics. Be certain that you really understand the beliefs and values of your audience without making false assumptions or stereotypes about them. Stereotypes are fixed notions or simplistic preconceptions applied to individuals or groups. Not all Democrats are equally interested in funding social programs. Not all people emphasizing moral values are responsive to quotations and examples from the Bible. Not all people who
50 Chapter 4 • Analyzing Your Audience
value health want an exercise program. To develop appropriate appeals to values, analyze your audience thoroughly and know the differences in their beliefs.
Impact of Social Groups on Listeners Audience members belong to a wide variety of groups that can influence their perception of ideas. When you build a speech, you must understand the composition of the audience and the impact of specific social groupings on listeners. Consider the following areas when you analyze the audience: age, gender, religion, cultural and ethnic origin, educational level, occupation, interests, income level, geographical location, and group affiliation.
Age When preparing a speech, you will discover that your approach to a topic will change depending on the age of the audience. If you were speaking about Social Security to individuals in their early 20s, you would likely find listeners concerned about high Social Security taxes and how proposed Social Security reforms will affect the reliability of the system in the distant future. If, however, the audience were retirees in their 60s, they would be more concerned about the high cost of prescription drugs and whether reforms of the system will affect their current benefits. When selecting examples, use those within the knowledge or experience of your listeners. If a speaker mentioned Watergate, the Vietnam War, or Howdy Doody and the audience consisted of people under the age of 25, listeners would have little appreciation for the examples unless they were experts in history or whizzes at the game of Trivial Pursuit. Similarly, an audi- ence over 65 might have little understanding of a Kindle, Xbox, or M-pact. A speaker should either clearly define the examples or use other illustrations from their listeners’ contemporary experience:
Because of their experience not only on the job but in real life, older workers tend to have fewer accidents. According to a 1988 Bureau of Labor Statistics study, older workers account for 9.7 percent of work-related accidents while workers in your age group of 20 to 24 account for 50 percent of such accidents. You can see that there’s no replacing life-long experience.
People also age at different rates. There are neither biological nor psychological reasons to connect a number, such as 65, to the onset of old age. Every one of you in this room is aging at this very moment and will face retirement sooner or later. When you face that time, retirement should be a decision that you make for yourself.14
Colleen Deitrich knew that her speech against mandatory retirement could be poten- tially uninteresting to her younger listeners in their early 20s. But she connected the topic to them by comparing accident rates of older workers to those of younger wage earners. Colleen also confronted her listeners with the issue by saying that they were aging “at this very moment.”
Avoid alienating members of your audience by ridiculing their age or insulting their intelligence. Put-downs of any age group create animosity. A young speaker who referred to an audience of senior citizens as “you old people” would be met with anger and resent- ment. At the same time, if an older speaker were to describe a person under 25 as “just a 22- year-old kid,” listeners in their 20s would probably react with equal hostility.
Eliminate false assumptions and stereotypes about age. Older people are not neces- sarily wiser and younger people do not necessarily lack experience with many issues. As an effective speaker, you want to influence rather than alienate listeners. You can acknowledge generational differences yet bring people together and appeal to the audi- ence by establishing a common ground.
The Importance of Audience Analysis 51
Gender The gender of your audience is an important factor to consider when you prepare a speech. With the changes in roles that men and women have experienced in the past few decades, it has become increasingly difficult to identify “women’s” or “men’s” topics. Women may be doctors, Army captains, truck drivers, airline pilots, or devoted home- makers. Men may be chefs, florists, kindergarten teachers, or nurses. You can no longer assume that male and female audiences will be interested only in certain subjects.
An effective speaker should be sensitive to the subtle differences in women’s and men’s perceptions and communication patterns. Although much research concerning gender appears to be inconclusive, the following chart presents a few generalities that provide some interesting implications for speakers.
DIFFERENCES IN COMMUNICATION BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN
CHARACTERISTIC WOMEN MEN
Talk Use talk to build rapport with others
Use talk to assert ideas and oneself
Self-disclosure A way to share yourself with others
Sharing makes you too vulnerable
Empathy Express understanding of others’ feelings
Give advice and tell others how to solve problems
Sharing experiences Matching experiences shows understanding
Matching experiences is a competitive exercise15
Although the preceding statements are based on research, it must be emphasized that many studies into gender differences are contradictory or uncertain at best and gen- eralities have numerous exceptions. Simply stated, speakers need to be aware of the unique qualities of gender in every audience situation.
One classroom speaker defended the persuasive proposition that mothers who kill their babies as a result of postpartum depression should be given more lenient sentences. The audience listened carefully as the speaker provided evidence that postpartum psy- chosis is a psychological imbalance requiring treatment and understanding. During the discussion, listeners were polarized based on gender. Men generally felt that a woman who killed her own baby should be severely punished to the limit of the law. Women, however, were much more sympathetic and agreed that the offender should be given a program of treatment and rehabilitation.16
Another speaker described date rape, informing listeners what it is, how it happens, and what to do about it. Audience members appeared to listen intently to the horrifying examples, expert opinions, and statistics, but their reactions were mixed. Women felt that the topic was helpful and caused them to be more aware and enlightened. But men in the audience argued that they were left out of the speech and treated as if they were being implicitly linked to the criminal behavior. Both examples indicate the need for speaker sensitivity. In the first, the speaker needs to examine audience perception of the topic before the speech to understand potential polarization according to gender. In the second, the speaker should take a more inclusive and less hostile approach to con- nect to men as well as to women in the audience.
When presenting a speech, avoid stating prejudicial generalities or false stereo- types that anger your listeners. To make sexist remarks such as “a woman’s place is in the home” or “all men are potential rapists” would arouse hostility in any audience.
52 Chapter 4 • Analyzing Your Audience
Carefully consider the sensitivities of your listeners and demonstrate that you care about them.
Religion Even in an audience of twenty people, there may be adherents of several religious atti- tudes and beliefs—Christians, Jews, Buddhists, Muslims, Hindus, agnostics, atheists. Reli- gious beliefs are a matter of deep personal conviction and must be taken into account if a speaker is going to touch upon religious subject matter:
The book of Genesis advocates a vegetarian diet of fruits, grains, and nuts. Buddha commands, “Do not indulge a voracity that includes the slaughter of animals.” The Hindu Mahabharata reads, “Those who desire to possess good memory, beauty, long life with perfect health, and physical, moral and spiritual strength should abstain from animal foods.” The Islamic Koran prohibits the eating of “dead animals, blood, and flesh.” The ancient Greeks, led by Pythagoras and supported by Socrates and Plato, believed vegetarianism was natural and hygienic and neces- sary for healthy living. The Romans conquered the world with an army fed on vege- tables, porridge, bread, and wine. These examples were gleaned from Gary Null’s The Vegetarian Handbook and they illustrate how history has attempted to teach the philosophy and practice of vegetarianism in order to have a long, prosperous, and healthful life.17
After researching his audience, Jim Kilduff decided to identify a variety of religious philosophies to build an argument for a vegetarian lifestyle. Unlike the offensive remarks of the celebrities mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, Jim’s inclusive approach helped to win enthusiasm for his topic by bringing philosophically diverse listeners together.
In any audience, avoid religious slurs that reflect prejudicial attitudes. These state- ments will arouse hostility and promote dissension among your listeners. It is important to unite the members of your audience and establish a sense of community.
Cultural and Ethnic Origin We live in a racially charged society where thoughtless words or actions not only injure feelings, but can arouse animosity serious enough to ignite violence. Inappropriate ethnic humor, questionable examples, or a hostile delivery can alienate listeners and ultimately backfire on a speaker. Unfortunately, individuals sometimes convey ideas and exhibit behavior that are considered to be ethnocentric, that is, the belief that one culture or environment is superior to another. A speaker with this attitude usually feels “my culture is better than yours.”18 Such arrogant attitudes may be openly expressed or implied. A speaker from one culture who repeatedly refers to listeners of another culture as “you people” may be exhibiting ethnocentric attitudes that will alienate the audience. Speak- ers who engage in constant put-downs about the superiority of city dwellers over rural residents, Greeks over Turks, blacks over whites, whites over blacks, American citizens over immigrants, and so forth are expressing ethnocentric attitudes that offend audi- ences. To gain an effective hearing, speakers must avoid such ideas and expressions and exercise extreme sensitivity to listeners from diverse backgrounds and cultures.
One of the strengths of our society is its cultural diversity. The traditional Anglo- Saxon domination of America is rapidly changing, and it is predicted that the white majority will continue to decline and African American, Hispanic, and Asian popula- tions will steadily increase in numbers. Demographers predict that by the year 2060, these three minority groups combined could become the majority.19
The Importance of Audience Analysis 53
Because of this increasing diversity, speakers face interesting challenges when pre- senting messages. An effective speaker must not simply acknowledge, but must really understand the cultural and ethnic background of the audience. Speakers must recognize that culture and ethnic background influence language patterns, vocabulary, word mean- ings, dialect, accent, nonverbal delivery, and even the listening behavior of an audience. An American speaker making a presentation to an Asian audience might interpret a lack of eye contact from listeners as evasive or disrespectful. But because of their cultural background, many Asians would consider such indirectness more polite and considerate than straightforward stares. Some American slang expressions or regional dialects are dif- ficult to understand and translate. Imagine a Scandinavian hearing the slang term Jeet, a Mexican encountering the Pennsylvania Dutch expression “it makes down,” or an Australian trying to understand the Cajun phrase “gumbo z’herbes” for the first time. Unless these listeners hired the services of a good American guide or linguist, they might not realize that they are being asked “Did you eat?,” told that “it is raining,” or being offered a bowl of “green gumbo.” Similarly, some English words do not have equiv- alent terms in other languages. For example, the manufacturers of Pet milk advertised their product in French-speaking countries and didn’t realize that the word pet is a French term that means “to break wind.”20
Don’t take your audience for granted and don’t assume too much or too little. Ana- lyze your listeners and their background, experiences, and knowledge and know how they are different and alike. At the same time, recognize your cultural differences as a speaker and be able to acknowledge or interpret these differences when it is necessary to help listeners understand you, your topic, or your speech more completely. In addi- tion, it is important to avoid conclusions and opinions that stereotype your listeners. Just as there are many similarities within cultures or groups, there are also tremendous differences. Not all Asians are polite and bow when greeting one another. Not all South- erners are friendly, not all Italians are extroverts, and not all Californians are laid back. Recognize that your audience is comprised of individuals who have unique life experi- ences, cultures, and knowledge. Choose your words, illustrations, and concepts carefully. Exercise good judgment when you refer to unknown events or unfamiliar places to involve people of diverse backgrounds and help them connect as fully as possible to your speaking message.
Addressing an audience of public school science teachers in Hughesville, Maryland, Benjamin H. Alexander used the outmoded phrase “colored people” and then said:
Shocked? No, because you are scientists and you know you are not white, but peo- ple of color. Were you the color of this white sheet of paper that I am holding up, you would be void of melanin and the ultraviolet rays from the sun would burn you up. Nor am I or any other so-called black person in the world, black. Again, you are scientists and know that were we black, we would have an abundance of melanin and be perfect receptors of the ultraviolet rays from the sun; our body temperature would quickly rise to over 108 degrees and into a fever so severe we too would burn up. Because you have melanin in your skin—and so do I—it is factual that all people on God’s green earth are people of color. God knows what He is doing when He makes no black or white people to inhabit the earth. He knows that if He had, some of them would always be fighting on this planet and disagreeing with the other. So He made a beautiful flower garden of people of all colors ranging from a pleasing cream to an exquisite sable.21
Alexander, a research chemistry professor at the American University, succeeded in shocking audience members by employing the term colored. But having carefully analyzed
54 Chapter 4 • Analyzing Your Audience
the audience, the speaker quickly translated his message into scientific terminology that listeners could easily understand. He not only connected to his audience, he gave them a feeling of togetherness and pride by referring to them as “people of color” whom God made into a “beautiful flower garden.”
Educational Level, Occupation, and Interests When selecting a topic, a speaker must analyze the educational level, occupation, and interests of the audience. Imagine a doctor using the following language in a speech describing the pancreas to an audience of businesspeople and musicians:
The pancreas, an elongated gland situated between the spleen and the duodenum, secretes an external juice which passes through the pancreatic duct into the duode- num. It also creates an internal secretion, called insulin, which is produced in the beta cells and regulates carbohydrate metabolism.23
The speaker has talked over the heads of the lay audience and used terms that would be appropriate only if listeners were medical professionals. Many speakers create this kind of communication problem. But the topic has potential interest because it involves infor- mation about good health maintenance. In this situation, however, it is advisable for the speaker to use language that is easier to understand:
The pancreas is a rather large gland located behind the stomach. It has two very important functions that are essential to the stability of our bodies. First of all, it secretes a fluid, called an enzyme, which helps in the digestion of food. Second, it produces insulin, which helps to reduce the amount of sugar in the blood and urine.
This example is superior because the speaker has used terms appropriate to the audi- ence’s level of knowledge on the topic.
The key idea in understanding audience education, occupation, and interests is speaker adaptability. A good speaker who talks about the treatment of childhood illness must interest young nonparents as well as parents in the audience. Referring to the non- parents’ future role in child-rearing will probably help to gain their attention. If an accountant speaks to a mixed audience of medical people and air transportation workers on how to manage money, the speaker knows that there is potential for success because almost everyone is interested in personal finances. A good speaker makes topics come alive for the audience by adapting to their education, occupation, and interests.
Words Can Hurt>>> “I know what it’s like to regret a poor word choice. In 1978 when I was in college, my South American–born Spanish professor was pregnant. One day she told me she didn’t know if she was having a boy or a girl, and I replied with a smile, ‘Well, as long as it’s human.’ A decade later, my professor sent me a letter, letting me know how hurtful she had found my comment. She thought I was insinuating that Hispanic babies weren’t really human. I was mortified and saddened by her letter, and replied with great apologies for my stupid choice of words. I was a thoughtless 19-year-old trying to be funny. In hindsight, of course, I can see why my words offended her … my Spanish professor’s admonishment remains in my head and in the lessons I teach my children—a visceral reminder of how much words matter.”22
—Jeffrey Zaslow, author and columnist for the Wall Street Journal
The Importance of Audience Analysis 55
Income Level A married student decided to tell his audience how to obtain a home mortgage. He talked about the preliminary steps of filling out application and credit forms as well as obtaining income verification. He discussed the property survey, insurance policy, and the termite inspection. Finally he described settlement costs, such as points, stamps, and recording fees. He told the audience that he was especially excited about the topic because he and his wife had just purchased their first home. But when his speech was over, audience mem- bers responded negatively. One student complained, “He seemed enthusiastic about his topic, but I couldn’t get into it. I’m a commuter student and I live at home with my par- ents. Someday I’ll need to know all of this, but right now I don’t have a prayer of buying my own place—I just want to graduate so I can get a decent-paying job.” That critique described almost everyone’s economic situation in the class.
This example graphically portrays the problems that occur when a speaker does not consider the income level of the audience. In this instance, even the speaker’s enthusi- asm could not motivate the class. He would have been more successful if he had chosen a topic such as taking out a car loan, which would have enabled him to adapt to the needs of his audience.
Another key idea for a speaker to remember is audience sensitivity. If you talk about joining a country club or about gourmet cooking to low-income people who can hardly afford to pay their rent, your feedback might be anything from indifference to hostility. Similarly, if you speak to a group of doctors or bankers and ridicule rich people’s fancy cars and expensive tastes, you will also find your audience switching you off quickly.
Geographic Location Effective speakers take time to research the geographic location of an audience. When a speaker demonstrates knowledge about the audience’s community, the speaker gains the admiration and respect of the listeners:
It’s an honor to address the Executives’ Club of Chicago. Over a half century ago, the English writer G. K. Chesterton visited Chicago and recommended that everyone interested in the future should do the same. As Chesterton put it, “Although I won’t venture a guess about the shape of things to come, if you wish to feel the pulse of things to come, go to Chicago.” Chesterton’s observation is still true. Despite the delays getting in and out of O’Hare [Airport], Chicago has the pulse of tomorrow.
New Yorkers, of course, like to make a similar claim for their city. And while I’m a loyal resident of the metropolis, who cheered when the Giants took on the Bears and will cheer again when the Mets beat the Cubs, I refuse to let civic loyalty get in the way of truth.24
The speaker, N. J. Nicholas, Jr. (co-chief executive officer of Time-Warner, Inc.), dem- onstrated respect for his hosts by using a complimentary quotation that put his Chicago audience in a receptive mood. A listener who is approached in this manner tends to think, “He’s really interested in me,” or “I’ll listen to him because he’s really gone out of his way to refer to my community.”
Social Organizations Audiences appreciate speakers who take the time to research some of the characteristics of their organizations. Notice how former Chrysler Corporation Chairman Lee Iacocca refers to attorneys at a convention of the American Bar Association:
Let me just say that it’s an honor to be asked to be here. And a little bit of a surprise, to tell you the truth. When I got the letter from Mr. Thomas last December,
56 Chapter 4 • Analyzing Your Audience
it said “It is my privilege to invite you …” and ended by wishing me “Happy New Year.” Most of the letters I usually get from lawyers start out with “You are hereby summoned,” and wind up with “Ignore at your peril.” So this is a treat. And I’m glad to be here. I’m also a little curious because I’ve often wondered just what law- yers do when they have a convention. I know what car dealers do! I noticed, for example, that as soon as I sit down you’re scheduled to get into something called “The Statement of the Assembly Resolutions Committee.” Now, that sounds like serious business: Last year at our convention, my speech was the warm-up act for Willie Nelson!25
Iacocca’s remarks were carefully designed to make good-natured fun of the legal profes- sion as well as of his own automotive industry. You can be sure that the attorneys appre- ciated his personal references to them.
Whenever you speak to a group or organization, there are certain identifiable catch- words and customs that will gain positive feedback from your audience. Knowing some- thing about the PTA, the Longshoremen’s Union, the Future Farmers of America, the Sierra Club, or the Bowling League will help you use terms and phrases that will get the attention of your listeners.
Targeting Specific Groups One way you can arouse interest is to target segments of your audience. Targeting is the process of identifying selected groups of listeners and designing specific appeals to moti- vate them. In the Democratic primary elections of 2008, Barack Obama appealed to young voters, upscale, educated Americans, and African Americans to persuade them that “change” is needed in the White House. By contrast, Hillary Clinton’s campaign created ads to persuade blue-collar workers, older Americans, and white women that experience is essential for the presidency.
You can also employ targeting in your speeches by using examples, statistics, or quo- tations that appeal to specific interests of listeners. If your topic is about proper nutrition and there are joggers in your audience, you can specifically refer to them as you explain the benefits of a healthy diet. You can formulate appeals to specific interest groups such as businesspeople, young parents, part-time wage earners, church members, suburbanites, or inner-city residents. Targeting helps you to motivate listeners in very personal ways to become involved with a topic. Notice how this speaker targeted listeners and related their topics to his speech:
Several class periods ago, each of us had the opportunity to share something per- sonal about ourselves. I’d like to take a moment to revisit that night and review some of the topics we spoke about. Karen, you described your passion for art. Jen- nifer talked about sailing and Tom spoke about scuba diving, the final frontier. Madalen presented a speech about insurance rates and George explained what it’s like to be a member of the state police SWAT team. Donna, you shared your feel- ings about returning to school—the pursuit of your dreams. Kelly described her pas- sion for jigsaw puzzles and George discussed roller skating for exercise. Bob presented his thoughts about friendship and Elizabeth described her feelings about coming to the USA, and we’re glad you did. Jean, you talked about Girl Scouts, truly an American tradition. Jagdish introduced medicine. Shannon, you described your college roommates, giving new meaning to the term “private property.” Beth introduced skiing and Michelle talked about playing the guitar. Lastly, and appropri- ately so, Rustin spoke about procrastination.
The Importance of Audience Analysis 57
Is there a common link to these passions? I would say yes. Actually, there are three: a man, a date, and a piece of paper. The man’s name is Thomas Jefferson, the date was the Fourth of July 1776, and the piece of paper was the Declaration of Independence. This document laid the foundation for the Constitution of the United States, allowing each of us the freedom to follow our dreams and pursue our passions.26
Dan Callahan listened closely to the topics presented by other classroom speakers and used this personal approach to motivate the audience. After the speech, listeners com- mented that Dan’s strategy of identifying their names and topics encouraged them to become involved with his topic.
Impact of the Occasion on Listeners The occasion is a major influence on the audience and a speaker must know how the environment will affect the speech. An audience subject to the antiseptic odors of a hos- pital will perceive a speech differently from that of an audience at a spring flower festi- val. Listeners on Christmas Eve display a contrasting mood from that of an audience on New Year’s Eve. People have certain expectations of speakers; they want a judge to con- vey wisdom, a doctor to project confidence. No analysis of the audience is complete unless you understand the impact of the speaking occasion on listeners: the purpose, location, and expectations of the speaker.
The Purpose of the Occasion People exhibit a variety of moods and feelings depending on the purpose of the occasion. Listeners are festive at a ball game or a Fourth of July celebration and more serious at a professional convention or a lecture. Jokes and humorous sketches would be entirely appropriate at a retirement banquet but usually out of place at a funeral or memorial ser- vice. Listeners are also influenced by upcoming holidays or by events of local and national significance. A reference to a tragedy in the community or to a special occasion such as Christmas, Veteran’s Day, or the Great American Smokeout can help to make your speech more timely and meaningful to the audience. Notice how John M. Scheb, judge of the Second District Court of Appeals in Lakeland, Florida, referred to the occa- sion in a speech commemorating Presidents’ Day:
As we reflect on the meaning of this Presidents’ Day, our individual thoughts may focus on a particular president of the past. We all remember our history lessons about our early presidents—Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, and the others who led our country up to the twentieth century. And then we have our own personal memories of more recent leaders. I can remember my parents speaking of President Hoover and I have vivid memories of serving in the military under Presidents Roose- velt and Truman during World War II. Most of us recall Presidents Eisenhower, Ken- nedy, Johnson, Nixon, Ford, and Carter. And of course we have fresh memories of Ronald Reagan and George Bush.
Our presidents over the years have differed philosophically, emotionally, and culturally. But each wove a thread of love of country into his leadership. And although those threads have been different in strength and design, together they have formed a tapestry displaying cherished values of country and a willingness to serve. This tapestry is patriotism.27
Judge Scheb’s references to past presidents helped listeners to reflect on the significance of Presidents’ Day and prepared them for the theme of patriotism.
58 Chapter 4 • Analyzing Your Audience
The Physical Location of the Event The physical location of a speech can affect both the audience and speaker. An audience shivering in a drafty auditorium in the middle of winter will not listen effectively. A speech presented in the New Orleans Superdome requires a huge TV screen to project visual aids. A craft demonstration at a senior citizens center might require close proxim- ity to listeners rather than a remote speaker’s lectern. A speech given outside at the local county fair may be subject to a sudden downpour.
An effective speaker carefully examines the physical location of the speech to antic- ipate and adapt to as many problems as possible. Here are some questions to ask when you are investigating a speaking site:
1. Is the event inside or outside? 2. What is the size of the room? 3. How many people will be present? 4. Is there a stage or raised platform for the speaker? 5. Will there be a speaker’s stand or lectern? 6. Does the room have adequate heat, air-conditioning, or ventilation? 7. Does the room have good acoustics? 8. Will there be a microphone or will the speaker need to rely on strong vocal projection? 9. Could any possible external noise in or near the speaking area cause a distraction?
10. Will props or visual aids need to be set up before the speech? 11. Are adequate electrical outlets, thumbtacks, extension cords, chalk, erasers, easels,
tables, or other devices needed for the speech available?
The Expectations of the Speaker Audiences attending events have certain expectations of speakers. They expect a gradu- ation speaker to be warm and congratulatory. They expect a minister or priest to rein- force beliefs and include references to moral and spiritual values. They expect politicians to be responsive to social and governmental concerns.
Audiences even have expectations regarding the speaker’s appearance. During a televised speech on energy early in his presidency, Jimmy Carter wore a sweater as he told Americans to turn down their thermostats to reduce dependency on foreign oil. In this “honeymoon” period, public and press reaction appeared favorable to the speech. Over time, however, the public returned to more traditional expectations regarding pres- idential appearance. Most Americans expect that the president of the United States will deliver an official speech “in proper attire”—a conservative suit and tie.28 President Carter never wore his cardigan again for a major address.
Whenever you present a speech, you need to know the expectations of your audi- ence. To avoid “speaking surprises,” ask questions. Here are points to cover when deter- mining your speaking role on a particular occasion:
1. Do your topic and general purpose suit the occasion? 2. What is the order of speaking and where is your speech in that order? 3. What time of day do you speak—morning, afternoon, or evening? 4. What is the time limit of the speech? 5. Who is the featured speaker? 6. Will you be introduced to the audience or must you introduce yourself? 7. How is the ceremony organized? 8. Is someone clearly in charge of the event? 9. Are there any customs or traditions associated with the event that you will be
expected to know or to perform?
The Importance of Audience Analysis 59
Once you have gained as much information as possible about the purpose, location, and expectations regarding the event, you will be more confident that your speech will be appropriate to the occasion.
Conducting an Audience Analysis
As a speaker you should conduct an analysis of your audience in order to develop strate- gies that will help your speech to receive a favorable hearing. In this section, we look at some strategies to assist you in gathering information about your listeners.
Collecting Demographic Data about the Audience Demographic analysis refers to the science of gathering social and statistical information about any group of people. You can collect demographic data by informal assessments, surveying audience opinion or knowledge, circulating questionnaires, or conducting per- sonal interviews.
Informal Assessments In a fast-paced society where information is exchanged rapidly and speaking engagements are arranged quickly, it is often difficult for speakers to do a comprehensive written or computer analysis of the audience. If you find yourself in this situation, you can still get information from individuals who know your listeners well. E-mail or telephone the host or organizers of the event to ask questions about the composition of your audience:
1. What are the gender and ethnicity of your listeners? 2. What are their age ranges? 3. What are some of their principal interests and concerns? 4. What do they know about you as the speaker? 5. What special characteristics of the audience should you be aware of?
Although a complete analysis may not be possible, a brief investigation that obtains the answers to some of these critical questions may provide information that is extremely beneficial as you develop your speech.
When you are more familiar with your audience, you may not have to ask as many questions. For example, if you are asked to speak at your church, you probably already know the answers to many questions about your listeners. In your speech communication class, your instructor may already have asked you to do a written demographic analysis of your audience. If not, you can simply observe the gender, ethnicity, age, and marital sta- tus of your classmates. If you have heard some preliminary speeches in class, you have already had the opportunity to observe and listen to many of their interests. These quick observations can help you develop topics and strategies that connect your speeches to your listeners as long as you do not make false assumptions.
Surveys One way to determine the attitudes of your listeners is to survey the relative strength and weakness of their opinions. You can accomplish this by constructing a scale like the one shown here.
Audience Attitude Survey
Proposition: The practice of cloning cells to reproduce exact copies of humans and ani- mals should be stopped.
60 Chapter 4 • Analyzing Your Audience
Do you agree, disagree, or are you neutral? Please place a check mark at the appro- priate place on the scale that describes your attitude about the above specific purpose:
−10 −5 −1 0 +1 +5 +10 opposed neutral favor
This survey helps you to determine audience attitudes about controversial issues prior to a presentation. Circulate the survey to audience members while you are preparing a speech. When you get the results, carefully analyze how many in the audience favor, oppose, or are neutral. The range of audience attitudes will help you decide the types of supporting materials to use and even influence your persuasive approach.
Another type of survey can help you determine the degree of knowledge your listen- ers possess concerning your topic.
Audience Information Scale
Topic: The U.S. debt ceiling How knowledgeable are you about the topic listed above?
1 2 3 4 I know a lot about it
I have some information about it
I’ve only heard about it
I’ve never heard of it
This scale is especially useful with informative speech topics. When you add and then average the score, you will have a good indication of how to gear your speech. A low audience average of 1.6 would indicate that listeners are quite knowledgeable about the topic. Your speech could then include examples and terms with a degree of depth and sophistication. On the other hand, a higher score of 3.4 would imply that your audience lacks knowledge and your speech should include definitions of unfamiliar terms and examples that are easy for listeners to absorb.
Questionnaires Another way to get demographic information is to circulate a questionnaire. You can develop a list of open-ended questions about age, gender, religion, income range, nationality or ethnic origin, education, occupation, social groupings, experiences, and interests. You can then have the questions distributed to audience members well before your speech to collect the needed information. Data obtained through ques- tionnaires can help you to determine the significant values, beliefs, and interests of your listeners and assist you in preparing motivational appeals that stimulate audience receptiveness.
Interviews Personal interviews with audience members provide more flexibility than surveys or questionnaires and allow you to ask in-depth and follow-up questions.29 In a personal interview you also have the advantage of one-to-one observation; you can watch an individual’s reactions to questions, evaluate the person’s use of language, and observe the audience member’s appearance. One disadvantage is that a personal interview can be time-consuming. If you have more than a hundred people in the audience, you may have difficulty interviewing each one. It might be more efficient to interview a cross section or sample of the group.
Conducting an Audience Analysis 61
Processing the Data with a Computer One effective way to process and organize demographic information about an audience is by using a computer program called SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). Speakers in government, business, and industry use this program to assess demographic information and to develop profiles of audiences. This powerful program can process data according to keywords or command names, such as age, sex, occupation, or interest area. You can determine if there are relationships between audience interests and geo- graphical region or correlations among race, age, income, education, and social group- ing.30 If you have access to a personal computer and a statistical program, you can also enter demographic data and develop profiles using specific commands or keywords. For more information about computer programs that include demographic profiles, you may want to contact your college or university sociology, mathematics, social sciences, or computer programming department.
Evaluating the Audience Profile When you have a printout of your data, analyze and evaluate the information. Make some assessments about the audience and try to identify some of the most significant qualities that could affect their perceptions of your speech. Develop specific appeals that relate to the most important interests and needs of your listeners.
Summary When building a speech, you need to understand some of the major influences on your listeners and how these factors will affect your presentation:
1. Be aware of listener perceptions toward you as a speaker. 2. Assess audience perceptions of the topic. 3. Understand audience beliefs, values, and value systems. When you know the motivations
of your listeners, you can develop specific appeals that link your topic to their needs. 4. Determine the composition of your audience according to age, gender, religion, ethnic
origin, educational level, occupation, interests, income level, geographical location, and group affiliation. You can target specific groups of listeners by creating appeals that relate to their concerns.
5. Know how the occasion of the speech influences the audience and speaker. Analyze the purpose of the occasion, the physical location of the event, and audience expecta- tions of the speaker.
You can conduct an audience analysis by gathering demographic information, processing the data with a computer, and evaluating the audience profile.
Skill Builders 1. Conduct a demographic analysis of the social groups in your classroom audience.
What appeals could you include in your speech that would effectively connect to the needs and motivations of your listeners?
2. Describe the elements of the occasion relative to your class and explain how these elements can affect your speech.
62 Chapter 4 • Analyzing Your Audience
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter 4, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com by using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www.cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources give you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
Conducting an Audience Analysis 63
CHAPTER
5 IMPROVING YOUR LISTENING SKILLS
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Recognize the significance of listening
2 Understand the process of listening
3 Identify five types of listening behavior
4 Recognize six barriers to listening
5 Describe how to become an active listener and speaker
Melissa came into the classroom with her assignments prepared for her morning English 101 course. She was also prepared to stay in touch with her world outside of class. Thinking she was well hidden on the back row behind one of the beefy football players, Melissa settled into the class period and began working. She plugged in headphones to her ipod and got out her Blackberry. She opened several messages from her
friends and began texting back. Once she sent her messages, Melissa poked some of her Facebook friends and then tweeted about her morning activities. She also surfed the web to scan the sales at her favorite boutiques. While on the computer, she received a visual voice mail message from her boyfriend asking where they should meet for lunch. She thought about it and texted her response. Melissa was pleased that she was able to keep in touch with the world so quietly without calling attention to herself and disrupting the class.
“What do you think about Eric’s answer, Melissa?” came the professor’s voice booming from the front of the classroom. Suddenly Melissa’s world of technology was shattered. “Eric? Answer? Um, ah, I dunno,” sputtered Melissa. Unaware that her professor had been watching as she had been texting, tweeting, and surfing, Melissa now felt small and foolish in front of the entire class due to her inattention.
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“To listen is an effort, andjust to hear is no merit.A duck hears also.”—Igor Stravinsky
64
Examples such as this indicate the consequences of ineffective listening and the importance of active listening in the communication process. Often our success and sometimes our safety depend upon how effectively we listen to instructions and data, how carefully we evaluate and weigh information. Lives depend upon a pilot’s ability to pay attention to flight instructions from the control tower or upon a surgeon’s ability to listen to nurses or patients.
This chapter presents four kinds of listening, introduces the concept of active and passive listening, identifies six behaviors that create barriers to effective listening, and discusses a program to build better listening skills.
The Significance of Listening
The International Listening Association has gathered some interesting facts regarding listening behavior.1 You might find some of them surprising. Eighty-five percent of what we know we learn by listening. We spend 75 percent of our time distracted, preoccupied, or forgetting something. We spend 45 percent of our time actually listening, but we remember only 20 percent of what we hear. After hearing someone speak to us, we can immediately recall about 50 percent of the information. Finally, fewer than 2 percent of us have ever had formal education or training in any aspect of listening.
A 1977 study was conducted at Auburn University to determine how various communication activities were divided during a typical college student’s day. Researchers surveyed 645 students and found that listening occurred 52.5 percent of the time, speak- ing took place 16.3 percent of the communication day, reading occurred 17.3 percent of the time, and writing occupied 13.9 percent of the communication day.2
As you can see, each of these surveys indicates that we spend most of our communi- cation time engaged in some type of listening behavior. Often, however, we don’t listen very well. Christine De Chello, a vice president of Ron Weber and Associates, a tele- marketing and database development organization, writes about the direct relationship of listening to the use of successful telemarketing techniques:
Think of all the conversations that take place around you, and you’ll realize how few of us take the time to listen to the person who is speaking. Extend that scenario to the call center environment, and you’re talking missed sales opportu- nities and lost revenues. After all, no one makes a purchase based on a monolog anymore. The days of the fast-talking salesperson with the hard-sell approach are long over. Today, effective selling evolves from constructing solid customer bonds through excellent listening skills. Indeed, effective listening is the catalyst to building results-driven, interactive conversations with customers and establish- ing rapport rooted in trust.3
Unfortunately, poor listening is a fact of life in all professions and at every level of our society. Examples abound of problems created because individuals or groups refused to listen, didn’t listen carefully, or listened only to information they wanted to hear. A few concrete examples will illustrate the magnitude of the listening problem.
The independent commission investigating the attacks of September 11 played a tape of a telephone call from Betty Ong, a crew member on American Airlines Flight 11, which crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center. In the call, Ms. Ong told supervisors that the airplane had been hijacked. She also described the weapons that were used and the seat locations of the hijackers. Betty Ong’s phone call was received skeptically, however, when her supervisors responded, “Are you sure?”
Key Terms active listening appreciative listening being “present” content delivery discriminative listening empathic listening evaluative listening listening barriers listening model passive listening
The Significance of Listening 65
and requested her to verify that the incident wasn’t simply a matter of air rage. The 9/11 commission went on to find that before September 11, U.S. intelligence agencies had circulated secret memos titled “Bin Laden Determined to Strike in U.S.” and “Islamic Extremist Learns to Fly” that received little response or action from officials at every level of government.5
David Koresh, leader of the Branch Davidians, charmed followers with his charisma and twisted interpretation of the Bible. He passed out business cards inscribed with the word Messiah to potential converts who were looking for direction in life or had no place to live. Although he exhumed a body from a gravesite and failed at an attempt to raise the corpse from the dead, his followers seemed persuaded that Koresh was more than just a man. At their Waco, Texas, compound the Branch Davidians built up an arsenal of more than 300 weapons that included semiautomatic rifles, grenades, and explosives. Unfortunately, Koresh’s charismatic power led to a fifty-one-day standoff between his followers and the U.S. government that ended in a fiery raid, killing eighty of the cult members on April 19, 1993.6
Research shows that many doctors don’t allow their patients to fully complete a description of their ailments during office visits. A study reported in the British Medical Journal found that on the average, doctors wait only twenty seconds before interrupting a patient.7 Another study surveying seventy-four office visits reported that only 23 percent of the patients were allowed to complete an opening statement of their medical issues because doctors interrupted patients in 69 percent of the vis- its.8 In a survey of approximately 800 pediatric visits to a hospital outpatient facility, 25 percent of the mothers reported that they had not been able to discuss the most important issues on their minds, 20 percent felt that they were not given clear expla- nations as to what was wrong with their children, and about half weren’t sure what had caused the illness.9
Even though some of these examples are extreme, they are real. They remind us of what can happen to a nation, a group, or an individual if people block out essential communication, avoid listening critically, or listen selectively.
The Process of Listening
In Chapter One we discussed the fact that communication is a dynamic, ever-changing process that can be understood through a communication model that includes a sender, message, channel, receiver, and feedback. But listening, a critical component
Poor Listeners in the Medical Profession>>> Why did a recent article in the Journal of the American Medical Association indicate high dissatisfaction in traditional doctor-patient appointments? Why is it The Wall Street Journal claims that perception of physical concern and not physician expertise is the deciding factor in the rising number of malpractice suits? Why did The New England Journal of Medicine report that the care and attention quotient is causing “alternative” medical prac- tices to grow by leaps and bounds? Given this litany of events, what does it really mean to listen? And why, in the name of science don’t we produce better listeners in the medical profession?4
—Arlington Heights, Illinois.
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in communication, is also complex and involves its own dynamic process of receiving stimuli, assigning meaning, and formulating responses. Listening is so interesting to human beings that entire books have been written, numerous definitions have been proposed, and special college courses and curricula have been developed to help us understand this often elusive subject more completely. In this text, we will explore the definition and model developed by Andrew Wolvin and Carolyn Gwynn10 to help you gain a deeper insight into the exciting process of listening.
Wolvin and Coakley define listening as “the process of receiving, attending to, and assigning meaning to aural and visual stimuli.”11 The listening model in Figure 4.1 indicates that the receiver decodes the stimulus through the aural (hear- ing) and visual senses. The listener first receives a stimulus—let’s say, “Do you want some ice cream?” The upper funnel is called the listening cone and is wider at the top, indicating that receivers can interpret a stimulus in many different ways. But the bottom of the cone is narrower to indicate that an individual makes choices to limit meaning and interpret stimuli according to the receiver’s own personal criteria. Between the wide and narrow portions of the cone are three overlapping elements that are critical to listening: receiving, attending, and assigning meaning. The long oval cylinder linking the three components refers to the process of remembering and responding covertly as the listener uses the three elements to decode the stimulus and make limited choices against the backdrop of remembered experience, perception, and many other variables.
So, the listener receives the stimulus, “Do you want some ice cream?” and pays attention to it, beginning to interpret the question and assign meaning. The receiver may covertly think, “Ah, ice cream: soft serve, hand dipped, store bought, home made—mmmmmmm.” The listener continues to make selections. “Butter pecan, death by chocolate, mint chocolate chip, rocky road.” The receiver makes further choices. “Some ice cream. Could that be a small scoop? Three scoops? A quart?” The listener then provides additional limits to the meaning of the stimulus based on her own remem- bered criteria: “I’m on a diet. Can’t do three scoops. Maybe I’ll be good and order just one teeny dish.” The receiver has now begun to finalize her choices and assign meaning as the process nears the narrower bottom of the listening cone. She thinks, “I’ll probably get three scoops of chocolate chip cookie dough ice cream. I’ll worry about the diet tomorrow!”
The lower funnel in Figure 5.1 is known as the feedback cone. Unlike the upper listening cone, it is narrower at the top and wider at the bottom. The lower cone and the stimulus are surrounded by dotted lines to indicate that a listener may or may not choose to make an overt response to a received stimulus. The narrow top indicates that a receiver limits the meaning of a stimulus according to personal criteria. The wider bot- tom demonstrates that the feedback message or stimulus formulated by the listener can be interpreted in many different ways by receivers. And thus the listening process repeats the cycle through different perceptions and choices made by various receivers. So our listener has decided that she wants some ice cream and has decided to make an overt response: “I’ll have three scoops of chocolate chip cookie dough ice cream.” And the ice cream store attendant responds, “Will that be in a cup, or in a cake or waffle cone?” Now the process must be repeated, because the listener didn’t narrow her choices quite enough. Notice that throughout both the upper and lower funnels are diagonal lines representing perceptual filters that receivers use to decode stimuli and feedback sen- ders use to encode messages when they respond covertly or overtly to stimuli.
You can see that the process of listening is complicated. Many other variables are involved, such as the efficiency of the visual and hearing mechanisms, numerous
The Process of Listening 67
stimuli competing for attention, and the dynamics of memory. Listening scholars are still theorizing and conducting experiments to determine if the process can be more precisely defined and the elements of listening more clearly identified. Although the process is complex and could require many pages of discussion, the Wolvin-Coakley model serves merely as an outline to give you a brief introduction to the interactive process of listening.
Kinds of Listening
Just as speakers have general speech purposes for sending messages, listeners also have goals for receiving them. We will examine four kinds of listening: discriminative, evalu- ative, appreciative, and empathic.12 In addition, we will briefly consider the concept of active and passive listening.
Discriminative Listening When we listen discriminatively, we listen to learn, to be instructed, and to test theories. Discriminative listening can occur in formal settings such as in class, at work, or in a business meeting. If you are taking notes at a history class lecture, receiving instructions on how to operate a new computer program, or hearing a committee report, you are acquiring instructional information for future use. Discriminative listening also occurs informally in the process of daily conversation. When you hear your lunch friends describing a new restaurant, the service manager explaining what is wrong with your car, or an insurance agent providing details of a policy, you have applied discriminative listening. Whether formal or informal, discriminative listening helps us to make distinc- tions and to differentiate in order to be enlightened, informed, or educated.
FIGURE 5.1 Wolvin- Coakley Model of the Listening Process
Source: From Listening, by A. Wolvin et al., p. 75. Reprinted by permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies.
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Evaluative Listening Evaluative listening is our response to a persuasive message. We listen to convincing, actuating, or stimulating messages and formulate reactions based upon our needs and the strength of the persuasion. We are bombarded with persuasive messages daily. Adver- tisers on television, on the Internet, and in magazines actuate us to buy products; family members persuade us to run errands, purchase gifts, or plan vacations; supervisors encour- age us to use new strategies to enhance the company image or to improve sales; a col- league urges us to buy candy to help her daughter raise money for a class trip. Persuasion is often difficult because listeners have built up resistance due to the constant barrage of competing stimuli. Listeners ultimately evaluate persuasive messages and decide to agree or disagree based upon the credibility of the speaker and the material, the logic of the speaker’s reasoning, the extent of the commitment exhibited by the speaker, and the need of listeners to buy into the speaker’s goal.
Appreciative Listening If you have ever been to a movie, listened to a favorite recording, taken a long walk in the woods, or just enjoyed hearing the sounds of the ocean at the beach, you have par- ticipated in appreciative listening. We listen appreciatively to hear the power and beauty of words, images, music, or environmental sounds. We may enjoy hearing the variety of instruments in an orchestral symphony; we might respond with strong emotion to the vivid language of an eloquent speaker; we may listen in passive contentment to the delicate trickle of a waterfall or to the patter of rain on a roof. We might hear the call of an owl at night or the hiss of an alley cat springing off a garbage can. We learn appreciative listening as we become sensitized to new sounds and experiences. When we learn to listen appreciatively, we establish an emotional bond by responding to the works of others and enhance our sensory enjoyment of life.
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Kinds of Listening 69
Empathic Listening The primary goal of discriminative, evaluative, and appreciative listening is to benefit ourselves and contribute to our understanding, decision making, and personal fulfillment. The goal of empathic listening differs, however, in that the objective is to be “present” with another person: that is, to understand and facilitate the needs and feelings of someone else.
We use empathic or therapeutic listening when we are responding to the needs of a close friend, work associate, or family member who is sharing personal joy, anxiety, or concern. We could be hearing a friend describing a failed marriage, a family member sharing pride about a successful promotion, a relative confessing a struggle with alcohol- ism, or our kids entertaining us at a fantasy tea party.
Numerous businesses, professions, and volunteer organizations require their employees to possess skills in effective therapeutic listening. Lawyers assist clients in developing the best defense or offense after hearing the nature of the charges against them. Educators are required to plan strategies for growth after listening to the needs of students. Psychiatrists must provide therapeutic progress toward mental health when responding to the anxieties of patients. Volunteers often spend hours on hotlines listening to distraught individuals who describe suicidal feelings, spouse abuse, or rape. Hospice workers listen with love and devotion to the last cries and wishes of the dying. Empathic listeners must pay atten- tion completely, without giving in to distractions, without making irrelevant comments, and without ignoring the sender’s message.
Active and Passive Listening Most listening behavior is either active or passive. Active listening is attentive and involved behavior. Active listening is the kind of listening we should be using at work, in a meeting, or in class. Active listening is hard work—it represents complete mental commitment on the part of the hearer. Passive listening is relaxed or “easy” listening. Often when you listen to your stereo or watch a movie, you are listening passively. Passive listening helps us escape from the pressures of everyday life. Most of us, however, are already accomplished in passive listening and probably not attentive enough to the demands of active listening. If you have ever received a poor grade on a test because you were texting like Melissa in the opening example or you didn’t take good notes in class, you have experienced the results of passive listening.
Barriers to Listening: The Lack of Being “Present”
Are you really “present” when someone is speaking to you? Being present means to be in the moment: that is, not thinking about something or somewhere else. This practice is easier said than done. How many times have you thought about the future or something in the past when you should be doing your job or listening in class? So many of us strug- gle with worrying or trying to solve problems in the future, or reliving experiences or conflicts from our past that we are often kept from living in the present or in the moment. Since the goal of active listening is to be in the present, it is important to understand those listening barriers that take us somewhere else or keep us in our own heads so that we are unable to respond effectively to communication. Six barriers to effective listening are:
1. Yielding to distractions 2. Blocking out communication 3. Listening selectively
70 Chapter 5 • Improving Your Listening Skills
4. Overcriticizing the speaker 5. Faking attention 6. Avoiding difficult listening situations13
Yielding to Distractions We’ve already discussed “noise” as a barrier to the communication process in Chapter One. As a listener, you are constantly battling distractions that result from external, internal, or semantic noise. If a speaker has a broken pair of glasses held together at the nose by tape, you are going to have difficulty listening to the speaker’s remarks because of the external distraction. Equally distracting are your own internal “noises,” such as anger at a person or situation; fatigue from staying up all night; or anxiety about an upcoming conflict, court appearance, or final exam. You also might not understand several of the terms that the speaker is using, or you might react negatively to an outdated word or phrase the speaker employs.
Not only are we plagued by the distractions within or immediately around us but our society puts great emphasis on messages that tempt us to escape. In the opening example, Melissa couldn’t resist the temptation to text or tweet messages to her friends. Ads tell us to escape from it all by going on vacation, taking a coffee break, eating a candy bar, buy- ing an LED TV, or going to a movie. We are not condemning the practice of listening to relax. Listening to a good recording or watching a comedy can do wonders for your mental health. But many of us are very good at passive television listening and not very good at active listening that requires energy and work. Often, the more time we spend in passive listening, the lazier we become in our active listening patterns.14 It becomes easier and more fun to daydream and let our minds wander than to concentrate on more difficult information.
Caught by the Camera>>> “I am very sensitive about listening to speakers because I emcee all our Daily Herald sports banquets and also because I was involved in a rather embarrassing situation with this newspaper.
In the early years at this job, everyone in the editorial department was required to sit in on any interviews with politicians. That included the sports writers, although we always seemed off in our own little corner and oblivious to the real world out there.… It didn’t help matters when I sat listening to a well-known politician on his visit to the Herald office. I sat through the entire ninety minutes, headed back to my desk to catch up and didn’t think anything of it until the next day.
That’s when a big surprise arrived at my front door. The large picture they ran in the Herald that day showed me in the background dozing during the interview with the politician. Everybody else seemed so alert in the picture, taking notes and listen- ing intently to the speaker, but Bob Frisk, the sports guy, was slumped in his chair…. The photographer had captured the perfect angle to embarrass me…. I heard jokes about that picture for a long time, but it did have a positive effect on me…. ‘Rip’ Frisk became a very good listener.”15
—Bob Frisk, sports writer for the Daily Herald, Arlington Heights, Illinois.
Barriers to Listening: The Lack of Being “Present” 71
Blocking Out Communication Sooner or later, most of us are accused of “blocking out” information and of not listen- ing. One of the most common stereotypes of blocking behavior is the husband who reads the newspaper and mutters “uh-huh” while his wife is trying to have a conversation with him. We have probably all surfed the Web or watched an exciting TV program and blocked out the phone talk or other conversation around us.
Sometimes blocking behaviors are purposeful, and sometimes they are habits acquired as a result of pressure, stress, and overstimulation of the senses. Even conscien- tious, active listeners can be so bombarded by competing stimuli that they are forced to adopt blocking behavior as a survival mechanism. For example, you wake up in the morning and hear on the news about a bomb that exploded in a crowded subway, caus- ing numerous injuries. At noon you hear about a fellow office worker’s sudden heart attack; coming home you hear of another suicide bombing in the Middle East; and the evening news reports that violent crimes in your community have doubled in the past two years. At home you discover that your little sister has broken her finger and you receive a text that your aunt has cancer. In these circumstances, you might well choose to block out information for a while.
The problem occurs, however, when normally active listeners become so saturated by what they hear and see that blocking out stimuli becomes habitual, and they can no longer pay the necessary attention to real crises. When a husband and wife begin to block each other out in their marriage, or children cannot get through to their parents, serious communication barriers can be created.
Blocking can also result when a listener who disagrees turns off immediately when the topic of the speech is announced or when certain catchwords are stated. Instead of
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giving the speech a fair hearing, a listener with an extreme bias will have a mental fight with the speaker about each point. A biased individual might not be able to get around the mere mention of the names Barack Obama, Nancy Pelosi, or Sarah Palin; the terms tax cuts, immigration reform, national health insurance; or the labels Republican, Tea Party, or Democrat.
Sometimes an individual will block out the opposing speaker so that mental time can be spent storing up all of the verbal ammunition to fire back. The listener is not hearing the speaker, but is blocking out any opposing views so that he does not have to examine the speaker’s position.
Listening Selectively Often we create a listening barrier when we try to listen for all of the details, and we don’t catch the overall point of the information. An equal problem is the desire within all of us to hear what we want to hear or to listen only to information that supports our own thinking.
Consider this example. In September of 2002 a woman at a Shoney’s restaurant in Calhoun, Georgia, overheard what she thought were three terrorists plotting a violent attack in Miami. The woman reported to police that she heard three Muslim men say- ing, “Do you think we have enough to bring it down?” and “If we don’t have enough to bring it down, I have contacts and we can get enough to bring it down.” Police tracked down the three men—who were medical students—closed Interstate 75 in Florida, and searched the men’s two vehicles. Authorities reported that they found no explosives and that the men had no connections to any terrorist organizations. The students were released and were not charged with any crime. A lawyer for the students explained that they were talking about a car that one of the men owned and was going to ship down for his use in Florida. These medical students were U.S. citizens and on their way to attend an internship program at a Florida hospital.
Unfortunately, the woman who overheard the conversation caught only a few key words that she pieced together to draw a faulty conclusion. Thinking she was being patriotic in reporting a potential threat against the United States in the wake of the September 11 attacks, this woman, through selective listening, caused three innocent students to be detained for questioning for seventeen hours. In addition, the Florida hospital where the students were interning received threatening e-mails and racial slurs, causing the hospital to ask the three students to intern at some other institution. The students told the media, “We’re medical students. We are not terrorists. Our primary concern in life is to become doctors. We want to help people. We don’t want to hurt.” It is understandable that Americans are on edge as a result of terrorism, but the three students’ medical careers were said to be “in limbo” because of selective listening.17
Texting or Listening?>>> “I see we’ve created a nation of zombies—heads down, thumbs on tiny keyboards, mindless millions staring blankly shuffling toward some unseen horizon. To them, the rest of us are invisible. Not long ago, a colleague was startled to see a young woman approaching; she had been too absorbed in her texting to notice the words ‘Men’s Room’ on the door. For one brief shining moment, she was at a loss for words.”16
Barriers to Listening: The Lack of Being “Present” 73
Overcriticizing the Speaker We can criticize a speaker to such an extent that we destroy any possibility of hearing the speaker’s intentions or purposes. The speaker’s appearance may be wrong, the speaker may lean too much on the lectern, or the speaker’s tie may be the wrong color. Maybe we think the speaker shouldn’t wear a tie, or the speaker’s voice is too soft or too loud, or the speaker is too emotional or too logical.
Many listeners feel that communication is solely the responsibility of the speaker. If the speaker isn’t exciting enough, attractive enough, funny enough, emotional enough, or logical enough, these listeners switch mental channels and perform their own mental activities.
The responsibility for effective communication must be shared between the speaker and listener. The speaker is responsible for encoding the feelings into symbols, structuring the message, and selecting the channels of communication. But the listener is responsible for decoding the message and for providing clear feedback, which signals to the speaker if communication is taking place and how effective the communication has been.
An individual who overcriticizes a speaker often assumes that it is solely the speaker’s responsibility to convey a message. Often these listeners develop the attitude “Okay—here I am sitting in front of you. Do something to me. Interest me. Get my attention. Humor me.” Not only is this poor listening behavior, it keeps the individual from shouldering his or her part of the communication transaction—to listen.
Faking Attention Many of us are good at faking attention. When we’re involved in a boring conversation, we can smile, look interested, and nod our head as if we are giving our complete atten- tion. But in our mind we are performing some other activity, such as planning our week- end or finalizing the grocery list.
Students are very good at faking attention. A student can look straight at the instructor, smile and frown at all the appropriate times, lean forward and take notes (doodles on the paper), and generally appear to be involved in the class. The problem occurs, of course, when a question demands a specific response or a pop quiz is given on material just discussed. The faked response can quickly turn into embarrassment, with an inattentive listener feeling angry at being taken by surprise. Faking attention is a bad habit that creates a barrier to communication.
Avoiding Difficult or Unpleasant Listening Situations Sometimes we avoid listening situations that we feel are too demanding or unpleasant. We feel insecure, and our lack of experience makes us dread the situation.
A poster in a college math department reads: “Mathophobia can cost you a career.”18
Underneath the caption is a list of careers, such as commercial flying, dental technol- ogy, and engineering, all of which are inaccessible to individuals without skills in mathematics.
We could expand the caption in the poster to state, “Avoiding difficult listening situations can cost you enlightenment, growth, and fulfillment.” Imagine someone can- celing a trip to the Greek Islands or the Spanish Riviera due to insecurity about foreign languages. Think of individuals passing up free tickets to a symphony concert because they don’t “understand” classical music. Imagine an individual not learning how to use a computer program because it appears too complicated. Unfortunately, these situations can and do occur when individuals fear difficult listening circumstances.
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Sometimes listening is a matter of rethinking and overcoming inner fears. Whatever you do, don’t avoid situations that you think may be difficult. Overcome the difficulty by facing it directly. Open your mind to the situation and allow yourself to receive commu- nication. Take on the listening circumstance as a challenge: gain perspective by explor- ing an unfamiliar culture, develop sophistication from an aesthetic experience, and gain satisfaction by acquiring a new skill. You will be surprised at your growth and achieve- ment in a constructive environment.
How to Become an Active Listener and Speaker
We have already pointed out that being an active listener or being “present,” is hard work. But this hard work not only helps you to become a better listener but also an improved speaker as well. Here is a simple four-point program to help you increase your awareness of the way you listen:
1. Withhold judgment. 2. Provide honest, attentive feedback. 3. Eliminate distractions. 4. Evaluate the speech when it is finished.
Withhold Judgment Keep an open mind. As a listener, don’t turn off when you hear the speaker’s name, the statement of the topic, or the purpose of the speech. Wait until the speaker has finished before you begin to evaluate the speaker or any portion of the speech. As a speaker, don’t make judgments about the demographics of your listeners or the setting and occa- sion of the speech. When you withhold judgment, it is important to consider the following:
1. Avoid the appearance trap. 2. Don’t be easily swayed by delivery and style. 3. Give all topics a fair hearing. 4. Avoid extraneous mental activity during the speech.
Avoid the Appearance Trap We are easily influenced by the physical appearance of a speaker or listener. It is easy to misjudge a sloppily dressed person or to feel that someone who is neatly dressed in the latest fashion is more worthy of our time.
Although it is important for a speaker to do everything possible to support the speech nonverbally as well as verbally, we must recognize that not all speakers share the same ideas about what constitutes effective speaking. “Dressing for success” may be important to some speakers, but others might care very little about appearance. Recog- nize your own attitudes and standards about appearance, and try not to impose these attitudes on the speaker.
It is also important for you to avoid making judgments about your listeners’ appear- ance when you are speaking to an audience. Any instructor who has taught in a college or university classroom knows that it is impossible to evaluate student performance on the basis of how students dress when they come to class. Avoiding misjudgments will help you speak more openly to your audience and keep you from stereotyping your listeners.
How to Become an Active Listener and Speaker 75
Don’t Be Easily Swayed by Delivery and Style Don’t allow yourself to become seduced or alienated by delivery and style when you are either a speaker or a listener. A speaker who has a soothing voice could be advocating ideas that are harmful to the audience; a speaker with an irritating voice could be well organized and coherent in logic and ideas. Work hard not to let a speaker’s hesitations, vocalized pauses, or monotonous delivery affect your judgment unfairly. Don’t be too eas- ily impressed by a speaker’s ability to use big words and flamboyant phrases that send you on a hunt through the dictionary. Recognize that every speaker has limitations in deliv- ery. Try to accept the speaker and learn as much as you can without mentally trying to change the speaker.
If you are speaking to an audience, don’t allow yourself to be taken in by listeners who may seem to appear “friendly” or alienated by those who you may feel look hostile. Speakers often tend to gravitate toward listeners whose smiles, head nods, and facial expressions seem more favorable to them. Such a practice is not helpful if you are trying to communicate to everyone in your audience. Look at the skeptics as well as the allies. Your task as a speaker is to connect to as many listeners as possible.
Give All Topics a Fair Hearing We all like some topics more than others. Don’t let your own attitude for or against an issue prejudice your receptivity to a speech. You have nothing to lose if you keep your mind open to an issue. If you still disagree with the topic at the conclusion of the speech, you will have learned something—even if it is just the speaker’s organization or research.
As both a speaker and listener, force yourself to listen to ideas you oppose. Listening to different beliefs develops your active listening capacities and helps you grow as a com- municator. When developing topics, you will be more willing to look at all sides of issues and honestly examine the strengths or weaknesses of your arguments.
Avoid Extraneous Mental Activity During the Speech Some books and articles on listening advise people to take mental notes, make mental summaries, or write mental outlines while listening. Such mental activity is said to help the listener concentrate on what is being discussed and more effectively retain the main points of the presentation. One author rejects these ideas and feels that such advice causes listeners to become distracted.18 Some research indicates that when people are still thinking about a speaker’s previous point (or making mental summaries), they are usually not listening to what the speaker is currently saying.19
It is important for speakers and listeners to concentrate on what is being said and not think behind or ahead of communication. When you give the speaker a complete hearing, all of your mental activity will be focused on the speaker, and you will post- pone all other evaluation, summarizing, or inference making until the speech is over. As a speaker you should be focused on your communication and not on distractions such as your nervousness or your mistakes. Being in the moment helps the speaker to reduce fear and communicate the speech more effectively. (For more discussion about reducing nervousness, see Chapter Two, “Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension.”)
Give Honest, Attentive Feedback Work hard to listen actively. As a listener, provide clear signals that show the speaker you are paying attention. Sit up straight. Make eye contact with the speaker. Nod your
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head to let the speaker know you understand what is being said. Show interest in the speaker and in the speaker’s topic. Give the speaker a smile or laugh when the speaker tells a joke. Try to support the speaker as much as you can. If you don’t understand a part of the speech, give the speaker a puzzled expression to indicate that you don’t follow what is being discussed.20
When you are a member of an audience, don’t fake attention. Don’t pretend to lis- ten when you really aren’t. In Chapter Four, we talked about credibility and the neces- sity of trusting a speaker. It is equally important that a speaker be able to trust an audience. The speaker needs to know that the speech is being actively heard and that the listener is providing clear, accurate, and sincere feedback to the speech.
As a speaker, be willing to be attentive and respond to honest feedback. If you see listeners with puzzled expressions, try to adjust your speaking to draw them into the speech. Stand up straight, show enthusiasm for your topic, and use eye contact with as many listeners or areas of the audience as possible. Show that you care about the audi- ence and want them to gain a clear understanding of your communication.
In your Speech class, you could conceivably deliver speeches exclusively to your instructor without class members present. In such a situation, your only concern would be to direct your speech to an audience of one (your instructor) and to get a good grade on each presentation. You could also conceivably deliver speeches to an audience com- manded to fake pleasant facial expressions, giving you the false impression that whatever you said was positively received. But your speech instructor does not want a one-person audience or a fake audience: your instructor wants every speaker to communicate to a “live” audience that is sincere, receptive, and attentive. Your positions as a speaker and listener in your classroom are equally important. How well you listen as a member of the audience can affect the learning atmosphere of the class as well as the success of each individual speaker.
FIGURE 5.2 What listening problem is illustrated in this cartoon that has implications for both speakers and audiences?
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How to Become an Active Listener and Speaker 77
Eliminate Distractions Be conscious of the disruptions caused by external, internal, and semantic noise, and work hard to overcome them. You must continually remind yourself that your roles as both a speaker and listener require you to share in the communication process and to be active in relation to the communication process.
As a listener, don’t allow yourself the luxury of daydreaming, studying for an exam, or rudely texting or tweeting during a speech. Avoid the pitfalls created by these distrac- tions. Remind yourself that, as a listener, you have the same responsibility of keeping to your task as does the speaker. Learn to block out the distractions—not the speaker.
Eliminating distractions when you are a speaker requires you to do everything possi- ble to keep the communication process on track. Define difficult terms that may be unfa- miliar to listeners. Concentrate on your communication at hand, and don’t wish that you were somewhere else. If the room is too cold or noisy, try to change the conditions, if possible, or at least make a comment to relieve tension. One speaker who asked the audience to turn off their cell phones and iPods found his phone ringing “The Star- Spangled Banner” as he was delivering his presentation. Be courteous to listeners and give them the same respect that you expect of them.
Evaluate the Communication When It Is Finished When the speech is completed, evaluate the presentation. Begin to ask questions, make mental summaries, and try to recall the main points of the speech. After you deliver or listen to a speech, analyze both the content and the delivery. Speech content refers to the research, organization, and logical development of the topic. The delivery refers to the style or presentation of the speech. Think critically about the preparation that goes into creating an effective message and carefully analyze how the delivery can convey a message successfully.
Building Effective Listening Skills>>> Here are some guidelines to help you build skills when listening to the content and delivery of a speech.
Content The three most important areas to consider when you listen to the content of a speech are research, organization, and audience anaylsis.
1. Research a. Was there evidence of research in the speech and did the speaker cite
credible sources? b. Were the sources up-to-date and were they accurate? c. Did the speaker use examples, case studies, quotations, or other
supporting materials to explain the main points of the speech? d. Did the speaker use statistics that were clear, logical, and easy to
understand? e. Did the statistics clearly support the main points of the speech?
2. Organization a. Did the speech reflect the existence and development of an outline? b. Was there a clear, specific purpose and/or a thesis statement in the speech? c. Did the speech include an introduction, body, and conclusion?
78 Chapter 5 • Improving Your Listening Skills
Summary Research indicates that people spend the majority of their communication time in listening- related activities. Problems occur when people do not listen effectively.
Listening can be identified as discriminative or instructional, evaluative or persuasive, appreciative or emotional, and empathic or therapeutic. Active listening is an attentive and involved activity, while passive listening is a relaxed behavior.
d. Were ideas developed logically and conclusions drawn from appropriate supporting materials?
e. Did the speech contain listening cues such as transitions, making it easy to follow the main points in the body?
f. Was the introduction interesting, appropriate to the topic, and did it get attention?
g. Was the conclusion clear, well developed, and did it wrap up the speech effectively?
3. Audience Analysis a. Was the topic appropriate to the audience? b. Did the speaker connect and adapt the topic to audience interests and
needs? c. Did the speaker demonstrate an understanding of the similarities and
differences among listeners?
Delivery Two of the most important areas to consider when you listen to the delivery of a speech are the speaker’s visual and vocal communication.
1. Visual delivery a. Did the speaker use eye contact? b. Did the speaker use supportive facial expressions? c. Did the speaker use gestures for emphasis and clarity? d. Were the speaker’s posture and body position appropriate? e. Did the speaker use notecards effectively? f. Was the speaker enthusiastic and energetic about the subject? g. If visuals were used, did the speaker use the visuals effectively? Were
visuals easy to see, neat, and clear, and were they an asset to the speech?
h. Did the speaker have any mannerisms that created external noise? 2. Vocal delivery
a. Was the speaker spontaneous and conversational? b. Was the speaker’s voice easy to hear? c. Did the speaker make use of vocal inflections? d. Did the speaker’s vocal tone, vocal inflections, and verbal emphasis
indicate a commitment or belief in the topic? e. Was the speaker’s articulation effective? f. Did the speaker have an understanding of correct English usage. g. Was the language appropriate to the topic and the audience? h. Did the speaker use external transitions to mark the main points of the
body and internal transitions withing main headings?
How to Become an Active Listener and Speaker 79
Barriers to listening include yielding to distractions, blocking out communication, listen- ing selectively, overcriticizing the speaker, faking attention, and avoiding difficult listening situations.
To become a more active listener and speaker, withhold judgment, provide honest, attentive feedback, eliminate distractions, and evaluate the speech when it is over.
Content deals with the research, organization, and logical development of the ideas in the speech; delivery represents the style or manner used to present the content.
Skill Builders 1. Using InfoTrac College Edition or one of your library’s databases, search for a
recent article on the topic of effective listening in Vital Speeches of the Day. Present a short two- to three-minute speech describing the major points the speaker recommends for effective listening.
2. Go to the International Listening Association’s website at http://www.listen.org and search on “resources” in order to find recent information and examples about listening that can apply to you and your audience. Report the results of your findings in a brief presentation to your class.
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter 5, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www.cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
80 Chapter 5 • Improving Your Listening Skills
CHAPTER
6CONSIDERING THE ETHICS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Understand the relationship of ethics to a career
2 Recognize the need for ethics in society
3 Evaluate a speaker’s ethics
4 Develop and apply ethical standards in speech analysis
Jake was a busy premed student. With a part-time job at a local bookstore, a full academic schedule, and a place on the wrestling team, Jake was just barely maintaining the B average he needed in order to get into medical school. This week was especially stressful. He had an anatomy test on Monday, a persuasive speech due on
Tuesday, and a semifinal wrestling match on Wednesday. Jake had spent much of the weekend studying for his anatomy exam and he had pulled an all-nighter on Sunday. Once the test was over on Monday, he realized he hadn’t done anything to prepare for his speech. Because he was specializing in medicine, he had thought about the topic of genetic engineering, but he hadn’t gotten any further than just the idea. After he finished work at 9 p.m., he went to the library to start his research for tomorrow’s speech. His search in ProQuest yielded dozens of magazine articles and he quickly realized that merely reading them would take hours. Jake was running out of time. Unexpectedly he came across an excellent article against genetic engineering on the editorial page of a well-known news magazine. Jake wrestled with his thoughts. “This might be the perfect answer to my problem. I could create an introduction and conclusion that fit the content of the article and then just add some transitions.” And then he thought, “But it wouldn’t be the right thing to do. The professor is strict about plagiarism, credible bibliographies, and outlines.
“Honesty is the first chapterof the book of wisdom.”—Thomas Jefferson PE
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But I’m in a jam. I should have started on the speech over a week ago when the assignment was given.”
The next day Jake arrived in class and handed his outline to the professor. Jake presented his speech with seven other students and waited for the audience critique. Some of his fellow students seemed impressed with the speech and thought he had an effective delivery. The professor, however, commented that there were no sources stated in the speech to generate credibility and influence listeners. At the end of class, the professor asked to see Jake in his office. What do you think the professor said?
Trust is a value that people seek in political leaders, clergy, sports heroes, and each other. But people feel betrayed when their valued role models or relationships do not measure up to standards of honesty and integrity. As Jake’s dilemma indicates, it is critical for speakers and listeners to consider the ethics of public speaking. Unethical speaking practices not only affect your listeners but can also damage your college career, your job, and your relationships. In this chapter we will look at ethics and your career, the need for ethics, ways to evaluate a speaker’s ethics, and some recommendations for developing your own speaking standards.
Ethics and Your Career>>> Jake may be headed for real trouble. A decision to plagiarize just one speech could not only affect the grade in a Speech course but could lead to other consequences as well. Colleges and universities can impose stiff penalties for plagiarism, resulting in either course failure or more drastic consequences, such as suspension or dismissal. Jake could have put his entire medical career in jeopardy because of a serious error in judgment in one course. Consider the following examples.
Bernard L. Madoff appeared to have a highly successful multi-billion dollar invest- ment company. He invested millions of investors’ funds and told clients that he could guarantee them at least one percent return per month on their funds. Although he told clients that he never lost money, Madoff would not explain his investment strategy or discuss any risks in his operation. When potential clients heard about the success of Madoff’s company and inquired how to become involved, they were told that it was an exclusive investment club and that investors had to be invited, but an insider could make the proper connections to include them. Such exclusivity made prospective customers eager to get in on this excellent financial opportunity. If investors asked too many questions about the company, they were treated as if they were showing disrespect to Madoff’s financial expertise and dropped from the funds.
Unfortunately it was all a scam known as a “Ponzie scheme.” Investors lost 65 billion dollars because of Madoff’s financial con game. Among the losers were worthwhile charities like the Elie Wiesel Foundation, which lost 15.2 million; hundreds of middle-class investors; celebrities, such as Kevin Bacon and Steven Spielberg; and even Madoff’s friends and relatives. The prosecutor accused Madoff of stealing “ruthlessly and without remorse”1 for years. Bernie Madoff pleaded guilty to eleven criminal charges, including securities fraud, mail fraud, and money launder- ing, and a federal judge sentenced him to 150 years in prison on June 29, 2009.
After a twenty-month inquiry regarding the use of steroids in baseball, former Senator George Mitchell issued a report that named numerous top players who were alleged to have taken illegal steroids. Among them were Cy Young Award–winning pitcher Roger Clemens, home run champion Barry Bonds, and New York Mets
Key Terms code of ethics elements of virtue ethos hidden agenda
82 Chapter 6 • Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking
The Need for Ethics in Society
Ethics and ethical codes have been matters of concern for a long time. Centuries ago, Aristotle referred to character, which he called ethos, as “the most potent means of persuasion.”4 He also identified elements of virtue as “justice, courage, temperance, mag- nificence, magnanimity, liberality, gentleness, prudence, and wisdom.”5 These elements defined a clear code of ethical conduct for speakers in Greek society. Centuries before the Greeks, according to the Bible, God gave Moses the Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai. They were not, as former TV commentator Ted Koppel once humorously observed, “the Ten Suggestions”; they were, in fact, a guide for living.6 In Roman times, the emperor Justinian revised the law for his empire. He was the first to incorporate ethics into the legal system and to establish schools to educate lawyers concerning ethics, morality, and law. Medieval Germanic tribes, recognizing the need for ethical conduct, enacted the Salic laws to codify common law and guide relationships. Following Justi- nian’s example, Napoleon simplified French law and established a code of thirty-six sta- tutes based on the concept that all citizens, regardless of circumstances of birth or social stature, should be treated fairly and equally. And one of the most famous and widely respected documents is the American Bill of Rights, which identifies and guarantees our basic democratic freedoms. Indeed, every civilization has recognized the need for establishing laws and codes to guide human relationships and behavior.7
As we look at contemporary American life, however, it is often difficult to perceive our ethical heritage in it. Scandals and questions about trust and integrity seem to sur- round numerous individuals entrusted with leadership in almost every aspect of society. Consider these examples:
• Once the powerful majority leader of the U.S. House of Representatives, Tom DeLay was convicted of money laundering and illegally directing corporate money to candidates running for office from Texas.8
teammates Todd Hundley and David Segui. Mr. Segui admitted taking anabolic steroids, but Clemens strongly denied ever using the drug and Barry Bonds denied “knowingly” taking steroids. The cloud that hangs over these players may not go away. The report may affect Clemens’s consideration for the Baseball Hall of Fame, and Barry Bonds’s all- time home run record may be tainted. As for other players, Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig said that he may decide to punish the players named in Mitchell’s report.2
Brian McCoy, CEO of a construction company that has been featured rehabili- tating homes on the ABC-TV program Extreme Makeover Home Edition, delivered a commencement speech to graduates at Texas State University. Notice how he sums up the importance of ethics:
“You need to become a person of integrity. It’s a word that’s tossed around all the time, but I still want to talk about it. There is such a lack of integrity in our workplaces, that unless you commit to having it, you will certainly be pulled from demonstrating it. Integrity is telling the truth. Sounds easy, but it isn’t. Sure, it’s reporting financial state- ments accurately and citing references in papers honestly, but don’t miss that it is much more than the obvious. It is telling the truth even when it’s embarrassing, awkward, inconvenient, or even when it may impact your job promotion.”3
These examples show the consequences of cheating and not telling the truth. A lack of integrity can derail a promising career and put an individual on the wrong path.
The Need for Ethics in Society 83
• Representative Charles Rangel from New York was once the high-ranking chairman of the tax-writing Ways and Means Committee in the U.S. House of Representa- tives. But in November of 2010 an ethics committee found him guilty of eleven ethics violations, including failure to pay taxes, and the House of Representatives voted 333 to 79 to censure Rangel for his misdeeds.9
• Marion Jones won three gold and two bronze medals in track and field events at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia. For years she denied taking performance-enhancing drugs but after federal officials conducted a thorough inves- tigation, Jones pled guilty in federal court to lying about her use of steroids. In a tearful confession Jones told the court, “I have been dishonest … I have let my country down.” The disgraced athlete was forced to return her five medals and $100,000 prize money to the Olympic Committee.10
• Two-term South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford told his staff that he was going to take a few days off and go hiking on the Appalachian Trail. It was later revealed, however, that Sandford was making secret trips to visit his mistress in Argentina. The governor was formally censured by the state legislature for neglecting his duty, abusing his power, and bringing “ridicule, dishonor, disgrace, and shame” on the state of South Carolina.11
• Even talk show queen Oprah Winfrey had to apologize for defending a writer, James Frey, who fabricated parts of his “true” memoirs in a book she recommended. When the deception was first discovered, Winfrey told Larry King that “no matter what, the book still retained its ‘underlying message of redemption.’” Later, after newspa- per columnists observed that her remarks insinuated that “the truth does not mat- ter,” she apologized and said she was “really embarrassed.”12
Whether it is a high-profile leader or a private individual claiming to be something he or she is not, unethical behavior ultimately hurts everyone. Michael Josephson, founder of a Los Angeles institute studying ethical issues, says that leaders in positions of authority often avoid asking two crucial questions: “Is what I’m doing deceptive?” and “Am I resolving dilemmas in a self-interested way?”13
Evaluating a Speaker’s Ethics
It is apparent that the speaker and the audience each have special responsibilities regarding ethics in public speaking. It is the speaker’s responsibility to practice ethics in every aspect of speech development, and it is the listener’s obligation to determine whether the speaker lives up to ethical standards. Our purpose is not to prescribe rules or behavior, but to raise important issues pertaining to ethics and suggest areas for your consideration. We begin by analyzing a speaker’s honesty, reliability, motivation, and policies.
Honesty and the Speaker Our society places strong emphasis on honesty at all levels. The Constitution requires that the president swear to a thirty-six-word oath of office to “preserve, protect, and defend the laws and Constitution of the United States.” Courtroom witnesses must swear to tell “all the truth and nothing but the truth.” Contractual agreements are signed and sealed before notaries to reinforce the truthfulness of statements contained in the documents. Similarly, wedding ceremonies include vows of mutual love, loyalty, and fidelity, which couples pledge for a lifetime.
84 Chapter 6 • Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking
Too often, however, speakers violate these standards and this can set in motion potentially devastating consequences. Speakers who mislead or lie to the public not only undermine their own credibility but also contribute to the erosion of public confi- dence in national offices and institutions. President Nixon, for example, denied any knowledge of the break-in at Democratic Party headquarters in Washington, D.C. The investigation into the scandal known as “Watergate” concluded that the president was aware of the burglary and engaged in a conspiracy with his advisors to cover up the crime. The House Judiciary Committee approved articles of impeachment, and Nixon was forced to resign from office. Upon assuming the presidency, Gerald Ford observed, “Truth is the glue that holds governments together…. Our Constitution works.”14
Unfortunately, the Watergate scandal seriously eroded public confidence in government, and it was years before this trust could be repaired.
In late Fall of 2001, Enron Corporation, the once-prosperous energy giant, declared bankruptcy, causing hundreds of employees to lose billions of dollars in stock and retirement accounts. In the months before the bankruptcy occurred, Chair- man Kenneth Lay and CEO Jeffrey Skilling earned millions by selling shares of Enron stock. Among the witnesses who testified at the Senate Commerce Committee hear- ings to investigate charges of accounting manipulation was Sherron Watkins, Enron vice president and whistle-blower, who had previously warned top executives about hidden partnerships that allowed Enron to cover up losses and exaggerate profits. Wat- kins, criticizing Enron executive Kenneth Lay, reported that the corporation might have been saved had he acted quickly after she warned him about the dubious accounting procedures. Had Enron executives been willing to listen to an uncomfort- able message delivered by a straightforward whistle-blower, they might have been able to save the giant energy company from ruining the future retirements of hundreds of employees and defaulting on billions in loans to creditors. For her honesty and cour- age in exposing the unethical practices at Enron, Sherron Watkins appeared with two other corporate whistle-blowers on Time magazine’s cover for the 2002 Persons- of-the-Year award.15
If listeners detect a difference between a speaker’s words and actions, they are unwilling to allow the speaker to influence them significantly.
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Evaluating a Speaker’s Ethics 85
Tania Head was president of the World Trade Center Survivors’ Network. She claimed to be a survivor of September 11, 2001, and for six years volunteered as a tour guide at the site of the World Trade Center attacks. She would tell hundreds of tourists stories about being burned in the South Tower and her heroic rescue on the seventy eighth floor. She explained that her determination to survive was motivated by her love for her fiancé, who she later discovered had died in the North Tower. Survivors of 9/11 and family members who had lost loved ones often listened to Ms. Head’s tales and tried to comfort her. None of her story was true, however. Merrill Lynch, where Ms. Head claimed she was employed, reported that she never worked for their company and the family of her so-called fiancé said they never heard of her. Individuals who had been involved with her volunteer work since 9/11 felt betrayed. “I’ve been there anytime she needed someone to listen…. she has stolen my time and my soul,” said a fellow board member of the Survivors’ Network. She concluded by saying, “We have members who thought Tania’s trauma was so extreme they did not want to discuss their own. They gave their time to help her, and she didn’t even need it.”17
Whether the fabrication is made by a president, a corporation, or a private citizen, the consequences can still be enormous. In a USA Today article, Joe Saltzman summarized the destructive effect of dishonesty on society: “The problem is that private behavior and public policy built on deception corrupt the heart and soul of a country and its people, leaving both morally bankrupt and untrustworthy. The news media should be worried about this, reminding readers and viewers about this epidemic of deceit that goes from the highest office in the land to the average person on the street. They should be telling us on a daily basis that a lying tongue not only is an abomination to God, but one that is intolerable to any conscientious citizen.”18
Biden’s Brush with Plagiarism>>> For almost forty years, Joseph Biden has had a distinguished career as a United States Senator from the state of Delaware. In the Senate he has held high-profile positions as Chair of the Judiciary Committee and Armed Services Committee. Barack Obama selected Joe Biden to be his running-mate and both were swept into office in the presidential election of 2008.
But Biden’s career has not been without controversy. In 1987 Senator Biden ran for the Democratic party’s nomination for president. During the course of the primary campaign, Biden made a series of statements about his personal life and family that were similar to those of British Labor Party leader Neil Kinnock. The press reported that the remarks were exactly identical to those of the British politi- cian and that Biden did not provide any reference or attribution to the source. In addition, Biden was also accused of using quotations from John and Robert Kennedy without proper acknowledgment. Further questions were raised when it was revealed that Biden had been accused of plagiarizing five pages of a law review article in a paper of his own when he attended Syracuse University School of Law twenty three years earlier. All these charges and allegations were serious enough to force Senator Biden to admit mistakes and withdraw from the presidential race in 1987.16
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The Speaker’s Reliability One important standard in ethical evaluation is the reliability of the speaker. Audiences make judgments about speakers by measuring actions against words. What is the speak- er’s record? Does the speaker keep promises? Is the speaker committed to the ideas pre- sented and willing to practice the deeds advocated?
Unfortunately, our political leaders are not always models of reliability. Former Pres- ident Bill Clinton, for example, flatly denied having an affair with a White House intern. “I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Miss Lewinsky,” he declared. “I never told anybody to lie, not a single time—never. These allegations are false.” Unfortunately, these words, as well as accusations that the president had lied under oath, led to the approval of articles of impeachment in the House and an impeachment trial in the Senate.19
Richard Blumenthal was the attorney general and candidate for the U.S. Senate from the state of Connecticut in 2010. In several speeches Blumenthal boasted about his military service in Vietnam. “I wore the uniform in Vietnam and many came back to all kinds of disrespect,” he said in a 2008 Veterans Day speech. Although he served in the U.S. Marine Corps Reserves, Blumenthal never left America and never went to Vietnam. After these revelations his political support began to plummet during the pri- mary campaign. He responded by saying that he didn’t mean to lie. “On a few occasions, I have misspoken about my service and I regret that. I take full responsibility,” he said. Although his support declined for awhile, Blumenthal went on to win the senate race in the general election in November of 2010.20
These two political leaders are fine Americans who have served in government with distinction. But these examples and their consequences reflect the high ethical standards that are expected of many public figures. We have already mentioned the use of steroids in sports as well as the convictions, censures, and embarrassment of prominent indivi- duals in public life. When an audience sees that a speaker does not abide by his or her own standards, many listeners are no longer willing to allow the speaker to have a signif- icant influence over them. Reliability once destroyed is difficult to rebuild.
Even in a public speaking class, a speaker’s words are measured by actions. One stu- dent presented an informative speech about the dangers of secondhand smoke. Although the material was enlightening, audience members had difficulty taking the topic seri- ously, because sticking out of the speaker’s shirt pocket was a pack of cigarettes. Another student delivered an impassioned plea for the homeless. The speaker urged listeners to bring donations of food and clothing to a subsequent class period and assured them that she would distribute the goods at a local shelter. Class members faithfully brought their donations at the appointed time, but the speaker never came to pick them up. Commenting that they felt betrayed by the speaker’s lack of commitment, listeners returned home with their gifts.
When assuming the role of speaker, you have the opportunity to show your commit- ment to an idea. While you are spending time and energy presenting your speech, remember that your audience is devoting considerable effort to this experience as well. You can build trust and generate reliability if you are willing to live by your words.
The Speaker’s Motivations One aspect of ethics that is sometimes more difficult to assess is the speaker’s motivation. While the speaker’s stated purpose may be obvious to an audience, there may also be an unstated objective, often called a hidden agenda. We all have these internal agendas, and they can be positive motivators. We take notes, study for exams, and maintain
Evaluating a Speaker’s Ethics 87
constructive relationships with faculty in order to pass courses and obtain degrees. We work hard, form helpful relationships with supervisors, and present a positive appearance in order to advance in a company so as to provide greater psychological and financial benefits for ourselves and our families.
Problems occur, however, when the intent is to deceive and the agenda would sig- nificantly alter audience attitudes if stated openly. Consider these examples: After Hur- ricanes Katrina and Rita devastated the Gulf Coast of the United States in 2005, unscrupulous scam artists tried to sell reconditioned cars that had been flooded to unsus- pecting buyers. In addition to these scams, dozens of fraudulent websites promised to circulate immediate food and money to hurricane victims if donors would make contri- butions by using credit or debit cards. Here, the hidden agendas led to the exploitation and manipulation of consumers and hurricane victims.21
But agendas are not always so hidden, and often members of an audience can easily assess an individual’s motivation.
In early 2006, a female escort accused three members of the Duke University lacrosse team of raping her at a party. The incident immediately became headline news as the police and Durham County District Attorney Mike Nifong became involved. Nifong was in the midst of a hotly contested reelection campaign in a heavily African American district and he quickly sided with the accuser, who was black, against the three white defendants. Even though the accuser’s story changed several times and Nifong failed to read police reports or wait for DNA test results, the prosecutor pro- ceeded with his case against the three students. Months later, however, a state panel was convened to investigate the prosecutor’s case. The state commission exonerated the three lacrosse players and found that Nifong, who had “repeatedly lied and cheated,” should step down from his job as district attorney and be disbarred from practicing law. The panel also concluded that “at the root of it [the district attorney’s case] is self- deception arising out of self-interest.”22
Analyze a speaker carefully. Listen actively to the stated objectives, and read between the lines. Go beyond verbal pronouncements, and evaluate the speaker’s rea- sons for making a presentation. Examine the relationship between a speaker’s public declarations and personal activities. Are the public and private actions the same, or is there a difference between what the speaker says and what the speaker does? Know the speaker’s background, and proceed with caution before trusting information or submit- ting to persuasion.
The Speaker’s Policies Good indicators of a speaker’s ethical standards are the policies and actions the individ- ual recommends. Consider:
• Does the speaker exhibit concern for the welfare of the audience? • Does the speaker advocate choices that are helpful to listeners? • Does the speaker propose solutions that benefit society?
The language of terrorists is an extreme example of how appalling rhetoric can influence horrendous actions against humanity. Speaking about the bombing of the Federal Building in Oklahoma City, convicted murderer Timothy McVeigh said, “I understand what they felt in Oklahoma City…. I have no sympathy for them.” McVeigh also referred to the nineteen children who died in the day-care center as “collateral damage.”23 Another terrorist, Osama bin Laden, appeared animated, chuckling, and smiling in a homemade video as he described the terrorist attacks of
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September 11: “I was thinking that the fire from the gas in the plane would melt the iron structure of the building and collapse the area where the plane hit and all the floors above it only. This is all that we had hoped for…. They were overjoyed when the first plane hit the building, so I said to them: be patient.”24 The controversial leader Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, president of Iran, has denied the existence of the Holocaust as well as the events of 9/11, proposed the obliteration of the state of Israel, and claimed there are no homosexuals in Iran. During a guest appearance at Columbia University, Ahmadinejad was described by the university president as exhi- biting “all the signs of a petty and cruel dictator.”25
Individual terrorists, dictators, or extremist groups such as the neo-Nazis, skin- heads, antigovernment militias, Klansmen, and street gangs who openly preach and practice hatred, fear, and violence pose obvious threats to our society. But an equally dangerous problem is posed by groups who claim to be fighting for justice but en- courage prejudice and engage in damaging behavior. Some extreme antiabortionists condone the bombing or burning of abortion clinics “to save the lives of the unborn.” Some speakers who believe homosexuality is a sin engage in gay bashing and advocate discrimination in housing and employment. Racial violence is some- times viewed by minorities as a justifiable remedy for past wrongdoing or present injustice. Speakers who advocate prejudice, hatred, stereotypes, lawbreaking, or vio- lence are not promoting ethical solutions to problems and show little compassion for the welfare of human beings.
A student presented a persuasive speech encouraging audience members to smoke marijuana. He reasoned that “marijuana is no worse than drinking alcohol and it makes you feel just as good or better.” Another speaker demonstrated how to make fake iden- tity cards. The student explained how to copy false information, forge signatures, and laminate the phony document, making it appear realistic. She concluded her speech with the lines, “So remember, if you’re under age and you want to get into that really neat club, you’ve got a solution—a fake I.D. You’ll be able to drink as much as you want because nobody will be able to throw you out!” Another speaker, who opposed the increased airport security measures taken after September 11, attempted to persuade listeners to undermine airport security systems by setting off X-ray machines and holding up lines of disgruntled passengers. To accomplish his purpose, he distributed T-shirts with numerous metal staples attached that he asked listeners to wear as they passed through security checkpoints.
These speeches are extremely unethical because the speakers are asking the audience to violate laws or procedures. In the first example, the speaker failed to mention that smoking marijuana is illegal and that listeners could be arrested and even jailed in many states for possessing the substance. The second speaker displayed similar disregard for her audience. Not only did she advocate making a counterfeit identification card but she also avoided describing the possibility of fines or jail sentences as penalties for posses- sing such a document. In addition, she seemed unconcerned about the physical conse- quences of drinking “as much as you want.” The last speaker did not bother to explain what might happen to passengers who wore T-shirts full of staples. In an era of increased anxiety and heightened security at the nation’s airports, passengers setting off metal detectors would not only invite a more comprehensive inspection but also might be detained for questioning, refused a boarding pass, placed under surveillance, or worse. These three speakers lacked a sense of social responsibility and were indifferent to the potentially damaging results of their recommendations.
Examine the policies that a speaker promotes. Think about the results of ideas or actions that a speaker recommends. Observe whether the speaker is interested in the
Evaluating a Speaker’s Ethics 89
well-being of the audience, and analyze the extent to which the speaker demonstrates concern for the well-being of society.
Applying Ethical Standards
We have explored several ethical issues and examined some examples of unethical prac- tice. It is now up to you as a speaker to formulate your own ethical standards. We suggest that you consider the following areas: honesty, concern for the audience, your motiva- tions for speaking, and a personal code of ethics.
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90 Chapter 6 • Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking
Be Honest When you are building a presentation, be straightforward in every phase of speech development. Research information thoroughly, making sure that your material is accurate. Be sure that your research is complete and that you have taken the neces- sary time and energy to examine all the relevant sources. As you outline, be fair in reporting the data. Don’t withhold portions of examples, statistics, or quotations if they are unfavorable to your ideas or viewpoints, but present these supporting materials in context. Stay away from twisting, distorting, or fabricating evidence if you cannot find information to back up your issues. When you deliver the speech, give proper credit for direct quotations, and paraphrase information in your own words to avoid plagiarism. Here are some examples of quoted, paraphrased, and plagiarized material.
Direct Quotation According to a November, 2010 Baltimore Sun article, (quote) “The massive leak of diplomatic cables sent a tremor from Washington through world capitals Monday, exposing deception and scheming that world leaders take great pains to keep private and complicating some of America’s most sensitive strategic relations. The disclosure Sunday by the WikiLeaks website lifted a veil from the practice of diplomacy, showing officials criticizing, in private, counterparts they praise in public as trusted partners.”26
Paraphrased Passage An article in a November, 2010 issue of the Baltimore Sun reported that the WikiLeaks website disclosed a vast number of diplomatic cables that expose the private, often embarrassing conversations among world diplomats. The cables reveal officials making candid, often critical remarks about leaders that they compliment in public. The leaks also expose deception and scheming among diplomats that could complicate America’s sensitive relations with other countries.
Plagiarized Passage The huge leak of diplomatic cables sent an earthquake from Washington through world capitals Monday, exposing deception and scheming that world leaders take pains to keep to themselves and complicating some of America’s most sensitive strategic relations. The revelation Sunday by the WikiLeaks website lifted the veil from diplomacy, showing officials criticizing in private, their counterparts that they praise in public as trusted partners.
In the direct quotation, the speaker gives credit to the source and restates the exact words by setting up the passage with the word “quote.” In the paraphrase, the speaker uses different words to convey the intention of the author and also cites the source of the information. The plagiarized passage merely eliminates or alters a few words but retains the original wording of the author. Notice also that the speaker provides no ref- erence to the source of the material. The audience is led to believe that the words origi- nated with the speaker. However, the passage would still be considered plagiarism even if the speaker added the specific reference to the last example. The important point here is that a passage is plagiarized when the original wording is not changed or altered enough to recap the ideas in the speaker’s own language.
Applying Ethical Standards 91
Be willing to take the necessary time to develop your speech. Avoid cutting corners or taking shortcuts that are unethical and dishonest. Give credit to the appropriate sources or individuals for materials, handouts, and audiovisuals used in the speech. At all times, provide honest information and present information honestly.
Advocate Ideas That Benefit Others Numerous topics and many points of view are appropriate for speeches. Many controver- sial issues will generate a variety of opinions among listeners and often strong disagree- ment. We would expect such diversity of ideas in a free and open democracy. But we have already examined how public speaking can be used as a weapon to promote hatred, injustice, and lawbreaking. As you approach topics and strategies for speeches, ask your- self some questions:
• Do you have any hidden agendas or ulterior motives for speaking? • How would you feel if a particular strategy or topic was used on you as a member of
the audience? • Do your ideas and recommendations benefit society? • Do the actions you promote help people to work together toward solutions? • Are you careful to avoid stereotyping groups, individuals, or cultures? • Do you stay away from tactics that include name-calling or offensive language? • Do you respect the needs and values of your audience? • Do you care about people, and do you demonstrate that concern in your speech?
Evaluate Your Motives for Speaking All of us need to present positive images in order to gain acceptance from others. But as a speaker, you have more encompassing needs to meet than simply your own ego fulfill- ment. Before developing your speech, carefully examine your motives for making the presentation. Determine whether your principal objectives are entirely self-serving, or if your motivations include interest in others.
The Invalid Valedictory>>> Brian Corman’s student career at Columbia University was so distinguished that his academic achievements earned him the honor of being the valedictorian of his class and presenting a commencement address to his graduating class in May of 2010. Unfortunately, after the address it was discovered that he plagiarized a portion of his speech from a YouTube video titled, “Physics for Poets,” by comedian Patton Oswalt. The literary theft resulted in embarrassment to the University and a tarn- ished reputation for Corman that was reflected in these remarks from Mr. Oswalt: “Brian Corman apologized to me. Flat-out admitted his thievery, his stupidity. Owned it all. Good man. Still makes me wonder what he might have done to become valedictorian—I mean, if he’s willing to steal material for something as inconsequential as a speech, how rubbery did his boundaries become when his GPA and future career were on the line? Oh well.”27
92 Chapter 6 • Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking
Speakers are often tempted to exploit difficult situations for profit. Convicted felons who have been prominent politicians, religious leaders, sports figures, or entertainers often earn huge salaries on the lecture or talk show circuit discussing their latest books or escapades. Such behavior is questionable and demeaning to the speaker-audience rela- tionship unless the speaker can demonstrate that the objective is to educate others to avoid similar criminal activity.
Be willing to stand for principle rather than compromise your values to gain quick audience approval. Recognize that resisting opposition is often difficult and uses a great deal of a speaker’s energy. But when you are in the right, there are ben- efits to both speaker and listeners. In spring 1992, Los Angeles exploded into a riot after a jury found four white police officers “not guilty” in the beating of an intoxi- cated, speeding driver named Rodney King. During this riot, Reginald Denny, a white truck driver, was stopped while hauling a load of sand and gravel through an intersec- tion in South-Central Los Angeles. He was pulled from his truck by several black males and severely kicked and beaten. Other black citizens who had been watching the incident on television came to Denny’s assistance and rushed him to the hospi- tal.28 These heroic individuals looked beyond color to risk their lives for a fellow human being. Their actions took great courage, yet became a reassuring symbol to millions of Americans who anguished over racial tensions. Such individuals suffer ini- tial setbacks but often reap psychological rewards and satisfaction because of their bravery.
Take responsibility and be true to yourself. Avoid the hypocrisy of disguising ques- tionable motives with superficial appeals. Make sure that your stated objectives and internal goals are in harmony. Constantly ask yourself, “What have I to give?” rather than “What have I to gain?”
Develop a Speaking Code of Ethics According to a study by the Conference Board, more than 75 percent of the companies surveyed have now enacted codes of ethics for their employees.29 Although these codes are not necessarily the Ten Commandments, they are standards that act as guides for ethical behavior and practice.
In a speech to a conference on business ethics, Richard R. Capen, Jr., vice chairman of Knight-Ridder, Inc., a publishing company, related his recommendations for an ethical code in business.30 They are reproduced here in condensed form:
1. Build trust. Getting along in today’s pluralistic world starts with trust. Trust is an ultimate value that protects an orderly, civilized society from chaos and anarchy. Trust in marriage. Trust at work. Trust among friends. Trust in public life. Trust is never guaranteed. It must be constructed carefully, nurtured vigorously, and rein- forced daily.
2. Be optimistic. Attitude in the process of serving others is important. Often what happens in our lives comes down to the way we look at life. If we believe it will be a lousy day, it will be. If we believe there is no hope, the chances are there will be no hope…. On the other hand, if we believe we can win, the chances are we will. If we think we can make a difference in life, we will. The difference between such success—and failure—is usually a matter of attitude.
3. Be an encourager. Each week, dozens cross our paths crying out for help, for love, for encouragement. For them, it’s a challenging, lonely world, and such people desperately need our love. In my business, I’m surrounded by special
Applying Ethical Standards 93
opportunities—big and small—to be a thoughtful listener, an enthusiastic encour- ager, a caring advisor, a special friend.
4. Lead by personal example. To be the best, leaders must be truthful and can- did. They must be decisive and courageous. They must keep promises and be loyal to their family, friends, employees, clients, and country.
These ideas are suggestions for you to consider when developing your speaking code. Whether you adopt Capen’s model, the Golden Rule, or another viewpoint, begin to develop an ethical framework to guide you through the process of building your presen- tations. Remember that it is up to you as a speaker to set a responsible standard as you convey ideas and recommend actions to the members of your audience. Good speaking means good ethics.
Building A Code of Ethics for Speaking>>> We present these brief guidelines to help you develop your personal speaking code of ethics.
1. Be honest in research. a. Use sources that are as fair and unbiased as possible. b. Understand the intent of the author, researcher, or individual you are
referencing. c. Use the required number of sources for the assignment. d. Avoid shortcuts like Google or Wikipedia to substitute for thorough
research in library databases. 2. Be honest in reporting information.
a. Always avoid plagiarism—provide sources for material that is not yours.
b. Understand the difference between a direct quote and paraphrase. c. Know when and how to cite sources clearly in a speech. d. Avoid distorting, changing, or taking information out of context. e. Understand statistics and be able to state them accurately.
3. Be straightforward with motivations. a. Lead by positive example. b. Cite personal experiences that help listeners connect to the topic
in depth. c. Be willing to take the same actions that you ask of others. d. Be honest with emotions and avoid feelings that are artificial.
4. Advocate policies that benefit listeners. a. Promote policies and actions that help and do not hurt people. b. Avoid inappropriate topics and inappropriate presentation of topics.
5. Always respect listeners. a. Avoid unethical attacks such as name-calling, mud slinging, and the
use of offensive language. b. Avoid stereotyping or isolating listeners by ethnicity, religion, gender,
or age. c. Respect those who disagree with your topic or proposals.
94 Chapter 6 • Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking
SAMPLE SPEECH: Practice, Practice, Practice: Knowing Is Not the Same thing as Doing
At the time of this speech, Mr. Stewart was a managing principal for Andrew Thomas and Company, a biotech investment and business development firm headquartered in Oregon. Stewart has been an executive director for Morgan Stanley and Company, was a com- manding officer in the United States Navy, flying the A-6E jet aircraft, and served in the Per- sian Gulf War. He delivered this address to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Leadership Conference in Orlando, Florida, on May 26, 2006. At a time when there have been numerous controversies surrounding professional sports figures in the past few years, Mr. Stewart presented this speech on values and ethics to an audience of NCAA officials, members, and students. Notice the examples he uses to support his point about the need to practice ethical behavior in everyday life.31
A PERSUASIVE SPEECH Thomas C. Stewart
1. There are a lot of young people in this section, so maybe I can get away with telling a very old joke. A first-time visitor to New York City stops a passer-by and says, “Excuse me: How do you get to Carnegie Hall?” And the passer-by replies, “Prac- tice, practice, practice.”
Well, maybe that’s not a joke after all. You young people here are athletes—how do you win competitions? You practice, practice, practice? You’re outstanding students—how do you get straight A’s? You practice, practice, practice? You are all, I hope, young people of high moral character. How do you build character? You practice, practice, practice? You practice all these things—athletics, academics and character—so you’ll be ready for the time when you’re tested. And it’s in the nature of the test that character differs from athletics and academics.
2. Let me explain. You know when some tests are coming, and you’re prepared for them when they arrive. You know the date and time of that big athletic competi- tion you’ve trained for. You know the date and time of that final exam in calculus or history. But you never know for sure when your character will be tested. You only know that someday—perhaps in circumstances that you can’t even imagine right now—your character is going to be put to a real test and you’re going to find out what kind of a person you really are. That’s why it’s so important to practice ethical and responsible behavior in your daily life. So you’ll be ready to make those big character tests when they take you by surprise. And when they do, the moral choices you’ve made in the small things leading up to that time will either help keep you afloat—or they’ll sink you.
3. They say that “honesty is the best policy.” It isn’t. What I mean is, honesty isn’t a policy. You don’t come face-to-face with a moral decision and ask yourself, “What is the best policy in this situation?” As if honesty were just one of a series of options to choose from. You’re honest not because it’s the best policy, but because it’s right. If you’ve read my bio, you know that I was a combat flight officer in the Navy. Combat is one of the toughest tests of character a person can face. It’s one situation where you can’t cheat and you can’t fake your response. OK, people who volunteer
1. He begins the introduction with a joke. Was it really humorous or did it have a more serious point?
2. The speaker uses a hypothetical example.
The speaker states his thesis about the need “to practice ethical and responsible behavior” in order to meet “those big character tests….”
3. The speaker refers to his own character tests as a Navy combat flight officer.
Stewart mentions the example of Arthur Andersen, a large accounting firm, that was convicted of trying to destroy evidence related to its customer, Enron.
Applying Ethical Standards 95
for the military—or to be firefighters or police officers or some other dangerous occupation—are expected to be brave. They are also expected to hold themselves to a higher ethical standard. But that doesn’t mean you’re off the hook because you choose a career in business or in one of the professions. Do you think accoun- tants don’t have to worry about their character being tested? Ask someone who used to work for Arthur Andersen.
4. I assume that many of you are planning careers in business or the professions, so I’m going to give you fair warning of the kinds of tests you’re going to face.
5. You’ve seen movies and TV shows that have depicted dishonest businessmen. I’ve seen them too, and I’m not very impressed. Because when you see a dishonest busi- nessman portrayed in the popular media, he’s usually portrayed as a one-dimensional character. He has no depth, no nuance. He’s a crook, pure and simple. And you look at such a repulsive character and you think, “I could never stoop that low.” But the real world is a lot more complicated than the world you see on TV and in the movies. In the real world, the moral choices are not always clear-cut, or black and white.
6. Imagine that you’re a CEO. Consider the fact that every quarter—every three months—you will be confronted with a balance sheet, telling you what your com- pany has made or lost—during that three-month period. Consider further that it’s not enough just to show a profit. You have to show a profit that is competitive with the profit margins of all the other companies on the stock market that are bid- ding for investors’ money. What do you do when the numbers for one quarter aren’t quite good enough? That’s one of those unexpected character-testing moments I warned you about. Suddenly, the moral situation isn’t as black and white as it so often is on TV or in the movies. You may think, “If I release these figures, a lot of investors are liable to pull their money out of my company and invest it somewhere else.” And that’s true. The stock market is ruthless. People do switch investments simply because of a bad quarter. So the heat is on.
7. Now, let’s assume that you’re not some one-dimensional character. Let’s assume that you have integrity. Let’s assume that you’re willing to take the responsibility for the company’s poor showing in that quarter. But then, you have others besides yourself to think of. You’ve got a family. You’ve got employees who could lose their jobs if you lose money and have to cut back. There are charities, educational institutions, and civic organizations that depend on your company’s generosity. People may suffer real pain if you have to cut back. Or what if your company is working to find a cure for cancer? Or a solution for the energy crisis? Or an answer for the global warming problem? What if people may die if you publish that negative report and have to slash your research?
8. And now suppose—just suppose—that if you tinkered just a little bit with those numbers on the balance sheet, that everything will be all right. You know it will be all right, because if you fiddle with the numbers, you’ll reassure your investors. They will keep their money in your company and, because they do that, the com- pany will do so well in the next quarter that you’ll justify the doctored figures you’ve given out to the public. Nobody will ever know.
9. This is the kind of character test you’ll be facing in your own careers, ladies and gentlemen. It’s a very slippery slope once you start making moral compromises. Look at Enron. Or look at ballplayer Pete Rose, who finally admitted in 2004 that
4. His transition leads to the next main point.
6. He uses another hypothetical example, putting the audience in a setting where they must make an ethical decision.
7. The speaker develops the hypothetical example in greater detail.
8. Stewart develops the example to show how a person of integrity can rationalize an unethical decision.
9. Stewart uses examples to illustrate the destructive power of moral compromises. Enron, a large energy company, was held accountable for hiding billions of dollars in debt, and Pete Rose, who was destined for the Hall of Fame, lied about betting on baseball.
96 Chapter 6 • Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking
he had lied for fourteen years about betting on baseball games. Rose was a star player who had more hits that Ty Cobb. He was a sure candidate for baseball’s Hall of Fame. But he let himself become addicted to gambling, and took to betting on games as a way out. When he admitted he had lied all those years, he claimed that he never bet on inside information or let his bets influence his decisions as a player or manager. “So in my mind,” he said, “I wasn’t corrupt.”
10. Well, whatever Mr. Rose thinks in his mind, the fact is that the rule against betting on games is posted prominently in every baseball clubhouse in the country. Pete Rose agreed to be bound by that rule and he broke it. He didn’t wake up one fine morning and decide he was going to break a rule that stared him in the face every single day in the clubhouse. It was probably a gradual process—a slippery slope that started with gambling. Then gambling more than he could afford to lose. Then fall- ing into debt. And then inventing a rationalization that let him tell himself he wasn’t doing anything wrong when he broke one of the cardinal rules of baseball.
11. That’s why it’s important to practice, practice, practice in your moral lives as well as in the classroom and on the playing field. Because if you resist the small tempta- tions, you’ll develop the moral muscle you’ll need to resist the big ones. You proba- bly know that, or else you wouldn’t be here today. You know it isn’t easy to lead a disciplined life. But I think you’re all going to be glad, as you get older, that you made the effort.
12. One of the shrewdest observations I ever heard on the importance of setting and meeting high standards for yourself was made by Winston Churchill.
13. In 1900, when he was just 26, Churchill published his only work of fiction. It was a novel called Savrola. It’s not a great novel. In fact, later in life, Churchill was embarrassed to have written it. He actually begged his friends not to read it. But it’s of interest today because of the insights it reveals into the development of Churchill’s greatness. For example, in the novel, the hero asks: “Would you rise in the world? You must work while others amuse themselves. Are you desirous of a reputation for courage? You must risk your life. Would you be strong morally or physically? You must resist temptations.”
14. Does that sound familiar? It’s a fancy way of saying, “practice, practice, practice.” And then Churchill’s hero delivers the punch line. He says: “All this is paying in advance…. Observe the other side of the picture; the bad things are paid for afterwards.” And that should sound familiar too—look at Enron and Pete Rose— the bad things were paid for afterwards, because they didn’t do the hard things, the morally right things, in advance.
15. If you know anything about the life of Churchill, you know that Churchill’s hero in this novel is speaking for Churchill himself.
16. Churchill paid in advance. Some of you might be surprised to hear that Churchill never had a university education. He attended an exclusive prep school in England called Harrow, but he graduated at the bottom of his class. From there, he went to Sandhurst, Britain’s equivalent of West Point, where he learned things like tactics, fortifications, and map-reading. He knew that this sort of education was not enough if he wanted a career in politics. So, as a young officer posted in India, he set about to plug the gaps in his education. He established what he called his “university of one.” While his brother officers drank, played cards, and did the other things that
10. The speaker draws the conclusion from his examples that poor moral choices are a result of a “slippery slope” of progressive rationalizations.
11. Stewart returns to his theme of the need to “practice” in order to develop “moral muscle.”
12. The speaker states the transition to his next main point.
13. Stewart uses the example of Churchill.
The speaker cites a quotation from Churchill’s novel, Savrola.
14. He cites another quotation from the same source to compare to the examples of Enron and Pete Rose.
16. The speaker explains how Churchill was self- made and instead of attending college, he received a military education and created a “university of one.”
He repeats the earlier quotation.
Applying Ethical Standards 97
young officers did and still do, Churchill immersed himself in economics, philosophy, and other tough subjects. On weekends, he administered examinations to himself to test himself on what he had learned. “Would you rise in the world? You must work while others amuse themselves.”
17. During his military career, Churchill also risked his life. Not once, but many times. You probably know that Churchill wrote some very thick books. But he also wrote some shorter works that are quite easy to read and very entertaining. In particular, he wrote an account of his formative years called My Early Life.
In this book, he tells how he was taken prisoner in South Africa during the Boer War. He made a sensational escape, and a reward was offered for his capture, “dead or alive.” If you read the story of his escape—even today, when we know the outcome—I guarantee that it will have you on the edge of your chair. “Are you desirous of a reputation for courage? You must risk your life.”
18. Churchill returned to England a national hero, and was elected to Parliament. But again, if you know anything about his life, you know that his career in politics included heart-breaking setbacks as well as phenomenal successes. Many people don’t know this, but when Churchill suffered these setbacks, he was frequently plunged into severe depressions. In fact, there were times in his life when the people closest to him feared that he might commit suicide. But here again, he paid in advance. He learned how to cope with adversity and depression. He came to call them his “Black Dog” moods. A noted British psychiatrist once wrote a penetrating study of Churchill’s character. He concluded that it was through Churchill’s struggles with the Black Dog that he acquired the iron will he needed to stand against Hitler when all seemed lost. The psychiatrist put it this way: He said that only a man who had conquered despair in himself could have led a nation through its darkest hours.
19. We learn moral lessons from studying the lives of towering individuals like Church- ill. We learn from our respective faiths, from our families, from our friends, and from our own experiences how to be ethical and responsible human beings.
20. We learn. But it isn’t enough to just learn. We have to put that knowledge to work in our everyday lives. We have to practice, practice, practice. There’s nothing new or startling in that. Over two thousand years ago, the Greek philosopher Aristotle said everything I’ve just told you—and he said it in fewer words. Aristotle said that character was a matter of habit. We do not do the right thing, said Aristotle, because we have virtue or excellence. Rather, he said, we have virtue or excellence because we do the right thing.
21. We are, in short, the sum of what we do. We know that. People have known that for thousands of years. But knowing is not the same as doing. That’s why we must practice, practice, practice! If we do that, we can be confident that when the great tests of our lives come, we will be ready for them.
Thank you.
17. Stewart cites Churchill’s autobiography as the source for this section.
The speaker cites another quotation.
18. The speaker cites examples of discouragement and depression from Churchill’s life.
20. The speaker begins his conclusion and returns to his theme of “practice.”
The speaker uses a refer- ence to Aristotle towards the end of the conclusion.
21. He repeats his theme as an ending.
98 Chapter 6 • Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking
Summary The study of ethics has been important through the centuries and is vital to the modern speaker. When evaluating a speaker’s ethics, consider the speaker’s honesty, reliability, moti- vations, and policies. When applying your own ethical standard, be honest, convey concern about others, assess your personal motives for speaking, and develop a speaking code.
Skill Builders 1. Select an example from current events of a speaker who has made a poor ethical
decision. Present a short speech about the individual and describe the nature of the ethical choice, how the ethical problem affected the individual, other people, and the public’s reaction to the person.
2. Develop a personal code of ethics for public speaking. How realistic or workable are your ideas? Present a two- to three-minute speech describing your code.
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter Six, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www.cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
Applying Ethical Standards 99
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UNIT TWO Preparing the Foundation
Chapter 7 Selecting the Topic and Purpose
Chapter 8 Conducting Research
Chapter 9 Choosing Supporting Materials
CHAPTER
7 SELECTING THE TOPIC AND PURPOSE
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Describe how to generate ideas for a speech
2 Identify five guidelines for selecting speech topics
3 Describe three guidelines for developing the specific purpose
4 Recognize the function of the thesis statement
5 Develop a specific purpose and thesis statement on a given topic
I’ve listened to everything you’ve said in class, and I’ve read the book. But I just can’t think of what to give my speech about. I’m not really a very unique person—I don’t sky dive or bake ethnic foods, I haven’t traveled much, and I don’t have hobbies or keep exotic pets. I’m just your average college student trying to get a degree. Please, PLEASE give me some ideas for a speech.
The inability to think of a subject is one of the most common complaints heard in speech classes. The same people talking with other students in the lounge, the cafeteria, or after class seem to have no problem coming up with ideas for conversation. But in a situation requiring public speaking and evaluation of abilities, ideas seem to dry up.
In this chapter we will describe some resources that can help you get ideas for your speech. In addition to speech subjects and topics, this chapter explains the general purpose, the specific purpose, and the thesis statement.
Th om
so n
Le ar
ni ng
“ If you have an importantpoint to make, don’t try tobe subtle or clever. Use a pile driver. Hit the point once. Then come back and hit it again. Then hit it a third time—a tremendous whack.” —Winston Churchill
102
Getting Ideas
There are a number of ways to search for speech topics. Here are some resources and techniques that can stimulate your thinking and help you get started.
Your own Knowledge and Experience One of the best resources for speech ideas is your own knowledge and experience. When trying to think of subjects for a speech, people often overlook their back- grounds. After thinking and worrying for several days, a student still had no subject for her informative speech. When asked about her interests, she responded, “Well, I really like to square dance. As a matter of fact, every week I go square dancing, and my partner and I usually try to attend a square dancing contest once a month. I’m pretty good at it, but I can’t talk about anything like that, can I?” When she finally realized that she could use some of her own experiences, she recognized that public speaking could actually be interesting.
Students have delivered speeches about traveling to India, climbing mountains, shearing sheep, extracting venom from poisonous snakes, studying fossils, training dogs, collecting coins, hang gliding, making theatrical masks, excavating ancient ruins, recovering from alcoholism, military duty in dangerous war zones, stomach stapling, and tattooing. These subjects were drawn from students’ personal knowledge or experiences. Don’t take your background for granted. Examine your unique ex- periences; you will often find something to expand into a topic that fits a particular assignment.
When you choose a topic from your own interests or experiences, you are more likely to project vitality
and enthusiasm to listeners.
Pe te
r Ch
ap m
an Ph
ot og
ra ph
y
Key Terms actuate brainstorming convince definition demonstration description entertain general purpose inform persuade specific purpose stimulate subject thesis statement topic
Getting Ideas 103
Brainstorming One technique to help generate many subjects in a short period of time is brainstorming— the rapid and unrestrained listing of ideas. Take a pencil and paper and jot down anything that comes into your mind. Don’t try to judge or evaluate the ideas when you list them; the goal of this exercise is to stimulate your thoughts and imagination. After a few minutes, you will have a long list of subjects on a wide variety of issues. Naturally, some of the subjects will seem ridiculous; but the purpose of the exercise is to generate a lot of ideas quickly. You can easily eliminate the irrelevancies later.
Library Databases and the Internet Additional places to look for subject matter are library databases such as ProQuest Research Library, Academic Search Premier, ProQuest Newspapers, or the InfoTrac College Edition, which was included with your textbook. Many databases such as ProQuest Direct and Academic Search Premier contain lists of magazine titles and summaries, called abstracts, describing the content of the articles. These computerized indexes may include full texts of articles as well. (See Chapter Eight for a more extensive discussion.) In addition, many libraries have databases of major national newspapers such as the New York Times and Wall Street Journal and your college library may provide access to your local newspapers through a specific database as well.
Another method of researching a topic is to do a simple search on the Internet using a search engine such as Google. These indexes allow you to search for people, places, and objects or use keywords in a more generalized topic search. If you are unsure what index or computerized source to use, ask your librarian to help you get started.
The appendix at the back of this text contains a comprehensive list of topics. These topics are grouped by eleven general categories and can help you get ideas for your infor- mative and persuasive speeches.
Ask for Help If you are having difficulty selecting a topic, ask for help from other individuals. Solicit suggestions from friends and family or talk to your associates at work. Ask your instructor to react to several ideas or seek advice from fellow students. Talking to others helps you to verbalize feelings and restore your perspective on significant interests, abilities, and motivations.
You’ll find that plenty of subjects are available if you actively look for them. Get busy and do something—don’t wait for inspiration. Examine your own experiences, try some brainstorming techniques, go to the library, or ask for suggestions from others.
Selecting the Topic
Once you have chosen the broad, general subject, you must narrow it down to a topic— the specific, limited issue that you can effectively develop into a five- to eight-minute speech. Here are five guidelines to consider as you build the speech.
It Should Interest You, the Speaker You must be certain that the topic interests you. A speech is not like a book report on an assigned issue; the topic you select reflects your interests, your personality, and your motivations. You cannot go to the dictionary, close your eyes, pick out a random topic,
104 Chapter 7 • Selecting the Topic and Purpose
and expect to feel positive about communicating it. You need to feel confident and chal- lenged by your choice; you must be able to use appropriate aspects of delivery—vocal inflection, gestures, facial expression—to communicate your enthusiasm to the audience.
A student in the air transportation curriculum asked his audience to play the role of passengers on a domestic flight. A few seconds into the presentation, the speaker, who played the pilot, stated that the aircraft was experiencing mechanical difficulty and that he would need to make an emergency landing. The “passengers” listened carefully as the “pilot” reviewed the safety precautions and the emergency exit procedures to carry out when the plane landed. The audience was fascinated because the speaker was interested in his topic and creative in his delivery.
You may be interested in a topic, but you may not be very knowledgeable about it. Don’t throw out the idea simply because you will have to do some additional investiga- tion. One student who had presented three very creative speeches during the semester was having difficulty finding a dynamic topic for her final speech to inform. She had always been curious about ants but didn’t know very much about them. At first she thought her idea might be too trivial, but as she began to do research, she found the subject compelling. She became so involved that she even created some visual aids to support her narrowed topic, “Life in an ant colony.” During the speech she was enthusi- astic, animated, and extremely knowledgeable because of her extensive research. But her success started with her interest in the topic.
It Should be Sufficiently Narrow and Conform to the Time Limit If you took almost any general list of subjects, you would probably find that most are too general for a five-minute classroom presentation. For example, you could sign up for entire courses on barrier reefs, baseball, or Buddha. These subjects must be narrowed down to more specific topics:
• The types of plant life existing in a barrier reef • Solving the problem of steroids in professional baseball • Some of the basic beliefs of Buddhism
Each of these three topics can be supported by several main points, and each can be made to conform to the time limit.
A speech on the problem of mental health in the United States, for example, would be too broad and could be narrowed down, as the following list shows:
Subject: Mental health in the United States Topics: Causes, effects, and treatments of impotence Common phobias experienced by “average” people Hyperactivity in children Mental illness and the homeless Myths about mental illness Personal injury claims resulting from job stress Problems of mental health insurance Pros and cons of mainstreaming the mentally retarded The destructive effects of perfectionism Treatments for Alzheimer’s disease Unethical practices in psychiatry
Selecting the Topic 105
Eleven major speech topics have been generated from the one general subject, and many more are possible. Your topic must be limited so that you can develop it in sufficient detail within your allotted time.
It Should Provide New Information Successful speakers can make almost any topic interesting. With proper research and audience analysis, few topics are boring. But some topics can be classified as overworked or trivial and should be avoided or altered:
• Toxic pollution is dangerous • How to make a cake by following the microwave directions on the back of
the box • Drinking a beer • Registering for a course at this university • Technology is helpful in medicine
To involve your audience, alter these topics and provide new or more sophisticated information:
• Home carpeting can contain toxic pollution • Secrets of making a perfect German chocolate cake • How beer is manufactured • Some of the most popular elective courses at the university • Innovations in heart implant technology
These topics are not simplistic; they don’t rehash information that is common knowledge, and they have the potential of providing additional knowledge.
A speaker began a presentation by identifying a process that was familiar to most audience members—decorating Easter eggs. But as the speech progressed, listeners soon realized that the speaker was not describing the ordinary Easter-time activity. The speak- er’s purpose was to demonstrate “How to make Ukrainian Easter eggs”—a centuries-old process requiring skill and dedication. The speaker briefly described Ukrainian traditions and demonstrated the application of intricate designs symbolizing Easter themes. The audience was completely involved: the speaker handled an overworked topic creatively and provided her listeners with new information.1
It Should be Appropriate While setting up visual aids for a process speech, a nursing student asked the audience for a volunteer, and a male student eagerly came forward. As the speaker proceeded with her introduction, it became clear that the purpose of her speech was to demonstrate how to give a bath to a hospital patient. The audience began to giggle nervously as the male volunteer turned red in the face. Undismayed, the nursing student instructed her volun- teer to lie down on the table as she proceeded to demonstrate in great detail how a patient is bathed. The speaker’s topic was appropriate in a nursing classroom, but it was extremely inappropriate in a speech class.
Appropriateness is highly subjective; what is appropriate to one person is not appro- priate to another. An individual speaking about personal religious convictions might be on target in a church group, but the topic would be completely out of place at a secular meeting. Use common sense when you think about a topic, and select an issue that is appropriate for as many of your listeners as possible.
106 Chapter 7 • Selecting the Topic and Purpose
It Should Conform to the General Purpose Once you have chosen a topic, you must then consider the general purpose or the direc- tion of the material presented in the speech. You need to know whether your speech assignment is to inform, to persuade, or to entertain your audience.
Speeches to Inform Informative speeches are presentations that enlighten and educate audiences. Speeches to inform can be definitions of concepts, demonstrations of procedures, descriptions of people, places, objects, or personal experiences, or business reports or lectures on issues in which you have expertise.
If you were to define jazz, describe life in the Marines, convey the experience of sky diving, demonstrate how to make clay pottery, speak about the life of Ray Charles, recount principal historical sites in Boston, describe the effects of pancreatic cancer, report on stock- market projections for the year 2015, or lecture about the political and military struggle in Afghanistan, you would be contributing to audience awareness and understanding.
Speeches to Persuade Unlike informative presentations, your goal in persuasive speeches is to influence the beliefs, feelings, or behavior of listeners. Although you must present accurate and well-researched
Ideas for speeches are often generated through brainstorming, thinking about personal interests, going to the library,
or asking for help from friends.
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material, you must also take a clear position regarding the information. There are three prin- cipal types of persuasive speeches: the speech to convince, which changes belief; the speech to actuate, which moves to action; and the speech to stimulate, which intensifies feelings.
Persuasive speaking is similar to taking one side in a debate. You tell your audience to do something (“plant a tree”), to believe something (“repeal federally mandated national health insurance”), or to feel something strongly (“support our firefighters and police officers”). Your goal is to build a case using logic and emotion to persuade the audience that your point of view is the correct one.
Speeches to Entertain The purpose of the speech to entertain is to promote enjoyment and to amuse and divert the audience. Entertaining speeches could include an after-dinner speech, a roast of a boss or friend, or a monologue satirizing a person, place, or event. But entertainment does not mean a lack of research and preparation; often, speeches to entertain are some of the most difficult to prepare and present. The speech to entertain requires creativity, skill in writing and organization, and accomplished delivery.
College speech instructors tend to emphasize informative and persuasive speeches over speeches to entertain. But developing an entertaining speech is good experience; most people have an occasion sometime in their careers or personal lives to present a humorous speech—a friend’s fortieth birthday, a toast at an anniversary party, an office-party spoof.
Writing the Specific Purpose
The specific purpose is the reason for the speech. This statement communicates the speaker’s goal to the audience; that is, it represents where you are going. Unlike the thesis, it does not always need to be stated in the introduction, but it is included on the speaker’s outline to keep the speaker focused on the overall objective. Spend time developing your specific purpose, so that it clearly defines and conveys your objec- tive. Here are three guidelines to follow as you prepare the specific purpose statement.
Be Clear, Concise, and Unambiguous The specific purpose should be phrased in simple and concrete language. Avoid wordy descriptions and vague terminology. The specific purpose should be easy to read and easy to verbalize. Most important, your audience must clearly understand your specific purpose.2 For example:
• To inform you about the potential for life on Mars • To explain how you can help children afflicted with the disease called “spina bifida” • To convince you that cosmetic surgeries are dangerous
The first specific purpose tells the audience that they will receive information about the topic, the second urges listeners to become actively involved with the issue, and the third asks them to agree with the speaker. The first promotes curiosity, the second intro- duces terminology that may be unfamiliar (but spina bifida is clearly defined as a dis- ease), and the third takes a strong position on a persuasive issue. Each statement is clearly worded and communicates the speaker’s specific intention. Now look at the fol- lowing specific purpose:
Poor: To tell you of the serious implications of central and obstructive sleep apnea and explain how these conditions impact the psyche and the physiology
108 Chapter 7 • Selecting the Topic and Purpose
This specific purpose is weak because it is too long, imprecise, and wordy. The sentence also introduces terminology—“central and obstructive sleep apnea”—unfamiliar to many listeners. The objective of the speech is not clearly communicated; we have the impres- sion that the speech is about some type of sleeping disorder, but we are not exactly cer- tain about the topic, and we are not told whom it affects. This statement confuses audience members and discourages them from listening. Here’s how the specific purpose can be improved:
Better: To inform about the major causes and effects of a common sleeping disorder
Here the wording is clear, and the phrase moves logically and quickly to the point. The statement eliminates technical terms and ambiguous references to “psyche” and “physiology.” The specific medical terminology can be identified and explained later in the speech.
Poor: To talk about M. C. Escher To tell you about airport security To inform you about spying on Americans
In each of these phrases, the subjects are not yet narrowed. A speaker who fails to make changes in these statements will probably speak overtime or jump from one topic to another. These are better:
Better: To inform about the stylistic influences on M. C. Escher, the pop artist To inform about measures that have been taken since 9/11 to tighten airport
security To convince the audience that government wiretapping without a court order
threatens Americans’ constitutional rights
These statements are improvements because the subjects have been narrowed and the wording is more precise.
Include Only One Major Idea A specific purpose should contain only one principal topic. If it contains more than one topic, the speaker will be developing at least two speeches.
Poor: To describe the effects of criminal behavior on the victim and explain the merits of crime compensation plans
To demonstrate how a dentist fills a tooth, performs a root canal, and cleans your teeth
To describe attempts to overthrow dictators in the Middle East To describe computer viruses and to convince you that these viruses threaten us
Often beginning speakers are afraid they will not have enough material for a five- to seven-minute speech so they include too many topics in their specific purpose state- ments. The first specific purpose example contains at least two topic ideas. “The effects of criminal behavior on a victim” is at least one topic, and “the merits of crime compen- sation plans” is another. The second example contains three separate demonstration speeches. A speaker cannot possibly demonstrate three dental procedures in six or seven minutes. In the third, there are numerous topics: the overthrow of Hosni Mubarak in Egypt, the uprisings in Yemen and Tunisia, and the revolution in Libya. In the fourth statement, there are two distinct purposes: the first part of the statement is a speech to inform, and the last half a speech to convince. Your specific purpose sentence should
Writing the Specific Purpose 109
clearly indicate whether the speech is informative or persuasive; it should not include both types. Here is how each statement can be altered to incorporate only one main topic:
Better: To inform about the merits of victim compensation plans To demonstrate how a dentist performs a root canal To describe how the Egyptian people ended forty years of dictatorship To convince the audience that computer viruses threaten our national security
Each specific purpose statement includes only one major topic, which can be developed adequately in a five- to seven-minute speech.
Use a Declarative Statement The specific purpose should include a declarative statement that contains an infinitive phrase and the general purpose—such as “to inform,” “to demonstrate,” “to persuade,” “to convince,” or “to actuate”—combined with the topic. The following examples are poor:
Poor: Skin disease Lead fishing sinkers African tribal body painting and how it is done The words “under God” in the Pledge of Allegiance—pro or con? Should the United States engage in preemptive invasions of sovereign nations?
In each of the statements above, the speaker has not clearly identified the goal of the speech. The first example merely names a broad subject; there is no topic, purpose, or declarative statement. Although the second example could be an adequate topic for a speech, it is not phrased in the form of a statement with a general purpose; it has no direction or goal. The third example still is not complete, because it lacks an infinitive phrase. The fourth and fifth examples raise questions when they should make clear state- ments as to the intention of the speech; we are not sure if the speeches are informative or persuasive. Here are better examples:
Better: To inform the audience about a disfiguring skin disease known as vitiligo To demonstrate how to make lead fishing sinkers To demonstrate an African tribal ritual of body painting To actuate the audience to support legislation that permits the words “under God”
in the Pledge of Allegiance To convince the audience that the United States should not engage in preemptive
invasions of sovereign nations
These five examples have the following points in common: (1) Each contains an infinitive phrase that clearly describes the intent and general purpose of the speech; (2) each includes a precise statement of the topic; (3) each specific purpose is phrased as a declarative statement; and (4) no specific purpose is stated as a question. Each specific pur- pose statement will provide the audience with a clear understanding of the speaker’s goal.
Wording the Thesis Statement
The thesis statement, often called the “central idea” or the “central objective,” is the phrase that previews the main points in the body of the speech. If a member of your audience walked in late but just in time to hear your thesis statement, the listener
110 Chapter 7 • Selecting the Topic and Purpose
would know exactly what your speech was going to cover. This sentence tells the audi- ence how you are going to accomplish your goal stated in the specific purpose, and it should be clearly stated at the end of your introduction. The wording of the thesis state- ment is important because it acts as the organizational hub of your speech; all of the main points of the body of the speech are previewed in the thesis statement. Here are two effective examples:
Topic: Communication of dolphins General purpose: To inform Specific purpose: To inform the audience about how dolphins communicate Thesis statement: Dolphins communicate through their sense of vision and
through their sense of sound.
BODY
I. Sense of vision II. Sense of sound
Topic: Meat “analogues” or substitutes General purpose: To inform Specific purpose: To inform you about the benefits of meat “analogues”
or substitutes Thesis statement: Meat substitutes can be high in protein, low in cholesterol,
and contain less fat.
BODY
I. High in protein II. Low in cholesterol III. Lower in fat content
In each instance, the thesis statement expands the specific purpose in greater detail; it previews and describes what will actually be covered in the speech. In the first example, the thesis tells the audience that the speech will include two main points: (1) communication of dolphins through vision, and (2) communication of dolphins through sound. In the second example, the thesis tells listeners that the speaker will describe three benefits of meat substitutes: (1) high protein, (2) low cholesterol, and (3) less fat. The examples show that the main points of the body correspond to the the- sis statement.
A speech is confusing or hard for an audience to follow when the speaker does not have a clear thesis statement in mind.
Topic: The insanity plea as a defense General purpose: To convince Specific purpose: To convince the audience that postpartum depression should not
be allowed as a legal defense when mothers kill their children Poor thesis statement: Postpartum depression shouldn’t be permitted as a legal
defense because women who kill their own children shouldn’t be allowed to get away with murder.
This thesis statement is a prescription for speaking disaster. The statement is merely a run-on sentence that does not include the main points of the body of the speech. The
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speaker will probably ramble on without much logic or organization, and the confused audience will probably stop listening. Here’s how to correct the problem:
Better thesis statement: Postpartum depression can be faked, inaccurately diagnosed, and used to undermine the legal system.
BODY
I. Misrepresentation II. Inaccurate diagnosis III. Weakening of legal system
This thesis clearly introduces three areas that will be covered in the body of the speech. The audience will be able to follow the speaker’s organization clearly.
Problems with the Thesis Statement If you have difficulties when writing your thesis statement, it is possible that problems exist elsewhere in your speech.
Poor thesis statement: I want to describe the religious rituals of the North, Central, and South American Indians.
This thesis may be appropriate for several hour-long lectures on the religious rituals of Indians but it contains a topic that is too broad for a five-to eight-minute speech. The numerous Indian tribes with their many religious practices would require an entire series of speeches. Here is a better thesis statement:
Better thesis statement: Living in the area of the Dakotas, the Sioux Indians practiced several unique religious rituals.
BODY
I. Geographical area of the Sioux II. Religious rituals of the Sioux
This thesis is much improved because it incorporates a narrowed topic and clearly indi- cates that the speech will contain two central points.
Here is another difficulty often detected in student speeches:
Poor thesis statement: I want to demonstrate how the Cape Hatteras Light Station was moved.
This is not a thesis statement; it is still the specific purpose sentence. If a speaker were to use this as the thesis, there would be at least ten main points in the speech—too many for a five- to eight-minute presentation. The speaker needs to write a thesis statement that expands the specific purpose and previews only a few main points.
Better thesis statement: Moving the lighthouse required lifting it from its 131-year-old foundation, rolling the lighthouse on tracks and with hydraulics, and resetting it at its new location.
BODY
I. Lifting from foundation II. Rolling on tracks III. Resetting in new location
112 Chapter 7 • Selecting the Topic and Purpose
Here is another frequent difficulty in student speeches:
Poor thesis statement: I want to describe the board game of backgammon.
This thesis indicates that the topic is much too limited. The statement contains only one point—not enough for a five- to eight-minute speech. A speech given on this topic would only take about 1 minute. Here is how to correct the problem:
Better thesis statement: When learning backgammon, it is helpful to know the history, rules, and steps to playing the game.
BODY
I. History of backgammon II. Rules of game III. Steps for playing
This thesis is better because it broadens the topic and includes three main points in the speech. If you are having trouble writing your thesis statement, you may not have enough information and need to do more research.
Putting It Together
To help you build your own speeches, here are some examples of topics, specific pur- poses, and thesis statements other students have used in their classroom presentations.3
The brief commentary explains why each sample speech was successful. Collecting comics was Dan Urton’s hobby, and the audience could sense his enthu-
siasm for the topic. During the speech, Dan used some of his own comic books as visual aids to support key ideas. Listeners commented that the topic was “different”—many were surprised to learn how valuable old comic books can be. The specific purpose and thesis statement made Dan’s speech objectives completely clear to the audience.
Topic: Collecting comic books General purpose: To inform Specific purpose: To inform you about the value of collecting comic books Thesis statement: Collecting comic books requires some basic knowledge of the art
in order to protect and increase your investment.
Professional chef John Fields showed his audience how to make a cheesecake. John went to the trouble of preparing three cheesecakes in various stages of completion. His audience watched with fascination as he skillfully used his visuals to demonstrate the details of the general process he identified in the thesis. When he finished the speech, John revealed an elegant gourmet cheesecake, which he divided among his delighted listeners.
Topic: Making a cheesecake General purpose: To demonstrate Specific purpose: To demonstrate how to make a cheesecake Thesis statement: Making a cheesecake requires understanding a recipe and
using a step-by-step method to create a beautiful finished product.
Jelilat Salako was extremely concerned about drilling for oil in Alaska. She con- nected to her listeners when she said, “Imagine that you lived out in the wilderness with your family and all of a sudden some strange being came along and spread some
Putting It Together 113
dark, sticky substance all over the place, killing your loved ones and friends. Well this is what the animals in Alaska will have to put up with if we start to drill for oil.” To rein- force her point, she wore a T-shirt picturing a globe of the world with polar animals standing together at the top.
Topic: Drilling for oil in Alaska General purpose: To convince Specific purpose: To convince the audience that the United States should
not drill for oil in Alaska. Thesis statement: Drilling for Alaskan oil hurts the wildlife, could speed the
process of global warming, and cause us to be less energy independent.
What impressed the audience about this speech was that Kelly Burns was committed to her topic. Kelly wore a T-shirt declaring “Human Rights Now” as she described her involvement with Amnesty International. Kelly evoked the feelings of love and commitment in listeners when she spoke of children who were stolen from their families and illegally adopted in other countries. “Think of your own children, or brothers and sisters,” she said, “and be glad this can’t happen to them.” Audience members were gen- uinely moved, and many offered to help Kelly with her cause.
Topic: Amnesty International / human rights General purpose: To actuate Specific purpose: To actuate the audience to write letters to human
rights violators Thesis statement: I want to define human rights, explain how Amnesty
International works, and tell you what you can do to help those whose rights are being violated.
Summary In your search for speech topics, explore various areas. Select a topic that is narrow in scope and will conform to the time limit, appeals to your own interests as a speaker, is appropriate to your listeners, and conforms to your assigned purpose—to inform, to persuade, or to entertain. The specific purpose is the overall objective of the speech. The thesis statement amplifies the specific purpose and tells the audience exactly what your speech will cover.
Skill Builders 1. Following the guidelines presented in this chapter, write informative and persuasive
specific purposes and thesis statements for the following topics: a. The 2012 battle for the White House b. Wind, solar, and hydrogen power as a solution to the nation’s energy problem c. The cloning of human cells d. The philosophy of Feng Shui in architectural design
2. Use the brainstorming technique to jot down ideas for an informative speech. When you have completed your list, apply the criteria presented in this chapter for selecting your final topic.
114 Chapter 7 • Selecting the Topic and Purpose
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter seven, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www. cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
Putting It Together 115
CHAPTER
8 CONDUCTING RESEARCH
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Understand the difference between credible and noncredible sources
2 Access and research library resources
3 Understand important guidelines for using the Internet
4 Know how to cite sources in your speech effectively
5 Develop an effective system for keeping accurate notes
6 Write a bibliography accurately
7 Understand what plagiarism is, its potential consequences, and how to avoid it
8 Know how to conduct an interview
9 Think critically about speech research and construction
Alicia was enthusiastic about her speech. Her professor had assigned her communication class to research, outline, and present an informative descriptive speech about a person, place, object, or event. Alicia decided to speak about a person and she chose the topic of Mother Teresa because she had always admired the late nun’s humanitarian work in Calcutta, India. Alicia got busy at the computer and went to a Wikipedia web source and found some biographical information that she quickly printed. Hoping to find some newspaper or
magazine articles, she Googled “Mother Teresa” and was overwhelmed that her investigation yielded more than four million websites, which included blogs, discussion
“Knowledge is of two kinds;we know a subjectourselves, or we know where we can find information upon it.”—Dr. Samuel Johnson
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groups, and personal testimonies. Because it would take her days to conduct an investigation, she took notes from some of the first few sites and printed out items that she could paraphrase in her speech. She then used Google Earth to pinpoint the exact location of the hospital and orphanage founded by Mother Teresa and the Missionaries of Charity, her religious order. Alicia was pleased with her Internet research, which took only about thirty-five minutes, and she began to develop her outline and notecards in preparation for the speech.
How did Alicia do? Was her research accurate and complete? How do you think Alicia’s communication professor and audience reacted to her speech based on her sources? Was her speech successful?
This chapter is designed to help you avoid the problems that Alicia experienced. Our focus is on explaining how to access credible information through the library catalog and databases, and search the best sources that you will need for your topic. In addition, the chapter includes a discussion of credibility, primary and secondary sources, the Internet, citing sources in a speech, keeping accurate notes, interviewing, writing a bibliography, and thinking critically about research.
Preparing for Research
Alicia was headed for significant problems with her speech because she didn’t use the proper tools that would allow her to conduct comprehensive and reliable research. Unlike Alicia, if you know what you are doing, you can accomplish a great deal quickly and efficiently. Although it may take a bit more time than Alicia was initially willing to spend, the key to conducting good research is knowing where to look and what to look for on a particular topic. There may also be times when doing research means not using the library, but finding experts on issues or looking for information in more specialized sources. But even in these cases, you must know the correct process to use in order to make progress toward your goal of presenting an effective speech.
Establishing Credibility
Your audience must be able to trust you as a speaker and believe what you are telling them is accurate. This confidence, known as credibility, is developed when you support ideas with evidence that is verified by research utilizing sources that are respected, reliable, accurate, and relevant to the topic.
Sources exhibit varying degrees of credibility. Some—like reputable newspapers, news magazines, books, experts, trade journals, and encyclopedias—are extremely authoritative and reliable. Others—like some autobiographies, TV programs, self-help books, well-meaning friends, or condensed publications containing only excerpts of articles—have far less credibility. Even these are not all created equal. Quoting from a BBC, PBS, or CNN documentary may be much more credible than using the opi- nions expressed in an editorial section of a newspaper or the beliefs of a well-meaning “friend.”
Noncredible sources are easily detected by audiences. A student who presented an informative speech on the positive existence of UFOs made the statement: “There have been numerous sightings of UFOs according to a recent issue of the National Enquirer.” Listeners tried to be polite and conceal their smiles. However, they eventually
Key Terms abstracts apa blogs credibility critical thinking databases home page Internet interview keyword mla primary source search engines secondary source url
Establishing Credibility 117
exploded into laughter because the speaker, who was entirely serious, did not perceive the credibility problem that the mention of his source had caused.
Here are some examples of other types of noncredible, hearsay, or “phantom” sources often cited in speeches:
“I got some information on diet from a website that said…” “I was talking to this guy and he said…” “Everybody knows that this is true…” “Studies have proven it to be a fact…” “Doctors recommend that…” “According to many web sources…” “I was standing in line at the supermarket and read in a movie magazine that…” “There is some clinic in France, or Spain, or somewhere, that has developed a cure
for Alzheimers.” “I was watching this TV show and it was real interesting and it said that…” “I saw this movie and it talked about…” “The astrology magazine predicts a major earthquake in California by the year 2015.” “I read this book written by a lawyer who has been born eleven different times over
the past 1,000 years.”
If you want to establish credibility with the audience, cite reputable sources in your speech. Check the reliability of authors and the authenticity of publications or so-called experts. Make sure that the sources you are using have been composed by authors who have the necessary credentials. Don’t rely on hearsay, gossip columns, or fabrication for evidence. If you need a complete source, consult the original article rather than an abstract, summary, or a condensed version. Be willing to spend the time researching ideas from sources that are credible and trustworthy. Cite specific sources, specific studies, and specific authorities to build confidence and believability with your listeners.
Primary and Secondary Sources
Sources can be either primary or secondary. A primary source is one that is created at the time an event occurred. Primary sources are often referred to as “firsthand accounts.” For instance, if your topic were “The woman’s downhill ski competition” in the 2010 Winter Olympics, a primary source would be an article written by Lindsey Vonn, the gold medal winner of the event. Primary sources are written or created at the time of the event and not months or years later. For example, a primary source could be an interview with Lindsey Vonn that you read in a newspaper or magazine article published at the time of the event. Primary sources, however, are often difficult to obtain or unavailable and an article by Lindsey Vonn may not exist and a personal interview is probably unrealistic.
For many topics, secondary research may be more accessible. A secondary source is information reported secondhand by an intermediary standing between you and the orig- inal source. You may find an article in Sports Illustrated written by a sportswriter who witnessed the downhill race, or you may read a description of the race in the New York Times. These sources would be extremely helpful to your speech, and they could be obtained quickly through the library. You will probably use secondary evidence fre- quently as you research many speech topics.
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Accessing the Library
The home page of your college or university library is a good starting place for finding what resources are available to you. The library home page will provide links to help you search for books, periodicals, or other sources that contain the information you need for your speech. The principal search tools to access these materials are the online catalog and the databases that are available online.
The Online Catalog The online library catalog was once known as the “card catalog” because it contained drawers of index cards that listed all the books in the library. Today, however, college and university libraries have computerized catalog systems that provide faster and more efficient access to the library collection. In most libraries, the online catalog includes CDs as well as audiovisual materials. Books are located in the catalog according to author, title, subject, and keyword. If you know the author or title, it is easy to find your specific source. If, however, you are look- ing for a number of books in a general subject area, you will probably find a wide variety of sources from which to choose by simply conducting a keyword search.
Databases The advent of the computer has made libraries efficient and easy to use. College, univer- sity, and public libraries have databases that allow students to find periodical articles
Speakers must know how to use computerized library references to locate credible sources for presentations.
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quickly and reduce or eliminate lengthy manual searches. The computer also facilitates finding resources by allowing a variety of keyword entry points. A keyword is a term or group of words that is used to search for documents in an electronic database or a library catalog. In a database, you can use keywords, such as publisher, date of publication, or words within a title or abstract.
Your college or university library pays for databases, which are collections of chap- ters, plus articles from periodicals, newspapers, or journals that can be searched by a computer with Internet access. These databases are often grouped together according to subject areas—current events, business, humanities, art, or other fields. Articles in these databases are often full-text and are available via the World Wide Web, although they are not Internet sources. In other words, you can’t find them through a Google search, as Alicia attempted in the introductory example. Fortunately for students, these sources are available through library home pages and can be accessed easily through a university, dorm, home, or office computer. These databases are made available through student tuition or technology fees and are accessed through college ID or public library cards. (Most public libraries have databases but they are often not as comprehensive as college databases.)
We recommend your library’s databases as some of the first and best approaches to begin researching your topic. Many of these databases provide full texts of articles in magazines and journals, as well as abstracts, or brief summaries, of articles. Keep in mind, however, that some databases will provide only abstracts without full text access;
Database Company Information Included
Academic Search Premier EbscoHost Articles from research-oriented materials and general-interest magazines.
CQ Researcher CQ Press Explores a single “hot” issue in the news each week. Topics include social issues, teen issues, the environment, health, education, science, and technology. Includes charts, graphs, and bibliographies.
ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center)
Ebsco Host Full-text database of education research and information that includes over 1.2 million items since 1966.
Opposing Viewpoints in Context
Gale Full-text periodicals, newspapers, journals, pamphlets, and primary-source documents on controversial topics.
ProQuest Newspapers ProQuest Major newspapers such as the New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Christian Science Monitor, and Washington Post.
ProQuest Central ProQuest A full collection of journals, magazines, and newspapers for information on a broad range of general reference subjects.
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in that case, you will need to do further research by contacting your interlibrary loan specialist in the reference section of the library. The chart on the preceding pages lists some of the databases that you may encounter at your library. It is important to note, however, that you may not find these search engines in your library, since each college or university may have multiple databases with different titles in specialized fields, such as medicine, archeology, or law. If you are unsure of which database to use or where to find the full text of an article, ask your librarian, who will be glad to assist you.
Examine your library home page and explore the various online databases available to you. Talk to your reference librarians to determine which resources would be best suited to your topic.
Guidelines for Searching the Internet
Although the World Wide Web can help a speaker find materials for a speech, it is usu- ally not the best starting point, as Alicia’s experience clearly demonstrates. Millions of people throughout the world can access billions of information sources from home or office computers using the Web, or, the Internet, as it is frequently called. At the same time, any individual, institution, government agency, or business can develop and pub- lish a computerized home page describing interests, jobs, objectives, or products. Indivi- duals can also publish or access blogs, a type of online personal journal in which an individual or group describes daily activities, experiences, or opinions. Consumers can search the World Wide Web for goods and services; download or upload photographs, music, and videos; and gain access to unlimited sources of reliable (and unreliable) data. Users can also communicate by sending e-mail via the Internet or participate in interactive communication known as “live chat.”
Even though the Internet can be valuable, like any research tool, it has great strengths, limitations, and weaknesses. If you use some of the major search engines, such as Google, you may spend many hours trying to locate what you need, often sifting through irrelevant junk pages and advertisements that can lead to blind alleys or dead ends. Alicia’s Google search yielded literally millions of websites about Mother Teresa. Imagine the time it would take to plow through four million .com and .net web pages, trying to find something credible for your topic. In such cases, a brief visit to the library home page or a short discussion with your librarian could yield far more credible infor- mation and save you considerable amounts of time. To help you become more critical in your investigation, we suggest that you consider these guidelines when using the Internet to research supporting materials for a speech.1
1. Examine the authorship or source of the website. It is important to determine the authorship of a website and examine the qualifications and credibility of the source. Ask these questions about authorship: • Is the source an institution, governmental agency, commercial enterprise, net-
work, or individual (.edu, .gov, .com, .net, .org, etc.)? • Are the authors, researchers, scholars, groups, or organizations reliable? • Are the authors’ qualifications provided? • Can the authors’ expertise on the subject area be verified? • Do the authors have an e-mail or other address where you can contact them for
further information? • Who sponsors the web page? A governmental agency or institution? An unoffi-
cial sponsor, unfamiliar alliance, or counterculture organization?
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Check the URL to see if the web address includes “.gov” for a governmental site, “.edu” for an educational address, “.org” for an organization, or “.com” for a commercial enterprise. Governmental and educational sites are often far more reliable but still require scrutiny to determine if the affiliation is legitimate, facetious, or even subversive. Commercial and organizational groups require special investigation for credibility because they are often attempting to sell products, render services, win converts, or solicit donations. Remember that anyone from a legitimate organization to an ex-convict can publish a web page. Don’t be afraid to verify, ask questions, and think critically. If you still have unanswered questions about the authenticity of the site, search for another, more reliable source.
2. Identify the purpose of the website. Another area that requires close examination is the purpose of the site. Here are some areas to consider: • Does the web page propose to educate the public or to sell products and/or services? • Is there a concise and specific goal and/or mission statement included by the
creator of the website? • Is the purpose of the site clearly stated, or are there hidden agendas? • What is said, what is implied, and what is unstated on the web page?
A group or organization with a bias can often distort its conclusions or findings to fit its narrow motives. A glowing movie review appearing on the web page of the Hollywood studio producing the film should be questioned for its objectivity. A student once deliv- ered a persuasive speech about the problem of police brutality in many police depart- ments. To demonstrate his point, he played a video he found on the YouTube website. The 20-second video showed a policeman using his nightstick to hit a screaming woman during an arrest. The scene was very troubling and emotional for the audience to wit- ness. The problem with the visual was that the student could not explain any of the circumstances surrounding the incident, such as where and when the event occurred, the alleged crime of the offender, the outcome of the incident, or if the video was taken out of context. When asked about the visual during the question-and-answer period, the speaker replied: “I don’t know anything about it other than what you saw. I just found the video on YouTube.” Further investigation of the reliability of the source could have spared the student the embarrassment and loss of credibility that resulted. In this case, a better, more reliable example from a reputable newspaper or magazine would have made his point more clearly. Examine your Internet sites carefully, and do all you can to investigate the purpose and intention of a web page.
3. Evaluate the content of the site. When you have identified the authorship and purpose of the site, your next task is to make a thorough assessment of the content: • What type of language, sentence structure, grammar, and spelling is used on the
web page? (A scholarly site should have few, if any, grammatical mistakes or misspellings, whereas a nonacademic or individually sponsored site might have numerous errors.)
• What are the claims and conclusions made by the authors? • Does the site offer explanations that describe how what is claimed was
researched or how the conclusions drawn were reached? • Does the web page include links to other Internet sites, do these links actually
work effectively, and are these linked sites credible? • Is the site trying to advertise and/or sell products? • Does commercialization of the site distort the content or conclusions of the
document or findings?
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• Is the content of the website accurate and up-to-date or is a date even clearly available?
• Is there an annotated bibliography that includes library sources such as books, as well as other non-Internet sources, for verification?
• What is the overall design and layout of the site?
Often a web page of a major institution or corporation will help you assess how recent it is by clearly indicating the month and year it was last updated. It is also important to evaluate the overall design and layout of a site. A slick web page with lavish gra- phics might gain significant attention but offer little substance beyond selling a prod- uct or spreading propaganda. For example, if you were to Google “Bigfoot,” you would find some dazzling websites with impressive graphics, blogs describing eyewitness accounts, and even videos proclaiming the existence of the huge hairy creature. But careful investigation reveals “testimonials” that are merely opinions and grainy videos that show nothing but shadows. Attractive design, sketches, subjective theories, and opinions are no substitute for hard-core facts and data. Sites that promote myths as fact, engage in inflammatory propaganda, advocate violence, or use hate speech are obviously not worth your time or attention. Examine the validity of Internet sources as carefully as you would verify any library or nonliterary source. Recognize that there are virtually no regulations governing the Internet: it can be used by anyone for any purpose. Don’t be afraid to question a web page for authorship, purpose, and content. Remember that the inclusion of an Internet source is your decision, and like any source, it can help you achieve your speaking goal or cause needless damage to your credibility.
Researching Reference Sources
Examples of reference sources located in the library are bibliographies, biographical col- lections, directories, dictionaries, government documents, and encyclopedias, as well as almanacs, collections of quotations, and many other similar books. Some of these are available online either via a subscription service or through a governmental website. Recognize that browsing a .gov or other online site may be more difficult than obtaining a print copy of the source from your library. Browsing capabilities are often not easy to use, and simple keyword searches may turn up hundreds of hits that require time- consuming review to find the appropriate information. As always, ask a librarian for help if you are having difficulty finding the necessary materials to support your topic. Reference sources outside the library include interviews with experts, as well as the resources of large institutions or specialized organizations. We will examine the interview in more depth later in this chapter.
Biographies Biographical collections are frequently good places to search for topics. For example, a speech about a little-known American like John Hanson, who was technically the first president of the United States under the Articles of Confederation, would be interesting. Biographies can also be helpful in providing background information about a person you intend to use as an authoritative source in your speech. Collections such as Biography Reference Bank, which includes the lives of current newsmakers, as well as people from history, or Great Lives from History, which describe the lives of the notorious, are among those online resources that are available in many libraries.
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Directories and Handbooks Directories can be helpful if you need information about specific agencies or institu- tions. These directories provide names, addresses, and the services provided by all types of groups. The government also publishes an index called the Monthly Catalog of Government Publications, listing the numerous booklets and pamphlets put out by the U.S. Government Printing Office. This resource is available online at http://catalog. gpo.gov/ and you can find the names of pamphlets on such subjects as stem cell research, fire safety, or CPR. There are numerous directories and handbooks available and a search of the library or a request of your librarian can help you locate the direc- tory or handbook you may need.
The Dictionary and Thesaurus In Chapter One we talked about misunderstandings in the speaker-audience relationship because of differing interpretations of a word’s meaning. A good way for you as a speaker to overcome semantic noise is to be very clear about the meanings of the words you employ. Consult a good dictionary like The American Heritage Dictionary or Webster’s New International Dictionary. Webster’s Online Dictionary can be accessed online at http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org. If you need to understand technical terms in a specific field, consult a specialized dictionary. Black’s Law Dictionary, Dorland’s Illus- trated Medical Dictionary, or the Scientific Encyclopedia are all examples of sources that can provide technical definitions in specialized areas.
If you need to find a synonym to avoid using the same word repeatedly in a speech, consult a thesaurus such as Roget’s International Thesaurus. An online version is also available at http://www.thesaurus.com.
Encyclopedias Encyclopedias are often good places to start when you are researching a topic because they provide you with an overview of a general subject very quickly. However, their information is not always comprehensive, and, in many cases, the material is not up-to-date. Be careful not to base your entire presentation on information taken from encyclopedias, or your speech might be inaccurate because your source was very dated.
There are encyclopedias on literally every subject. Two good general subject ency- clopedias are World Book and the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica is especially excellent if you need a more scholarly source and it can be accessed online at http://www.britannica.com. Numerous specialized encyclopedias are also available on subjects such as aviation, music, photography, religion, and automotive repair; they can be helpful for demonstration or process speeches. Browse the collections in your library to determine which sources will be most useful in your research.
A note of caution: Avoid popular sites such as Wikipedia, which Alicia used in the opening example to find information about Mother Teresa. Although it claims to be an electronic “encyclopedia,” Wikipedia’s own home page states: “Visitors do not need spe- cialized qualifications to contribute, since their primary role is to cover existing knowledge.”2 In other words, anyone, young or old, from any background can write or edit anything on the site regardless of their expertise or credibility on a subject.
Use credible resources. Know where you are searching and what you are searching for. Spend your valuable time investigating reliable resources and avoid those that are untrustworthy.
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Almanacs, Yearbooks, and Statistical Publications Often you will need to find statistical information to give your speech credibility. Almanacs, yearbooks, and statistical abstracts contain numerical data on subjects such as crime, deaths, births, accidents, disease, incomes, agriculture, and budgets.
When you do statistical research, it is important to exercise care in your interpreta- tion of the material. Be certain that you clearly understand the information as it is pre- sented. Statistics can be presented in decimals, in percentages, in total numbers of cases, in means (averages), in medians (middle number), or in modes (number occurring with greatest frequency). Know what the statistics measure, and be able to draw clear and accurate conclusions from the data before you decide to include the information.
Some of the most useful sources for statistics are Statistical Abstract of the United States, Vital Statistics of the United States, World Almanac and Book of Facts, and Informa- tion Please Almanac. Many of these are available online as well as in the more standard written form. For example, you can find Statistical Abstract at http://www.census.gov. Consult your library to obtain the URLs (uniform resource locators) for these resources if you want to access them on the Web.
Collections of Quotations In the age of the computer, many speakers would rather Google a famous quote to find the original source rather than search traditional print versions. One helpful resource that can be found online is http://.www.bartleby.com.
Books One of the most obvious sources for a speech is an authoritative book written on your topic. Frequently you will find a collection of readings compiled by one editor or author that will be useful in your research. Be sure to notice the date the book was published. If you were researching the latest computer technologies in a book published in 1985, you would not find any current information. If your topic were the history of computer tech- nology, the 1985 source might be excellent as a beginning point. For some topics, how- ever, using a rare book or a classic study might be more significant than a more recent source. In a speech about the Titanic, for example, a speaker could quote an eyewitness from a book written in 1912 by one of Titanic’s survivors. In this case, the speech would contain material from an excellent primary source.
Some books, like the huge selection of self-help publications in bookstores, are popular with the general public, but frequently authors of these publications are not experts: they are merely lay individuals writing from their own personal experiences about divorce, jogging, or making millions in real estate. The fact that people have been enterprising enough to put their thoughts into print does not mean their words should be regarded with reverence and considered to be credible. Analyze carefully what you read; examine how writers document and reference their material; and above all, feel free to question and even to discard information if other evidence proves the data questionable or false.
Magazines, Journals, and Newspapers News magazines, such as Time, Newsweek, or U.S. News & World Report, are excellent sources and will provide much of the information you need on current events and recent trends. As you investigate these sources, however, be able to distinguish between fact
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and opinion. Many news publications contain articles that report facts in a fairly objec- tive manner. But these periodicals also include material, such as editorials, columns, or features, that provide opinions and interpretations of facts. Also be aware of any political or social bias of the publications, and double-check articles with other news sources for accuracy.
Quarterlies and journals contain articles relevant to specific disciplines. Periodicals such as The American Journal of Nursing, The Journal of Abnormal Psychology, or The Criminal Law Quarterly can be helpful in your research, even though they are written in the technical jargon of their disciplines. Be certain that you understand journal arti- cles clearly enough to be able to communicate the information easily to the audience. This is especially important because most of these scholarly publications assume a high level of expertise and/or knowledge on the part of the reader.
Newspapers will give you some of the most up-to-date published information avail- able in print on current events and social issues. Check the political bias of the newspa- per you use for research. The Washington Post and the New York Times, for instance, are considered liberal publications, while the Wall Street Journal and the Christian Science Monitor are more conservative. Be careful about using newspapers as comprehensive sources for any issue. Because current events are constantly unfolding, one news story or article will rarely be complete. It is wise to cross-reference newspaper articles with other sources for accuracy.
Most national magazines and newspapers have websites that you can access free of charge. Recognize, however, that these .com websites frequently provide incomplete information and omit numerous portions of the publication, which are available only if you pay a fee. Remember that these companies make money by selling their publications and so will not allow full access to their resources free of charge. The best way to retrieve the full texts of many periodicals is through a database at your library.
Legal Research You may need to cite a number of court cases in order to prove a point in a persuasive speech or describe the details of litigation for an informative presentation. If so, don’t be intimidated by the number of official-looking legal volumes in your library. You simply have to learn how to use these resources. If you know what information you need, a good librarian should get you to the right source.
Audiovisual Aids In addition to books and periodicals, libraries have maps, atlases, and extensive media collections that you can research to support ideas. The Internet is also a resource for materials such as YouTube videos and music, photographs, cartoons, graphs, and illustra- tions that you can download to use as a visual in a portion of a speech. In the opening example, Alicia did a useful Google Earth search to pinpoint a location of one of Mother Teresa’s orphanages. A visual aid, such as a map, can quickly display a physical location and make a topic more understandable to listeners. Including a brief excerpt from a National Geographic video or playing a portion of a symphony may also add inter- est to particular speech topics. Audiovisual aids are effective because they help you com- municate with listeners through additional channels. Just remember to cite these sources as well. Plagiarizing images, lyrics, and music frequently carries the same consequences if a student is found guilty of using them without giving proper credit. (Chapter Twelve provides a complete discussion of the types and uses of audiovisuals in a presentation.)
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Interviews with Authorities For certain topics, your research will take you away from the library. Interviews with professionals, such as physicians, lawyers, police officers, or teachers, will yield invaluable primary source material—as long as the experts are authorities in their fields. If you are doing research about victims of rape, speak to an official in a community rape crisis cen- ter. Your professional may be able to provide you with a wealth of supporting materials, even in a brief telephone interview. Don’t be content to include just a single interview; use several so that your speech will contain a number of authoritative viewpoints.
You can also include personal testimonies from individuals who have actually experi- enced some aspect of the topic. A testimonial from someone injured by a drunk driver, or a brief quote from a person afflicted with AIDS, can vividly convey the impact of an issue.
Citing Sources in a Speech>>> In this chapter we have discussed the importance of using credible resources when you research a topic. It is equally important to cite your sources to confirm your cred- ibility with listeners as you present your speech. Some speakers are unsure how to cite sources and so avoid referring to them altogether. But you can refer to sources in a conversational way that helps your speech to flow naturally while still providing believability.
First, you need to decide which portions of your resources are most important to state in your speech to establish your credibility with listeners. If your facts are taken from a periodical, the name of the newspaper or magazine and the date of publication are the most essential items to cite verbally. Citing the title of the article can be helpful if it is not too lengthy, but mentioning the writer’s name is unnecessary unless he or she is an expert in the field. Avoid stating page numbers: this specific informa- tion will be located in your bibliography if listeners want to look up an article. When referring to a book, cite the title, the author’s name, and give a brief explanation of the author’s expertise in the field. It is not necessary to state the publisher or copy- right date of a book recently published. If you use the Internet, give the title of the website and the person or group that publishes it. It is unnecessary to provide the URL unless you want listeners to go to the site to find more information about your issue. If you have interviewed a person, give the name and title of the individual and state why he or she is an expert or authority on your topic. Whenever you say “stud- ies show…,” “doctors recommend…,” or “it’s a fact that…,” you are telling your lis- teners that you are about to cite verifiable information with a clear reference. Failure to provide such data can destroy your listeners’ confidence in you as a speaker.
Cite your sources clearly. Build the trust of your audience members and gain their confidence. Demonstrate that you know what you’re talking about and that your information is reliable. Here are a few examples of ineffective and more effective ways to verbally cite sources in a presentation.
Newspaper Ineffective: “According to the Washington Times, the Navy removed Captain Owen P. Honors from his command of the U.S.S Enterprise because of inappropriate videos he made containing foul language, sexual innuendos, and anti-gay slurs several years ago.” (The newspaper reference is too general; no date is offered.)
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Better: “According to a January 5th, 2011, issue of the Washington Times, the Navy removed Captain Owen P. Honors from his command of the U.S.S Enterprise because of inappropriate videos he made several years ago containing foul language, sexual innuendos, and anti-gay slurs.” (A specific date is provided.)
Book Ineffective: “Margaret Brownell writes in her book Dieting Sensibly that fad diets tell- ing you to ‘eat all you want’ are dangerous and misguided.” (Although the speaker provides a specific quote and cites an author and book title, who is Margaret Brownell? No information is presented to establish her authority on the topic.)
Better: “Margaret Brownell, a professor of nutrition at the University of New Mexico, writes in her book, Dieting Sensibly, that…” (The author’s credentials are clearly described.)
Interview Ineffective: “One of the high school principals in this county says, ‘I believe that uniforms would improve the academic and social atmosphere of our school and reduce incidents of violence and harassment on our campus.’ ” (The speaker presents a quotation but offers no names or other documentation for the material.)
Better: “Last week I interviewed Dr. James L. Hunt, who is the principal of Elkhorn Senior High School. He said that…” (The data of the interview is specified, and the name and job title are documented.)
Library Databases Ineffective: “An article in ProQuest reported that Olympic Gold medalist Shaun White described his feelings about his signature Double McTwist, or Tomahawk, consisting of 3½ twists and two flips on the half-pipe that only he has been able to land. ‘I’m feeling a lot better about myself and my riding after putting this trick down because, I mean, what an amazing trick. It’s taken me a long time to perfect, and it’s great to be doing something that nobody else has even really attempted. I’ve smashed my head on the lip brutally like four times now. Really brutal hits. So, yeah, I was scared. I was terrified. But I was still determined to learn this trick.’” (Although ProQuest is a library database publisher that includes numerous periodi- cals, it is not a newspaper or a magazine and should not be cited as the source.)
Better: “An article in the Denver Post on February 17, 2010, reported that Olympic Gold medalist Shaun White described his feelings about his signature Double McTwist, or Tomahawk, consisting of 3½ twists and two flips on the Olympic half-pipe that only he has been able to land. ‘I’m feeling a lot better about myself and my riding after putting this trick down because, I mean, what an amazing trick. It’s taken me a long time to perfect, and it’s great to be doing something that nobody else has even really attempted. I’ve smashed my head on the lip brutally like four times now. Really brutal hits. So, yeah, I was scared. I was terrified. But I was still determined to learn this trick.’ ” (The name and date of the newspaper are cited and not the ProQuest Central database. The same holds true for other databases which contain periodical articles.)
Ineffective: “A December 10, 2010, article titled “Preventing Bullying” reports that nearly half of high school students say they have been bullied in ways that
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Legislative and Governmental Research You may have a topic that requires you to investigate specific legislation enacted by the state legislature or by the U.S. Congress. A quick phone call to the office of one of your represen- tatives can help you to gather valuable information on a local or national legislative issue.
The Congressional Index is an excellent source if you want to know about legislation currently pending in Congress. This index gives you the current status of legislation, that is, whether the bill is in committee, if it has passed one or both houses of Congress, if it was signed into law or vetoed by the president, or if a presidential veto was overridden by the Congress.
If you want to investigate the daily proceedings of Congress, consult The Congressio- nal Record, which transcribes the floor debates and votes of the members of the Senate and the House of Representatives. (In addition, both houses of Congress televise their daily proceedings, making a video record.)
A source that can help you obtain information from the three branches of the federal government is the U.S. Government Printing Office, which has a website at http://gpoaccess.gov. This resource has links to numerous government data, including the Congressional Record, legislation enacted by Congress, public and private laws, presi- dential materials, and the Supreme Court website.
When you need to understand how Congress and the government spend our tax money, you can obtain a copy of The Budget of the United States Government, which can tell you how the federal government allocates the multi-trillion-dollar budget in the current fiscal year. The budget is typically available in the library or through the U.S. Government Printing Office. Like so many governmental publications it is avail- able online and you can find it at www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget.
Institutional and Organizational Research Many institutions and organizations have public relations or information offices that can provide you with material on specific subjects. In addition, most institutions and
seriously upset them, and researchers have found that bullying victims are more likely to try suicide than non-victims.” (The citation states the date and article title, but there is no periodical or database name to identify the information source.)
Better: “An article titled, ‘Preventing Bullying,’ in a December 10, 2010, issue of CQ Researcher reports that nearly half of high school students say they have been bullied in ways that seriously upset them, and researchers have found that bullying victims are more likely to try suicide than non-victims.” (Because the item is from CQ Researcher, which gathers articles supporting a single “hot” issue each week, it is appropriate to cite the database in addition to the article title and date for credibility. Articles from Opposing Viewpoints can be cited in the same manner.)
The Internet Ineffective: “According to the World Wide Web, researchers are discovering that strong evidence exists that the spinal cord can regenerate.” (The vague reference to the Web is not credible because no specific site is identified.)
Better: “The website of the Reeve-Irvine Research Center, named for Christopher Reeve, indicates that scientists are discovering…” (A specific, credible site is mentioned as well as the founder and advocate of the site.)
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organizations have websites where you can find information. If you need data on an eye bank, for example, contact a hospital specializing in this field. For information related to institutions of higher learning, get in touch with your college or univer- sity’s public relations office. If you are doing research on a foreign country, call or e-mail the embassy or the consulate office nearest you. Ask your state’s department of motor vehicles for data regarding accident rates, insurance guidelines, or driving tests. To collect examples and statistical evidence concerning specific crimes in your community or state, consult the information office of the police department. If you need to know what people are doing to prevent drinking and driving, contact Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD). If you want to gather differing viewpoints about the policy known as “No Child Left Behind,” contact the Department of Edu- cation, the National Education Association (NEA), and your local public school board. Information from these institutions and organizations can provide more depth and substance for a speech topic.
Specialized Libraries and Museums Many cities and communities have specialized libraries for law, medicine, literature, sci- ence, astronomy, or agriculture. The Library of Congress is a comprehensive source that includes material from these libraries, as well as anything that has ever been published in the United States. The Library of Congress and many other libraries have interlibrary loan services that allow you to obtain materials from other libraries at your local institu- tion. The only disadvantage of interlibrary loan systems is that you may have to order information in advance. Check with your librarian for specific information regarding the interlibrary loan system nearest you.
Museums can be fascinating resources for information on a variety of subjects. Although you may not be able to visit many of these places in person, accessing the website can give you some useful background material. For example, if you want to find information about the National Cryptologic Museum in Washington, D.C., or the Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York, you can explore their websites at http://www.spymuseum.org and http://baseballhall.org. But remember that most web- sites won’t show much of the displays located in the museums; you may need to conduct more comprehensive research if you are looking for specific materials.
Keeping Accurate Notes
When you are doing research, it is important that you have a well-organized system of note taking so that you will use your time efficiently. Often people will use a resource tool, jot down or print out a list of sources, and then obtain articles and forget to write down the statistics or examples they wanted to use in their speeches. They have to return to their sources a second or third time and plod through the material to refami- liarize themselves with their information. A good method of taking notes can help you avoid such a time-wasting process and assist you in making substantial progress toward getting your speech organized. If you have a laptop computer, you can jot down notes in the library, at personal interviews, or wherever you conduct your research. If you don’t have a portable computer, get some three-by-five or four-by-six notecards. When you find a source you want to use, write a topic heading at the upper right-hand corner of the card. Then, at the upper-left corner, add the type of supporting information you are listing on the card, such as statistics, quotation, comparison or contrast, and so forth.
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Then place a bibliographic entry on the next line so that you will be able to identify the exact reference for later use in your speech or in case you ever need to investigate it again. Finally, jot down the specific details of the information. Include all the necessary statistical data, illustrations, or other material you may want for the speech. When you follow this system, you will be able to build a file of supporting materials that will be easy to use and can be arranged in any order.
The following notes demonstrate how to identify the topic, the specific type of supporting data, the bibliographic reference, and pertinent details of the researched material.
Statistics The New York City 9/11 Memorial Topic heading Type of support
Tatko-Peterson, Ann. “Where to Reflect on Sept. 11 in New York City.” McClatchy-Tribune News Service 16 Nov. 2009: n pag. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 5 Jan. 2011.
Source
1. Memorial beside 1776-foot Freedom Tower Statistical data
2. 8-acre Memorial Plaza, featuring 400 oak trees circling 2 Memorial Pools
3. Huge reflecting pools set in footprint of Twin Towers with cascading waterfalls on 4 sides
4. Names of 2,998 victims killed in New York, Pennsylvania, Pentagon, and 1993 bombing inscribed on edges of pools.
Conclusion: Memorial dedicated on ten year anniversary, September 11, 2011.
Conclusion
Quotations Tribute to Elizabeth Edwards Who Died of Breast Cancer
Topic heading
Type of support Severson, Kim. “Edwards Praised for Passion-Letter to Her Children Read at
Funeral Service.” Houston Chronicle 2 Dec. 2010: 4. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 5 Jan. 2011. Source
“She would do anything in the world to protect all of us, no matter what the personal cost was to her.”
Quotations
—Catharine Edwards, 28, daughter
“As the week has worn on I have begun to think she saw the sad and beautiful metaphor: We must go on ourselves…. Your mom has Christmas covered this year. Probably a few years beyond, too. No worries there.”
—Glenn Bergenfield, New Jersey lawyer Qualifications of quoted person
“She was such an example of grace under adversity.”
—Rosie Bolin, lifelong Raleigh resident
Keeping Accurate Notes 131
Interviewing
Many of your speech topics will require you to interview people who are experts or authorities in their fields. You can conduct interviews by telephone, webcam, e-mail, or in person.
Most organizations and institutions have websites that tell users how to contact their representatives by toll-free phone numbers or via e-mail. A benefit of a telephone call is that you are provided with quick access to an individual at a remote location. A disadvantage of telephoning is that you are not able to see an individual’s nonverbal reactions, and the time of the interview may be more limited, making it difficult to ask follow-up questions. Although a webcam allows you to interact visually with your inter- viewee, not everyone has access to this technology. E-mailing is another way to inter- view a busy individual whom you may not be able to telephone or meet face-to-face.
Although you may be able to collect valuable information by e-mail, you may be frustrated if it takes several days to gain responses and disappointed if the answers are too brief due to the busy schedule of your interviewee. Perhaps the most effective means of interviewing is the face-to-face meeting. The live, one-on-one interview allows you to observe nonverbal reactions, ask immediate follow-up questions, and raise addi- tional issues generated in the meeting if necessary.
Whether you gather material by telephone, webcam, e-mail, or in person, you should know how to conduct an interview to get the information that you need from an individual.
Preparing for the Interview When you interview an expert on your topic, you must be completely prepared by con- ducting preliminary research into the topic and developing a list of questions to ask. This kind of preparation will help you to focus on your task and keep you from wasting valuable time.
When you have done your research and prepared your questions, call or e-mail the interviewee to make an appointment. Be sure that the individual understands your topic and knows the reason for the interview. You might even tell the person one or two of
Example Jennifer Hudson used in TV AD to sell Weight Watchers
Topic heading
Type of support Olson, Elizabeth. “For Weight Watchers, Jennifer Hudson Wins a Losing Battle.”
New York Times 6 Apr. 2010: B.3. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 5 Jan. 2011. Source
1. New Weight Watchers campaign stars actress and singer Jennifer Hudson
2. Actress, 28, lost noticeable amount of weight in TV ad.
3. Hudson appears in three 30-second ads and one 15-second commercial. Details of example
4. Hudson followed program that includes dieting, exercise, and counseling.
5. Actress received Academy Award for “Dreamgirls,” won a Grammy, and competed on “American Idol” in 2004.
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the questions you are going to ask so that he or she can be adequately prepared with answers. When you set up the interview, you may want to double-check the intervie- wee’s qualifications to be certain that you are talking to the appropriate expert. When the individual agrees to the interview, set a date and a time that accommodate his or her schedule and yet allows you to obtain all the information you need.
Conducting the Interview Be sure that you are on time for the interview. Establish good rapport with your inter- viewee by being friendly, courteous, and conversational. Demonstrate active listening skills: nod your head, sit forward, and show interest in the person you are interviewing. Let the individual know that you are easy to talk to, receptive, and noncombative.
Next, introduce your topic and state the purpose of the interview. Start by asking ques- tions from your prepared list. As the interviewee introduces new or relevant information, think of other follow-up questions to ask. If the individual brings up ideas that are irrelevant to your topic, gently bring the person back on track by saying, “Let’s go back to what you were saying before,” or “Now, if you don’t mind, I’d like to ask you another question.” Remember that you do have a time limit, and you must gather the information you need.
Be sure that your interviewee adequately clarifies and explains material. One-word answers like “yes” or “no” will not really help when you need detailed information. Ask your interviewee to expand on the issue by posing open-ended questions, such as “Can you give me an example of what you’re saying?” or “How do you handle that type of situation?”
During the interview, make verbal summaries to help you understand the material clearly and to allow the interviewee to correct any misinformation or misconceptions you may have. Keep the interview moving; if it gets bogged down, ask more questions or make additional comments to get the discussion going again. Don’t monopolize the conversation; give the person adequate time to formulate a response. And don’t interrupt
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Interviewing 133
an interviewee unless it is absolutely necessary. This practice is not only rude, it also interrupts the individual’s thought process.
Conclude the interview on time. Don’t stay longer unless you are specifically asked to continue. The person has set aside a specific time for you in a busy schedule—don’t impose any further.
Taking Notes During the Interview During the interview, be sure to take notes that are accurate and complete. But remember that your writing should usually be notation—not a verbatim transcript of the entire con- versation. If your interview covers detailed information that requires more careful tran- scription, ask for permission to bring a tape recorder or a laptop; but never bring one to an interview unless you have asked for prior permission. There will be times when taping will not be acceptable to an interviewee. For example, if you were talking with a rape crisis counselor about specific case histories, the counselor might not allow you to tape or tran- scribe the interview because of the need to protect client confidentiality.
If you use a direct quote from the individual, make certain that everything you jot down is completely correct. Double-check the accuracy of the statement with the inter- viewee. Don’t be afraid to ask questions to clarify an issue if you are not certain about the information.
When the interview is over, immediately review your notes while the ideas are still fresh in your mind. Expand your notes by writing summaries and additional comments. At a later time, you may want to make a follow-up call to clear up any unanswered ques- tions or points of confusion.
The Bibliography: How to Record an Entry
When you write your outline, list the sources you have used to research the topic. When you enter a book, magazine article, or Internet source in your bibliography, you need to use a style that is uniform and consistent. There are many styles and methods of docu- menting sources in a bibliography: the Modern Language Association (MLA), American Psychological Association (APA), and Chicago Manual (CM). Colleges and universities also have their own style booklets that contain their required bibliographic procedures. Your instructor may want you to use your college or departmental style system or even another approach.3
Because you will probably be using books, magazines, newspapers, interviews, and Internet sources frequently, study these sample entries based upon the MLA style. Be sure to alphabetize the bibliography as you write each reference item.
BOOKS: ONE AUTHOR Palin, Sarah. Going Rogue: An American Life. New York: Harper, 2009. Print. Author (last name first). Book title italicized. Place of publication: name of publisher
and date. Type of publication.
BOOKS: TWO AUTHORS Welch, Diana and Liz Welch. The Kids Are Always Right. New York: Harmony Books,
2009. Print. Authors (as written above). Book title italicized. Place of publication: name of publisher
and date. Type of publication.
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MAGAZINES: ARTICLE WITHOUT AUTHOR PROVIDED “At a Crossroads.” Smithsonian. Jan. 2011: 21. Print. Article title in quotes. Name of magazine italicized. Date of publication: page number(s).
Type of publication.
MAGAZINES: ARTICLE WITH AUTHOR PROVIDED Froeber, Jacquelyne. “WinterWonderland.” Coastal Living Dec. 2010 / Jan. 2011: 80-87. Print. Author (last name first). Article title in quotes. Name of magazine italicized. Date of
publication: page number(s). Type of publication.
NEWSPAPERS: ARTICLE WITHOUT AUTHOR PROVIDED “Canada’s Competitive Edge.” Wall Street Journal. 3 Jan. 2011: A.16. Print. Article title in quotes. Name of newspaper italicized. Date of article with section and/or
page number. Type of publication.
NEWSPAPERS: ARTICLE WITH AUTHOR PROVIDED Vegh, Steven G. “Parents Caught Off Guard by Military Recruiting Policy.” The
Virginian-Pilot 3 Jan. 2011: 1+. Print. Author (last name first). Article title in quotes. Name of newspaper italicized. Date of
article with section and/or page number. (Use a + sign if article is not printed on consecutive pages.) Type of publication.
ONLINE LIBRARY DATABASES Clemmitt, Marcia. “Teen Pregnancy.” CQ Researcher 20.12 26 Mar. 2010: 265-88. CQ
Researcher Online. Web. 3 Jan. 2011. Hamm, Steve. “The Electric Car Acid Test.” Business Week 40.69 4 Feb. 2008: 42-47.
Business Source Premier. Web. 15 Feb. 2008 Goldfarb, Sam, and Alan K. Ota. “New Leaders, ‘New Movement.’ ” CQ Weekly 68.45
(2010): 2,712–2,713. Academic Search Premier. Web. 3 Jan. 2011. Mulrine, Anna. “Don’t Ask Don’t Tell: Repeal Signed, Sealed, But When Will It Be
Delivered?” Christian Science Monitor 22 Dec. 2010: n. pag.* ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 30 Dec. 2010.
Author’s last name first. Article title in quotes. Periodical title italicized, volume and issue numbers. Date of publication: inclusive pages.* Name of database. Type of publication. Date of access. [*If page number is not available, use n.pag.]
THE INTERNET: ORGANIZATION (NO AUTHOR) “Michael J. Fox Foundation Raises Over $4.7 million for Parkinson’s Research at Tenth
New York City Benefit.” Michael J. Fox Foundation. Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research. 15 Nov. 2010. Web. 4 Jan. 2011.
“Title of work.” Title of overall site italicized. Date (day, month, year). Publisher or sponsor of site. Type of publication. Date you accessed site.
THE INTERNET: MAGAZINE (WITH AUTHOR) Namowitz, Dan. “User Fee ‘Pause,’ Caucus Growth Marked on Capitol Hill.” AOPA
Online. AOPA. 22 Dec. 2010. Web. 30 Dec. 2010. Author (last name first). Article title in quotes. Periodical title italicized. Publisher or
sponsor of site. Type of publication. Date you accessed the periodical.
INTERVIEWS Lowrey, Joan. Personal interview. 12 Feb. 2011. Name of person interviewed (last name first). Personal interview. Interview date.
The Bibliography: How to Record an Entry 135
RECORDING The Lost JFK Tapes. Dir. Tom Jennings. National Geographic, 2010. DVD. Title of recording italicized. Dir. First and last name of director. Distributer, Date of
release. Type of recording.
Avoiding Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the act of stealing the writings or ideas of another and using them as your own without giving the creator proper credit. It can involve taking word-for-word passages from articles, Internet sources, lectures or chapters and failing to give the proper credit and/or quo- tations necessary as to the original source of the information. Likewise, paraphrasing without giving credit to the author or source is still considered plagiarism. Plagiarism is unethical and it is against the law. It is called intellectual theft because what a writer creates is his or her intellectual property. Colleges and universities have very clear policies against this offense, and many college instructors specify unpleasant consequences including dismissal from the institution if students plagiarize research papers or classroom presentations.
It is important to understand the difference between plagiarized material and a para- phrase. Notice the box on page 137 showing an original passage that is taken word for word from the October, 2010, issue of Consumer Reports. Both plagiarized passages use almost the exact wording of the original with only slight alteration. The first example pro- vides no source and only changes three words in a further attempt at deception. The sec- ond example cites the source, but the material is still worded the same as the original. The paraphrased passage is not plagiarized. It states the source, but uses the speaker’s own word- ing and clearly indicates that a specific phrase is a direct quotation from the article.
Avoid plagiarism at all costs. Cutting corners will only hurt the speaker and raise seri- ous questions about the speaker’s integrity. When you cite your research honestly and openly, you have nothing to fear and everything to gain from your speaking experience.
Thinking Critically about Speech Research and Construction
Unfortunately, when we hear the word criticism, we often think of it in negative terms, such as tearing down the ideas or arguments of others. Critical thinking should not be destructive; rather, it should be a constructive process in which we examine and evaluate the facts and ideas in order to make more rational decisions and improve our under- standing.4 As you go through the process of research and speech construction, you can think critically by testing information, being organized, listening to different perspec- tives, and thinking for yourself.
Be Willing to Test Information Critical thinking implies asking relevant questions. When you are researching a topic or choosing supporting materials, evaluate the information carefully. If you find a shocking statement or startling statistic, cross-check the material with other sources for reliability. If you are conducting an interview, don’t be afraid to ask questions or ask for concrete verification of information. If you are listening to a speaker describing a new cure for a disease, examine the evidence presented and analyze the quality of the research. One speaker presented “constructive thought therapy” as a cure for cancer. Although the topic was interesting, listeners were skeptical as the speaker expressed her opinions on
136 Chapter 8 • Conducting Research
Original Passage>>> “What if the lightbulb you put in your baby’s nursery didn’t have to be replaced until Junior is off to college? That’s the promise of the latest generation of light-emitting diodes (LEDs), coming soon to a store near you. Those bulbs claim to rival the look, dimming ability, and light quality of incandescents; contain no mercury (as compact fluorescent lightbulbs do); and last up to five times longer than CFLs and 50 times longer than incandescents.”5
Plagiarized Passage 1
“What if the lightbulb you put in your infant’s nursery didn’t have to be replaced until your teenager is off to college? That’s the promise of the latest generation of light-emitting diodes, or LEDs, coming soon to a store near you. Those bulbs claim to rival the look, dimming ability, and light quality of incandescents; contain no mercury (as compact fluorescent lightbulbs do); and last up to five times longer than CFLs and 50 times longer than incandescents.”4
Thepassage does not statewhere the information came from, does not use the word quote, and restates the passage word for word. Notice that the plagiarist has only changed the words “baby” to “infant” and “Ju- nior” to “your teenager.” The speaker has only inserted the word “or” between “diodes” and “LEDs.”
Plagiarized Passage 2:
“What if the lightbulb you put in your baby’s nursery didn’t have to be replaced until Junior is off to college? That’s the promise of the latest generation of light-emitting diodes (LEDs), coming soon to a store near you, according to an October, 2010 issue of Consumer Reports. The article goes on to say that these bulbs claim to rival the look, dimming ability, and light quality of incandescents; contain no mer- cury (as compact fluorescent lightbulbs do); and last up to five times longer than CFLs and 50 times longer than incandescents.”
Even though the source is cited, the passage is still plagiarized be- cause it uses the original words of the printed article with no attempt at paraphrasing or using the word “quote.” The plagiarist has tried to hide the theft by using the phrase, “The article goes on to say that” and changing the word “those” to “these.”
Paraphrased Passage
Imagine that a lightbulb you screwed into a socket today didn’t need to be replaced for twenty years. Well if an October, 2010 issue of Consumer Reports is correct, the newest genera- tion of lightbulbs will be able to last longer, look the same, have similar dimming capabilities, and the same light quality as incandescent bulbs. These bulbs, known as light-emitting diodes, or LEDs for short, do not contain mercury, unlike fluorescent lights, known as CFLs. The article noted that LEDs have a longer life than fluorescent bulbs and can, quote, ‘last 50 times longer than incandescent bulbs.’”
Here the passage is paraphrased in the speaker’s own words. The speaker cites the source and also uses the word “quote” to clearly indicate that a phrase was taken directly from the article.
Thinking Critically about Speech Research and Construction 137
the issue. One audience member commented, “I’ve heard of this kind of therapy, but I mistrusted the speech—there seemed to be no evidence.” The speaker did not test the information by verifying it and was too willing to rely on her own opinions and upon the hearsay of others. You can avoid this kind of difficulty by conducting a thorough analysis of your data and research materials. Do a keyword search using a library data- base. Examine periodical articles for credibility and determine which sources will support your ideas with reliable information. As always, ask a librarian if you are having difficulty finding credible sources for your topic.
Be Organized Critical thinking is organized thinking. When you encounter difficulties in the process of building a speech, view them as challenges to be overcome rather than obstacles to be avoided. Think of logical strategies for attacking the problems your speech creates. Define and understand the problem, seek solutions to the challenge, and then select a clear plan of action. Know your audience. If you discover that your audience disagrees with your controversial persuasive topic, find creative methods of appealing to their interests and needs. If you can’t find material on your topic in the library, develop alter- native resources by asking individuals, experts, or other institutions for information. If you have difficulty presenting the speech in front of an audience, analyze your problems and make changes by being more prepared, engaging in additional speech rehearsal, or requesting extra feedback from your class and instructor. Identify problems, develop strat- egies, and be systematic in your approach to the speech process.
View Ideas from Different Perspectives When we think critically, we learn from our own experiences, as well as the experi- ences of others. As an informed speaker, remember that your point of view is not the only perspective on an issue. It is important to be open to other ideas and be willing to learn from different viewpoints. If you find that the facts do not support your idea, don’t hang onto that idea, stubbornly refusing to give it up. One student enjoyed rap artist Tupac Shakur and had a collection of his CDs and videos. For his informative speech, the student wanted to describe Tupac’s life and violent death and play samples of his rap music for the audience—older part-time students with families. The instruc- tor suggested that he more carefully consider his choice of topic in relation to his audi- ence. Feeling insulted, the student rigidly insisted that he could make the topic interesting to anyone. Unfortunately, the student learned the hard way. After listening to the music and hearing little evidence, listeners repeated the earlier suggestions of the instructor.
In a speaking situation, the composition of the audience requires that a speaker listen carefully to others. A speaker making a presentation to an audience of different races, reli- gions, genders, or ages needs to demonstrate sensitivity and skill in responding to diverse per- spectives and opinions. One student presented an informative speech about the dangers of skin cancer. The speaker had researched the disease and had developed some helpful infor- mation and advice for many of her listeners. Difficulties occurred, however, when the speaker suggested that skin cancer causes problems for “people with light skin.” Members of the audi- ence, which included Asians, Middle Easterners, and African Americans, did not agree with the speaker’s assumption and reported contrasting information once the speech was finished. Audience members argued that facts and experience suggest that almost everyone is suscepti- ble to skin cancer regardless of color and that individuals must take different precautions
138 Chapter 8 • Conducting Research
depending upon skin pigmentation. Listeners concluded that the speaker needed to do fur- ther research and more extensive analysis of her audience and should discard the erroneous information she presented. Had this speaker been able to view her topic from her listeners’ perspectives, she would have understood the need for more analysis and could have elimi- nated the false assumption that troubled her audience. A sign of maturity is profiting from the experiences of others and growing as a result of different perceptions.
Think for Yourself Thinking critically means coming to your own conclusions after weighing the evidence. It does not mean believing everything that is handed to you. It is easy for us to point accusing fingers at those Germans who blindly accepted government propaganda and helped to perpetuate state-sponsored crimes in World War II. But ask yourself how many times you have accepted and believed someone else’s opinion without question as the cartoon humorously demonstrates in Figure 8.1. For instance, imagine that you are on your way to class the first day of the new term, and a friend sees you going into the lecture hall. She stops you at the door and insists, “Don’t take that class because the professor never gives A’s or B’s.” Do you immediately drop the class, do you ignore the comment, or do you proceed with extreme caution? This situation calls for critical thinking. Perhaps your friend is a chronic alarmist or is having difficulty in some of her courses. Possibly your fellow student had some kind of conflict with the instructor and holds a biased viewpoint about the situation. It is also possible that your friend is entirely credible and is giving you helpful advice. Whatever the case, the situation probably calls for more investigation and more information before you make a decision.6
Although it is necessary to ask for help, it is equally important to arrive at your own decisions. Don’t let advertisers, salespeople, or biased parties tell you what to think by quoting ambiguous “facts” or subjective opinions. Examine the evidence yourself, and arrive at a sound, verifiable conclusion.
FIGURE 8.1 How does this cartoon demonstrate the importance of critical thinking when listening to a speech? What kind of listening should the audience be doing in this situation?
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Thinking Critically about Speech Research and Construction 139
Summary Sources should be credible and reliable; they may be primary or secondary.
Library sources for locating information are found in the catalog, the databases, and the World Wide Web. Library reference sources are biographical collections, bibliographies, directories, and encyclopedias, as well as almanacs, collections of quotations, books, and actual periodicals.7 Nonliterary sources are interviews with experts and research from large institutions or specialized organizations. An accurate system of note taking should be used to collect research materials, and a credible system of source citation should be used in the delivery of a speech.
Clearly understand what plagiarism is, and avoid it at all costs. The consequences can be severe.
When interviewing experts, be prepared, conduct the interview skillfully, and take accu- rate notes.
Learn how to create a bibliography by consulting your institution’s style guide or by ask- ing your speech instructor which style is preferred.
As you build your speech, think critically about speech research and construction by testing information, being organized, listening to different perspectives, and thinking for yourself.
Skill Builders 1. Select a topic for an informative speech using two different databases in your
library. Find four periodical articles that could support your speech and discuss the credibility of each article and periodical. List the databases you used to find these resources. Using these periodical articles, write a bibliography according to the form recommended by your instructor.
2. In the introductory example to this chapter, Alicia used several ineffective means to collect information. What would you suggest to improve her search? Are there any credible primary sources available to support the topic of Mother Teresa? What are they?
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter Eight, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www.cengage brain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
140 Chapter 8 • Conducting Research
CHAPTER
9CHOOSING SUPPORTING MATERIALS
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Identify the principal types of supporting materials
2 Describe how to use each type of supporting material effectively in a speech
If you do a Google search using the terms, “How to Make a Speech Interesting,” you’ll get about 89 million results. If you simply use the phrase, “How to Make a Speech,” you’ll get about 213 million hits. It seems that there are a lot of suggestions out there about making a speech and making it interesting. One of the reasons for so many ideas is that speakers worry about boring their listeners to death. We are impacted by so many messages every day that it is easy for listeners to block out a speech unless speakers are able to connect their topics to their audiences.
Do you need to stand on your head, walk on water, or do paranormal magic tricks in order to get your listeners interested? Well no, but you do need to consider how to use supporting materials that engage and involve your listeners in concrete ways.
You can make a speech interesting by using quotations, examples, statistics, and humor, which are among the various types of supporting materials we explore in this final chapter on preparing the speech foundation. We include examples from student and professional speakers and consider suggestions that you can apply to make your own
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“A quotation in a speech,article, or book is likea rifle in the hands of an infantryman. It speaks with authority.”—Brendan Francis
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presentations engaging. We want you to use supporting materials accurately and appropriately to build strong connections with your audience.
Making the Appropriate Selection
When you research a speech, you must look for supporting materials. If you are talking about heart disease, a quotation from a prominent heart surgeon such as Dr. Mehmet Oz builds credibility. If you are asking listeners to favor bicycle helmet laws, you would use statistics from the Bicycle Helmet Safety Institute to show that wearing helmets decreases fatalities. If you are educating the audience about lupus disease, a disturbing story of a child’s chronic illness obtained from an interview with a mother would paint a vivid picture. Whether your speech is informative or persuasive, you need information and credible examples to support your topic.
When you use supporting materials, it is advisable to mention the source for your information. Although you certainly don’t need to pepper your speech with “according to’s,” you do need to make it clear to your audience that your topic is based upon concrete evidence. If you use several facts or examples from the same source, you can make one reference that does not interfere with the flow of the speech. If you say, “Some of my information today is taken from an article I read in a February 2012 issue of Newsweek,” you have shown your audience that your evidence is grounded in credible research.
Some of the most authoritative supporting materials are statistics, polls, and surveys; examples, stories, illustrations, and case studies; quotations and testimonies; and compari- sons and contrasts. A speaker can use these materials to build a credible case for a persuasive speech or to provide verifiable support in an informative presentation.
Less verifiable, yet stimulating, forms of support are personal experience and obser- vation, humor, anecdotes, and role-playing. Speakers use these materials to enliven speeches and to maintain audience interest and attention. It is often difficult to validate experiences, humor, or skits with sources. But a speaker can enhance a speech if these forms of support are based upon realistic circumstances and are combined with more authoritative statistics, testimony, or examples.
In the following sections, we will examine each type of supporting material and describe its potential use in a speech.
Statistics, Polls, and Surveys
One way to support a topic is by using statistical data. Statistics are a collection of facts in numerical form, polls are samplings of opinion on selected issues, and surveys are studies that draw conclusions from research.
Statistics can provide data about population, income, death, crime, and birth. You can determine the increase in the number of deaths due to heart disease by looking at statistics over a fifteen-year period. If you need to know how many people favor or oppose a specific policy or political candidate, you can consult the Gallup Opinion Poll or the CBS / New York Times Poll. If you need to know how student performance compares in different racial or economic groups, you can investigate the conclusions provided in a specific study.
Using Statistics You must be careful when deciding to use statistics, polls, or surveys as your support- ing evidence. If you use too many complicated numbers, you’ll bore your audience.
Key Terms anecdote case study comparisons contrasts example expert testimony humor hypothetical example illustration narrative observation personal experience personal testimony polls prestige testimony quotation role-playing statistics surveys testimony
142 Chapter 9 • Choosing Supporting Materials
Just stating that the federal budget for 2011 was approximately $3,730,192,712,001.29 is a mouthful. The audience will probably forget most of it by the time they hear the twenty-nine cents!
It is often advisable to round off your statistics to the nearest whole number so the audience can grasp the overall concept. Be sure that you draw conclusions from the data and relate the conclusion to your point. It is helpful to relate complicated statistics to a simpler concept. Although few people could comprehend the staggering budget figure just mentioned, anyone could understand the number if it were compared to thousand- dollar bills stacked several miles high. If you need to be more precise with statistics, you can develop a PowerPoint visual aid or chart to display the data so that the audience can draw conclusions at a glance.
When you cite statistics, polls, or surveys, it establishes credibility to state the source for your statistics, who conducted the research as well as when and where the research was done. When presenting a survey, you might want to mention the purpose of the research in addition to the conclusions of the study.
Here are examples of how three different types of statistics can be used to support an issue:
Poll
“Many Americans don’t trust their government. According to an October, 2010, Washington Post and Harvard University poll, almost half of the Americans sampled say that the federal government doesn’t use tax money wisely and that the govern- ment threatens their freedom.”1
Study
“A study about bullying intervention programs in schools was reported in the 2008 issue of School Psychology Quarterly. More than 15,000 students in kindergarten through twelfth grade were studied over a twenty-five year period. Researchers concluded that bullying intervention programs produced moderate positive out- comes and tended to influence knowledge, attitudes, and self-perceptions rather than bullying behaviors.”2
Startling Statistics
“On April 1st, 2008, ABC News reported that Shell Oil Company President John Hofmeister told a House Select Committee on Energy Independence that the con- stant increase in the price of oil was due not only to the accelerated global demand in recent years but also to America’s dependence on oil. ‘The United States has 5 percent of the world’s population but uses nearly 25 percent of the world’s oil,’ he said. ‘Americans use 10,000 gallons of oil—enough to fill a backyard swimming pool—every second of every day. Consumers—and that means all of us—must think more about our own energy footprints: when and how we drive, what we buy, how we work, and the kind of world we want to create for coming generations.’”3
The speaker validated the poll by stating who conducted it as well as the date the poll was published. The reliability of the study was supported when the speaker stated the name of the professional journal, the date of the publication, and the conclusion of the study. The startling statistics were verified by the date, source of the information, and the context of the statistics.
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Examples, Illustrations, Case Studies, and Narratives
When conducting research, you should look for examples, illustrations, case studies, or narratives to support your topic. An example is a brief factual instance that demonstrates a point; a hypothetical example is a fictitious situation that has a realistic application; an illustration is a long example that clarifies and amplifies an idea; a case study is an in- depth account of a situation or a set of circumstances that is often followed or referred to throughout a speech; and a narrative is a story told by the speaker.
A brief example or case can often demonstrate a point more dramatically than a long description of facts. People love a good story, and they appreciate research that stimulates curiosity. By combining a balance of theoretical facts with illustrations and examples, you keep your audience involved.
Using Examples In a speech on drunk driving, a speaker might use one or two brief examples combined with a minute-long personal narrative about driving while intoxicated. In a five- to seven-minute speech, two brief instances and one long illustration would probably be sufficient. A speaker could also cite many brief examples of drunk driving. This type of rapid-fire approach is effective when communicating a great deal of information in a short time.
You build credibility in your speech if you cite references. Let your audience know if the narrative is from your own knowledge and experience or from someone else’s. State your sources for case studies, examples, and illustrations. Use a variety of sources, and use a variety of instances. Don’t base your speech on one personal narrative or on one brief example. Provide examples and cases that develop your topic in depth.
Example In the following speech, Stanley Eitzen, professor emeritus at Colorado State University’s sociology department, cites a series of brief examples to support his point:
Many popular sports encourage player aggression. These sports demand body checking, blocking, and tackling. But the culture of these sports sometimes goes beyond what is needed. Players are taught to deliver a blow to the opponent, not just to block or tackle him.
Coaches often reward athletes for extra hard hits. In this regard, let me cite several examples from a few years ago:
• At the University of Florida a football player received a “dead roach” decal for his helmet when he hit an opponent so hard that he lay prone with his legs and arms up in the air.
• Similarly, University of Miami football players were awarded a “slobber knocker” decal for their helmets if they hit an opposing player so hard that it knocked the slobber out of his mouth.
• The Denver Broncos coaching staff, similar to other NFL teams yet con- trary to league rules, gave monetary awards each week to the players who hit their opponents the hardest.4
This rapid-fire technique builds a strong argument, bombarding the audience with specific instances to show that many American sports teams reinforce and support the use of physical violence.
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Hypothetical Example The following demonstrates the use of a hypothetical situation. It is a powerful tool to use in a speech because it briefly allows listeners to experience blindness.
I’d like you all to close your eyes for a minute. Imagine that it is early morning. The alarm rings, but you must feel for it to turn it off. You get up and search for your clothes. You go downstairs to make breakfast, but you touch the food to find out what there is to eat. After breakfast, you carefully go to the door, step outside, and listen for the sound of oncoming traffic. Hearing none, you gingerly cross the street to the bus stop on the other side. You wait for the sound of the creaking brakes to stop in front of you. When the doors squeak open, you care- fully make your way up the steps. You give what you hope is the correct change to the bus driver. You then feel for an empty seat. You’ve made it one more day! This is what it feels like to be blind. And that’s what we’re talking about here—a real problem that happens to human beings just like you and me. You can open your eyes now.5
This hypothetical example is more effective than simply describing the difficulties of blindness because the speaker simulates the experience by cutting off the visual channel. The speaker provides clear directions to audience members as to when they are to close or open their eyes. The “you” approach has effectively placed listeners in the sightless world of the blind: the speaker has successfully communicated his point through the use of a hypothetical situation. Although hypothetical examples can be effective for placing listeners in realistic situations, they do not substitute for factual examples or illustrations that can be supported with credible research.
Illustration This illustration comes from the real-life experience of the speaker’s family:
Three months ago, I went to my cousin’s wedding, which lasted an entire weekend—Friday through Sunday. You’d be surprised, though—I don’t know where the time went. In India, a wedding is usually a two-day occasion, and everyone in the bride and groom’s family plays a role in the wedding ceremony. The ceremony begins with the bride’s and groom’s parents in prayer. Heinrick Zimmer, in the book Philosophies of India, explains how the priest generally begins with an explanation of the union of two families with the groom present. The priest then calls to the bride, giving her one last chance to run away. Next the bride is given away by her uncle. The ceremony continues as the bride and groom walk around a fire in seven circles. During the first six turns, the groom is in the lead and the priest explains the significance: the wife will follow her hus- band in all the trials they go through in life, she will respect his decisions, and she will follow whatever he decides to do with the family. Then, in the last turn, the bride leads, and undoes almost everything that was said during the first six circles. The groom vows to respect his wife, to love and cherish her, and always to include her as an equal in this partnership.6
Neha Badshah used an illustration (a longer example) to describe a portion of the wedding ceremony in her native India. The personal experience combined with a credible reference provided the audience with an interesting portrait of a different culture.
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Case Study In this presentation, Andrea Hoguet selected a real case study from a local newspaper to support a persuasive speech:
It is one thing for children to have learned aggressive behavior at a young age, but it is quite another for a parent or a relative to contribute to this aggressive behavior. I read about a case in the November 13th issue of our local Carroll County Times news- paper. Mrs. Luella Wilson, a 91-year-old woman of Bennington, Vermont, was sued for $950,000. Here’s what happened. Mrs. Wilson gave her nephew a large sum of money to buy a new car for his 18th birthday, knowing that he had a drug problem and that he did not even possess a license. After drinking heavily and smoking mari- juana one evening, the nephew drove the car off a bridge. The passenger riding with him was paralyzed and finally had to have his leg amputated. The passenger sued Mrs. Wilson for negligence. She apparently knew about her nephew’s problem with drugs, yet she still gave him $6,300 for a car. Should she be liable? Yes, she should! And apparently the jury agreed and awarded the victim almost $1 million in damages. The case is currently under appeal.7
Andrea used this case to support the persuasive proposition that parents and guardians should be held accountable for the criminal actions of their children.
The late Steve Jobs, co-founder and CEO of Apple Inc., used supporting materials such as statistics, examples, and visual aids to introduce
new products such as the Iphone and Ipad.
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The topic was controversial, and some listeners disagreed with the speaker’s view- point. But Andrea strengthened the evidence by describing the details of the case and by citing a credible source. The speaker used gestures, vocal inflections, and emphasis to stress her conclusion to the case: “Should she be liable? Yes, she should!”
Narrative The following narrative was related by Richard D. Lamm, former governor of Colorado:
Let me begin with a metaphor. The United States fleet was on the high seas. All of a sudden a blip appeared on the radar screen. “Tell that ship to change its course fifteen degrees!” said the Admiral. The radio man did, and the word came back on the radio, “YOU change YOUR course fifteen degrees.” “Tell that ship that we’re the United States Navy and to change its course fifteen degrees,” said the Admiral. The radio man did and the word came back again, “YOU change YOUR course fifteen degrees.” This time the Admiral himself got on the radio and said, “I am an Admiral in the United States Navy. Change your course fifteen degrees.” The word came back over the radio, “You change your course fifteen degrees. I am a lighthouse!” We often expect the world to adjust to our course, but alas, we find we must adjust to the realities around us. I would go further—I believe it is the duty and the obliga- tion of each generation to perceive the realities of their times.8
This kind of story makes the audience sit back, relax, and listen. The narrative is interesting and has a humorous punch line. But Governor Lamm draws a conclusion from the story and relates it to his overall theme: the need to change course. If you choose to relate a narrative such as this one, you must be certain to deliver the story smoothly so that the details and punch line retain their vigor.
Quotations and Testimony
You can also build credibility by using quotations and testimony. A quotation is the exact restatement of the words of a person or document and a testimony is a statement or endorsement given by an expert or an individual with a logical connection to the topic. Quotations can be used to evoke emotion, synthesize feelings, and establish the authenticity of ideas. In his inaugural address, President Obama quoted the words of George Washington, who rallied Americans during the darkest hours of the Revolution- ary War. Baseball announcers are fond of quoting baseball heroes in a tense situation. During a tie game in the bottom of the ninth inning, you might hear the announcer say, “Yogi Berra once said, ‘It ain’t over ’til it’s over.’ That sure applies here.”
There are different types of testimony. You can make reference to expert testimony from authorities who are professionals in their fields. If, for example, you are giving an informative speech on brain surgery in newborns, a brief quotation from Dr. Benjamin Carson, a pioneer physician in pediatric neurosurgery, could provide you with sufficient expert testimony. You could also refer to prestige testimony from a well-known celebrity or other famous individual to call attention to your topic. You need to be careful when you cite prestige testimony because celebrities or well known people may not be experts in your topic. For instance, Peyton Manning is a Superbowl-winning quarterback for the Indianapolis Colts, and he receives millions of dollars in endorsement fees for products such as Sprint, Mastercard, DirectTV and Reebok. Manning is an undisputed champion in professional football, but he is not a telecommunications specialist, credit expert,
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media professional, or podiatrist. Celebrity expertise in one area of life does not necessar- ily transfer to another. You could also use personal testimony as supporting material. If your topic were about a disease such as sickle cell anemia and you had unfortunately experienced this illness with family or friends, a reference to your own experience could add interest and importance to the issue. Although celebrity and personal testimony can be helpful in supporting a topic, they are not the most authoritative support and should not be used as substitutes for more credible research such as expert testimony, factual examples, and verifiable statistics.
Using Quotations and Testimonies You need to be careful not to use too many quotes, or you may sound like a name- dropper. Select quotations with significance to your topic, and use them where they will have maximum emphasis. Often, a brief quote is more effective than a long, involved one that has to be unraveled with a lengthy explanation. When you use a quo- tation from someone who is not widely known, it is important to identify that person for your audience. If you are using that individual’s exact words, it is a good idea to use the words quote and end quote before and after the quoted material. A paraphrase is a general summary of the material in your own words. In that case, you would not use quotes. Be certain your quotation or paraphrase is accurate. If you use only a portion of the quotation, don’t change the author’s meaning or intention by taking it out of context.
Quotation In the following example, the quotations from the “amazing young man” are meant to arouse emotional feelings and inspire listeners.
When you talk about winners, consider Dustin Carter, who is an amazing young man. He was a perfectly normal kid until the age of 5 when he developed a rare blood disease that required amputating both his arms and legs. From that point on, his life seemed to spiral downhill. “I was a trouble maker. I got bad grades, didn’t care, didn’t turn in my work, didn’t do much.” Then something unbelievable happened in the eighth grade: Dustin got interested in wrestling. In his first match, he says, “I got beat pretty bad.” In his high school freshman year he won only 5 matches and lost 15. But Dustin was determined and incredibly, he started to succeed. “After that first win,” he said, “I loved it. I was out to win when I started wrestling. I’m a pretty determined person. I’ll sit at something and sit at it for hours until I get it.” He got it all right. By his senior year, this 18-year-old paraplegic had 41 wins and only 4 losses. He sums it up by saying: “I didn’t know if I’d make it out there. I never dreamed I’d be 41 and 4 in my senior year. But I ended up making it myself. I’m a winner—and winners like to win.”9
Notice that the speaker sets the stage by briefly describing the pertinent details of the story and the person he is quoting; then he used Dustin’s own words to stir feelings of admiration and pride within listeners.
Here are examples of three different types of testimony about the Haitian earth- quake where approximately 230,000 people died and more than one million were left homeless on January 12, 2010.
Expert Testimony “According to a December, 2010, article in Newsweek written by medical doctors Paul Farmer and Jean-Renold Rejouit, ‘… Haiti now faces a cholera epidemic that has so far defied all efforts to bring it under control … In the outbreak’s first thirty days, the
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disease claimed an estimated 2,000 lives. It started in central Haiti, many miles upstream from the tent cities around Port-au-Prince where more than one million displaced Haitians defecate, wash, and eat in overcrowded, unsanitary conditions.’”10
Prestige Testimony “During an earthquake-relief telethon, titled ‘Hope for Haiti,’ that was broadcast world- wide, actor George Clooney said, ‘The Haitian people neeed our help. They need to know they are not alone.’”11
Personal Testimony “As a native-born Haitian, I have seen a great deal of poverty in my life. But when I went to Haiti several months after the earthquake I was not prepared for the devasta- tion, death, homelessness, and disease I witnessed with my own eyes.”
All three testimonies are helpful in different ways. The expert testimony from the medical doctors presents the most credibility regarding the medical issues about a specific disease faced by the Haitian people. The prestige testimony from actor George Clooney spotlights worldwide attention on the earthquake and indicates the significance that the entertainment industry places on the devastation. But his testimony does not convey any expert medical information or primary source experience. The personal testimony can be powerful because it represents a firsthand, eyewitness account of the tragedy and can provide an emotional complement to the expert medical testimony.
Visual Evidence
Visual materials can be very helpful in providing credible support for a speech. A dra- matic photo of whales from National Geographic can enhance a speech on endangered species. A graphic photo of an abused woman can show the gravity of violence in a speech about women in Afghanistan.
Physical objects can also add to a presentation. A student who spoke about his comic collection displayed some of his vintage books to indicate how much they had increased in value over the decades. A mortuary science student showed cosmetics and tools for preparing a body for public viewing. Another speaker spoke about different types of coffees and brought in samples that listeners could experience firsthand.
Visual evidence can also assist speakers in simplifying complex concepts more effec- tively. A graph showing the rise or fall of unemployment from the Bureau of Labor Statistics can quickly provide a clear indication of the economic health of our nation. A PowerPoint presentation about the process and application of tattoos can help listen- ers to understand this process without difficulty.
Visual evidence that is grounded in reliable research makes excellent supporting materials for speeches. Although Chapter Twelve, “Using Audiovisual Aids,” discusses the types and uses of audiovisuals in depth, it is important to mention visuals in this chapter as one of the significant types of supporting materials because of the power and appeal they can provide on another channel of communication.
Comparisons and Contrasts
There will be times in your speeches when you will need to show similarities or differences between two or more things. Comparisons point out similarities in situations or events, and contrasts show differences.
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Suppose you were giving a persuasive speech on the enforcement of drunk-driving laws. You could contrast the enforcement of drunk-driving laws in the United States with the enforcement of such laws in Scandinavian countries. In your research, you would probably find that American and Scandinavian laws are very similar, although they are applied in very different ways by the two countries.
If you were persuading listeners to legalize gambling in your state, you could contrast the higher revenues in gambling states with lower revenues from non-gambling states. On the other hand, if you wanted to persuade the audience not to legalize gambling, you could focus on contrasting crime rates if they were higher in gambling states.
Using Comparisons and Contrasts Using comparisons and contrasts can be tricky. You must be careful that what you are comparing or contrasting has similar principles or characteristics. It is easy to use improper comparisons or contrasts to draw a flawed conclusion. For instance, a compar- ison of speed limits in rural states with those of populous states may be illogical because of the vast differences in the issues associated with each example. We will examine logical reasoning and faulty analogies more extensively in Chapter Sixteen to help you avoid drawing conclusions from flawed or misleading comparisons.
In this excerpt, the speaker uses contrast to highlight the differences between North and South Korea:
In order to see the extreme differences between North and South Korea, all you need is a photo of the two countries taken at night. I’ve obtained this satellite photo- graph from the website of the Universities Space Research Association. Down here is South Korea where the dazzling lights of cities brighten every part of the country. Now look at North Korea where you see almost no city lights and the nation is smothered in darkness. According to the Britannica Online Encyclopedia, South Korea’s republic has a gross national income that exceeds those of most of its neighboring countries except Taiwan and Japan. By contrast, North Korea’s dictatorship has an economy that has failed to produce enough food for its people, creating severe shortages and widespread famine.12
The sources provided for both the visual and the factual information have made this starling contrast credible to listeners.
In the next example, the speaker compares and contrasts horrific images with hope- ful symbols:
Nothing so dramatizes living between two ages as does the image of the fireball engulfing the World Trade Center, an image burned into the world’s psyche on September 11th…. The image of the imploding World Trade Center must be seen as part of a panorama of images for its full significance to best be understood. The image, for instance, of death camps and crematoriums in central Europe. The image of a mushroom cloud rising over the Pacific. Of Neil Armstrong stepping onto the moon. Of Louise Brown, the first human to be conceived outside of the human body. Of a man standing near the summit of Mt. Everest talking on his cell phone to his wife in Australia. Of the first human embryo to be cloned. Of a computer per- forming billions of calculations that could not have been performed by all the math- ematicians who ever lived, even in their combined lifetimes. These are some of the images, representing both human greatness and depravity, that mark the end of one age and the approach of a new time in human experience.13
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Willam Van Dusen Wishard, president of World Trends Research, compared the sickening site of the crumbling World Trade Center towers to other horrifying images representing human depravity. He then contrasted these appalling examples with illustrations signifying hope and “human greatness.”
Personal Experience and Observation
Personal experience and observation can help to make your speech interesting. If you are giving a speech demonstrating how a volcano is formed, you create interest if you have an experience to relate. If you are informing your audience about poverty, you make your topic personal if you describe some of the impoverished conditions you have observed. Personal experience is direct, firsthand knowledge of a situation. Observation is a judgment based upon what an individual has seen.
Using Experience and Observation Be sure that the experience you use is appropriate to your topic. Don’t use too many personal experiences, and don’t base an entire speech on one elongated illustration. Sometimes speakers with an abundance of personal experiences don’t use enough research to support their topics, hoping their observations and experiences will make up for their lack of hard evidence.
Don’t try to improvise a speech by stringing together a multitude of observations. One effective personal experience combined with some factual research can make the topic interesting and give you authority on your issue.
What are the long-range consequences? Denying same-sex couples their civil unions leaves our country vulnerable to government-sanctioned discrimination. And where will it stop? Well, hopefully with you.
Since it’s 2005, chances are that the majority of you know someone who is gay, lesbian, or even bisexual. And if you didn’t before this semester, you do now: Me. But answer me this: If murderers and rapists can get married any day of the week in this country, why am I, a decent, law-abiding, citizen denied the right to marry, or even enter into a civil union with the man I love? The answer is, there is no answer. It’s wrong. It’s unconstitutional, and it needs to change.14
Robert Kammerzell delivered this effective persuasive speech to actuate listeners to support same-sex civil unions. Even though not all members of the audience agreed with him on this controversial topic, they listened intently to the courageous personal example that Robert used to influence their thinking.
Pat Sajak used his experience as host of the TV show Wheel of Fortune to relate the following observation to listeners at Hillsdale College:
And I can tell you, based on my day-to-day work as a television host, this country needs all the educated citizens it can find. I am frequently appalled when a player struggles with a puzzle, not because he’s nervous, nor because it’s particularly diffi- cult, but because he has absolutely no clue as to what the puzzle means. For exam- ple, we once had a puzzle, which was “Former President John F. Kennedy.” Most of the letters were filled in … a well-informed chipmunk could have solved it. Yet, our player was stumped. When we went to commercial, this young, seemingly bright, man complained that he couldn’t have known it, because, as he said, “That was
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before my time.” It is not an uncommon complaint by players on our show. That’s why “The Ural Mountains” was once solved as “The Urak Mountains” and “Amarillo, Texas” became “Armadillo, Texas.”15
Sajak’s observations helped him remind his college audience of the great value of an education and describe the “disconnect between Hollywood and America.”
Humor and Anecdotes
Humor is the use of lighthearted, entertaining material in a speech to generate a reac- tion from the audience. An anecdote is a brief, humorous story used to demonstrate a point. Humor can be very effective in a speech. Telling a joke or a humorous anecdote can create a positive climate in a speaking situation. If your audience smiles and nods at your wit, you have them in a receptive mood. A humorous anecdote can frequently make a point more successfully than can a long, theoretical statement.
Using Humor and Anecdotes Employing humor has some risks. There is always the possibility that the joke you tell will not get the response you might have expected. When practicing your speech, think about being prepared for a variety of audience reactions. If listeners fail to laugh at your humor or groan at your attempts, you can joke about their response, relate safer humor that has worked previously, or acknowledge the response and move on. Don’t let negative audience reactions destroy your confidence. You can still overcome momentary difficulties if you maintain your composure and keep to your stated objective. Your audience might also respond by breaking up into laughter. Don’t let a positive response catch you off-guard. Pause after the joke or story and wait for your listeners to enjoy the moment. Don’t try to resume the speech until the laughter subsides.
It is best to use humor that can be related to your topic. Using irrelevant jokes simply to gain attention can often disappoint and even anger an audience. If you’ve ever inquired about a brand-new car for $14,999 described in a newspaper ad, remember how you felt when you discovered that the car was a stripped-down model without tires! Audiences also don’t appreciate the bait-and-switch tactic.
Despite the risks, don’t be afraid to use humor. If you’re good at humor, use it to your advantage and develop it as a part of your style. Even if you do not feel comfortable with humor, try a few anecdotes. You might surprise yourself. A speech is not a stand-up comedy routine, but you can look for ways to use humor appropriately.
Retired General Norman Schwarzkopf used humor effectively in this commence- ment address, delivered at the University of Richmond:
Now, first of all for those of you who don’t recognize me, I am General Schwarzkopf. I said that because for some reason people expect me to be wearing camouflage. If I am not wearing camouflage, I’m not General Schwarzkopf. It’s amazing the perceptions people have about you.
I work out every other day as you can tell from this magnificent body that stands before you, and at the end of my workout I always go into the steam bath. True story—last summer I walked into the steam bath. I was not wearing camou- flage at the time, and there was a man in there, and he turned and looked at me
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and said, “Did anybody ever tell you that from a distance you look exactly like General Schwarzkopf?” And I thought I’d play along, and I said, “Yes, I hear that a lot.” He said, “Yes, it’s only when you get up close you realize you’re not General Schwarzkopf.” I never told him—he does not know to this day.16
A large, imposing figure who was almost legendary for his success in leading allied troops in the first Iraq war, known as Operation Desert Storm, General Schwarzkopf was willing to poke good-natured fun at himself, making him more human to members of his audience.
In the following excerpt from another commencement address, Doonesbury cartoon- ist Garry Trudeau used an anecdote to his advantage:
I first learned about pertinent questions from my father, a retired physician … [whose] own practical experience frequently contradicted his worthiest intentions. A man once turned up in my father’s office complaining of an ulcer. My father asked the pertinent question. Was there some undue stress, he inquired, that might be causing the man to digest his stomach? The patient, who was married … allowed that he had a girlfriend in Syracuse, and that twice a week he’d been driving an old pick-up down to see her. Since the pick-up frequently broke down, he was often late in getting home, and he had to devise fabulous stories to tell his wife. My father, compassionately but sternly, told the man he had to make a hard decision about his personal priorities if he was ever to get well. The patient nodded and went away, and six months later came back completely cured, a new man. My father congratu- lated him and then delicately inquired if he’d made some change in his life. The man replied, “Yup. Got me a new pick-up.”17
Trudeau presents his humor effectively and smoothly, logically developing the details of the story. The last sentence of the anecdote served as the punch line to stimu- late a response from the audience. Trudeau used this anecdote to illustrate the point that an “unexpected or inconvenient truth is often the price of honest inquiry.”18
Role-Playing
Role-playing is a technique that uses an individual to act out a brief skit, assume a character, or simulate a conflict. Role-playing can be a creative way of motivating listen- ers to become more personally involved with a speaker’s topic. A skit portraying the effect of divorce on a young child might have more impact on an audience than a verbal description would. One student, playing the role of a waiter in a restaurant, used two “customers” from the audience to demonstrate the proper and improper methods of tak- ing orders and serving food.
Using Role-Playing Techniques Speakers can use skits they have researched, or they can create their own dramas. If the situation is taken from one of your sources, give the author proper recognition. If you write a brief dramatic piece, be sure that the skit is true to life and based on factual infor- mation. It is helpful if the situation is brief and to the point. Long, drawn-out dramas can bore listeners with unnecessary material and detract from the speech. If you need volunteers, rehearse with them in advance, making sure that they are familiar with the script and know how to respond appropriately in the roles. Remember that role-playing
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is one of the less factual ways of supporting ideas; it should not be used as a substitute for cases, statistics, or verifiable sources. Role-playing is most effective when combined with other types of supporting materials.
Speaker Gina Alexander created a skit to demonstrate the proper and improper techniques of interviewing for a job. The speaker portrayed the applicant while a member of the audience played the role of the interviewer.
Interviewer: Can you tell me why you’re leaving your present employer? Applicant: Well, it’s like, I’m so bored there, ya know? It’s like I hate to go to work
there every day—I can’t stand it. Ya ever felt like that? Interviewer: Is it the work itself, or is it your environment? Applicant: Yeeeah, both I guess, kinda, ya know?
What can I say? You do that, and you’ve probably lost the job right there. No matter what college you’ve gone to or what fancy degree you have, it’s not showing. There’s a better way to display the exact same message.
Interviewer: Can you tell me why you’re leaving your present employer? Applicant: Well, I’m considering leaving my present employer to seek new
opportunities that they don’t offer. Interviewer: Is it the work itself, or is it your environment? Applicant: Actually, it’s a combination of both factors that are contributing to my
desire to leave.
In the first example, I was sprawling all over the chair, I didn’t appear interested, and it looked as if I wasn’t paying attention. I used street jargon, and it appeared as if I had few language skills. Notice that I was running my fingers through my hair. This is an action that is very distracting. In some jobs, such as a food-service posi- tion, picking your face or touching your hair could lose you the job.
In the second situation, I said the exact same thing, but I displayed some intel- ligence. My posture was effective. I didn’t sit like a soldier, but I sat up straight, appearing as an interested, active communicator who is open to new ideas. My vocabulary was precise, thoughtful, and I spoke in complete sentences. While I didn’t stare, I maintained eye contact with my prospective employer.19
The skit was successful because the speaker conducted several rehearsals prior to the classroom presentation. Although the skit was entertaining and humorous, it successfully demonstrated the speaker’s point that language, organization, and poise make a powerful persuasive impression on an interviewer.
SAMPLE SPEECH: The Flag Raisings on Iwo Jima The majority of Peter Hollands’s family served in the Marines, and, as a recruit himself, Peter was interested in continuing his family’s tradition. He was also interested in military history, especially the events surrounding the flag raising at Iwo Jima in World War II. As he delivered this speech to his classmates, he used many types of supporting materials to verify his ideas and interest his listeners.20
INFORMATIVE DESCRIPTIVE SPEECH Peter Hollands
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1. (slide 1) At some point in time, you’ve probably all seen this photograph whether it be in a history book, on television, or even in monument form. This is the flag rais- ing at Iwo Jima, and it has become a symbol as patriotic as the Statue of Liberty. (slide 2) Today I’m going to inform you of the Iwo Jima flag raisings by elaborating on the battle, the flag raisings, and the legacy.
2. First let me talk about the battle. (slide 3) After Pearl Harbor, the United States began to attack Japan. According to a website created by John H. Bradley, a grand- son of one of the flag raisers, Iwo Jima was a key Japanese air strip in the Southern Pacific and it was also a volcanic island. When the U.S. arrived at Iwo Jima they brought with them a force of 110,000 Marines and 880 Naval ships. The Japanese only had a force of 22,000 but they had dug in and were heavily fortified. The United States focused their attack on the southern part of the island at Mt. Suribachi. For thirty-five days a heavy battle waged and at the end of the battle 6,825 Americans were killed in action and nearly 20,000 were wounded. Of the 22,000 Japanese, virtually all of them passed. At the end of the battle, Navy Admi- ral Chester W. Nimitz was quoted as saying, “Among the men who fought at Iwo Jima, uncommon valor was a common virture.”
SLIDE 1
The Flag Raising At Iwo Jima
• The Battle
• Flag Raisings
• The Legacy
SLIDE 2
The Battle
SLIDE 3
Flag Raisings
SLIDE 4
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1. The speaker creates interest and attention with the PowerPoint slide.
Peter states his three- point thesis statement.
2. For his narrative and statistical information about the battle, the speaker cites a credible website created by the grandson of one of the flag raisers.
He quotes the famous Navy admiral who honored the men.
Role-Playing 155
3. Now that I have talked about the battle, let me talk about the flag raisings. (slide 4)
4. On the fifth day of combat two flags would be raised that would raise morale for sol- diers on the island and people at home. The first flag was raised when Commander Chandler Johnson sent First Lieutenant Harold G. Schrier up Mt. Suribachi with a platoon of men. He instructed them if they met no resistance when they got to the top of the mountain to raise the flag. Harold G. Schrier took the platoon up and they met no resistance. The flag was raised and men all over the island began to cheer. At the same time, the Secretary of the Navy, James Forrestal, was landing ashore. He saw the flag being raised and asked that it be a souvenir for the Navy. Commander Chandler Johnson did not like this because he believed that the flag should belong to the Marine Corps and the men who fought on the island. So he sent a new group of Marines up the mountain with a larger flag. On the way up the mountain they met up with a photographer by the name of Joe Rosenthal. (slide 4) When they got to the top of the mountain, they switched flags, as you can see in this photo, and Joe Rosenthal snapped a picture of six men—John Brad- ley, Rene Gagnon, Ira Hayes, Frank Sousley, Michael Strank, and Harlon Block. In an article by the Associated Press entitled “Fifty Years Later, Iwo Jima Photographer Fights His Own Battle,” Rosenthal explains how he captured the photo. He says, “Out of the corner of my eye I saw a flag raised, and I turned and snapped.” Although this was not the picture of the original flag raising, the brilliance of six Marines hoisting a flag atop Mt. Suribachi proved to be a very powerful image.
5. Now that I have talked about the flag raisings, let me talk about the legacy. (slide 5)
6. This photograph was a great morale boost for soldiers and civilians all over Amer- ica. It was also a great help to the country’s war effort. As soon as the photo was released, it became hugely popular and for a lot of people it summed up the war in the Pacific. In 1945 Joe Rosenthal won the Pulitzer Prize for photography. When President Roosevelt saw the photo, he decided they would use it in the upcoming Seventh War Bond Drive. Again the photo was successful as the drive raised $26.3 billion, which was nearly double of what was expected. Of the six men photo- graphed, only three of them survived the island. They would be brought back immediately after the battle and paraded during the Seventh War Bond drive. The three men were Ira Hayes, Rene Gagnon, and John Bradley. Originally the military
SLIDE 5
Conclusion
SLIDE 6
The Legacy
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3. The transition connects main points I and II of the body.
4. The speaker continues with the narrative of the flag raisings.
Peter cites his source for the information and uses a quotation from the pho- tographer who captured the famous event.
5. The transition leads from point II to III of the body.
6. The PowerPoint slides throughout the speech are effective supportive materials to describe the significance of the battle and the flag raisings.
Peter cites an impressive statistic indicating the success of the photo and the men who helped raise the flags.
156 Chapter 9 • Choosing Supporting Materials
had released the names of the six at the flag raisings, however they misidentified Harlon Block as Hank Hansen. One-and-a-half years later, Ira Hayes decided he could not live with the lie anymore and went to tell Harlon Block’s family the truth. Block’s family wrote the Marine Corps Commandant and several congress- man and had it officially changed. This image is also used as a Marine Memorial in Arlington, Virginia, and it has become a national symbol of patriotism to this day.
7. Now that I have talked about the legacy, let me conclude. (slide 6) This image is probably one of the most memorable images of all time. Only if we understand the battle can we understand the triumph that these men went through. Although two flags were raised, only one image drew enough power to capture the attention of millions. The legacy the photo carries has transcended generations and it is a resounding proof that a picture truly is worth a thousand words.
Summary Gather supporting materials to create interest and to provide evidence for your ideas. Some of the most authoritative materials are statistics, polls, and surveys; examples, illustrations, case studies, and narratives; and quotations and testimonies from authorities. Less verifiable, yet interesting materials are comparisons and contrasts; personal experiences and observa- tions; and humor, anecdotes, and role-playing.
Skill Builders 1. Read through Peter Hollands’s speech, titled “The Flag Raisings at Iwo Jima,” and
list all the supporting materials he uses in his informative presentation. Which materials are most effective and what information is less effective? Explain your answer and suggest ways to improve the areas that you feel are less effective.
2. For your next speech topic, select at least one in each of the following categories to support your speech: an example, a statistic, a quotation. In addition, include one of the following where appropriate: personal experience, anecdote, comparison and contrast, or role-playing.
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter Nine, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www.cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
7. It is not necessary to mention the word conclude or in conclusion when a speaker ends the speech.
The speaker ends with a well-known maxim.
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UNIT THREE Creating the Structure
Chapter 10 Organizing the Body of the Speech
Chapter 11 Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion
CHAPTER
10 ORGANIZING THE BODY OF THE SPEECH
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Recognize how to approach speech organization logically
2 Describe the ten building blocks of outlining
3 Organize the body of a speech outline
4 Construct effective speaking notes from an outline
As president of the Humphrey Group, Judith Humphrey coaches leaders of corporations and businesses throughout the United States and Canada. She reports that a mainstay of her company is the Executive Speechwriting Program, which helps CEOs and business executives to build effective presentations “through learning and practice.” In a speech to the Board of Trade in Toronto, Canada, Humphrey had this to say about speech organization:
To begin with, the structure must support the message. Too many executive presentations or speeches simply ramble on, from topic to topic. When a structure elaborates an idea, it takes on an excitement, an energy. It has a pulse to it.
… Most speeches can be structured by one of five common patterns. First is the one we call the “Four Reasons” speech—although it might be the three reasons or nine reasons speech. It’s a clear, powerful format. Second is the “Ways” speech, which demonstrates the ways or areas in which the main idea can be shown to be true. Next is “Problem and Solution.” It’s a good way of first addressing a problem and then showing how you’ll solve it. It’s great for customer presentations. There’s
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“Good order is thefoundation of all goodthings.” —Edmund Burke
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also the “Process” or “Chronological” model. You discuss a sequence of steps. This talk with its seven-fold path to eloquence follows that model. Last is the “Present Situation / Future Outlook” talk. Annual meeting speeches often take this approach. You tell your audience that while this year’s results were good, we will restructure to make the future still brighter for the company.1
Humphrey recognized the vital importance of logical structure and clear organization in public speaking. She also stressed the importance of using the structure of a speech to elaborate an idea or message, giving “excitement” and “energy” to a topic.
An outline is just as important to you as it is to a professional speaker like Judith Humphrey. An outline is a structured plan of your ideas: it acts as a visual guide to the main and supporting elements in your presentation. You can think of the outline as the framework of your speech: it holds the speech together, keeps you within the boundaries, and clarifies the layout for the audience.
A speech has three parts: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. It is the middle part, or body, that represents the major portion or framework of the speech and will comprise about two-thirds of your speaking time. Once you have researched the topic, written your specific purpose, and worded your thesis, you should first spend your energies outlining the body of the speech. You can develop the introduction and conclusion after organizing the meat of your presentation. In this chapter we consider ten building blocks that will help you to outline the body of your presentation.
Approaching Organization Logically
The thought of outlining a speech might seem difficult at first, but if you think logically about the topic, sorting through your research will be less complicated. Some topics almost organize themselves. For example, if you were to give an informative speech on a historical issue such as the history of the cell phone, your research would fall into several categories according to years or time periods. By contrast, a travelogue about Alaska could be organized using location or geography such as the arctic, western, southern, and interior areas as structural points. Research can also cluster around logical categories such as three types of clowns—straight man, joker, and character clown. Your research could also be outlined according to several major causes or effects.
What is important is that you begin thinking in an organized manner. Look for key ideas, patterns, and trends in your research that are supported by examples, quotations, or testimony. Think in terms of the overall plan of your speech, and don’t try to fill in all details at the beginning of the process. After wording your thesis statement, begin by developing the body of the speech. To do this, separate your main points (taken from the thesis) and begin adding supporting material. Don’t be afraid to adjust the main points, or the thesis, to make your plan more clear and consistent. Try not to be intimidated or enslaved by the process. Remember that the outline is simply a tool for structure and clar- ity, and it should help speech construction to be more enjoyable and less complicated.
Principles of Outlining
If you carefully apply each of these ten principles, your clarity of organization and speak- ing effectiveness will be greatly enhanced. In this text we use the term formal outline when referring to the body of the speech. We use the term informal outline when referring to the introduction, conclusion, bibliography, and other outline preliminaries.
Key Terms cause-effect sequence chronological sequence comparative advantages coordination external transitions formal outline indentation informal outline internal transitions linguistically parallel motivated sequence organizational sequence problem-solution reasons sentence outline spatial sequence speaking notes subdivision subordination subtopic topic outline topical sequence
Principles of Outlining 161
Building Block One: The Body Should Contain Between Two and Four Main Points or Numerals in a Five- to Seven-Minute speech The thesis statement identifies how many main points or numerals you will have in the body of a speech. In a classroom speech with a five- to seven-minute time limit, the best guideline to use is to have no fewer than two and no more than four main points. If you have only one main point, your speech will be too short, because you will not have enough supporting material to develop your topic. If you have six or seven points, you have the opposite problem—a lengthy speech with too much information to cover in the allotted time. Notice that the following thesis statement incorporates three elements:
Specific purpose: The purpose of the speech is to inform the audience about three funeral customs of the ancient Egyptians
Thesis statement: Egyptian funeral customs included embalming, the use of coffins, and a process called “dry burial.”
BODY
I. Explanation of Egyptian embalming practices II. Description of Egyptian coffins III. Explanation of “dry burial” techniques
The thesis statement tells you that there will be three numerals (the main points) in the body: (1) explanation of embalming, (2) description of coffins, and (3) explanation of burial techniques. The organization is tight, and there will be enough time to develop the main points in sufficient detail.2
Building Block Two: Main Points in the Body Should be Structured in an Organizational Sequence that is Logical, Interesting, and Appropriate to the Topic When structuring your main points or numerals, you can select an organizational sequence that is appropriate to the topic and that stimulates audience interest. Organize main points according to chronology, space, cause-effect, topical or natural sequence, or other sequence.
Chronological Sequence When you use chronological sequence, you arrange the main points according to time or order of events. For example, topics such as “Human life from fertilization to birth” or “How to make yeast bread” or historical topics such as “American exploration of space” or the “Life of Salvador Dali” would be organized according to chronology. Consider this example:
Specific purpose: To inform you about the rise and fall of the American muscle car Thesis statement: American muscle cars were introduced in 1964, increased in
popularity during the latter 60s, reached a “high-water” mark in 1970, and began to decline in the early 1970s.
BODY
I. The early years—1964 to 1966 II. The rising popularity—1967 to 1969 III. The “high-water” mark—1970 IV. The decline—1971 to 1972
162 Chapter 10 • Organizing the Body of the Speech
The topic is arranged according to chronology by the historical events occurring over a period of years.
Spatial Sequence Space is the structuring of main points according to geography or location. Topics relat- ing to the description of a building, a city, or a physical object are organized using spatial sequence.
Specific purpose: To inform you about four principal areas in the White House Thesis statement: The interior of the White House includes executive offices,
formal reception rooms, First Family living quarters, and a kitchen complex.
BODY
I. Executive offices II. Formal reception rooms III. First Family living quarters IV. Kitchen complex
To build a successful presentation, a speaker must be willing to spend time developing ideas, structuring thoughts,
and writing a clear, logical outline.
Source: Photo by Bill Dennison/© Thomson Learning
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Principles of Outlining 163
In this example, you can see that each main point describes a different spatial area in the White House.
Cause-Effect Sequence Another way to structure the main points of your speech is by cause-effect sequence. This sequence simply arranges the main points according to cause and effect. You could inform your audience about several causes of drug dependency and then talk about the effects on the family and the individual. Here’s another example:
Specific purpose: To inform the audience about the causes and effects of colon cancer
Thesis statement: While there are several known causes of colon cancer, there are advanced treatments that have significant effects on the patient.
BODY
I. Known causes of colon cancer II. Advanced treatments for the disease III. Effects of treatments on the patient
Here the first and last main points present causes and effects. Notice that numeral II is not a cause or effect, but identifies a topic area necessary for the logical development of the speech.
You could also structure the main points entirely by causes or by effects. A speech about child abuse, for instance, could expand upon three principal causes of child abuse or describe three tragic effects of abuse on the victim.
Topical Sequence Another method of structuring the main points is by logical or natural sequence. This pat- tern can also be called topical sequence. On some issues, you will find that your research clusters around natural divisions that can be earmarked as categories for your outline.
Specific purpose: To inform the audience what it is like living in Dunoon, Scotland Thesis statement: During the year I lived in Dunoon, Scotland, I got to know the
town, learned how to negotiate the transportation system, became acclimated to a Scottish home, and enjoyed leisure activities.
BODY
I. Brief description of the town II. Transportation in the town III. Life in a Scottish house IV. Activities for leisure enjoyment
In this example, the speaker has created four logical categories that accurately describe her experiences and observations.
You can also create a natural sequence by identifying trends in your information. For instance, you could structure your main points from least to most important, simple to complex, or familiar to unfamiliar. These types of arrangements not only create interest in the topic but they also help your audience to remember your main points. Consider these examples:
LEAST TO MOST IMPORTANT Specific purpose: To convince the audience that there are four reasons why HMOs do
not provide quality health care
164 Chapter 10 • Organizing the Body of the Speech
Thesis statement: Waiting rooms are impersonal, open enrollment is limited, getting immediate appointments with specialists is often difficult, and patients frequently experience inaccurate diagnoses and treatments.
BODY
I. Clinical, impersonal waiting rooms II. Limited open enrollment, requiring high premiums III. Immediate appointments with specialists difficult IV. Frequent inaccurate diagnosis and treatment
SIMPLE TO COMPLEX Specific purpose: To inform the audience about some troubleshooting techniques they
can use when their car doesn’t start Thesis statement: Be able to read and understand the instrument panel, identify
possible difficulties with the starter mechanism, and know what to look for under the hood.
BODY
I. Understanding instrument panel II. Identifying problems with starter mechanism III. Looking under hood
FAMILIAR TO UNFAMILIAR Specific purpose: To inform the audience about five different types of stars in the
universe Thesis statement: Stars are grouped into five categories: stars, black holes, novas,
binary stars, and neutron stars.
BODY
I. Stars—glowing gas in the sky II. Black holes—collapsed, former stars III. Novas—exploding bright and diminished stars IV. Binary stars—revolving and eclipsed stars V. Neutron stars—gaseous, atomic stars
In the first example, the speaker has arranged main points from the least to the most important reason. Numeral I, “Clinical … waiting rooms,” states a good reason why HMOs don’t provide quality health care, but it is the least important of the four state- ments. Numeral IV, “Frequent inaccurate diagnosis …,” deals with human life and is therefore the most important item. In the second example, numeral I, “Understanding instrument panel,” is the least complicated troubleshooting procedure; numeral III, “Look- ing under hood,” is the most complex. In the last example, the speaker assumes that the audience is most familiar with stars and may have some limited familiarity with black holes as well as novas. But the speaker has assumed that binary and neutron stars are the least familiar to the audience, and she has arranged them as the last two points.
Other Sequences There are a number of other ways to arrange the main points or numerals of the body. Many of these organizational patterns relate specifically to persuasive speeches, which we will discuss in Chapter sixteen, but we want to briefly mention them now.
Principles of Outlining 165
Problem-solution order is the arrangement of main points by identifying a problem and moving to a solution. The motivated sequence pattern is a five-stage system— attention, need, solution, visualization, action—in order to motivate the audience to act on an issue. The reasons organizational pattern simply arranges main points in the body according to reasons. There is also a comparative advantages sequence that develops each main point by stressing the advantages of a desired plan or idea.
Building Block Three: A System of Roman Numerals, Letters, and Arabic Numbers Should be Combined with Indentation to Identify Main and Subordinate Levels Begin by using Roman numerals to outline the main points (numerals) of the speech body. Remember that the Roman numerals signify your main points, which carry out all the com- ponents of the thesis statement. Then introduce the next level of subordinate points with capital letters A, B, C, and so forth. Supporting points under the capital letters should be indicated with numbers 1, 2, 3, and so on. And if you need more levels, indicate those items with small letters a and b and an even lower level of detail with (1) and (2).
I. A. B.
1. a. b.
2. II.
A. 1. 2. 3.
a. (1) (2)
b. B.
III. A. B. C.
Each level of supporting points is indented so that the outline clearly indicates the relationship between the main point and the subdivision. An indentation is one tab space on the computer. Just by glancing at this outline, you can easily see how to attach subordinate points to their appropriate main point. You will notice that similar symbols are lined up underneath each other. The body of a speech is the only portion of the outline that includes this many levels of supporting items. Good organization in the form of a tightly structured outline helps to trigger your thoughts so that you can main- tain eye contact with your audience. The pattern shown is just a guide to general out- lining procedure. The shape of every outline depends upon the topic and varies according to the number of main points and the amount of supporting items.
166 Chapter 10 • Organizing the Body of the Speech
Building Block Four: The Outline Should Include Supporting Materials that are Coordinated and Subordinated in a Logical Manner Once you have written two, three, or four main points of the body, your outline still represents only claims or assertions but no factual evidence or proof. You need support- ing materials—that is, examples, quotations, statistics, and/or audiovisuals to provide detailed verification of each main point or numeral. When you place supporting materi- als beneath the main points of the body, your outline presents the details that are necessary to inform or influence your listeners.
Specific purpose: To demonstrate how an ointment is made Thesis statement: In order to make an ointment you need to know its history,
the basic tools needed, and the process required for preparation.
BODY
I. Man found ways to treat skin irritations/infections in ancient times A. Primitive cave dwellers used available materials
1. Cool water 2. Leaves 3. Dirt 4. Mud
B. Galen invented cold cream 1. Roman physician-pharmacist 2. First century A.D. 3. Very first formula
C. Pharmacists now customize ointments 1. Due to advances in research/technology 2. Required to meet individual needs
II. Basic tools needed for ointment (visual aids) A. Ointment board B. Plastic spatulas C. Mortar and pestle
III. Process required to make ointment (visual aids) A. Measure ingredients B. “Triturate” ingredients
1. Procedure means grinding 2. Particles made smaller
C. Incorporate into glycerin D. Dilute geometrically
1. Add equal parts to equal parts 2. Ensures thorough mixing
E. Package ointment F. Label ointment immediately
1. To ensure correct identification 2. To avoid forgetting
In this speech Olivia Ellis wanted to show listeners how to make a pharmaceutical ointment. In numeral I of the body, she used four examples of how primitive people used materials that were available to them. She also used another example of a
Principles of Outlining 167
first-century Roman who was the inventor of cold cream. Then in numerals II and III, she uses visual aids to describe the tools needed and demonstrate the process of making the ointment. Remember that an outline is not a word-for-word account of all support- ing materials, but a framework that provides an overall blueprint of the areas included in the speech.
When writing the statements in your outline, you must be sure that ideas are of equal importance at each level, that subordinate ideas logically support each heading, and that statements do not duplicate each other. Coordination refers to the placement of equal ideas within the same level of an outline, and subordination refers to the placement of secondary or lower-ranking ideas beneath higher-order items. Look at the following incorrect outline:
Specific purpose: To provide information that helps the audience to define and understand mental retardation
Thesis statement: I will define mental retardation, explain how it is classified, and identify some common misconceptions about it.
INCORRECT
I. What it is A. A definition of mental retardation B. Public myths about the mentally retarded C. Public fears of the mentally retarded D. Mental retardation vs. mental illness
1. Mental illness conditions 2. Mental retardation conditions
II. Classifications of mental retardation A. Factors determining mental retardation
1. Mental ability 2. Adaptive behavior 3. Physical development
B. Degrees of mental retardation 1. Mild to moderate 2. Severe to profound
III. Common misconceptions about mental retardation
This outline is incorrect for the following reasons: under Roman numeral I, item A (“definition”) is not equal to other items at the same level: it is identical to the heading’s main point and should be eliminated. Items IB (“myths”) and IC (“fears”) are overlapping points that should be combined. And if you take an overall look at the outline, it appears that numeral I contains points that are not supportive. “Fears” really belongs under numeral III (“Common misconceptions”), and ID1 (“mental illness conditions”), which does not define retardation, can also be categorized under numeral III. Here is a more effective outline:
CORRECT
I. Definition of mental retardation A. Subaverage intellectual functioning B. Arrested or incomplete development C. Limitations in present functioning D. Abnormal brain function
168 Chapter 10 • Organizing the Body of the Speech
II. Classification of mental retardation A. Factors determining mental retardation
1. Mental ability 2. Adaptive behavior 3. Physical development
B. Degrees classifying mental retardation 1. Mild to moderate 2. Severe to profound
III. Common misconceptions about mental retardation A. Confusion with mental illness B. Fear of “different” behavior C. Inability to function in society
1. Failure to have relationships 2. Failure to be employed 3. Failure to perform survival tasks
This outline now contains main and subordinate points that are arranged in their appropriate relationships.
Building Block Five: Every Subdivision must Contain at Least Two Items In the concept of division, it is assumed that elements have been divided into two sepa- rate but equal categories. If there is only one item, there has obviously been no division. At each level of your outline, there should be a minimum of two subtopics (subdivi- sions); for example, point A will have at least subtopics 1 and 2. If you find that a topic area can be supported by only one point, don’t try to force another element, but simply incorporate the single point into the heading above.
Specific purpose: To demonstrate how to juggle three objects Thesis statement: I will explain the selection of objects, the process of juggling, and
provide a brief demonstration.
INCORRECT
I. Selecting the objects A. Between four to six ounces
1. Must not be too heavy II. Explaining the process
A. Display visual aid describing steps 1. Pick imaginary points 2. Toss ball to points and catch 3. Use opposite hand to throw ball 4. Use steps B and C together 5. Repeat the process
III. Demonstrating the art of juggling
Under Roman numeral I of this example, there is a point A but no B, and there is only one subtopic under the A. In numeral II there is again only one point, A, but there are five subtopics under the A. Here’s how to correct these problems:
CORRECT
I. Choosing the objects A. Should weigh four to six ounces
Principles of Outlining 169
B. Should not be slick C. Should be able to bounce
II. Explaining the process (using visual aid) A. Pick imaginary points B. Toss ball to points and catch C. Use opposite hand to throw ball D. Use steps B and C together E. Repeat the process
III. Demonstrating the art of juggling
Under numeral I, subtopic 1 from the incorrect version (“Must not be too heavy”) has been eliminated because it can be included with point A, “Between four to six ounces.” An additional B and a C have also been created to further complete the subdivision. Under numeral II, the original point A (“Display visual aid”) was eliminated because it can be incorporated with the numeral. That change eliminates the need for subtopics 1 through 5, which have been upgraded to the next level—A through E. The main and subordinate points are now correct.
Building Block Six: Each Point Should Include Only One Topic or Idea Here is an outline that violates the principle of building block six:
Specific purpose: To inform the audience about preventing teenage suicide Thesis statement: I will identify the warning signs of teenage suicide and explain
how to help the individual.
INCORRECT
I. Warning signs of teenage suicide A. Direct suicide threats B. Indirect statements revealing desire to die C. Previous suicide attempts and sudden changes in behavior
1. Social withdrawal 2. Variable moods 3. Severe depression and impulsive behavior
II. Getting help to the individual A. Talk to the teen B. Show interest in the person C. Be certain teen can reach adult D. Solicit help from professional
Under numeral I, point C (“Previous suicide attempts and sudden changes in behavior”) is clearly two ideas. The subtopics for point C seem to support “changes in behavior,” but they do not clearly support “previous attempts.” Subtopic 3 also includes two separate thoughts—“depression and impulsiveness.” When ideas are mistak- enly clumped together like this, the audience briefly tries to put the pieces together but often stops listening in confusion. The outline should be revised as follows:
CORRECT
I. Warning signs of teenage suicide A. Direct suicide threats B. Indirect statements revealing desire to die
170 Chapter 10 • Organizing the Body of the Speech
C. Previous suicide attempts D. Sudden changes in behavior
1. Social withdrawal 2. Variable moods 3. Severe depression 4. Impulsive behavior
II. Getting help to the individual A. Talk to the teen B. Show interest in the person C. Be certain teen can reach adult D. Solicit help from professional
Notice that a new point D (“Sudden changes in behavior”) has been added, as well as a new subtopic 4 (“Impulsive behavior”) to separate the ideas. The outline is now accurate. The audience will be more capable of sorting out one idea at a time.
Building Block Seven: Main Points (Numerals) and Supporting Items Should be Linguistically Parallel The sentence construction and wording used in each level of your outline should be structurally similar. Your outline represents your speaking notes; the more uniformly items are structured, the easier it will be for you to follow as you are delivering your speech. For example, if your first main point (numeral I) begins with a noun plus a prepositional phrase (causes of pollution, effects on streams) or an infinitive phrase (to enjoy freedom, to participate in democracy), then other main points should begin in a similar manner. Subordinate points should also have a linguistically parallel lan- guage structure: for instance, points A, B, and C should be comparable, and subtopics 1, 2, and 3 should show similarity.
Specific purpose: To understand and demonstrate the art of tattooing Thesis statement: To truly appreciate the art of tattooing you must first understand
the history of tattoos, the machine used, and the actual process of applying a tattoo.
INCORRECT CORRECT
I. History is interesting A. Origin B. Brought to western world
II. Machine A. About Samuel O’Reilly and his
invention of the modern tattoo machine
B. Operates on a simple principle III. Tattooing process
A. To pick out a piece B. Waiver C. Follow health and safety procedures
1. Autoclave 2. Handle needles properly 3. Gloving techniques
I. History of tattooing A. Where tattoos originated B. How tattoos came to western
world II. Invention of tattoo machine
A. Invented by Samuel O’Reilly B. How the tattoo machine works
III. Process of tattooing A. Pick out a piece B. Sign a waiver C. Follow health and safety
procedures 1. Autoclave process 2. Needle-handling procedures 3. Gloving techniques
Principles of Outlining 171
D. Shave area 1. Wash area thoroughly 2. Disinfecting
E. Placing stencil on area F. The machine needs to be applied
and controlled 1. Use of pigments 2. Use needle with steady hand
G. Care of tattoo 1. You need to wash area 2. Sterile dressing 3. Discussion of care and cleaning
D. Shave area 1. Wash 2. Disinfect
E. Place stencil on area F. Apply and control machine
1. Selecting pigments 2. Using needle
G. Take care of new tattoo 1. Wash area 2. Apply sterile dressing 3. Discuss care and
cleaning
In the incorrect example, the main numerals I–III and their supporting points are not parallel. Notice the different wording and structure of the two main points: numeral I is a brief phrase, II is only a one-word noun, and III is a noun ending in –ing. Notice also that subordinate items are not linguistically parallel. The incorrect example then demonstrates improper outline form. These mistakes may actually impede the speaker’s progress. The speaker is forced to read and decipher each item in detail while delivering the speech. This improper outline can then reduce eye con- tact and hinder the flow of ideas.
Now look at the correct example. Each main point begins with a noun followed by a prepositional phrase. Subordinate items are also linguistically parallel to one another. Notice that not all levels have to be identical in sentence structure; for example, points IA and IB are grammatically different from the topics that support IIA and IIB. In addition, the subtopics beneath points IIIC, D, F, and G are linguistically different from each other. Each level, however, maintains internal structural consistency. This parallel outline will be easier for the speaker to read and will facilitate the speaker’s eye contact and thought process.
Building Block Eight: The Outline Should be Expressed in Either Sentences or Topics When writing the formal outline of the body, you should use either complete sentences or topics—never mix the two forms. If you begin using complete sentences for numeral I in the body, you must continue employing sentences throughout all main and subordi- nate levels to keep the outline consistent. If you begin with topics or phrases, employ topics throughout the outline. Some speakers use a topic outline because they feel it keeps them from reading their outline word for word. Others use a sentence outline form because they can get a more precise idea of the wording in the speech. Use either sentences or topics—whichever you find most helpful.
Here are examples of the two types of outlines:
Specific purpose: To inform the audience about the increasing emphasis on sex in advertising
Thesis statement: Sex is increasingly used in advertising because of the economic benefits to advertisers.
172 Chapter 10 • Organizing the Body of the Speech
SENTENCE OUTLINE TOPIC OUTLINE
I. Sex has invaded contemporary advertising. A. More men are shown as sexual. B. Women are now shown to be
aggressors in sexual encounters. C. More nudity of both sexes is shown.
II. Provocative advertising benefits the advertiser. A. They receive positive feedback from
consumers. B. Advertisers experience increases in
their sales.
I. The use of sex in advertising
A. Men as sex objects. B. Women as sexual aggressors
C. Increased nudity of both sexes II. Benefits of provocative ads to
advertiser A. Positive feedback from
consumers B. Increases in sales revenues
Even though one is a sentence outline and another is a topic outline, each form is consistent throughout. The topic outline uses phrases—not just one or two words—to make each topic and subtopic as clear as possible. Either form would be a useful tool in helping the speaker successfully communicate to the audience.
Building Block Nine: The Outline Should Identify Sources for Major Supporting Materials Portions of the outline that include significant examples, statistics, or testimonies drawn from your research should clearly identify the sources of the information. Indicating references on the outline reminds you of where you obtained the information and helps you to integrate sources more easily when delivering the presentation.
Source notations can be abbreviated in the body of the outline because you will be including a more comprehensive bibliography at the end. Here is a suggested system you can follow when annotating your sources:
Specific purpose: To examine and explain the uses of four types of masks Thesis statement: For thousands of years man has used masks for religious/
ceremonial, theatrical, festive, and practical reasons.
BODY
I. Religious/ceremonial A. American Indians
1. Hopi tribe a. Katchina masks (Underhill, Red Man’s Religion, pp. 90, 208) b. Use of masks
2. Northwest Indians a. Half-man, half-animal mask b. Use of masks (Kondeatis, Masks, p. 11)
B. Central African 1. Northern Ba Kete mask 2. Construction of masks (Segy, Masks of Black Africa, pp. 33–37) 3. Function of masks
Principles of Outlining 173
This outline clearly identifies sources. In subtopic 2b under point IA, the parenthe- ses indicate that the material was researched in the book Masks. The abbreviated form lists only the last name of the author, the title of the book, and the page numbers. You will notice that you don’t need to annotate every item in an outline—only those topics and subtopics that include specific quotations or provide extensive data necessary to the development of the speech.
Building Block Ten: The Outline Should Include External Transitions Between Main Numerals External transitions are phrases that connect the major numerals of your speech. These carefully crafted statements should tell listeners that one main idea is ending and another is beginning. When you build the outline, write out the complete transitional phrase or sentence, placing it between the appropriate numerals.
Specific purpose: To inform the audience about one of America’s passions— chocolate
Thesis statement: Chocolate, a sweet substance we all take for granted, has an interesting background, affects our health, and is the object of a love affair with the American consumer.
BODY
I. General background about chocolate A. Brief history of cocoa bean B. Location of groves C. Manufacture of chocolate
Transition: Now that you’ve heard about the history and background of chocolate, you need to know about chocolate and your health.
II. Health issues related to chocolate A. Effect on teeth B. Effect on skin C. Problem with addiction D. Calories in chocolate E. Aphrodisiac in chocolate
Transition: In spite of the health issues, American consumers have an ongoing love affair with chocolate.
III. American consumers’ love of chocolate A. U.S. largest importer of cocoa beans B. 90 percent of U.S. sales from milk chocolate C. Protection by federal standards D. Novelty items of interest
Remember to make a clear distinction between external and internal transitions. External transitions are one-sentence phrases occurring between the major numerals of the speech and are placed in the body of the outline. These “listening cues” are a
174 Chapter 10 • Organizing the Body of the Speech
guide to help audiences determine the speaker’s progress through the presentation. By contrast, internal transitions are brief words such as also, then, next, in addition to, or finally that link the supporting materials within a subtopic. Although internal transi- tions are also important to the delivery of the speech, these brief connectives are not needed in the outline. (To see examples of external transitions in a completed outline, turn to pages 200–203 in Chapter Eleven for the speech titled, “Raising the Monitor.”)
Your Speaking Notes
This emphasis on outlining is important, not only for building a coherent, logical structure for the speech but also for its delivery. This text emphasizes the importance of extemporaneous delivery, in which you speak spontaneously from notecards that include the elements of your outline (in Chapter Three, see “Extemporaneous Delivery and Speaking Styles”). Brief notecards that contain words and phrases will help you speak with more spontaneity and eye contact than when reading word-for-word from a manuscript.
Your speaking notes will include the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. Construct your notes so that you can see where you’re headed in one brief glance. Select either four-by-six-inch or six-by-nine-inch notecards, and number them at the upper right-hand corner. Write legibly, use large lettering, and double-space between some of the lines. You may want to underline or occasionally use all caps for emphasis. You may even want to use different colors to highlight specific examples, statistics, or quotations. Use a reasonable number of notecards; don’t cram too many phrases on two or three cards, and don’t use too many notes. You don’t want to squint as you read, and you also don’t want to flip a card every few seconds. When transferring your outline to note- cards, remember that your objective is ease of communication; you want notes that help you communicate quickly and effectively.
To help you understand how to connect outlined speaking notes to the complete wording of a speech, we have included several sample notecards and the corresponding manuscript from the body of the informative speech “Raising the Monitor.” These sam- ple notecards do not include all of the bibliographic references that are listed in the formal written outline. The speaker can include only those sources that are necessary to provide credibility during the speech. (See the box in Chapter Eight titled “Citing Sources in a Speech.”) Notice that the notecards are numbered at the upper right, beginning with 3. Keep in mind that these notecards are incomplete and demonstrate only the first main point of the body of a three-point speech; they do not include the several notecards for the introduction or the conclusion. In Chapter Eleven we will discuss how to outline the introduction and conclusion and provide you with sample notes that coincide with the notecards presented here. You can see the entire outline of this speech at the end of Chapter Eleven, and you can read the entire speech at the end of Chapter Fifteen.
Specific purpose: To describe the historical significance of raising the Monitor’s turret
Thesis statement: The historical significance of the Monitor led scientists and nautical engineers to overcome extreme challenges that resulted in the successful recovery of the vessel’s turret.
Your Speaking Notes 175
NOTECARDS SPEECH
(3)
I. History and importance of the Monitor A. BUILDING AND LAUNCHING OF
MONITOR (slide 3) 1. Built in Greenpoint, Brooklyn, and
launched into East River, January 30, 1862
2. Rotating turret, distinguishing feature, now standard on modern war ships
B. SPECIFICATIONS 1. 8-inch-thick iron-plated walls, 9 ft
high, 21 ft across, 150 tons 2. Dahlgren-manufactured guns, firing
shells/cannonballs 2 miles
The Monitor was built in Greenpoint, Brooklyn, (slide 3) and launched into the East River on January 30, 1862. The distinguishing feature of the ship was her rotating turret, a technological first that is now standard on all modern warships. With 8-inch-thick walls of iron plating, the turret measured 9 feet high, 21 feet across, and weighed 150 tons. It housed two 9-foot, Dahlgren-manufactured guns that were capable of firing shells or cannonballs farther than 2 miles.
(4)
C. IMPACT AND EFFECTS (New York Times, Jul 30, ’02, 1) 1. Union started building a new class
of Monitor-type vessels 2. British Royal Navy canceled construc-
tion of wooden warships
After the historical battle, the Union began building a whole new class of Monitor-type vessels. According to a July 2002 New York Times article, when the British Royal Navy heard about the clash of the two ironclads, the world’s preeminent naval force can- celed all construction of wooden warships.
(5)
D. SINKING IN A STORM (Slides 4–5) 1. Encountered violent storm off Cape
Hatteras New Year’s Eve 2. 10:30 p.m. commander sent lantern
distress signal to tow vessel 3. Some men saved; after midnight, lantern
disappeared 4. Turret sunk to seafloor, 240 ft upside
down 5. Missing were twelve crewmen, four
officers, ship’s mascot, black cat
Nine months after the battle, (slide 4) the Monitor encountered a violent storm off the coast of Cape Hatteras on New Year’s Eve. At 10:30 p.m., the commander sent a distress signal, via lantern, to a tow vessel. Some of the men were saved, but shortly after midnight the lantern disappeared. The famous turret came to rest upside down on the seafloor at a depth of 240 feet (slide 5). Among the missing were twelve crew members, four officers, and the ship’s mascot, a black cat.
(6)
E. DISCOVERY OF WRECK 1. Duke University expedition found
remains sixteen miles from Hatteras in 1973
2. Named nation’s first marine sanctuary for protection from treasure hunters in 1975
3. Hull plate and signal lantern recovered in 1977
4. Anchor recovered in 1983
The ship was lost until 1973 when a Duke University expedition found the scattered remains sixteen miles off Cape Hatteras. In 1975, it was named the nation’s first marine sanctuary to protect the wreck from treasure hunters. A hull plate and the signal lantern came up in 1977, and the anchor was recovered in 1983.
176 Chapter 10 • Organizing the Body of the Speech
NOTECARDS SPEECH
(7)
F. TURRET WAS PRIZE, CONTAINING ANSWERS TO 140-YEAR-OLD QUESTIONS 1. Turret only way crew could exit
ship 2. Turret contained answers to
140-year-old questions 3. Human (and feline) remains, artifacts
expected 4. Federal officials made plans for
extensive retrievals in 1997
The turret, however, was the prize they were aiming for. Aside from its historical significance, the turret may contain the answers to 140-year-old questions. The turret was the only way out of the ship, so scientists expected to find human (or even feline) remains as well as important artifacts that may have been dropped by crew members trying to escape. Federal officials laid plans in 1997 for more extensive retrievals.
Summary Approach the organization process in a logical manner, and follow these ten principles for outlining the body of your speech:
1. Include between two and four main points in the body of a five- to seven-minute speech.
2. Structure the main points in an organizational sequence that is logical, interesting, and appropriate to the topic.
3. To identify main and subordinate levels of the outline, use a system of Roman numerals, letters, and Arabic numbers combined with indentation.
4. Include supporting materials that are coordinated and subordinated in a logical manner. 5. Be sure to provide at least two items in every subdivision. 6. Include only one topic or idea in each statement. 7. Make the main points (numerals) and supporting items linguistically parallel. 8. Express the main points and supporting items of your outline as either sentences
or topics. 9. In the outline, identify sources for major supporting materials.
10. Include external transitions between main numerals of your outline.
Your speaking notes should include elements of your outline so that you can see where you’re headed in one brief glance, allowing you to speak extemporaneously.
Skill Builders 1. Carefully read one of the speeches included in your text (Chapters Three, Six,
Nine, Twelve, Fifteen, Sixteen, or Seventeen). Outline the introduction, body, and conclusion of the speech following the guidelines presented in this chapter.
2. Conduct an InfoTrac search of Vital Speeches of the Day to find a speech that you feel is well organized with a clear thesis and a body that follows the main points previewed in the thesis. Report your findings to your class. (For access to InfoTrac, see the following section.)
Your Speaking Notes 177
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter Ten, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www.cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
178 Chapter 10 • Organizing the Body of the Speech
CHAPTER
11SELECTING THE INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Discuss the objectives of an introduction
2 Describe strategies for beginning a speech
3 Discuss the objectives of a conclusion
4 Describe strategies for ending a speech
5 Describe how to outline the introduction and conclusion
6 Construct speaking notes for the introduction and conclusion
7 Develop a comprehensive speech outline
A student began his speech by clearing his throat. “My name is Joe,” he said, “and my topic is snowboarding. So I guess I’ll start now.” This type of beginning is certainly direct and to the point, but it is abrupt and uninteresting. Many students who have adequately prepared the body of their speeches have difficulty thinking of ways to begin and end.
In an article titled “How to Be an Effective Public Speaker,” two faculty members at California State University describe the importance of the introduction and conclusion:
Start your presentation with a bang. The first few moments of a talk influence the audience’s reception of the rest of it. Try to convey an air of dignity, authority (on the topic, not over the people), confidence, and trust. Raising your voice for the first few sentences can help grab and hold audience members. They will be less inclined to think that another drab speech is under way. A rhetorical question is a good way to spark the interest of an audience. Such questions generally begin with “What if …?” or “What do you think about …?” The question should lead into the topic at hand, and should get audience members to think, “Why am I being asked this?” …
Pa to
p rig
ht ic
io ce
nt er
rig ht
oo ke
r/T he
Im ag
e W
or ks
“Don’t let it end like this. Tellthem I said something.”—Pancho Villa
179
Make your finish a strong one. A great quote or a plea for action can inspire listeners and help them remember your message. A feeble “thank you” can leave the audience hanging. If you’ve done a good job on stage, the “thank you” should come from the audience.1
These professors are right on target. The audience forms its first impressions of your speech while listening to your introduction. If you are going to be successful throughout your presentation, you must get your listeners’ attention and stimulate their curiosity at the very beginning. In addition, the ending must indicate that you are well prepared, thoughtful, and memorable. The essential message is: start with a bang and finish strongly!
Speech introductions and conclusions are the focus of this chapter. It is important to know the purpose and structure of the opening and closing, as well as the various ways you can begin and end. Included here are suggestions to help you construct your speaking notes and an informative speech outline as a model for your own presentations.
Purpose of the Introduction
The introduction plays a very important role in a speech. Because it is the first thing the audience hears, the introduction should be interesting enough to motivate the audience to listen and to connect to the topic. It is also the place where the speaker is able to establish credibility by stating personal interest and/or expertise on the topic. Finally, the last sentence of the introduction should contain a clear one-sentence thesis state- ment that previews the main points of the body of the speech. Recognize that an intro- duction isn’t just one or two sentences placed together; it incorporates a carefully devised strategy or variety of strategies to gain your listeners’ interest and goodwill. Generally, a good introduction is at least a paragraph in length.
The Inadequate Introduction
Some beginning speakers in communication courses don’t pay enough attention to the introduction and fumble awkwardly into the speech body with poor openings like these:
“Hi. How are you all today? My name is Daniel. And I’m against high salaries in pro sports. So I’ll start.” “Let me say my thesis first.” “Huhmm. (Coughs and clears throat.) I’m really nervous today so you’ll have to bear with me.” “Ok. Ok. Um. So I guess, um, well, um, ok. I think my topic is going to be, well, it’s medical insurance. And the high price of it. Ok. So now I hope you are okay with that.” “I wanted to start with some PowerPoint slides but I wasn’t able to get them together because I ran out of time last night.” “My topic today is animal cruelty. My attention getter is I want you to look at the screen and see these poor defenseless creatures. My thesis is animal cruelty is widespread, it needs to be reported, and there is help for these poor creatures.” “I’m feeling really sick today and I shouldn’t even be here, but I’m going to tough it out as long as I can. So I’ll try to shorten this up so I can get through it.”
Key Terms appeal challenge compliment example humor illustration open-ended questions personal reference quotation reference to the
introduction reference to the
occasion rhetorical questions shocking statement speaking notes statistics story summary suspense
180 Chapter 11 • Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion
These introductions are poor for various reasons. First of all, they are too short. In a five- to eight-minute speech an introduction should be about one paragraph in length; that is, at least five or six sentences including the thesis statement. Beginning by stating the the- sis or topic defeats the purpose of getting attention and has the opposite effect: the audi- ence will most likely decide the speech isn’t going to be interesting because there has been no attempt to arouse curiosity. In persuasive speeches starting with opinionated statements such as “I’m against,” or “I’m in favor of,” give listeners the opportunity to tune out the speaker who should have provided a gradual entry into the speech before stating a strong viewpoint. In addition, apologies or excuses sound as if the speaker is unprepared or not very interested in either the topic or audience. Needless clutter such as the words “um,” “ok,” or nervous coughing are distracting and are also frequently viewed as lack of preparation by listeners. Introductions where speakers announce their own names; say needless greetings of “hello—how are you?”; or state the words “topic,” “attention-getter,” or “thesis” sound equally unprepared, artificial, or boring.
Planning an Effective Introduction
The introduction provides an entry point into your topic. You want to capture the atten- tion of the audience, arouse their curiosity, establish credibility, and introduce your the- sis statement at the end.
The introduction is the place where the audience decides to listen or tune you out. How well you understand your listeners and how effectively you develop an introduction to connect to their unique characteristics often determine whether the audience will give you a hearing. Imagine a woman who presents a speech about breast cancer to an audience of mostly men, a Muslim from Saudi Arabia speaking about the religious fast during Ramadan to an audience of mostly Americans, or a speaker with strong views favoring gay marriage to listeners who are strongly opposed. It is doubtful that these speakers would be successful unless they understood the differences within their audi- ences and developed introductory strategies that connected the topic to their listeners’ background and interests. For example, the woman speaking to male listeners could develop an introduction indicating that breast cancer also afflicts men and is not just a women’s issue. The Saudi Arabian speaker could begin by relating Ramadan to Western religious holidays such as Passover and Christmas. And the gay marriage proponent could develop an introduction that established areas of agreement with listeners about the Constitution and Bill of Rights.
As you face the diverse members of your audience, use the introduction as a strategy to show how your topic relates to your listeners’ interests and motivations. Understand dif- ferences in culture, ethnic background, gender, and age. Know how social affiliations or groups, educational background, occupational goals, and geographic location influence your audience and affect their perception of your topic. If you are speaking about the U.S. budget to listeners from other countries, indicate why your topic is important to them. If you are demonstrating the Heimlich maneuver to an audience of business majors, describe how the topic can assist employees in a restaurant or save a company from law- suits. If you are talking about exchanging Social Security for personal retirement accounts to listeners under age 30, describe how this program can benefit their own futures. Use the introduction to prepare listeners to hear and receive your ideas. Acknowledge the audi- ence, and help them to understand that your topic can be important to their needs.
The introduction must be well thought out and very carefully prepared. A boring, insensitive, poorly worded, or poorly delivered introduction can quickly destroy a
Planning an Effective Introduction 181
speaker’s credibility with listeners; on the other hand, a meaningful, curiosity-provoking introduction can motivate listeners and bring your topic to life.
In this section we consider some examples of effective introductions and explore why they are successful. Some of these examples are taken directly from students’ presen- tations in beginning speech classes, and some are excerpts from individuals who are experienced in delivering public speeches.
Examples, Stories, and Illustrations You can always begin your speech with an example, story, or illustration. Examples make your introduction vivid and help your audience to quickly understand the reality of a person, experience, or circumstance. Notice how the following story creates interest and generates horror as it moves forward:
Juliana McCourt was a beautiful, happy little girl who … boarded U.S. Airlines flight 175 from Boston to Los Angeles. It was early morning, September 11, 2001. A beautiful sunny and cloudless morning—a day to match her little life. To be sure, the flight attendants smiled at her and her mother; perhaps she received a toy or a set of little plastic wings, the way that kids do. In stark contrast to this little bundle of joy and innocence, a handful of men, intent on neither joy nor innocence, overwhelmed the crew and terrified the passengers. Without question, Juliana was afraid…. Who were these grownups? Why were they doing these mean things? … Try to think of a 4-year-old baby, terrified with fright, reaching to its mother for comfort. Try to imagine a mother, crying, praying to God to save her little child…. Mother and child died that day in the vaporization of U.S. Airlines flight 175—and so did the joy, innocence, hope, and faith of a nation…. The men who murdered little Juliana McCourt on September 11 were neither “real men” nor martyrs—they were cowards. It’s just as simple as that …
Thesis Sadly, the death of little Juliana, as horrible as it is, is only one minor move in centuries of global terrorism.2
Professor Gary Anderson at Maryland University College in Germany could have started his address by stating that “the events of September 11 were ghastly,” a fact that most of his listeners already believed. Instead, he began by describing the happy inno- cence of a little child. As he continued, the chilling events of this unfolding story became familiar, vivid, and devastating. This introduction dramatically creates and holds attention as it prepares listeners to hear the thesis and body of the speech.
In the next introduction, Gina Alexander uses a series of brief examples as her strategy:
• Susan’s boss told her that her dress was too tight and too loud in color. • Beth’s supervisor pinched her every time she walked near him. • Michelle was the object of many dirty jokes by her coworkers. • John knew that making love to Norma, the vice-president of the company, was
the only way to get that essential promotion. • And Ralph had to endure hugs from his professor in order to get an A.
Degrading, counterproductive, and criminal—these words describe sexual harass- ment in the workplace. This is the cancer of our workplace. Sexual harassment is a problem for both men and women. These harassers want power over us, and victims are unaware of how to cut off this power.
182 Chapter 11 • Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion
Thesis By the end of my presentation today, I want you to know what sexual harassment is, how to recognize it, and what you can do about it.3
Gina Alexander understood that her listeners had probably heard a lot about this topic. Some listeners had participated in job-related seminars educating them about sexual harassment, and others had heard general news reports about the issue. But this speaker decided to present a series of brief examples to gain her listeners’ attention. When devel- oping her introduction, Gina analyzed the gender and age differences within her audience. In her speech, she presented instances drawn from the experiences of both men and women to indicate that sexual harassment can victimize either gender. She also used examples such as the student-professor situation that could connect to younger listeners as well as instances that were more typical of older listeners who were already pursuing their full-time careers. As audience members listened, they were able to connect the exam- ples to their own environments and realize that the issue affects everyone. This rapid-fire technique is effective because the speaker conveys several examples quickly in order to motivate listeners. An example, story, or illustration helps to create immediate interest, because an audience can empathize with a vivid situation or specific experience.
Shocking Statement or Situation A shocking statement or situation that shocks the audience is also an effective method of creating interest. In the following introduction to a speech on tornados, Michael Gerber used the first line to startle his audience:
Mike could have started by saying, “My topic today is tornados. They are very dan- gerous, and I’m sure you’ve heard stories and maybe seen movies about them.” But he realized that a more creative way of getting the attention of listeners was by referring to the unexpected. Audiences tend to be more involved and responsive when they are sur- prised or startled by an idea. The one-liner combined with the brief examples effectively set up the entire speech: listeners were completely receptive and anxious to hear other pertinent information about the tornado.
Here is another way to use a shock technique in the introduction. Before his speech began, student Stephen King got the attention of his listeners by distributing a small white cup to each of his classmates. He then held up a “memo,” which he began reading to his audience:
I’d like to read you this memo from the dean of the university. “It has come to the attention of the administration and faculty that an increasing number of students have been abusing alcohol and illegal drugs on campus. In response, the university
Planning an Effective Introduction 183
Text not available due to copyright restrictions
has adopted a policy of mandatory drug testing for all full- and part-time students. Moreover, since this serious problem could cause the university to lose its state funding, students must submit to a witnessed urinalysis by the medical staff of the university by November 30. Should any student fail to comply or fail this test, he or she will be immediately dropped from class rosters and dismissed from the university.”
Now I’ve passed around some paper cups and labels and I’d like you to fill out your name, Social Security number, and any prescription drugs you are taking. In the hall are members of the medical department to witness your test. Now, I’d like to start at the rear of the room. One at a time please.
This memo is not real. But how would you feel if it were? Would you be insulted, embarrassed, outraged? Would you say “Who the hell do you think I am?” Well get prepared, because it’s happening all across America. Sooner or later, don’t be surprised if someone wants you to urinate in a cup like this. These drug tests vio- late our Constitutional rights and invade our privacy.
Thesis I want you to understand the current state of drug testing, how this prac- tice invades our privacy, the potential inaccuracy of these tests, and that there is a better solution.5
Steve understood his student audience extremely well. He recognized that they would listen carefully to the contrived memo from the “dean” of their university. When developing the document, the speaker used words such as moreover, comply, and class rosters as well as bureaucratic sentence structure that sounded authentic and appeared to have been issued by a university official. This beginning strategy of a star- tling situation was overwhelmingly successful. One student said, “I thought this was all true. The memo that he read sounded official, and I was going to take my little cup to the restroom for the sample.” Another listener commented, “I was incensed that anyone would try something like this. It really drove the point home.” Steve used this method to get to the heart of the issue. He quickly communicated that although the situation was hypothetical, the problem was real, and he placed his audience in a situation that forced them to examine the issues involved. He had his audience sitting on the edge of their seats. Notice that the end of the introduction identifies a two-point thesis statement: “These drug tests violate our Constitutional rights and invade our privacy.”
Statistics You can begin your speech by citing statistics to involve the audience.
Of the eighteen people in this classroom, nine were sexually molested as children— that’s one out of every two, men as well as women, according to figures from Family and Children’s Services of Central Maryland. Actually, there are only eight in the audience, because I’m the ninth person. And I kept that secret for thirty-six years.
I’ve been a rape crisis counselor for two years, and I’ve put in one hundred hours working with sexually abused child victims. Victims of child abuse have no control over what happened to them. It is the secrecy surrounding the incident that causes significant damage. As parents and future parents, you need to know what sexual child abuse is, who the offenders are, how the victims are affected, and some preventative measures you can take to protect your children.
Thesis As parents and future parents, you need to know the definition of child sexual abuse, who the offenders are, how victims are affected, and some preventa- tive measures you can take to protect your children.6
184 Chapter 11 • Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion
Kathy Birckhead could have started this introduction with a simple statement of the statistic and a general comment about the unfortunate implications revealed by the num- bers. Instead, she related the statistics to the audience and got immediate attention by using the numbers to appeal to the physical and emotional well-being of her listeners. Because the statistics indicated that half of them were abused as children, audience members listened intently to learn more about the topic. Concern intensified when the speaker acknowledged her own abuse and established credibility as a counselor. Notice that Kathy involves the audience by connecting to parents as well as “future parents” when she states the thesis that includes four points at the end of her introduction.
Questions Another way to introduce a topic is by asking a question. Questions can be either rhetor- ical or open-ended. Rhetorical questions are self-answered: listeners respond silently. In a speech titled “The Changed World,” George P. Shultz, director of the Bechtel Group and former secretary of state in the Reagan administration, begins a speech with two rhetorical questions:
I want to ask two questions. What, from a security standpoint, is going on in the world? When we answer that, that’s the key to answering the second question: Where do we go from here?
We are at war. We have struggled with what we have called terrorism for a long time, without
quite realizing the nature of the threat. In the Reagan administration, I was a hawk on the subject. I said terrorism was a big problem, a different problem, and we have to take forceful action against it. Fortunately, Ronald Reagan agreed with me, but not many others did.7
Thesis (implied) [What is going on in the world, and where do we go from here?]
Mr. Shultz uses the two questions in the introduction to focus the audience on the two key points of his thesis. Although the thesis is implied, it is clear from the opening questions that Shultz will divide the body of his speech into two sections to develop spe- cific answers.
Questions can also be of the open-ended type, which stimulate a direct response from the audience. Asking open-ended questions can be effective, but you need to be careful with this method. Don’t ask the audience for more than a show of hands or one-word answers. If you request more complicated information, you may find them tak- ing control of your speech. In this example, the speaker asks for a simple show of hands to gain a response:
By a show of hands, how many people in this room are Baptists? Okay, there are a few of you. I want you to listen closely, because what I’m about to read concerns you. By order of the governor, all Baptists have been proclaimed enemies of the state and must be exterminated, or driven from the state, if necessary, for the public good.
This sounds crazy doesn’t it? It’s the 1990s and we live in the United States and things like this just don’t happen. Well, you’re kinda right, they don’t happen in the 90s, but they did happen in 1838. In the state of Missouri in 1838, Governor Lillburn W. Boggs issued an order of extermination for all Mormons.
Thesis Today I want to talk about the three events leading up to that extermina- tion order, namely, the existing anti-Mormon sentiment, the election day riot, and the Crooked River incident.8
Planning an Effective Introduction 185
Michelle Allred decided to ask a question that seemed to invade her listeners’ pri- vacy. But the question combined with the hypothetical example helped the audience to understand the results of discrimination and religious persecution. When you seek an open-ended response, you must be clear that you want an answer from your listeners. In this instance, Michelle asked the question and told her audience the type of response she wanted. She also paused a moment to let the audience know she was waiting for their answer. The introduction then proceeded in a logical manner from the example to the 1838 extermination order, which the speaker used to introduce her three-point thesis statement. The strategy was extremely effective and helped the audience to connect to Michelle’s historical topic.
Quotation Another good way to introduce your speech is by using a quotation appropriate to your topic. Notice how Scott Davis, Chairman and CEO of United Parcel Service (UPS), began his introduction to the Americas Competitiveness Forum in Atlanta, Georgia, on November 15, 2010:
Over 300 years ago, in 1666, English Poet John Dryden said, “Trade, like blood, should circulate and flow freely.’ That is a concept I think most of you share. Robust and open global trade drives the world’s economic engine. Everyone wins when trade flows freely. Why? In my view, global trade is the quickest and surest way to accelerate global growth, create new jobs, and improve living standards. Now I freely admit UPS has an interest here. At any given moment, UPS handles six per- cent of the U.S. GDP and we move two percent of global GDP in our trucks and planes. But in view of its many benefits, I don’t think the notion that trade is a good and valuable thing should be controversial. But it certainly has been lately……
Thesis Today, I want to address the global trade issue by first discussing where we are. Then, I would like to frankly address some of the challenges we face. And along the way I want to recommend some solutions.9
Davis’ speech was delivered to leaders in business and government from thirty-four coun- tries throughout the world. The short quotation from the English poet emphasized his point that free trade should flow as easily as blood circulation, but his thesis suggests that current policies and actions provide challenges and constraints to free trade.
Suspense In addition to using quotations or poems to stimulate interest, you can make listeners curious about a topic by using suspense.
A harness locks you into place. You move slowly forward and then upward, climbing to a height of fifteen stories. Next you drop 55 degrees, making you feel as if you just drove off a cliff at more than 60 miles per hour. You zoom through two 60-foot-high loops, you are turned upside down, you gyrate through a 200-foot corkscrew, and you are thrown like a boomerang into a final loop. You’ve been turned upside down and around six times, and pressed against your seat by the force—of gravity, that is, which is nearly four times your body weight.
Is this some kind of masochistic exercise or strange ceremony? No, not really. You’ve just experienced the Vortex, the roller coaster ride at King’s Island
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Amusement Park in Ohio as described by Kerry Hannon in an August 1987 issue of Forbes magazine.
Thesis Today I’d like to give you some information that you may not know about the background, design, and safety of these wonderful, whirling thrills.10
Karen Leonard realized that students in a speech class would respond favorably to the element of suspense. Without identifying her topic at the beginning, Karen described a series of events designed to sustain the curiosity of audience members. The speaker painted concrete images that allowed listeners to picture the experience in their minds. The audience could “feel” the pressure of the locking harness; they could experience the sensation of the fifteen-story climb and the 55-degree drop; and they could endure the gravitational forces of the corkscrew and the slinging shot of the final loop. Karen’s strat- egy was successful even though most listeners had guessed the topic before she revealed it. After identifying the credible source of her descriptive statements, the speaker stated a clear two-point thesis at the end of the introduction.
Personal Reference, Compliment, or Reference to the Occasion Another way to begin an introduction is by making a personal reference or by giving a compliment to the audience. Speakers sometimes face audiences they do not know and speak in places they’ve never been. In this kind of situation, it is important for a speaker to establish a common ground. Effective audience analysis will help the speaker mention the appropriate catchwords that will build a relationship with listeners. Notice how David Archambault, president of the American Indian College Fund, used a personal reference in the following introduction:
Thank you and good afternoon. Hau Kola. That is how we Lakota say “Greeting, Friends.” I am happy to be here today to represent Native American people. I am a Ikoeya Wicaska—an ordinary man. We think of an ordinary man as not superior to anyone else or for that matter to anything else. We—all people and all things—are related to each other.
We begin our spiritual ceremonies with the phrase “Oni takuya Oyasi,” which means all my relations. We believe that all people are ultimately part of one nation— the nation of mankind—but that this nation is only one of many nations that inhabit the Mother Earth. To us all living things are nations—the deer, the horses, things that crawl, things that fly, things that grow in and on the ground. All of these nations were created by the same Power, and none is superior to another. All are necessary for life. We are expected to live and work in harmony. In my travels I have learned that many Americans in mainstream society are uninformed or ill-informed about American Indians.
Thesis So let me begin by responding to questions people most often ask about us—or questions people might most like to ask.11
Because he presented his remarks to an audience with few Native Americans, Arch- ambault acquainted listeners with his culture by expressing warm greetings in his native language and by describing the spiritual philosophies of his tribe. The speaker’s key to this effective personal reference was good audience analysis. He understood his audience members and knew the appropriate references needed to help listeners understand his background and culture.
Planning an Effective Introduction 187
In a speech class where you get to know everyone during the semester, you might not need to begin by complimenting the audience. But it is possible that circumstances could require you to make a personal reference. If you are from an environment or culture that is different from that of your listeners, you might find it beneficial to acknowledge this diversity and use it as a device for stimulating interest and curiosity. Like Archambault, a Turkish student once referred to his native country by its language and customs. A speaker from Zimbabwe began by presenting verbal descriptions of wild animals roaming freely over the countryside. And a speaker from the Philippines asked the audience to study her facial features and attempt to guess her country of origin. These speakers used personal references as a strategy to connect to the curiosities of their listeners.
You can also begin your introduction by making a reference to the occasion of the speech. In a speech presented at the Smithsonian Institution, former Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton made the following reference at the opening of a new exhibit honoring the victims and the heroes of September 11:
Thank you, Secretary Powell, for those kind words. I know that our country is so grateful for your dedicated service, and we welcome your leadership and guidance.
… It is an honor to be here with Mrs. Bush to open this deeply moving exhibit. On behalf of all New Yorkers, I want to thank her for her service that she has per- formed in so many ways. But particularly with respect to the words that she has spoken and the example she has set so that all of us have a better idea of how to comfort and help our children….
In this audience today are people who were there at the Pentagon. People who were there at the World Trade Center. People who lost loved ones in those terrible attacks, when the airplanes hit our cherished places of commerce and government and crashed because of our heroes’ efforts in the fields of Pennsylvania. And to each of you, I thank you for being willing to share your memories and to look for- ward because this is not just an exhibit about the past—it does honor the past but it calls on each of us to think deeply about what it means to be an American at the beginning of the 21st century.12
Senator Clinton acknowledged Secretary of State Colin Powell and then thanked First Lady Laura Bush for her service to the nation. Finally, the senator made reference to audience members who lost loved ones in the attacks of September 11 and who were willing to share their memories by donating objects of sentimental value for the exhibit.
In your speech class, you could refer to a serious event such as September 11, Memorial Day, or Veterans’ Day. You could also acknowledge an upcoming holiday like Christmas, Passover, Easter, Independence Day, Thanksgiving, or a special event like Valentine’s Day, Mother’s Day, or even April Fool’s Day. An opening reference to the occasion can be related to the topic and simultaneously gain the attention and inter- est of your audience.
Humor Humor is an excellent way to introduce a speech. Humor can establish goodwill between the speaker and the audience, and a joke or humorous anecdote can relax the audience and put the speaker at ease. Read this short introduction from a speech that Benjamin Alexander, president of Drew Dawn Enterprises, presented to the American Association of Retired Persons:
It was twelve months ago that Mrs. Brown invited me to address this distin- guished group of retired Americans. My role is to speak to you; your job is to
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listen. If you should finish your assignment before mine is completed, and you wish to leave—please do so. But if too many of you begin to depart at the same time, let me know where you are going and if it sounds better than here, I will join you.13
The remarks are genuinely funny, yet they have a serious point. Alexander demon- strates his sensitivity to the speaker-audience relationship and, through the use of humor, tells the listeners that he intends to interest them.
When you think about using humor for an introduction, remember that it can be a two-edged sword. Never start an introduction with humor that can offend, insult, or hurt members of your audience. Beginning with inappropriate sexist jokes, insulting religious stories, or cultural put-downs can seriously backfire and drive listeners away. Once turned off by offensive humor, listeners will be difficult to win back.
Be certain that your humor is appropriate and gets the response you want from your audience. Recognize that humor can be tricky: a joke that flops or an anecdote that is poorly presented will defeat the purpose of the introduction. Be relatively sure that your humor will work by trying it out on friends or classmates in advance.
The Flexible Introduction There will be times when your prepared introduction may not be appropriate. Unex- pected events sometimes create difficult situations, making an audience unreceptive to a presentation. A humorous introduction would not be appropriate if an audience had just heard a wrenching testimonial about drug addiction; a sad story about adoption might not be effective after rollicking humor; an introduction presented to listeners who are freezing might generate very little positive response. You may need to alter your prepared beginning by presenting another introduction that puts listeners in a more receptive mood.
One student, who was among several scheduled to present a classroom speech, had planned a statistical introduction for a speech about recycling. By coincidence, however, another speaker presented almost identical factual materials on the same topic. The stu- dent with the second recycling speech adapted to the unwelcome situation with the fol- lowing impromptu introduction:
My topic is recycling as well. I was glad to see that someone else had an interest in the waste problem. (I was also shocked to see this!) That speech informed us about developments in recycling in different companies today, it showed that recycling is not developed as much here as in other places in the country, and it described the problems with dumping in the sea.
Thesis I’ll try not to reiterate the main points, but rather, I’ll try to reinforce the urgency and the need for recycling.14
Naming the topic is not the most effective way of beginning an introduction, but the situation that Rick Trader encountered demanded quick thinking. The speaker did not let circumstances destroy his confidence. He transformed a negative situation by acknowledging the difficulty, by joking about the coincidence, and even by restating the previous speaker’s thesis. He then reassured listeners that he would provide new information in addition to material already presented. The impromptu introduction worked. Rick’s listeners were positive and supportive and appreciated his different per- spective on the same topic.
Planning an Effective Introduction 189
Combination of Strategies You will often find that it is useful to combine a variety of strategies in your introduc- tion. Chris Koeppen used a combination of approaches to stimulate his listeners’ interest:
When you were a kid, did you ever play with building blocks like this? Well, I used to enjoy them as I’m sure you did. I found blocks to be fun and educational, and I used to create all kinds of structures, like the one I’ve made here. Building these objects helped me to imagine larger structures. Consider, for example, that there are only six little blocks in my pyramid. Imagine that you had to put together 21.2 million of these blocks. Furthermore, instead of small blocks, imagine that each one of them weighed about 5,000 pounds. That’s the type of project that the ancient Egyptians undertook when building the Great Pyramid. What is equally amazing is that the exact reason for its existence remains a mystery.
Thesis Thus the intrigue of the Great Pyramid stems from the facts about its construction and the theories on why it was built.15
The speaker asks the audience a rhetorical question and uses a visual aid to remind audience members of their childhood. The opening statements create suspense, and the small pyramid is an effective visual aid that provides a comparison to the Great Pyramid of Egypt. Finally, Chris mentions some startling statistics and ends with his two-point thesis statement.
If you combine a question with a quote, or a statistic with a startling statement or visual aid, you can develop an introduction both interesting and meaningful to your audience.
Outlining the Introduction
The introduction is part of the informal outline of a speech. Remember that the purpose of the outline is to help you communicate the content of your introduction. Although it is never advisable to mix sentences and topics in the formal outline of the speech body, it may actually be helpful to adopt this practice in your introduction. Here are two different sample outlines you can choose from for your introduction.
The first example demonstrates a one-level outline.
ONE-LEVEL OUTLINE INTRODUCTION
(First sentence) I. “A harness locks you into place.”
(Strategy) II. Suspenseful example
(Specific purpose) III. To provide information about roller coasters
(Thesis statement) IV. “Today I’d like to give you some information that you may not know about the background, design, and safety of these wonderful, whirling thrills.”
Numeral I identifies the very first sentence that you will actually state in your intro- duction. Numeral II simply describes the overall strategy (or strategies) you will be using for the entire introduction, that is, whether the introduction uses an example, quotation, statistics, humor, suspense, personal reference, or combination of strategies. In this instance, the speaker is using a suspenseful example for her introduction. Numeral III is the specific purpose that may or may not be stated in the introduction itself. The specific purpose may be so obvious by the end of the introduction that it does not require a
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formal statement. Numeral IV is the thesis, which should always be clearly stated at the end of the introduction. A one-level outline is uncomplicated and easy to transfer to speaking notes. The disadvantage of this approach is that it requires the speaker to be completely familiar with all the details of the introduction from memory.
Here is a two-level outline that includes all of the important details of the introduction:
TWO-LEVEL OUTLINE INTRODUCTION
(First sentence) I. “A harness locks you into place.”
(Strategy) II. Suspenseful example
A. You move forward and upward to 15 stories
B. You drop 55 degrees as if dropping from a cliff at 60 mph
C. You zoom through 2 loops, turn upside down, gyrate through 200-ft corkscrew, and are thrown like boomerang into final loop
D. You’ve been turned up, down, around 6 times and pressed by gravity 4 times body weight
E. You’ve experienced Vortex—coaster at King’s Island Amusement Park, Ohio (described in Forbes, by Kerry Hannon)
(Specific purpose) III. To provide information about roller coasters
(Thesis statement) IV. “Today I’d like to give you some information that you may not know about the background, design, and safety of these wonderful, whirling thrills.”
You can see that the two-level outline has the same number of points as used in the first example, but it includes more details. The detail obviously helps to keep you on track if you feel you need more information to guide you through your introduction. Use whichever approach your instructor recommends to suit your particular needs.
Purpose of the Conclusion
Just as a speech requires an introduction, a speech also needs a conclusion. The conclu- sion should restate the topic in a memorable way, review the main ideas of the speech, and depending on the type of speech, challenge listeners or present a call to action. Similar to the introduction, the conclusion should be about a paragraph in length.
The Inadequate Conclusion
We’ve often heard ineffective endings like these in speech classes:
Well, uh, I guess, uh, that’s about it! And now in conclusion I’d just like to say that I hope you’ve learned something about holograms. And now for my conclusion, I’ll leave you with a quote: all’s well that ends well.
The Inadequate Conclusion 191
And so finally, in conclusion, I’d like to end by telling you that my last point is that you might want to pick up a kit to test radon gas the next time you’re in the home improvement store. Thank you. Well that’s it.
These are not successful ways to end speeches. One line conclusions are inadequate because they do not remind listeners of the topic or provide a sense of closure. Speakers that use the words “in conclusion” are telling their audiences that the speech is almost over and they can stop listening early. Trite expressions such as “the moral of the story is,” or “to each his own,” detract from the speech and show a lack of effort from the speaker. Ending a speech with “I’d like to leave you with….” is a worn out and clumsy way to set up a quotation, story, or other strategy. Saying “thank you” at the end is not necessary since you are not an invited guest and are required to present the speech as part of your grade. Ending a five- to seven-minute speech with only the words “Well that’s it” is jarring, like dropping off the edge of a flat earth. Sloppy conclusions increase the speaker’s apprehension and make the audience equally uncomfortable. These conclu- sions do not end the speech with any development or decisiveness; they simply show that the speaker is unprepared.
Planning the Effective Conclusion
An effective conclusion gives finality to a speech. It can restate the thesis and remind listeners of main ideas in a memorable way. Like the introduction, the conclusion should be about a paragraph in length or approximately five or six sentences. The speaker must choose a clear method or device that tells the audience that the topic has been resolved. A speaker should also clearly demonstrate in his or her delivery (voice tone, slower rate of speech) that the speech is coming to an end.
You should not introduce new material in the conclusion; rather, you should choose a method that reinforces the information and ideas you have already presented. We will provide brief explanations and examples of a conclusion—summary, quotation, reference to the introduction, challenge and appeal, humor, question, story, and statistics.
Summary of Main Points A summary of the main points can be an effective way to end a speech on complicated or difficult subject matter. Summaries help to remind your audience of the major points and leave them with a sense of order. Meredith Kreczmer summarized her demonstration on creative photography and used a visual aid as reinforcement:
The key to a good picture is not the number of lights or the quality of your camera and lens, but it is your ability to “see” and “think” in terms of pictures. Remember the simple steps on this poster:
First, get to know your camera— the viewfinder shutter release aperture shutter
Second, remember the key techniques—
less is more move around your subject
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look at your background close in on the subject simplicity is never wrong
So snap away, and maybe someday you’ll see your picture in National Geographic!16
The speaker used several visuals and described a number of techniques during the body of the speech. An ordinary verbal summary would have been adequate; instead, Meredith used words and cartoon sketches on a visual aid to remind her audience of important ideas stressed in the speech. The summary included both main and supporting points, because the body of this presentation included only two numerals. In longer, more complex speeches, however, speakers might tend to recap only the main points.
Don’t use a summary conclusion simply because you can’t think of any other approach. Remember that a successful speaker has a good reason for the type of conclu- sion he or she selects. Summaries are good with complex material in informative speeches, but they are not effective when you need to be persuasive and appeal to the audience or challenge their thinking in another way.
Quotation A quotation is often an excellent way to end a speech. A quote can express feelings elo- quently and reinforce the speaker’s ideas. Kim Jones combined an example with a quota- tion to end a speech commemorating Sojourner Truth, a famous African American orator and reformer:
Sojourner Truth fought for increased education, Negro rights, world peace, and women’s rights. But some did not give her the respect that she deserved. Accord- ing to William Jacobs’ Great Lives, the newspapers started a rumor. Because she was six feet tall, they said that she was probably a man disguised as a woman. In order to prove her womanhood, they asked her to show her breasts. With quiet dig- nity, she opened her blouse before the stunned crowd and declared softly: “It is not my shame, but yours, that I must do this.”
Sojourner Truth died in 1883. A quotation in the Jacobs book presents a fitting tribute to the life of this great African American. “With her arms outstretched, and her eyes aflame, she argued in a deep voice about women’s rights: ‘If the first woman God ever made was strong enough to turn the world upside down, all alone, then together we ought to be able to turn it back and get it right side up again and now they are asking us to do it, the men better let them.’”17
Kim cited this vivid example to demonstrate the courage and regal dignity that Sojourner displayed in the midst of degrading and humiliating circumstances. The end quotation resolved the speech effectively by painting an elegant portrait of a strong, compassionate, yet determined woman. Listeners experienced feelings of rage, empathy, and pride as Kim delivered the quotation slowly, with strength and emotion.
Quotations can also be used to provide emotional support in a conclusion. Gary Anderson, whose speech, “In Memory of Juliana McCourt,” was mentioned earlier in this chapter, ended with a moving tribute to those who fell on September 11:
Don’t forget Juliana McCourt and the other little children, parents, brothers, and sisters who died on September 11, taken so unexpectedly from this world. Don’t forget the hundreds of firefighters and policemen who ran into the buildings as the
Planning the Effective Conclusion 193
others were running out. To them I dedicate this poem, written by an unknown American poet. It is entitled “The Last Time.”
“If I knew it would be the last time that I’d see you fall asleep, I would tuck you in more tightly and pray the Lord your soul to keep.
If I knew it would be the last time that I see you walk out the door, I would give you a hug and kiss and call you back for one more…. If I knew it would be the last time I could spare an extra minute or two, I’d
stop and say ‘I love you,’ instead of assuming ‘you know I do.’ … So hold your loved ones close today, and whisper in their ear, tell them how
much you love them, and that you’ll always hold them dear. Take time to say ‘I’m sorry,’ ‘please forgive,’ ‘thank you,’ or ‘it’s o.k….’
And if tomorrow never comes, you’ll have no regrets about today.” God bless little Juliana McCourt.18
The speaker, who began with the story of 4-year-old Juliana McCourt engulfed in the terrorist attacks, ended with a moving tribute expressed in a poem. The poem and final blessing for Juliana honored the victims and conveyed a moral to his listeners and readers. Nothing more needed to be said.
Reference to the Introduction One good way of concluding a speech is a reference to the introduction. This strategy can be used successfully with any type of introduction to promote unity within a presen- tation. Earlier we mentioned an introduction in which student Stephen King shocked his audience by reading a memo from “the dean of the university” requiring drug tests for all students (see pp. 183–184). Steve ended that speech with this conclusion:
I want you to think about the urine cups you have in front of you. How does it feel to be looked upon as a drug user until you can prove your innocence? Suppose that your test came back positive, and you were dismissed from college because of an inexperienced lab technician. Let’s stop treating people as if they’re being spied upon. Let’s keep our Constitution strong and never relinquish our right to privacy. Let’s stop drug testing—now!19
Steve effectively referred to the shocking situation he had presented in his introduc- tion, in which he passed out urine cups and read a fictitious administrative “memo” forc- ing students to take mandatory drug tests. The reference drew his listeners’ attention back to the injustice of the opening situation. He ended by challenging the audience to uphold the right of privacy granted by the Constitution. This strategy is effective because it uses similar details in the beginning and ending of the speech.
Challenge or Appeal In some speeches, especially persuasive speeches, you may need to conclude by issuing a general challenge or a specific appeal to the audience. A challenge is usually a broad, generalized summons to the audience to make some kind of effort to support the topic. A speaker telling the audience “We need to preserve liberty” or “We must protect our children” is using a general challenge in the conclusion.
Notice how Jacquelyn Shields ended her persuasive speech about increasing the length of the school year:
Last week I received notification of my eligibility to become a member of Phi Theta Kappa, the national honor society for community colleges. It’s extremely ironic that
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I received this announcement while I was researching this speech. If I could walk into a Japanese classroom with my Japanese counterpart, a college sophomore, and be tested on my pool of knowledge, I would come up short. Each one of you must also consider how you would compare to your counterpart in Japan. And if you feel that you also would come up short, then you must remember that you are a product of the American educational system.
If you don’t want your children to suffer in the future, I urge you to think about changing the system. Let’s improve our educational process by lengthening the school year. Let’s regain our economic and technological leadership by helping our children to compete with other nations on an equal footing.20
Jackie’s reference to her membership in Phi Theta Kappa gave her credibility as an honor student. But the comparison of American and Japanese educational systems moti- vated listeners to think. In the final paragraph, she directly challenged the audience to improve American education. The challenge is general rather than specific; she allowed listeners to decide for themselves how to carry it out.
You can also end a speech by using a specific appeal to the audience. Unlike chal- lenges, appeals are usually well defined for the audience. When a speaker asks you to vote for someone, give to a specific cause, or support a philosophy or issue, he or she is using a direct appeal.
Notice how Shelley Snyder used appeals to conclude a persuasive speech on racism:
I hope all of you can admit that there still remains a problem of racism and that you can commit to taking a stand against it; that you evaluate yourselves, your precon- ceptions, your prejudices, and yes, your racist views. I really never thought of myself as a racist. I abhor violence. I abhor blatant discrimination and all the inequities I see. But in researching for this speech, I found that, in too many instances, I am racist. But my personal appeal, and the appeal I put before you, is to understand where our attitudes come from and to ask ourselves for a change of heart—to defend the victims of racism, to work to improve legislation for equal justice for all. I am going to hand out a test from a book entitled The Day America Told the Truth. I want you to take it in the privacy of your own home and assess yourself— honestly. Again, I ask you: Take a stand against racism. For in the words of Martin Luther King, Jr., “To ignore evil is to become an accomplice to it.”21
The speaker employed several appeals in this conclusion. Shelley asked listeners to stop racism by honestly evaluating their own views. But she did not simply accuse the audience: the speaker was able to refer to her own racism, making the persuasion even more powerful. Shelley urged listeners to take action by answering questions about racism, and she combined her final appeal with a forceful quotation from Martin Luther King, Jr. The appeals were highly successful with audience members. One listener commented: “Shelley really persuaded me to take a look at my own attitudes.” Another observed: “I’m going to take the test, and if I don’t like what I see, I’m going to do all I can to change. I guess we can’t solve racism until we solve it within ourselves.”
Humor Humor that is appropriate to your audience and the topic can be a good way to end a speech. Telling a joke or brief anecdote can leave your audience in a good mood and can stimulate a spontaneous positive response at the end.
Planning the Effective Conclusion 195
Kimberly Kittle informed listeners how to use substitute remedies for household pro- blems when the appropriate products were too expensive or unavailable. She advocated using hairspray to remove ink stains, mayonnaise as a cure for brittle hair, and vegetable oil to keep car doors from freezing in winter. She ended the speech on a light, but cau- tionary note:
Even though these alternative remedies can work wonders, remember that nothing is 100 percent foolproof, and one always has to be moderate and cautious. While some products can be used to solve common household problems, they can create even worse nightmares. For example, a man who thought he’d found the perfect way to absorb unsightly motor oil in his driveway spread kitty litter on every inch of concrete outside his house. The remedy worked and the oil disappeared, but the poor man ended up creating a monstrous cat litter box that attracted every happy feline in town!22
The audience was enlightened by Kim’s helpful hints and enjoyed laughing at the humorous punch line.
Your humor must be entertaining; stories from joke books or worn-out anecdotes tend to backfire. Be certain that your humor is fresh, spontaneous, and appropriate.
Question You can also conclude by asking the audience a rhetorical question. This approach encourages the audience to “think about it” for a while. Ernestine Cooper presented a convincing
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the ringing words, “Free at
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196 Chapter 11 • Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion
speech about the dangers of aerobic exercise. After providing statistics, examples, and a personal experience to support her point of view, the speaker delivered this conclusion:
If you are thinking about getting into aerobics, listen to your body’s signals. Check out your health clubs. Check out the floors. Wear the appropriate shoes. And most important, check out the instructors. Ask to see those credentials. Where did they receive their training? Will they address your needs on an individ- ual basis? Remember, it is your body, your limbs that need to be protected. You have a right to know. Ask yourself, are the health benefits from aerobic exercise worth the pain? Do you want to wind up as a statistic in the next survey of aerobic injuries?23
Because of Ernestine’s impressive evidence and the questions posed in her conclu- sion, the audience was persuaded to think seriously about the potential harm of aerobic exercise. The final question stimulated a silent “no” response within her listeners.
Story, Illustration, and Example Once you have provided your audience with extensive information about a topic, you can end with a story, an illustration, or a brief example to keep the audience interested and at the same time drive home your point.
Notice how Norma Ferris concluded her speech about the Meals on Wheels program:
But we often think, “Well there’re so many problems in the world, and I’m just one person, what could I do?” With the Meals on Wheels program, there’s no question that you can do something. You—just one person—can make a difference in some- one’s life—someone who would otherwise be forgotten.
Let me tell you about one woman on my route who was a childless widow. It was Eastertime, and while I was delivering her meal I saw someone selling flowers. So I picked up just a small hyacinth and brought it to her. She was so taken with it, she said, “No one but the Meals on Wheels people have treated me kindly in so long—I’m so grateful—I just wish there was something I could do for you.” She thought for a minute, and she went back into her bedroom, and she came out with an old mink stole—it must have been thirty years old. She said, “My husband gave this to me. Would you take it? Because I appreciate what you’ve done so much—I’m very grateful.” Well, I couldn’t take it. But it just goes to show you how important you can be to someone. With the Meals on Wheels program, you can make a difference.24
This brief story was drawn from the speaker’s personal experience and gave the topic a powerful sense of credibility. The emotional quality of the story maintained audience interest and attention to the very end of the speech. Norma communicated the idea that the Meals on Wheels program was not just another charity begging for money. Listeners could see that their involvement would benefit the elderly and would give those volun- teering personal satisfaction and reward.
Statistics A speaker can state or reemphasize an alarming statistic to get the audience to think seriously about an issue. Statistics are often effective when combined with other types of conclusions.
Planning the Effective Conclusion 197
In a speech about battered women, a speaker combined two approaches:
We need to help these battered women. Often we overlook the problem just because it’s not happening to us. Sometimes we overlook the problem because we don’t want to get involved. Twenty women were beaten as I was giving this speech. I hope you all understand the importance of getting involved by hearing, seeing, or assisting someone in need of help. It’s not okay. Don’t let it happen. Help—please.25
Tresse Bailey asked her audience to provide volunteer help to shelters for battered women. She ended her actuating speech with an appeal and a simple but powerful statis- tic. The speaker was careful not to bombard listeners with complicated numbers; she simply related the one statistic referring to the time it took her to deliver the speech. The statistic was a dramatic reminder of the extent of the problem.
Outlining the Conclusion
You can outline the conclusion in almost the same way you outlined the introduction. Here are examples of outlines with one and two levels:
ONE-LEVEL OUTLINE
Conclusion (First sentence) I. “But we often think, ‘Well, there’re so many
problems in the world, and I’m just one person, what can I do?”
(Strategy) II. Story of an elderly lady
TWO-LEVEL OUTLINE
Conclusion (First sentence) I. “But we often think, ‘Well, there’re so many
problems in the world, and I’m just one person, what can I do?” A. Involvement in Meals on Wheels helps B. Volunteers remember forgotten people
(Strategy) II. Story of an elderly lady A. Woman given a flower B. Woman expressed overwhelming appreciation C. Woman offered volunteer mink stole
In both examples, numeral I is the first sentence of the conclusion. Also, numeral II describes the strategy that the speaker employs for the conclusion; that is, whether the entire conclusion is a quote, story, question, summary, challenge, combination of approaches, and so forth. The one-level outline is the abbreviated form that can be used if you really know your conclusion well. The two-level outline provides more detail to help you progress through each major idea in the conclusion. When you are outlining the introduction of your speech, use the approach that is most helpful to you.
198 Chapter 11 • Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion
Speaking Notes for the Introduction and Conclusion
Here are some sample notecards for the introduction and conclusion of the speech, “Raising the Monitor.” Both examples use a two-level outline and can be compared to the notecards of the body presented in Chapter Ten. You can read the entire speech at the end of Chapter Fifteen, “Speaking to Inform.”
INTRODUCTION (1)
I. “March 8, 1862, the confederate ship known as the Virginia virtually decimated a Union fleet of wooden warships off the coast of Newport News.”
II. Example of historical battle scene image with PowerPoint slide to create suspense and interest.
A. Virginia, 263-ft ship, formerly Union Merrimack, salvaged from Norfolk navy yard, destroyed Cumberland, 50-gun Congress, and forced Minnesota to shore
B. Monitor ironclad, 172 ft long, with revolving gun turret appeared C. Two ships passed back and forth for two hours
Intro continued (2)
D. Crews lacked training, firing not effective E. Monitor faster, more maneuverable, but fired every 7 to 8 minutes F. Monitor’s pilothouse hit, ship sheer to shallow water G. Virginia assumed ship was disabled, fired again on Minnesota H. First historical battle between ironclads concluded I. Ingenuity creating Monitor altered modern naval warfare
Thesis: “The historical significance of the USS Monitor led scientists and engineers to overcome extreme challenges that resulted in the successful recovery of the vessel’s turret.”
CONCLUSION (12)
I. “The USS Monitor’s turret will now join the collection of over 400 other Monitor artifacts.”
II. Summary, quotation from Robert Sheridan and President Bush, and a series of descriptive statements regarding Monitor’s significance
A. Summary of main points of body B. Descriptive statements of Monitor’s significance: new information, innovation,
impact on today’s navies C. Quote from Geophysics Professor Robert Sheridan: “History becomes so
much more meaningful when you can see the things that made it.” D. Quote from President Bush: “An important service in these challenging
times.”
Speaking Notes for the Introduction and Conclusion 199
SAMPLE OUTLINE: Raising the Monitor Here is a complete outline of an informative descriptive speech presented by Chaim Verschleisser.26
RAISING THE MONITOR Chaim Verschleisser
Topic: The raising of the Monitor’s turret General Purpose: Informative speech to describe Specific Purpose: To describe the significance of the recovery of the USS Monitor’s
turret Thesis Statement: “The historical significance of the USS Monitor led scientists and
engineers to overcome extreme challenges that resulted in the successful recovery of the vessel’s turret.”
INTRODUCTION
I. (slide 1) “March 8, 1862, the confederate ship known as the Virginia virtually decimated a Union fleet of wooden warships off the coast of Newport News.”
II. Example of historical battle scene image with PowerPoint slide to create suspense and interest A. Virginia, 263-ft ship, formerly Union Merrimack, salvaged from Norfolk navy
yard, destroyed Cumberland, 50-gun Congress, and forced Minnesota to shore B. Monitor ironclad, 172 ft long, with revolving gun turret appeared (slide 2) C. Two ships passed back and forth for two hours D. Crews lacked training, firing not effective E. Monitor faster, more maneuverable, but fired every 7 to 8 minutes F. Monitor’s pilothouse hit, ship sheered to shallow water G. Virginia assumed ship was disabled, fired again on Minnesota H. First historical battle between ironclads concluded I. Ingenuity creating Monitor altered modern naval warfare
III. To inform about the historical significance of raising the USS Monitor’s turret IV. “The historical significance of the USS Monitor led scientists and engineers to
overcome extreme challenges that resulted in the successful recovery of the vessel’s turret.”
BODY
I. History and importance of the Monitor A. Building and launching of Monitor (slide 3) (New York Times, Jul 30, ’02, 1)
1. Built Greenpoint, Brooklyn, and launched into East River, January 30, 1862 2. Rotating turret, distinguishing feature, now standard on modern war ships
B. Specifications (Encyclopedia Britannica Online, Aug 26, ’02) 1. 8-inch-thick iron-plated walls, 9 ft high, 21 ft across, 150 tons 2. Dahlgren-manufactured guns, firing shells/cannonballs 2 miles
C. Impact and effects (New York Times, Jul 30, ’02, 1) 1. Union started building a new class of Monitor-type vessels 2. British Royal Navy canceled construction of wooden warships
The title describes the subject matter.
The stated topic and the general purpose, indicating an informative descriptive speech that enlightens and educates listeners. The thesis previews the three main points in the body.
The specific purpose points to the goal of the speech.
Each part of the speech is clearly labeled as introduction, body, or conclusion. Numeral I is the first sentence—the first line the speaker will say. Numeral II determines the introduction strategy—a historical example presented in a suspenseful manner and PowerPoint slides. Although the specific purpose in numeral III is not stated, quotation marks indicate that the thesis (numeral IV) is taken directly from the speech. The introduction is an informal outline: it includes both sentence and topic form.
200 Chapter 11 • Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion
D. Sinking in a storm (slides 4–5) (USA Today, Jul 22, ’02, D.06) 1. Encountered violent storm off Cape Hatteras New Year’s Eve 2. 10:30 p.m. commander sent lantern distress signal to tow vessel 3. Some men saved; after midnight, lantern disappeared 4. Turret sunk to seafloor, 240 ft. down 5. Missing were 12 crewmen, 4 officers, ship’s mascot, black cat
E. Discovery of wreck (Newsday, May 26, ’87, 3) 1. Duke University expedition found remains 16 miles from Hatteras in 1973 2. Named nation’s first marine sanctuary for protection from treasure hunters in 1975 3. Hull plate and signal lantern recovered in 1977 4. Anchor recovered in 1983
F. Turret the prize, containing answers to 140-year-old questions (Christian Science Monitor, Aug 9, ’02, 3) 1. Turret only way crew could exit ship 2. Turret contained answers to 140-year-old questions 3. Human (and feline) remains, artifacts expected 4. Federal officials made plans for extensive retrievals in 1997
Transition: “Although the recovery and preservation of the Monitor’s turret is such important testimony to our nation’s history, the scientists and agencies involved in its retrieval faced very serious challenges in the process.” (slide 6)
II. Challenges faced in retrieving the turret A. Money major issue
1. Expedition costs were $14 million over past 5 years 2. Teams of scientists tried to reverse artifact deterioration (Atlanta Journal–
Constitution, May 27, ’02, A1) 3. Maintenance is delicate and expensive (Atlanta Journal–Constitution,
May 27, ’02, A1) a. $30 million slated to build USS Monitor Center in Newport News, Va. b. $20 million is cumulative cost to date c. Archaeologists worry about preserving artifacts already raised
B. Time (Atlanta Journal–Constitution, May 27, ’02, A1) (slide 7) 1. Surveys in mid-90s indicate corrosion accelerating 2. Race against time and elements created pressure to complete job 3. Other issues worried scientists about recovered artifacts
a. Continued exposure to temperature changes could accelerate decay b. John Broadwater, NOAA and Monitor Marine Sanctuary manager, quoted:
“Instead of $30 million for a new center, I think we’d rather see $30,000 worth of conservation.”
C. Massive undertaking 1. “One of heaviest artifacts ever lifted from such a depth,” Broadwater quote 2. Operation conducted from 300-ft barge (used for oil operations) 3. Retrieval would take 100 navy divers 24/7 hours for four weeks 4. Currents, weather unpredictable 5. Mixed-gas deep diving tricky 6. Divers forced to cut away 40-ft section of armor belt 7. Lifting device, “spider and claw,” cradled turret to keep from collapsing
Transition: “After months of working through all of these complex challenges (slide 9), Navy divers lifted the 200-ton turret (including its contents) of the USS Monitor from the graveyard of the Atlantic on Monday, August 5, 2002.”
The body of the speech represents the formal outline. Unlike the introduction, the body does not mix topics and sentences. This outline contains topics except where quoted material is introduced. Parentheses provide abbreviated sources, verifying information.
The external transition connects numerals I and II.
This outline includes three levels: Roman numerals, capital letters, and numbers. The three points marked with Roman numerals carry out the thesis statement. In this outline, main points are arranged in a topical sequence.
The transition connects numerals II and III.
Each level is linguistically parallel, all subordinate points clearly support their headings, every item contains only one basic thought, and each level contains a minimum of two items.
Speaking Notes for the Introduction and Conclusion 201
III. The recovery of the turret A. 1862 flag replica Monitor flew during sinking hoisted first (Atlanta Journal–Constitution,
Aug 6, ’02, A1) 1. Quote from Naval Commander Bobbie Scholley: “For a bunch of pretty
tough Navy divers, there was a lot of cheering and hugging going on … I’m glad I was wearing sunglasses so the men couldn’t see me cry.” (Atlanta Journal–Constitution, Aug 6, ’02, A1)
2. Dr. Broadwater quote: “It’s sitting on a barge, and we’re looking at dents that the Virginia put on it March 9, 1862.” (Newsday, Aug 6, ’02, A6)
B. Important discoveries made 1. Bones from 3 human bodies recovered (no cat yet) (New York Times,
Aug 9, ’02, 10) 2. Actual ship differs from plans and drawings (New York Times, Jul 30, ’02, 1)
a. Parts and braces were undocumented b. Presumed gauge was large clock
3. Last positions of clock hands were near 1 and 3 a. Reported by survivor, Paymaster Keeler, who said ship sank at 1 a.m.
(New York Times, Jul 30, ’02, 1) b. Broadwater quoted, “It turns out we didn’t have the big picture.”
4. Numerous mustard bottles discovered at wreck a. Union sailors covered food with mustard b. John Hightower, president of Mariners’ Museum said, “suspect the food
needed all the help it could get.” (New York Times, Jul 30, ’02, 1) 5. Discovery of word Monitor etched across top
a. Discovered by removal of old engine gauge encrustations b. Quote from Curtiss Peterson, chief conservator at Mariners’ Museum,
“I smiled ear to ear…. If it had said something like ‘Toledo,’ we would have been in deep trouble.” (New York Times, Jul 30, ’02, 1)
CONCLUSION
I. “The USS Monitor’s turret will now join the collection of over 400 other Monitor artifacts.”
II. Summary, quotation from Robert Sheridan and President Bush, and a series of descriptive statements regarding Monitor’s significance. A. Summary of main points of body B. Descriptive statements of Monitor’s significance: new information, innovation,
impact on today’s navies C. Quote from Geophysics Professor Robert Sheridan: “History becomes so much
more meaningful when you can see the things that made it.” D. Quote from President Bush: “An important service in these challenging times.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY
“Battle of Monitor and Merrimack.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 26 August 2002 <http://0search.eb.com.library.ccbcmd.edu/eb/print?eu=54701 INTERNET>.
Broad, William J. “Retrieval Efforts Aim to Bring Ironclad Monitor Back to Life.” New York Times 30 July 2002: F1.
Broad, William J. “More Human Remains Found in the Monitor’s Gun Turret.” New York Times 9 August 2002: A10.
Friend, Tim. “Marathon to Raise Monitor.” USA Today 22 July 2002: Life, D06.
Notice that the body includes many different types of supporting materials such as statistics, examples, quotations, and PowerPoint visual aids.
Like the introduction, the conclusion is informally outlined. Numeral I identifies the first sentence of the conclusion. Numeral II states the strategy used— in this case, a summary followed by quotations and descriptive statements.
The speaker has used a wide range of supporting materials from a variety of sources.
References are listed alphabetically, and each source is entered according to correct bibliographic form based on the Modern Language Association.
202 Chapter 11 • Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion
“Historic Monitor Turret Recovered.” Newsday 6 August 2002: News, A06. Jonsson, Patrik. “Through Gun Turret, a Sight on the Civil War.” Christian Science
Monitor 9 August 2002: 3. Lane, Earl. “Research Raising What’s Left of the Monitor.” Newsday 26 May 1987:
Discovery, 03. Tones, Mike. “Success at Last.” Atlanta Journal–Constitution 6 August 2002: News, A1. Tones, Mike. “USS Monitor’s Turret to Be Lifted After 140 Years.” Atlanta Journal–
Constitution 27 May 2002: A1.
Summary The introduction gains the attention of the audience, creates interest and links the topic to the needs of listeners, and introduces the topic. There are a variety of ways to introduce a speech: example, story, or illustration; shocking statement or situation; statistic; question; quotation; suspense; personal reference; humor; a flexible introduction; and a combination of approaches. The conclusion gives finality to the speech and communicates that the topic has been resolved. Types of conclusions are summary; quotation; reference to the introduc- tion; challenge and appeal; humor; question; story, illustration, and example; and statistics.
To outline your introduction, numeral I should be the first sentence, numeral II should identify the strategy you intend to use, numeral III should present the specific purpose, and numeral IV should identify the thesis statement. You can outline the conclusion in the same manner without numerals III and IV. As opposed to the speech body, the outlines of the introduction and conclusion are considered informal: they often combine sentences and topics.
Skill Builders 1. Read the introductions and conclusions to the sample speeches presented in this
text (Chapters Three, Six, Nine, Fifteen, Sixteen, and Seventeen). Describe the different strategies used to begin and end each speech.
2. Select one of the sample speeches presented in this text and outline two additional introductions and two conclusions using different strategies that would be appro- priate to the topic of the speech.
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter Eleven, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www.cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s compan- ion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
Speaking Notes for the Introduction and Conclusion 203
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UNIT FOUR Refining the Appearance
Chapter 12 Using Audiovisual Aids
Chapter 13 Considering Language
Chapter 14 Developing the Delivery
CHAPTER
12 USING AUDIOVISUAL AIDS
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Describe the types of audiovisual aids
2 Identify six guidelines for using the PowerPoint program
3 Describe the guidelines for using audiovisuals effectively in a speech
“It worked fine at home. I don’t understand why it doesn’t work on this computer,” said a frustrated student who was frantically trying to open his PowerPoint file in front of his classroom audience. After clicking on several error messages the program still wouldn’t open and Jared found himself trapped. He asked the instructor: “Can I start over and give my
demonstration next time because it’s going to ruin my speech if nobody can see the actual process of applying a tattoo?” “We don’t have time next class. Did you check out your flash drive last class period or do you have a back up plan?” replied the instructor. “Well no, and I didn’t think to print out any of my slides either. I guess I’ll just have to wing it and you’ll have to imagine the process in your heads.” So Jared started “winging” through his speech as his amused listeners tried to “imagine” the tattooing process without any visuals whatsoever.
Due to his lack of thorough preparation, Jared missed a golden opportunity to add interest and clarity to his speech. He had the right idea because research indicates that visuals can increase the ability of listeners to remember information.1 The PowerPoint
PO OL
N ew
/R EU
TE RS
“ If you use words to rebut avisual image, we know thevisual image is dominant.”—Kathleen Hall Jamieson
206
show could have been an outstanding way to help listeners visually understand the intricate process of applying a tattoo if Jared had only followed his instructor’s advice for checking his visuals or providing a backup plan.
In this first chapter of Unit Four, “Refining the Appearance,” we identify the principal types of audiovisuals and consider their effective use in a speech. We want to give you some suggestions to help you prepare and present visuals successfully and avoid the pitfalls that can occur due to inadequate planning or presentation.
Types of Audiovisual Aids
There are many types of audiovisuals that can help you to communicate ideas more effectively. Audiovisual aids are devices that may appeal to sight and to other senses as well: electronic media, graphs, drawings and photographs, posters or chalkboards, physi- cal objects, or some aspect of the speaker.
Electronic Media There has been a virtual explosion in the use of media by public speakers. College professors use computers projected onto large screens to demonstrate how to navigate complex software programs or intricate websites. Army generals, ministers, elementary schoolchildren, and even Harley-Davidson employees2 use the popular Microsoft PowerPoint program to demonstrate dirty-bomb attacks, display sermon outlines, produce colorful book reports, or explain how to build better bikes. Speakers can also support their presentations by creating audio CDs or digital videos with computerized digital software.
The term electronic media refers to any type of electrical device that can be used as an audiovisual aid. We’ll consider the following electronic media: (1) the data projector and computer, (2) devices for capturing text or media, (3) the document camera, (4) the touch screen monitor or whiteboard, (5) audience response systems, and (6) older technologies.3
The Data Projector and Computer Most modern presentation facilities come equipped with a data projector that is con- nected to a computer and a sound system. DVD/VHS players and document cameras (and other electronic equipment) can be connected and shown through the projector system. Anything on the computer monitor can be displayed through the projector as well as any audio that the computer can play. Spreadsheets, graphs, text documents, slide shows, pictures, videos, websites, and music are among the numerous audiovisuals that a speaker can display through the projector.
Using Data Projectors and Computers Make sure that any media you use for your speech is compatible with the software that is installed on the presentation com- puter. For example, Microsoft Office 2007 files will not open with older versions of Microsoft Office. Most presentation spaces use a traditional 4:3 screen. But some newer software and computers will format media for a wide screen, causing squished images to appear on the screen or portions of a slide to be cut off. This newer software (actually a 16:9 aspect ratio for those who are technology savvy) can also completely reorganize your slide, placing bullet points and pictures in completely different areas than you intended.
Key Terms audience response systems
audiovisual aids commercial use copyright laws data projector document camera electronic media fair use flash or thumb drive iPod laptop MP3 Player overhead projector PowerPoint smart phone touch screen monitor whiteboard
Types of Audiovisual Aids 207
If you are using the Internet for your presentation, be aware that internet speeds vary at different locations and times of day. You might get an unwelcome surprise in the middle of your speech if the YouTube clip you wanted to play for your audience takes forever to download because of high web traffic in late morning or early afternoon. If you intend to stream video or audio from sites such as YouTube, you should prepare before the speech by capturing the media on a flash drive and playing the file locally instead of online. Digital video and audio files can come in many different formats and the presentation computer must have the correct software to play them. For example, a PowerPoint presentation designed on a Macintosh computer at home and presented on a PC may omit some information, change colors, or enlarge fonts. Check out your media well before the speech to see if it works as you intended.
Devices for Capturing Text and Media It is important to prepare any text or media you want to use before your speaking appointment. It is dangerous to assume that a connection to a website such as YouTube will operate flawlessly before or during a speech in front of your audience. You can capture websites, graphics, photographs, videos, or text well before the speech at your home or office to maintain more control over your visuals. One of the easiest and simplest devices to use is a flash drive (often called a thumb drive) that can store numerous amounts of media and/or text and can simply plug into a port on the computer or monitor. You can also use your own personal laptop for the speech. Be sure you are familiar with the display settings and double check that your laptop is compatible with the built-in computer system. Your smart phone can also be used to import video and audio through its USB connection. Audio can be imported through MP3 Players and iPods as well but remember that iPods only work with iTunes.
Using Devices for Capturing Text and Media All of these devices require that you understand how to connect them into the presentation computer system. If you use a flash drive, make sure that there are enough ports available on the computer and that all ports are not already dedicated for other functions. Be certain that laptops, smart phones, iPods, or MP3 players have the correct connectors and receptacles and that your devices work properly. Always have a test or rehearsal with your technology before your speech to check if everything is in working order or to make alterations and substitutions if necessary. If you need assistance, ask a media specialist for help with the technology.
The Document Camera Although overhead transparency projectors are still used in some institutions, a newer device called a document camera replaces this older equipment. The document camera is connected to the data projector and will display anything you place beneath the camera in full color. Document cameras range from the most basic to the more complex devices that can accommodate both solid page documents and even your old clear transparencies.
Using a Document Camera Document cameras are easy to use. Make sure to test the equipment, check connections, and know how to operate the various functions of the device before your speech. Some of the least complex units may only have zoom, bright- ness, and lamp controls, but the more sophisticated devices may have rotate, freeze, and switchable lamp buttons. Practice using the media so that you can integrate the docu- ment camera smoothly into your presentation. If you need a brief demonstration of this technology, ask a media specialist to help you.
208 Chapter 12 • Using Audiovisual Aids
The Touch Screen Monitor or Whiteboard The touch screen monitor or whiteboard allows you to use digital ink to write on any digital media. These systems come with special pens that let you interact with the touch screen or whiteboard. This hardware and software allow you to highlight words on a screen or even circle important information on a slide or picture. These “mark-ups” can then be saved and made available to your audience after the presentation.
Using a Touch Screen Monitor or Whiteboard A bonus to using a touch screen instead of a chalkboard is that anything that is written down can be saved and viewed later. Also, instead of having two slides of a picture, one zoomed out and another zoomed in for finer detail, you can use the interactive whiteboard to zoom in on the larger picture, creating a great special effect. The whiteboard can also be useful if the projector screen is covering the chalkboard. You can open a blank docu- ment or slide and use the pen on the touch screen as a virtual whiteboard in place of the chalkboard. This system is very sophisticated and it is suggested that you practice with it well before your speech and have a media specialist help you understand its function and use.
Audience Response Systems Audience Response Systems are interactive systems that will let you poll or quiz an audience live and show immediate results on the data projector. These systems are nor- mally tied into a slide show program such as PowerPoint. For example, you can ask an audience if they agree, are neutral, or disagree with a controversial issue such as gay marriage and immediately compare the three responses in a color bar graph projected on the screen.
Using the Audience Response System A speaker needs to know how to operate these interactive systems and listeners need to have a remote device known as a “clicker” to respond to questions. In a small audience, clickers can easily be circulated before a speech, but there may not be enough devices available in a larger gathering. You should research the location of your speech to find if such technology is available. Most venues require advance notice if you wish to use such tools so they can temporarily install them and connect the extra hardware to the computer.
Older Technologies Dedicated DVD/VHS players are being supported less and less. Computers now come with built-in DVD and CD players and software and VHS players and video- tapes are almost never manufactured or supported. Check with the facility to make sure that they support VHS and have the proper hardware and software on the com- puter to play a DVD. Although overhead projectors are quickly being replaced by document cameras, overheads are still used in some speech settings. Remember to place your information on acetate transparencies and check to see if the audito- rium has the proper screens, extension cords, and outlets for this equipment. Slide projectors are almost never used because of the computer and the convenience of programs such as PowerPoint. Similarly, film projectors are seldom used because so many films have been converted to DVDs. However, if you need a historic film clip that you can’t find on DVD, check to see if the speaking facility has a film projector and make sure it still operates.
Types of Audiovisual Aids 209
Guidelines for Using the PowerPoint Program>>> The Microsoft PowerPoint program is used extensively in public speeches, classrooms, corporate boardrooms, institutions, and government. Speakers choose PowerPoint because the program is easy to learn, and users can create slides, lettering, and gra- phics that are visually appealing and professional in appearance. A good PowerPoint slide show, however, does not ensure that a presentation will be effective. Some speakers also incorrectly believe that a bad PowerPoint performance is better than having no visual aids at all. Unfortunately, there are a lot of mistaken notions about speeches with PowerPoint and numerous ineffective PowerPoint presentations that do nothing but detract from speeches. Although these guidelines do not teach you the details of the program itself, they offer some tips and sound advice to help you develop and deliver PowerPoint presentations that will be successful and enhance the quality of your speeches.
1. Know Your Options The PowerPoint program gives you the flexibility to create numerous types and forms of slides and/or graphics to reinforce your presentation. If you are delivering a speech that requires statistical evidence, you can simply enter your data into a predesigned for- mat that will display the numbers on professional-looking visuals such as line, pie, or bar graphs. You also have the flexibility of selecting different fonts, colors, backgrounds, and graphics to help lines of text or art stand out prominently. In addition, you can download art, photographs, video, and audio from the Internet; transfer files from
Television commentators
use computer technology
to project winners and losers
on election night.
AP Ph
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Al ex
Br an
do n
210 Chapter 12 • Using Audiovisual Aids
digital cameras or from a personal computer; or copy pictures, drawings, and illustra- tions by using a scanner connected to the computer. (See “Copyright Cautions” at the end of this chapter.) The program allows you to design the colors and styles of your slides, or you can choose from numerous templates already designed for you. You may also want to customize the content of each slide and “fly in” various bulleted or numbered lines of text that you may wish to emphasize at a particular moment in your speech. You can add sound effects as you fly in different lines of text and even time the slides to run automatically in sequence as you speak. The program is easy to use and provides numerous choices for the development of outstanding visuals.
2. Keep Visuals Simple A student once used more than thirty different PowerPoint slides in a five- to seven-minute speech. Each slide contained numerous special effects as well as “whoosh” and “screeching tire” sounds when each line of text was introduced. In addition, the student used a different design or template for each slide. The result was a hodgepodge of competing designs, clashing colors, and distracting noises. It is helpful to remember that an effective PowerPoint presentation is simple, clear, and easy to understand. Avoid using numerous sentences or long paragraphs on Power- Point slides. Listeners often feel overwhelmed if they are forced to view endless writ- ing projected onto a screen. Audiences retain concise bulleted words or phrases, photographs, illustrations, and highlighted graphs more easily than they recall lengthy script. When designing lettering, keep fonts large with sharp color contrasts between the lettering and the background so that the text is easy to read. Be consis- tent with the style and content of slides. If you are unsure about your own design, select an eye-catching and appealing style from the predesigned templates. Be consis- tent when using effects such as custom animation, and use sound sparingly if at all. Use enough slides to clarify concepts and reinforce ideas, but not so many that listen- ers are distracted and overwhelmed. Remember that less is often better than more. Your visuals are there to support your speech—not to upstage the show.
3. Know How to Use the Program During the Speech When you are delivering a speech that is supported with PowerPoint slides, make sure that you know how to operate the system smoothly and efficiently. Understand how to highlight the first slide, and know the icons or files to click in order to begin the slide show. Also know how to navigate forward and backward through the pro- gram by using the mouse and arrow keys or end the slide show with the escape key. Needless problems can occur when speakers fumble with the program, click on the wrong icon, or bring up an unwanted menu or file. One speaker started with the wrong slide of her presentation, and another began by clicking on a file used to con- struct a new slide. These embarrassing problems occurred in front of waiting listeners and were largely the result of insufficient knowledge, practice, and preparation. To avoid these difficulties, practice extensively with the PowerPoint program and make it work for you successfully.
4. Be Sure that the Technology Is Set Up and Working Properly In the opening example, Jared’s visuals didn’t work because he made the false assumption that he didn’t need to test them before the speech. To avoid these pro- blems, prepare, plan, and rehearse with your visuals just like any other aspect of your presentation. Check out your electronic media a day or two before your speech. Make sure that all elements of the computer and projector system are working properly by
Types of Audiovisual Aids 211
inspecting the connections, monitor, keyboard, mouse, projector controls, and pro- jection screen. Test your flash drive (or other capturing device) on the computer you will be using for your speech and open your media files, making sure that every- thing functions as planned. Examine the fonts, color, video, graphs and/or photos and be certain that everything appears the same on the classroom computer as it appeared when you designed the visuals on your personal computer.
If you are uncomfortable with this technology, get a media specialist to help you. Many institutions have media departments with technology experts who can set up computer systems or deliver “smart carts” with laptop computers already connected to projectors. Whether the media is set up by the speaker or a specialist, it is still the speaker’s responsibility to determine if the system works. Imagine how embarrassed you would feel if you pressed the mouse and nothing happened because the keyboard was not connected, or you inserted a disc or flash drive that couldn’t function because the PowerPoint program was not compatible with your version or it had never been installed on the computer. Check, double-check, then check again. Make sure a problem that can be easily corrected before the speech doesn’t create an awkward moment like Jared’s during your speech in front of an audience.
5. Have a Backup Plan If the Media Fails You may have checked the media thoroughly and are satisfied that the PowerPoint program is functioning smoothly as you begin your slide show. But as we all know, in the world of technology, malfunctions can occur that we are unable to control. The computer freezes up, a projector bulb burns out, or the program ceases to operate for some unknown reason. Instead of interrupting your speech and fumbling with key- boards and cables in front of your listeners, it is helpful to be prepared with a backup plan. One of the easiest ways to resolve computer malfunctions is to have all of your PowerPoint slides printed out ahead of time. If your classroom is equipped with a document camera, you can simply place the printouts of your slide on the device. If there is an overhead projector, you will need to print out your slides on transparen- cies. A backup plan takes forethought and preparation. Whether you use printouts, transparencies, videos, or posters as a substitute, you must prepare your speaking situation in advance to have the necessary equipment in place to accommodate your alternative. Unlike Jared’s lack of preparation, a backup plan will salvage your presentation and still allow the audience to understand the concepts you are trying to communicate.
6. Consider the Audience at All Times When you set up media for a PowerPoint presentation, consider where your listeners are seated in the room. Make sure that the monitor, computer, and projector do not block the speaker or the projection screen, and rearrange the seating if necessary before your speech so that every audience member will have a clear and unobstructed view. Also place the monitor facing the lectern or the area where you are speaking so that you can see the slide show without having to turn away from the audience to look at the screen. In addition, position the mouse and keyboard so that they are easy to use without forcing you to stretch or walk back and forth, causing a distrac- tion. Examine the angles, lines of sight, and positions of seating relative to the screen to determine if every listener can see all of your slides easily. The more you plan and prepare your visuals in advance, the more likely it is that you will have a successful speech and your listeners will have a positive experience.
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Graphs Suppose that you wanted to show a comparison of female cosmetic surgeries with male plastic surgical procedures in the year 2008. You could state the raw numbers: there were 1,600,700 cosmetic procedures for women and 863,700 total cosmetic procedures for men.4 Although the audience might be interested, they would soon forget the information because they are only hearing the numbers rather than seeing them. Another way to present the information is by constructing a graph to display the data visually. Graphs are helpful in explaining trends, showing comparisons, or indicating portions of a whole. We will consider three basic types of graphs that can reinforce information in a speech: the bar, line, and pie graph.
Bar Graph A bar graph is helpful when you want to compare and contrast several causes or categories, such as the major causes of divorce or the main causes of heart disease. Bar graphs allow your audience to visualize similarities or differences among categories at a glance.
The left bar graph in Figure 12.1 shows that Americans prefer situation comedies rather than reality TV programs. The right bar graph indicates that only 17 percent of those sampled have ever voted in a TV talent contest like “American Idol” or “Dancing With the Stars.”
Just a quick glance tells you that 52 percent in the sample favor sitcoms and 82 percent have never voted in a TV talent show. Bar graphs like these are relatively easy to construct and easy to read. You can use black on white with gray shading to indi- cate different categories, or you can highlight specific categories with color. Your bar graph must be clear and understandable so that listeners realize how it supports your point.
Line Graph The line graph displays upward or downward trends over a period of time. Speakers use these graphs to show an increase or decrease in topics such as crime, dis- ease, teenage suicide, income, inflation, or interest rates.
The line graph in Figure 12.2 shows the increase in the use of social networking sites among all age groups from 2005 to 2010. A speaker can show this visual to explain that although young adults are the heaviest users of social networking sites, older inter- net users have dramatically increased their usage of these sites during a five-year period.
Reality TV
*Figures may not total 100 due to rounding.
Do you prefer to watch reality TV or sitcoms?
Have you ever voted for a contestant in a televised talent
contest such as “American idol” or “Dancing with the stars?”
Sitcoms Neither Yes No 0
10
20
30
40
50
60%
29%
52%
19%
17%
82%
0
20
40
60
80
100%
Almost twice as many Americans prefer sitcoms to reality television (left). Less than 20 percent have actually voted in televised talent contests such as “American Idol” (right).
FIGURE 12.1 Americans Prefer Sitcoms Over Reality TV
Source: Marist College Institute for Public Opinion, October 2009 (left); Pew Research Center, January 2010 (right)
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Pie Graph The pie graph displays portions of a whole sum. Pie graphs are helpful to speakers who want to show numbers or percentages. Where our tax money goes, how individuals spend their income, the racial makeup of the U.S. population, or public opinion are among the many subjects that lend themselves to pie graphs.
A speaker can use the pie graphs in Figure 12.3 to show that a sampling of Ameri- cans believe that cyber and physical bullying are equally dangerous, that parents should bear the responsibility in dealing with bullying, and that bullying is more of a problem now than in the past.
Developing Graphs Before constructing any of these graphs, make sure that you clearly understand the information and the statistics in order to report the data accurately. The percentage of crimes, for instance, is a far different concept from the number of crimes. Know what your data are saying so that you will choose a graph appropriate for displaying the information.
When you understand the data, construct graphs that are simple and easy to read. Don’t make the charts busy by drawing too many lines or numbers that can confuse listeners. Use color to emphasize different categories and bold lettering to convey meaning. Label the graph with direct and uncomplicated wording. Keep in mind that many computer graphics programs such as PowerPoint, discussed previously, can help you design line, pie, or bar graphs that are of professional quality and can enhance your speaking presentation. Remem- ber that the purpose of a graph is to help the audience understand concepts quickly.
Illustrations, Photographs, and Pictures Imagine a speaker trying to explain how to use a computer keyboard without a diagram or attempting to describe the terrorist attacks of September 11 without a picture. With- out visuals, the audience would not understand the impact of the speaker’s message. Topics like these require communication in visual as well as verbal channels of commu- nication. Drawings, photographs, and pictures enable listeners to visually complete their understanding of events and procedures.
September 2005
May 2008
November 2008
Percentage of Internet Users Who Use Social Networking Sites (SNSs)
(by age group, 2005–2010)
Young adults continue to be the heaviest U.S. users (86 percent) of social networking sites, but over the past year the biggest growth in usage was among older users. Nearly half of Americans ages 50–64—and a quarter of those 65 and older—now use SNSs.
April 2009
December 2009
May 2010
0
20
40
60
80
100%
Age group
18–29 30–49 50–64 65+
FIGURE 12.2 Social Networking Exploded Among Older Users
Source:MaryMadden, “Older Adults and Social Media,” Pew Research Center, August 2010.
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Illustrations can be used to explain complicated topics such as the AIDS virus or to portray elementary procedures like the basic tennis serve. Figure 12.4 describes in a sim- ple diagram how the AIDS virus attacks the T cells of the body’s immune system. The visual in Figure 12.5, showing how to give injections properly, was designed by a student who used a desktop publishing system. And in Figure 12.6, a speaker used very elemen- tary sketches to demonstrate the seven basic body positions in the tennis serve.
You don’t have to be an artist to draw effective illustrations like these. The principal ingredient that contributed to each drawing was not talent, but time. Whether you are an artist or simply know how to use the computer effectively, be willing to spend the time necessary to create similar visuals that are neat, simple, and clear.
Photographs and pictures also provide listeners with vivid images. A speaker who describes starvation can generate more sympathetic feedback by showing a photograph
More than 60 percent of adults say bullying is more of a problem today than it was in the past. Moreover, nearly 70 percent say that cyberbullying is just as dangerous as physical bullying. Half of adults say parents bear the primary responsibility in dealing with bullying, while fewer than 40 percent say schools should handle it.
Equally dangerous
69%
Didn’t answer/ Don’t know
3%
Cyberbullying 7%
Physical bullying
21%
Which is more dangerous: physical bullying or cyberbullying?
Who should be responsible in dealing with bullying?
Is bullying more or less of a problem today than in the past?
Didn’t answer/ Don’t know
6%
Didn’t answer/ Don’t know
3%
Police 5%
Parents 50%
Less 9%
Same 27%
Schools 39%
More 61%
FIGURE 12.3 Bullying Is More of a Problem Today, Adults Say
Source: “Most Adults Say Physical Bullying, Cyber Bullying Are Equally Dangerous,” Rasmussen Reports, October 2010.
Types of Audiovisual Aids 215
FIGURE 12.4 AIDS Virus Attack
FIGURE 12.5 Proper Techniques for Giving Injections
Dr aw
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of a hungry child. One student who delivered a speech about sex in advertising displayed several magazine ads that used strong sexual images to sell products. And a student who described several types of drive-in businesses showed the audience a photograph (shown on page 219) of a drive-through church.
Using Pictures Pictures and photographs promote curiosity and interest, but they must be large enough for the audience to see. Wallet-size pictures or tiny magazine photo- graphs will not support a speech unless you make some adjustments. You can have the visuals professionally enlarged or photographed and made into slides—procedures that are often expensive. If you have a scanner connected to a computer, you can easily scan photographs into the PowerPoint program to create a slide show. Be willing to take the trouble to develop and present these important visuals effectively so that all members of your audience can view them without difficulty.
FIGURE 12.6 Seven Positions of Tennis Serve Dr
aw in
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Ge or
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Posters, Flipcharts, and Chalkboards Posters, flipcharts, and chalkboards are also useful tools to help you convey ideas. Posters can support the steps of a process, reinforce main headings of a speech, or explain unfamiliar concepts. The poster in Figure 12.7 identifies three symbols used in weather forecasting. This visual is simple yet eye-catching because the speaker used different colors to coordinate symbols with the appropriate explanations.
Flipcharts can be prepared in advance or used in interactive speaker-audience situa- tions where listeners are reporting on group tasks or accomplishments. The speaker can process and synthesize feedback from the audience, write down key points with a marker, and quickly move on to other items by turning over large connected sheets of paper positioned on an easel.
Unlike prepared posters, the chalkboard gives you a great deal of flexibility as you are speaking. You can quickly write down unfamiliar terms, list the principal steps of a process, or draw a simple explanatory sketch.
Using Posters, Flipcharts, and Chalkboards If you decide to draw posters by hand, prepare them carefully. Lettering should be neat, large, and bold for easy reading. If you present the speech in a room that is twenty-five to thirty feet long, it is a good idea to use letters on your poster that are at least 1 inch high.5 You also need to leave plenty of space next to words and between lines of print, so that listeners can see the entire poster in a glance. Know where you are going to place your posters— taped to an easel, tacked to a bulletin board, held by a volunteer—so they will be easy to use during the presentation.
A flipchart can be helpful if the speaker knows how to use it efficiently. If you need to write on the chart as you speak, stand beside the chart at an angle so you can see both the easel and the audience as you write. When you finish, turn around, facing the audi- ence, and move away from the chart so your audience can see the visual easily. If your chart is already prepared, you can look toward the audience and flip each page as you move from one topic to another. Avoid problems such as tearing or fighting with pages as you turn the charts or fumbling with markers that are too dry or that lack contrast with the background. As always, practice thoroughly with flipcharts to ensure a smooth and successful presentation.
Even though you can be more spontaneous with a chalkboard, you still need to know how to employ it effectively. We’ve all suffered through the class where the teacher scrawls numerous concepts on the board with one hand and erases everything with the other asking, “Did you all get that?” Avoid this problem by practicing with a
FIGURE 12.7 Weather Symbols Us
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chalkboard. Don’t scribble down random ideas; write phrases neatly. If you need to draw a diagram, make sure it is clear and precise. Take the necessary time to plan your visuals by placing information on the board before you speak, or writing ideas carefully while you are speaking. And allow the audience time to absorb the material before you erase it.
We’ve described the chalkboard in case you need it for brief or incidental use in a speech. Using a chalkboard is not recommended, however, in a presentation such as a demonstration or a descriptive speech that is primarily dependent upon visuals. Visuals in these speeches require a great deal of time to plan effectively. Don’t use
Displaying objects can help
speakers to convey ideas
quickly and motivate
audiences to listen.
During an informative
speech about drive-through
businesses, a student used
this photograph of a
“convenience” church.
A. Ra
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the chalkboard as a shortcut for preparation; be willing to spend the time needed to create worthwhile visual aids.
Models and Objects As a speaker, you can generate interest and stimulate curiosity with scale models, parts of objects, or the actual objects themselves.
Scale Models Scale models reduce large objects or complicated procedures for easy visualization. College instructors use models of the eye or the heart to help students understand vision or circulation. A student once used a model of a miniature volcano to explain how an actual eruption occurs.
Scale models create interest, but they must be large enough for the audience to see. A speaker attempted to demonstrate a new trash removal system that had been selected by several cities. Problems surfaced, however, when the speaker took out three tiny toy trucks from her handbag and pointed to the rear-end loader, the wheels, and the cab. Listeners leaned forward and squinted in an effort to follow the process, but they soon gave up because of the inadequate visuals. Don’t use scale models that are too small or too intricate; make sure that objects are large and practical enough for the audience to see and to comprehend easily.
Parts of Objects When it is impractical to bring the actual object, you can use a sam- ple or a cross section. A student demonstrated how to refinish furniture by displaying several pieces of wood in various stages of completion. Another student used a small cross section of a studded wall to inform listeners how to wire an electrical outlet. And another speaker used pieces of shrubbery and small fir branches to explain how to do professional landscaping. Because it was not possible to bring in a china cabinet, half a house, or a nursery, each speaker sensibly chose to use parts of the object that could be managed easily in a classroom.
Actual Objects When listeners see a life-size visual aid, they are quickly motivated to listen. One student explained the process involved in decorating a wedding cake. Toward the end of the speech, she revealed a perfect three-tiered cake complete with a miniature bride and groom on top. The cake was an aromatic visual, appealing to the sense of smell as well as to sight. A skydiver showed listeners his parachute to demon- strate how to fold it before a jump. An antique gun collector brought out several muskets to explain how American colonists used these firearms during the Revolutionary War.
Each of the speeches described was interesting. But the life-size visuals required a great deal of planning. The fragile wedding cake had to be transported to the classroom. The sky- diver had to ask listeners to sit in a large semicircle to provide enough space to fold his para- chute. And the collector had to use a special gun rack to display the large muskets effectively. If you want to use life-size objects, you must realize they will take some added effort in addition to the standard organization of a speech. Don’t exhaust your energies on the visuals alone; research, structure, and delivery remain the focal point of a public speech.
You as a Visual Aid Your own body movements, gestures, and actions can serve as visual aids in a speech. Imagine how body movements could simulate aerobics or weight lifting and how gestures could illustrate sign language or skin care. One student demonstrated how actors apply theatrical makeup to enhance their appearance under intense stage lights. The speaker’s face and hands were the visuals. He came prepared with a small mirror that allowed him to put on layers of makeup while he explained the steps of the process.
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Five Guidelines for Using Audiovisual Aids>>> 1. Talk to the Audience, Not to the Visual Aid Some speakers become so involved with their visuals that they quickly forget to look at listeners. One classroom speaker turned her back and talked to her Power- Point slides on the projection screen instead of facing the monitor and the audi- ence. If you have practiced adequately, you shouldn’t need to look at your visual. Remember that visuals reinforce main ideas; they won’t speak for themselves, and they are not substitutes for communication. Your job as a speaker is to present visuals to your listeners and to help audience members understand them. Use a laser pointer, easel, table, or some other device that helps you to communicate your visuals effectively. Maintain frequent eye contact with listeners, and, above all, talk to your audience—not to the visual.
2. Don’t Pass Objects Around During the Speech A student who collected fossilized rocks described each specimen and then passed them to listeners during his presentation. The speaker had about twenty-five different examples, and listeners concentrated on looking at each rock and handing it to the next person. The problem, of course, was that the speaker lost listeners’ attention because of the numerous interruptions. Develop other ways to convey visuals. The fossil collector, for instance, could have taken photographs of his examples and used PowerPoint slides to display the objects. Keep the attention of the audience focused on you, the speaker, and avoid circulating materials that could be distracting.
3. Be Sure that the Audience Can See Your Visuals Although it may seem obvious that visual aids need to be large enough for everyone to see, well-intentioned speakers sometimes take audience members for granted and neglect this important rule. Unprepared speakers often use photographs, objects, or scale models that are too small, fonts on slides that are too tiny, lettering without enough background contrasts, posters with thin or small lettering, or visuals that are obstructed. One speaker who explained how to make baklava, a Greek dessert, placed all the materials and ingredients directly in front of the mixing bowl, blocking the entire demonstration. The hard work that went into researching and structuring the speech was wasted because of the poorly executed visual aids.
In addition to these problems, listeners may not be able to see visuals due to the angles of the speaker’s lectern, the easel, TV monitor, data projector, or the room arrangement. If even one or two people in the audience can’t see comfortably, the speaker should have planned the presentation more carefully. Depending on the setting, the speaker may need to readjust the visual aid, rearrange the seating area, or ask listeners to move forward. It is the speaker’s responsibility to prepare visuals and to plan an envi- ronment in which listeners can easily see everything a speaker wants to communicate.
4. Use Visuals at the Right Psychological Moment If you have a lot of audiovisual aids, you may need to set them up before the speech so that you don’t cause unnecessary disruptions during the presentation. But in some cases, you may want to wait and reveal your visuals at the right psychological moment, that is, when the audience will be most interested.
For example, if you have three different charts, you might decide to tape all of them to the chalkboard prior to the speech. The problem with this arrangement,
Types of Audiovisual Aids 221
While gestures and movements may seem easier to convey than other visuals, they require preparation. If you are demonstrating a detailed process such as a golf swing or a karate move, your gestures and movements need to be precise and well defined. These actions should communicate so well that audience members could repeat them if necessary. Avoid sloppy gestures or vague actions that lack clarity and create confu- sion. Run through the speech several times to practice the movements you intend to use. Refine and improve these actions until you feel confident that they will commu- nicate effectively to your audience.
In addition to the speaker, a volunteer from the audience can also be a visual aid. For example, administering the Heimlich maneuver, bandaging an arm, dancing an Irish jig, or throwing a curveball are procedures that could require another person’s presence. When you work with an assistant, be sure that the volunteer knows exactly what to do. Rehearse the speech several times, so that both speaker and assistant are comfortable with planned actions and motions. Don’t call on a volunteer from the audience unless you want a cold response. This uninformed assistant could actually be a detriment to you. Be sure that the “volunteer” really wants to help you, is adequately prepared, and will contribute positively to your speech.6
however, is that the audience will read the visuals before you want them to, and they may not listen to your speech because of the visual distraction. It would be more effective to develop a flipchart that allows you to reveal each poster as you actually talk about it. This method generates curiosity and helps to control the attention of your audience. Speakers can apply the same principle to a single poster by covering all of the information and then removing one portion at a time. One of the advan- tages of computer graphics software such as PowerPoint is that the speaker can use custom animation to “fly in” lines of text or art and introduce slides at the precise moment that the speaker is presenting the concept.
What is important is that you carefully think through how and when to use posters, charts, slides, and objects during a speech. Talk about objects when you dis- play them; and as a rule, don’t reveal visuals before you verbally refer to them. Equally important, it is usually more effective to remove visuals when you have finished referring to them. If you keep projections on a screen or objects in front of listeners, you’ll have a hard time directing their attention to other visuals or back to your speech.
5. Be Clear at All Times Although audiovisual aids can support a presentation, they cannot speak for you. Be clear both verbally and nonverbally. Use clear explanations and precise descriptions to integrate visuals successfully into a speech. Explain the purpose of slides, posters, or charts: point out relationships, show comparisons, or indicate contrasts in data. Use precise gestures when referring to objects or describing procedures. A laser pointer or the keyboard mouse can help you identify items on a photo, chart, or PowerPoint illustration. Draw conclusions from graphs or informational lists, and relate audiovisuals to your ideas. Describe objects precisely, and reinforce physical actions or motions with verbal clarifications. When you employ photographs and pic- tures, integrate them smoothly by emphasizing significant areas or details. If you use a data projector, DVD player, or other electronic media, introduce the audiovisual seg- ment with the appropriate verbal descriptions. Provide brief explanations of slides to amplify concepts and ideas. Your goal in using audiovisuals is to help listeners under- stand how they support your presentation.
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Copyright Cautions When selecting visual aids or other materials from the Internet, books, or periodicals, it is important to consider how and where you are going to use them in a speech. Strict copyright laws govern the use of reproduced materials and you need to be familiar with the rights associated with the images you intend to show in a speech. Copyright laws allow fair use of reproduced materials for criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research. So, if you have downloaded images, videos, or print material for viewing in your classroom speech, you are probably under the “fair use” provision of the copyright law and you will be fine.
But if you charge admission to your speech, advertise or sell a product, and will ben- efit economically as a result of the copyrighted material, it is considered commercial use and you may very well need to obtain written permission that could involve paying a royalty fee. Failure to obtain permission for commercial use could result in fines or even expensive lawsuits.
Although presenting copyrighted material in a classroom speech is usually consid- ered fair use, it is important to familiarize yourself with copyright laws to avoid copyright violations in other speech settings.7
SAMPLE SPEECH: How Do Airplane Wings Produce Lift?
The following demonstration speech was presented by a student in the basic speech course. Mark Yingling was a licensed private pilot and aviation student who wanted to share his passion for flight with the members of his audience. The speech not only repre- sents effective research, organization, and delivery but also illustrates how a speaker used PowerPoint software to develop an effective slide show that was shown with a computer projector.
AN INFORMATIVE SPEECH TO DEMONSTRATE Mark Yingling
1. (slide 1) Good afternoon. My name is Mark Yingling. Today I’d like to talk to you about airplane wings, but more specifically, how airplane wings produce lift. I’d like to begin with a quote from Leonardo da Vinci (slide 2): “For once you have tasted flight, you will walk the earth with your eyes turned skyward, for there you have been, and there you long to return.” Da Vinci was fascinated with flight five hun- dred years ago, and Jeppesen wrote a book called the Private Pilot Manual, and it describes him as having a manuscript with sketches and drawings of flying machines.
2. To fly, you need a force called “lift,” and that’s what I’m going to talk about today. (shows slide 3) We’re going to talk about three components of lift: we’re going to talk about airfoil design, we’re going to talk about Sir Issac Newton’s Third Law of Motion, and we’re going to talk about Daniel Bernoulli’s principle.
1. The speaker begins his introduction. Because Mark’s classroom audience already knows him, it is not necessary to begin with a personal greeting. It would be more effective to start with the quote, “For once you have tasted flight …”
2. The speaker presents his three-point thesis statement. It is not necessary to “announce” the thesis with “I’m going to talk about.”
Types of Audiovisual Aids 223
3. So let’s begin and examine the airfoil. (slide 4) What is an airfoil? An airfoil is any sur- face that is designed to produce lift when it is interacting with air. On an airplane, a wing is an airfoil and a propeller is an airfoil. If you ever get a chance, look at a propel- ler: it looks very similar in shape and design to a wing. Now I brought my little model here (displays a model airplane). The parts of an airfoil: we have a leading edge, and we have a trailing edge, and this curvature here is called “camber.” Now when the air is moving over the wings, it has to follow this camber, and it is directed downward to increase (slide 5) what we call downwash, and it is this downwash that helps to pro- duce lift. The best analogy I can give you is to take a garden hose and hold it at an angle at the ground and let it go full blast, and you can feel that it wants to push up.
4. Okay, next let’s talk about Sir Isaac Newton’s Third Law of Motion. (slide 6)
5. Isaac Newton was a seventeenth-century physicist-mathematician, and his Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction—everybody has heard of this one before. Irvin Gleim wrote a book called the Pilot Handbook, and he best describes this as the deflection of air. Now to understand this, let’s see how the wing is attached to the plane (slide 7). Let’s begin by drawing a line through
SLIDE 1 SLIDE 2
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3. Mark introduces the first numeral of the body.
He uses a model airplane to demonstrate the dif- ferent parts of the wing.
Mark uses an effective analogy to a garden hose.
4. The external transition is clear, if somewhat abrupt.
5. The speaker supports his speech with a credible source.
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the longitudinal axis of the plane and then let’s draw a line through the leading edge and trailing edge of the wing. When you bring those lines together (slide 8), you can see that they are slightly different, and it forms a small angle; and this angle is called the “angle of incidence” and basically it is the way the wing is attached to the plane—it’s got a slightly upward slant to it compared to the longitudinal axis of the plane. So as air is coming (slide 9), it hits underneath the wing and deflects down- ward. That is the action (slide 10). The reaction is the upward force. So you have action, deflection of air, and reaction, the lifting of the plane.
6. Next, let’s talk about Bernoulli’s Principle (slide 11).
7. Now Daniel Bernoulli was an eighteenth-century Swiss mathematician, and he studied the movements of fluid. He also studied the pressure differences with velocity. Bernoulli’s Principle states that as the velocity of a fluid such as air increases, its pressure decreases. Now this is a little bit difficult to understand, but Jeppesen wrote a book called the Instrument/Commercial Manual, and it best describes how the wing takes advantage of Bernoulli’s Principle by differences in pressure (slide 12). Now as air is moving over the wing as the velocity is
SLIDE 5 SLIDE 6
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6. A better external transition might be, “Now that you know how Newton’s Law applies to flight, let’s consider Bernoulli’s Principle.”
7. The speaker cites another source to verify the credibility of his research.
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increasing, it has to travel a longer distance to get over this camber so the velocity is increasing, which decreases the pressure. The pressure underneath the wing is increasing. So this high pressure underneath the wing wants to get on top of here because pressures are always trying to equalize, and the golden rule is, high pres- sure always goes to low pressure. So, in essence, this high pressure wants to get on top of here and pushes the plane.
8. So, as a (slide 13) result of Newton’s Third Law of Motion, we have the deflection of air, which is the action/reaction of the lifting of the airplane. We have Bernoulli’s Principle, which is the difference in pressure. We have the high pressure underneath the wing, the lower pressure on top of the wing, and the higher pressure pushes the plane up and tries to get on top of this lower pressure. And we have the shape of the airfoil. The air, moving over the wing, has to follow the camber downwards creating that downwash, helping the airplane produce lift. So lift is accomplished, and flight is made possible by these three components. Now I’d like to conclude by
SLIDE 9 SLIDE 10
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8. Mark begins his conclusion with a summary of the three main numerals of his speech.
The speaker ends by re- ferring briefly back to his introduction and making a personal comment about flying.
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saying that like da Vinci, I’m also fascinated with flight, and I long to return to the sky as soon as possible.8
Summary The term audiovisual aid refers to devices that may appeal to any of the senses: electronic media; graphs (line, pie, and bar); drawings, photographs, and pictures; posters, flipcharts, and chalkboards; physical objects; and you, the speaker.
Here are six guidelines to help you use the PowerPoint program successfully:
1. Know your options. 2. Keep visuals simple. 3. Know how to use the program during the speech. 4. Be sure that the technology is set up and working properly. 5. Have a backup plan if the media fails. 6. Consider your audience at all times.
Electronic media—such as the data projector and computer, devices for capturing text or media, the document camera, the touch screen monitor or whiteboard, audience response systems, and some older technologies—are useful in different situations. Posters, either hand-drawn or produced with a computer, can reinforce ideas effectively, and the chalkboard is useful for brief or incidental support of a speech. You can also include scale models, partial objects, or life-size objects in a speech. As a speaker, you are also a visual aid. You can incorporate your own body movements and actions into a speech, and you can ask someone to help you. Understand copyright laws governing fair use and commercial use and know how they apply to the printed or visual materials you present in your speech.
Observe five general guidelines to use visual aids effectively:
1. Talk to the audience, not to the visual. 2. Don’t pass objects around during the speech. 3. Be sure listeners can see your visuals. 4. Use visuals at the right psychological moment. 5. Be clear at all times.
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Types of Audiovisual Aids 227
Skill Builders 1. List three different types of visual aids that you intend to use in your next speech.
Describe how and when you intend to employ them in the speech, and discuss how you will avoid any potential difficulties presented by the visuals.
2. Read the sample speech in Chapter Six titled “Practice, Practice, Practice…” by Thomas C. Stewart. Suggest at least two visual aids that the speaker could use to support his presentation effectively. When and how would you use them in the speech? Explain.
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter Twelve, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www.cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
228 Chapter 12 • Using Audiovisual Aids
CHAPTER
13CONSIDERING LANGUAGE
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Recognize language that is clear and concrete
2 Describe figures of speech and stylistic elements
3 Discuss the importance of appropriate language usage
4 Know how to make ideas meaningful and interrelated
Imagine that one of the most famous speeches in American history began like this:
Eighty-seven years ago our ancestors came to this land to build a new country dedicated to liberty and equality. But at the present time, we are in the process of a conflict which will prove if this new country or any new country founded on such principles can live on.
This passage may sound simple and straightforward enough. But listen to the way it was actually written:
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure.
Abraham Lincoln chose his words carefully and refrained from using commonplace language in the Gettysburg Address. He realized that the words “fourscore and seven
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“Eloquence is the powerto translate a truth intolanguage perfectly intelligible to the person to whom you speak.”—Ralph Waldo Emerson
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years” were more effective than “eighty-seven years ago.” He also recognized that a metaphor could be effective in communicating the nation’s origins. Instead of an impersonal reference to the nation’s “ancestors,” Lincoln humanized the reference to “our fathers” and continued the metaphor with the words “brought forth,” “conceived,” and “dedicated.” Lincoln conveyed the image that our fathers “brought forth” or “gave birth” to a child, thereby implying struggle, labor, pain, and hardship. The words “conceived in liberty” extended the metaphor and revealed the sanctity of the new nation’s purpose and ideals.
Lincoln’s speeches demonstrate the power of language. In your own speeches your language can remain plain and ordinary, or it can elevate the mind, stimulate thought, and connect to the diverse members of your audience. In this chapter we consider language that conveys your ideas with clarity, concreteness, style, and appropriateness. We also briefly explore how language can make ideas more meaningful and interrelated. Choose language carefully to refine the appearance of your speech.
Developing Clarity
One of the most important rules of language usage is to say what you mean. Use precise words to create mental pictures for your listeners, and use clear terminology that your audience will understand. Speeches that include obscure terms and flowery words may sound impressive, but they aren’t effective if they don’t communicate to the audience. Former Vice President Spiro Agnew referred to Nixon administration critics as “natter- ing nabobs of negativism,” “an effete corps of impudent snobs,” and “pusillanimous pussyfooters.”1 His idiosyncratic style attracted public attention for a while, but audiences soon tired of searching through the dictionary to find out what he meant.
Another speaker who enjoyed using large words and complicated syntax was the late conservative columnist William F. Buckley, editor of the National Review. He demon- strated these qualities in this excerpt from a speech to the Ethics and Public Policy Center in Washington, D.C.:
There is much room left over for argument, even as there is room left over, under this roof, for divisions about the impermanent things. But I tender you, Dr. Lefever, and your distinguished board of directors, and associates this challenge. Deliberate the means of saying it in our public philosophy, saying that however much respect we owe to those who hold other ideas than those that are central to Judaeo- Christian postulates, we mustn’t confuse any respect for the preternatural dignity for the fruit of their reason. How at once to do both these things—to respect a difference of opinion without undertaking a respect for different opinions? It is a searing challenge, in a world sensitive to cultural condescension, a world inflamed by the notion that one man, one vote presupposes one culture, any culture; one philosophy, any philosophy; one God, any God.2
It is possible that Buckley’s audience knew what he was talking about. But it is more probable that they would need a dictionary and an interpreter.
Contrast the Buckley speech with this example:
Mr. Chief Justice, my dear friends, my fellow Americans. The oath that I have taken is the same oath that was taken by George Washington and by every president under the Constitution. But I assume the presidency under extreme circumstances never before experienced by Americans. This is an hour of history that troubles our minds and hurts our hearts.
Key Terms alliteration amplification antithesis connotation denotation euphemisms metaphor mnemonic phrases repetition simile transitions
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Therefore, I feel it is my first duty to make an unprecedented compact with my countrymen. Not an inaugural address, not a fireside chat, not a campaign speech, just a little straight talk among friends. And I intend it to be the first of many. I am acutely aware that you have not elected me as your president by your ballots. So I ask you to confirm me as your president with your prayers. And I hope that such prayers will also be the first of many.
When Gerald Ford assumed the presidency on August 9, 1974, he took the oath of office under the most difficult circumstances. For many months President Nixon and the Congress had been engaged in a Constitutional crisis because of the Watergate scandal. When the House Judiciary Committee voted articles of impeachment, President Nixon resigned and Gerald Ford, his appointed vice president, was sworn in as the thirty-eighth president of the United States.
President Ford used simple language to express his ideas. He touched the hurt feelings within Americans, acknowledged his appointment to high office, and appealed for the good- will and prayers of his fellow citizens. Ford correctly realized it would be inappropriate to deliver an eloquent address filled with high-sounding phrases. He knew that after the Watergate cover-up, Americans were weary of speeches and simply wanted to hear the truth conveyed in a “little straight talk among friends.” The introduction and the speech indicate that the president analyzed his audience accurately and used language effectively.
Avoiding Euphemisms Sometimes people avoid saying what they really mean by employing nonoffensive terms or phrases called euphemisms. We tend to think that these veiled terms and phrases will soften the blow of the underlying meaning. But often euphemisms are so vague that the essence is lost. Look at the following euphemistic words, phrases, or sentences used in a variety of occupational and social situations, and then read the “translation”:
The Following Euphemism … Really Means …
The government was engaged in disseminating disinformation.
The government was spreading deceit and propaganda.
I misspoke. I lied.
She has a great personality. She’s ugly.
He’s intelligent. He looks like a nerd.
What we need in the economic stimulus bill are revenue enhancements.
We need a tax increase.
I’m going to the Physical Development Center.
I’m going to the gym.
She experienced a cerebral infarction. She had a blood clot in the brain.
I need to consult the custodial engineer. I’ll get the janitor.
Your child needs help learning to use his leadership abilities more democratically.
Your kid is a bully.
Let me help you select a fitting memorial for the beloved.
Do you want to pick out a tombstone?3
The vague language seems ridiculous when matched with the intended meaning. Although many of these examples may seem humorous, they are realistic.
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Language is degraded and misused when people don’t say what they mean. Bureaucratese, verbal clutter, and nonsense jabber will probably never disappear, but public speakers should be careful in their choice of generalized expressions. Eloquence doesn’t mean using elaborate words and obscure phrases; it is more often composed of simple and direct language.
Lieutenant Commander Drew T. Brown was the first African-American jet pilot in the Navy. For the past twenty years, Brown has been a powerful motivator in his speeches to high school and college students across the country. He has been inter- viewed on “Good Morning America” and “Live with Regis and Kathy Lee” and his auto- biography, You Gotta Believe, tells his inspiring story of hardship and achievement. Some of the places he visits are inner-city schools plagued with drugs and gang violence and he is noted for his trademark straight talk to kids about staying off drugs and staying in school. He represents a positive role model to young African American teenagers who must stand up to the daily pressures of their surroundings. In this emotional presentation to students in a Los Angeles high school patrolled by police, Brown made his points emphatically:
… You’ve got these gangs called the Bloods and the Crips and they think they’re bad. They ain’t bad—I’m bad. I’m bad because I can fly 550 miles an hour 50 feet from the ground and I can carry twenty-eight 500-pound bombs under my wings. I have the expertise, the know-how, and the technology not to just take out this school, but to take out the whole neighborhood. But the point I’m trying to make is, you know what makes me bad? I’m bad because I have a college education! … You want to get high? You go to med school after college. You learn how to be a doctor, you save somebody’s life. You watch the gleam in their eyes as they hand you a check for $48,000 when you can go and buy your big Mercedes that nobody can take from you—and you are toasted! … There is no Black and White. But the bottom line is, Black and White is in your mind, so if you blame your color on somebody else’s color or somebody else’s origin on your success or your failures, you are a loser!4
Brown did not hide behind obscure language. His point was loud and clear; don’t give in to your surroundings—get an education. The audience might not have listened to the speaker had he used imprecise words or complicated sentence patterns. Brown was successful because he understood the kind of direct language and clear examples that would communicate his message to his teenage audience. Your speaking will be far more successful if your words and phrases convey your feelings and objectives clearly. And you will be effective if you analyze your audience well enough to understand the kind of clear language that will motivate them to listen.
Using Concrete Language
When you use language, it’s important to be concrete. If you’ve ever had a friend tell you to “bring me the things when we get together tomorrow,” you were probably puzzled if your friend didn’t tell you what he or she meant by “things.” Speakers who use vague language sound as if their vocabulary consists of no more than a few hundred words. Look at the wording used in the following demonstration speech:
Okay. Like the first thing you want to do is to find out how much of this stuff you need. You measure the wall longways, and then like this way, and then you come up with how much paper you need. Go behind the door or somewhere else where you can’t see if you mess up. Take this baby here, and measure 20 inches from the
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edge like so. Then just mark a line up and down. Like with the same gizmo, go from the bottom to the top of the wall and add 4 inches onto everything so you can adjust it.
If you read between the lines, you may have understood that the speaker was demon- strating how to paper a wall. It was the vague language and verbal clutter—“Like with,” “stuff,” “longways,” “this baby,” “like so,” “gizmo”—that made the demonstration sloppy and ambiguous. The speaker needed concrete words to describe materials and actions.
Now read the more precise wording of the process:
You have to know how much paper you need. It’s very simple. You measure the height of the wall by the length of the wall, and you multiply them together and that gives the square footage. Do this on all four walls, add this together, and divide by 60. That’s the number of double rolls that you’ll need. If this is your first job, I’d suggest that you get pre-pasted paper.
Start with an inconspicuous corner, such as behind the door. With a metal ruler, measure 20 inches from the corner. The paper is 20½ inches. With the extra half inch, you will paper around the corner. Then take a pencil and a level, and at the 20 inch mark, draw a vertical line on the wall. Take the same metal ruler, measure from the floor to the ceiling, and add 4 inches. The extra inches give you 2 inches at the top and 2 inches at the bottom to allow for adjustment of the pattern.5
Denotation and Connotation Knowing the difference between denotation and connotation can help to make your lan- guage more concrete and vivid. Denotative meanings are the dictionary definitions of words; connotative meanings are their more personal and subjective meanings. For instance, a speaker who wanted to present an objective informational report about a proposed handgun bill might want to use words that generate denotative meanings within audience members:
According to the Justice Department, 80 percent of the small handguns that are manufactured in the United States are produced in the Los Angeles area. A mea- sure proposed by the members of the city council in West Hollywood, California, would ban the sales of these weapons.
In this example, words like “small handguns,” “ban,” “manufactured,” “sales,” and “weapons,” are general terms that can generate denotative meanings. It is possible, of course, that depending on the type of audience, the statistics could stimulate strong feelings.
But suppose this speaker strongly opposed the unregulated sale of handguns and wanted to persuade listeners to support a strict handgun law.
According to the Justice Department, 80 percent of the small handguns that are manufactured in the United States are produced in the Los Angeles area. These sin- ister little weapons, referred to as “Saturday night specials,” are cheap, dangerously inaccurate, and easy to hide. Many thugs prefer these badly made guns because they can be concealed in the palm of the hand like a straight-edge razor. As a mat- ter of fact, one mini-derringer is no longer than 4 inches and fits inside a carrying case that looks like the electronic paging beepers that people carry on their belts. Would you want these instruments of destruction in your community? Well they cer- tainly don’t want them in West Hollywood because all five members of the city council have endorsed a law that would ban them.6
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Words such as “sinister little weapons,” “Saturday night specials,” “thugs,” and “instru- ments of destruction” are chosen to evoke strong subjective meanings within listeners. The speaker can then suggest that members of the audience who feel strongly about the issue can support a law prohibiting the sale of handguns.
Obviously the effect of these connotative meanings depends upon the audience. The above passage could be very effective with many audiences but could backfire with other groups. As in any speech setting, you must analyze your audience well enough to know the type of language that will best evoke your desired response.
Here are a few examples of how a speaker can transform denotative, or dictionary, meaning into more subjective, connotative meaning:
Words from Their Most Denotative to Most Connotative Meanings
tall building steel skyscraper towering deathtrap
runner fleet-footed racer Olympic-class sprinter
dog puppy adorable furball
homeless woman bag lady pitiful pauper
As you move from left to right, the meanings become more connotative and precise. If you want listeners to respond to your speech with strong mental images, use connota- tive words that have the capacity to stimulate concrete feelings and specific pictures.
Building a Unique Style
Style refers to the distinctive manner in which a speaker uses language to convey ideas and feelings. A speaker develops style with unique phrases, memorable lines, and technical devices designed to make language colorful, forceful, and dramatic. You can build an expressive style by including figures of speech like similes and metaphors and devices such as alliteration, amplification, antithesis, repetition, and mnemonic phrases.
Similes A simile is a figure of speech in which the words like or as are used to show comparison. Here are some examples:
Our current tax system is like an old inner tube that is covered with patches. We must replace it with a new, fair, simple tax system.
—H. Ross Perot, from a televised political broadcast
Thank you very much. Inviting a physician to talk about the United States Constitu- tion is a little like inviting James Madison to do an appendectomy. However, only one of us is going to be guilty of malpractice tonight.
—Harvey Sloame, from “Jefferson, Madison, and Franklin”
The fat cells are in your body just waiting, like Mr. Pac Man, to start eating…. —Vickie Chester, student speaker
As for annexing the island, I have about the same desire as a gorged boa constric- tor might have to swallow a porcupine wrong-end-to.
—Theodore Roosevelt, from a letter to a German diplomat
These speakers used similes to make comparisons that were colorful, vivid, and interesting.
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Metaphors In the introduction to this chapter, we identified the “birth” metaphor that Abraham Lincoln employed in the Gettysburg Address. Like a simile, a metaphor is a comparison, but without the use of the words like or as. Here are some other examples:
Lift up your hearts Each new hour holds new chances For new beginnings. Do not be wedded forever To fear, yoked eternally this fine day You may have the courage To look up and out and upon me, the Rock, the River, the Tree, your country.
—Maya Angelou, from “On the Pulse of Morning”
In order for any type of plant to grow, it must first have a healthy root system. But then it must be continually maintained in water to blossom. The same theory of growth holds true for our major cities today. In order for them to grow, they too, need healthy root systems, and these roots lie in their downtown districts.
—Edward L. Bokman, student speaker
You remember the story of Chicken Little. She ran around the barnyard proclaiming that the sky was falling, and for a while she had all the other animals in a state of alarm. Today, we have the Chicken Little theory of economics. This time it isn’t the sky that’s falling. Rather, America’s middle class is disappearing; vanishing before our very eyes. And, guess whose fault it is? Yours, and everyone else engaged in a service business. Imagine that. You are performing magic tricks with the economy and don’t even know it.
—Paul Laxalt, from “Chicken Little Is Wrong Again”
Epilepsy is a thunderstorm in the brain. —Brad Piern, student speaker
The Student Government Organization is the sun, and the clubs, organizations, and committees are the planets that revolve around it.
—Bonnie J. McGrew, student speaker
Metaphors can add life to the language of your speech. Don’t be afraid to experiment with comparisons, but be certain that the comparison you make is sensible and consistent. Avoid mixed metaphors that shift comparisons midway through a presentation. A speaker who says “The Ship of State is on the 5-yard line, ready to go in for the touchdown” ought to stick with either the nautical theme or the football comparison.
“Dressing ideas in carefully chosen language—this is the original meaning of the word ‘style.’ In the long march across public speaking history, style has walked a road which rises and falls between high peaks of precision and deep valleys of neglect. Unfortunately, in contemporary American speaking, style has been forced to build her home in the valley—ignored, if not forgotten. When it comes to style in American speaking—political, religious, reform, corporate—most speeches are about as exciting as a made-for-TV movie.”7
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Alliteration Alliteration refers to the repetition of the same sounds to emphasize ideas in a speech. We’ve already referred to former Vice President Agnew’s alliterative “nattering nabobs of negativism.” Some speakers have the ability to use this device with great effect.
Today when we debated, differed, deliberated, agreed to agree, agreed to disagree, when we had the good judgment to argue our case and then not self-destruct …
—Jesse Jackson, from “Common Ground and Common Sense”
We are here, not only to keep cool with Coolidge, but to do honor to Alexander Hamilton.
—Will Rogers, from “Wealth and Education”
Provided that every effort is made, that nothing is kept back, that the whole man power, brain power, virility, valor and civic virtue of the English speaking world … is bent unremittingly to the simple but supreme task …
—Winston Churchill, from “Address Before United States Congress”
A firm fruit is a friendly fruit. —Carol Denise Manis, student speaker
Alliteration is a creative way to develop a vivid style, but it is wise to use it sparingly.
Amplification A speaker who employs amplification arranges words or phrases in order of importance to emphasize an opening or closing statement. For example:
I am in earnest—I will not equivocate—I will not excuse—I will not retreat a single inch—and I will be heard.
—William Lloyd Garrison, from The Liberator
We shall not flag nor fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans; we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air. We shall defend our island whatever the cost may be; we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.
—Winston Churchill, from “Dunkirk”
In the first example, abolitionist editor William Lloyd Garrison used an ascending order of ideas to emphasize the final, most important line of his antislavery message: “I will be heard.” Winston Churchill also used amplification (as well as alliteration) in a speech defending British withdrawal from the city of Dunkirk in World War II. Even though British troops had suffered a defeat by the Nazis, Churchill wanted to rally the nation by repeating ideas that emphasized British determination “not to flag nor fail” and ending with the strong, emotional phrase “We shall never surrender.”
Antithesis When using antithesis, a speaker combines contrasting ideas or qualities to convey a concept. Here are two examples:
The race of man, while sheep in credulity, are wolves for conformity. —Carl Van Doren, from “Why I Am an Unbeliever”
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Not often in the story of mankind does a man arrive on earth who is both steel and velvet, who is as hard as rock and soft as drifting fog, who holds in his heart and mind the paradox of terrible storm and peace unspeakable and perfect.
—Carl Sandburg, from “Address Before Congress on the 150th Birthday of Abraham Lincoln”
Carl Van Doren effectively combined opposite metaphors to describe the gullibility and like-mindedness of human beings. Carl Sandburg, speaking to Congress on the occa- sion of Abraham Lincoln’s 150th birthday, used contrasting metaphors as well as similes to characterize the “paradoxes” of our sixteenth president.
Repetition Repetition of words and phrases is an effective way to emphasize key ideas, to increase interest, and to convey vivid images. Speakers throughout history have employed this colorful literary device to strengthen emotion and to summon courage. Here are two excerpts from the well-known speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Franklin D. Roosevelt, who employed repetition to intensify the feelings of their listeners.
Let freedom ring from the snowcapped Rockies of Colorado! Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California! But not only that; let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia! Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee! Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. From every mountainside, let freedom ring.
—Martin Luther King, Jr., from “I Have a Dream”
Last night Japanese forces attacked Hong Kong. Last night Japanese forces attacked Guam. Last night Japanese forces attacked the Philippine Islands. Last night the Japanese attacked Wake Island. And this morning the Japanese attacked Midway Island.
—Franklin D. Roosevelt, from “For a Declaration of War Against Japan”
In his famous “I Have a Dream” speech, delivered at the Lincoln Memorial during the 1963 March on Washington, King repeated the words “Let freedom ring” from the song “My Country, ‘Tis of Thee.” King used this repetition at the conclusion of the speech to summarize his dream that every part of America serve the cause of liberty and equal jus- tice. Franklin D. Roosevelt used repetition to energize his audience to support a different cause. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the president asked mem- bers of Congress to declare war on the empire of Japan. The repeated instances of Japanese military aggression quickly made an overwhelming case for the declaration of war.
Mnemonic Phrases Speakers often develop ear-catching mnemonic phrases that summarize main ideas and help people to remember significant themes. We tend to remember phrases like “I have a dream” or “all we have to fear is fear itself.” Some of the greatest speeches in history have contained phrases that summarized the speaker’s philosophy:
If the British Commonwealth and Empire last for a thousand years, men will still say, “This was their finest hour.”
—Winston Churchill, from “Their Finest Hour”
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With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right.
—Abraham Lincoln, from “Second Inaugural Address”
I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death!
—Patrick Henry, from “Give Me Liberty, or Give Me Death!”
When this is done, I will go to the king, even though it is against the law. And if I perish, I perish.
—Queen Esther, from Esther 5:16
Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate. —John F. Kennedy, from “Inaugural Address”
I have always been fond of the West African proverb: Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far.
—Theodore Roosevelt, from a letter to Henry L. Sprague
Each of these mnemonic phrases was effective because it captured the essence of the speaker’s intention. In your own presentations, think of creative phrases that sum up your ideas. Recognize that memorable lines, if used sparingly in a speech, can stimulate thought and heighten audience feeling about your point of view.
Being Appropriate
Speech students often ask, “What exactly is inappropriate language? Shouldn’t that deci- sion be left up to the individual speaker?” Certainly each of us uses a different standard to define inappropriateness. But a speaker cannot simply make decisions in a vacuum. A speaker who wishes to have an impact must make perceptive decisions about the lan- guage he or she uses based upon the diverse members of the audience. (See a complete discussion of audience analysis in Chapter Four.) Here are some suggestions that can help you to be more aware of your listeners and avoid words, terms, phrases, and expres- sions that listeners might consider ineffective or improper.
Be Aware of Cultural Differences In most public speaking situations you encounter, there will probably be enormous differ- ences in the cultural backgrounds of listeners. An audience of twenty people could include Hispanics, Caucasians, African Americans, Russians, Asians, southerners, wester- ners, or northeasterners. If you want to educate or influence individuals of such diversity, you need to understand the impact of culture upon language.
Consider these examples: The word submarine is used throughout many parts of the United States to describe a large, overstuffed sandwich on an Italian roll. But terminol- ogy changes based upon geography. Bostonians may call it a “grinder,” New Yorkers may order a “hero,” Philadelphians might ask for a “hoagie,” and residents of New Orleans may want a “poor boy.” Imagine the misunderstandings that can occur when individuals whose second language is English attempt to define submarine, hero, or grinder literally. An American asks, “Can I give you a lift?” but a British citizen defines the word lift as an “elevator.” The Eskimo language contains numerous words to describe varieties of snow, such as “wet snow” or “fluffy snow,” and in Brazil there are dozens of terms referring to the word coffee.8 When several American car companies decided to use the phrase “Body
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by Fisher” as a selling point in overseas advertisements, they discovered in horror that in some foreign markets the term was translated as “Corpses by Fisher.”9 And General Motors learned that one of the reasons its Chevrolet Nova models failed to sell in many Latin American countries was that no va means “does not go” in Spanish.10
If regional and ethnic differences can affect simple words and concepts, imagine how culture can influence more complicated language structures. In America, individuals with extensive knowledge about a topic tend to be direct and assertive, speaking in a straightforward manner. However, in a country such as Japan, where people are concerned with saving face, those with great knowledge tend to speak indirectly and avoid direct statements that would appear dictatorial.11 Americans enjoy talking and initiating conversation, but many Chinese use more silences within their language patterns.12 Some Hispanic, French, and Italian Americans complain that English does not allow them to express feelings as comprehensively as their own “romance” languages.13 The native Hawaiian language includes only five vowels and seven consonants,14 and some American Indian languages contain no past or future tenses.15
As you discover how profoundly culture influences language, you can develop speak- ing practices that convey greater sensitivity to the diverse members of your audience. We offer these suggestions:
• Use language that is inclusive. • Avoid “in-group” terms, jargon, and shorthand speech that excludes another’s
background or experience. • Be clear and carefully define terms that listeners may not understand. • Recognize that accents are not “wrong” or “bad.” • Speak slowly and distinctly; be aware that people of diverse backgrounds may need
to listen to your dialect or accent at a more comfortable speaking rate. • Make an effort to understand the language of your audience; learn greetings or
important words that help you link your topic to diverse listeners. • Respect the diversity of your audience.
Speakers and audiences
alike must be aware of the
enormous impact of
culture and ethnic
background on language
and speaking practices.
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Being Appropriate 239
• Avoid patronizing, embarrassing statements or inappropriate humor poking fun at listeners’ culture or language.
• Recognize that the differences in language and culture are a positive source for learning.
• Build bridges of understanding—not walls of separation.16
Recognize Differences Due to Gender Do women talk more than men? Are men more direct than women? Are there distinct men’s and women’s languages? The answers to these questions may surprise you. But before we begin examining differences in language, be aware that the concepts being considered here are based upon researched conclusions that have numerous exceptions. The language used by men and women can be influenced by family, education, or cul- tural socialization. Men and women can communicate differently or similarly based upon occupation, experiences, relationships, interests, needs, or social groupings. As men and women differ in size, color, age, shape, or interests, so can they vary in vocabulary, sen- tence structure, grammar, and language patterns.
First of all, it is a myth that women talk more than men do. Studies indicate that men not only talk more but control conversation and maintain their dominance by interrupting others more often.17 Men seem to be less concerned with grammatical errors and tend to use vocalized pauses to occupy center stage. Men use competitive and task-oriented language to take charge and get things done. Men will frequently issue orders and directives, such as “You need to fax this report” or “Let’s get to the bottom line.” Men have greater technical vocabularies and tend to be more fact- oriented than women. Men’s language is more intense, and some men’s language includes more curse words and profanity. Men like to talk about topics such as sports, business, or current events. While they enjoy conversations with other men to escape, to share interests, and to experience “freedom,” men seldom call each other simply to talk.18
There are interesting differences in the language used by women. Women tend to speak with more qualifiers, such as “possibly” or “maybe,” and more disclaimers, such as “this might be silly, but …” Unlike men, women typically don’t interrupt conversa- tions, and they use more polite forms for giving orders: “If you don’t mind …” or “If it isn’t too much trouble …” Women tend to use more “tag” questions, such as “That’s the way it is, right?” and more descriptive words like exceptionally, adorable, precious, and lovely. Women use more complex sentence structures, prepositional phrases, and adverbs than men do, and they ask questions three times as often as men do. Women also use more words and convey more comprehensive details than do men. Women tend to use more tentative phrases, such as “I guess” or “I think”; employ language that is less assertive than that used by men; and make statements that express nega- tions by describing what things are not. Unlike the more dominant males, women try to support conversation and help to keep it going. Women are more comfortable dis- closing personal information and expressing emotional needs and psychological states. Women talk with other women to express empathy, to share feelings, or “just to talk.”19
What can we learn from some of these conclusions, and what are the implications for the speaker and listener? We must remember that differences in language patterns can depend upon the situation, place, and environment. A businesswoman presenting a training lecture to new employees could use language that is direct, task-oriented, and to the point. At the same time, a man recounting a spectacular scuba-diving experience in
240 Chapter 13 • Considering Language
the Caribbean could use numerous details and include descriptive adverbs. Much has been made of “the battle” of the sexes, and much has also been written about the domi- nance of one gender or the vengeful role reversal of another. But if we recognize that the rhetoric of confrontation is harmful, we can begin to listen honestly and genuinely learn from one another. We should enjoy the unique speaking patterns of women, who can convey the depth and richness of language with expressive shades and images. We can also appreciate the directness of men, who contribute power, intensity, and technical depth to language. If we avoid making judgments and understand that the language of one gender is not wrong and the other right, we can appreciate that our differences can actually complement each other. We can be more open when women or men need to alter their language patterns in response to different environments or roles. And we can also be more accepting of the unique perspectives that each gender offers.20
Avoid Offensive Terms Chapter Four on audience analysis mentions radio talk-show host Don Imus, actor Isaiah Washington, comedian Michael Richards, and actor/director Mel Gibson who used language that offended the race, religion, or sexual orientation of many Americans. Some other high-profile individuals have made comments that were equally insulting to individuals and groups of Americans. Former Governor Jesse Ventura of Minnesota upset many church members and religious leaders when he told a Playboy magazine interviewer that “organized religion is a sham and a crutch for weak-minded people who need strength in numbers.”21 Vicente Fox, former president of Mexico, made a statement that Mexican migrants to the United States are willing to take jobs that “not even blacks want to do.” His controversial remarks were harshly criticized by American poli- ticians, civil rights leaders, and African Americans.22
These speakers all had one thing in common: each of them employed language that significantly offended large groups of Americans. Whenever a speaker uses racist or sexist language or words that attack an individual’s religion, culture, or sexual orientation, the listener will react with hostility. As a speaker, you want to win listeners and open their minds to your ideas.
You should also avoid using obscene words and phrases that can offend some listen- ers. During the latter part of the 1960s and early 1970s, many younger Americans dis- covered that they could gain public attention to their causes by shouting obscenities during rallies and protest demonstrations. The demonstrators got attention, but their lan- guage also helped to polarize listeners. Commentators often referred to “the generation gap” or the “age gap.” In your own speeches, it is good to remember that you are being evaluated by your audience. If you utter four-letter words for their shock value, you will probably get many listeners to take notice, but you will also discover that many will be offended. Those who are insulted will judge you negatively and switch you off mentally. You may find your credibility damaged and reduced.
The guideline is to refrain from using language that offends your audience. Analyze your listeners, understand their backgrounds, and respect their differences. Use positive language that wins them over to you, builds your credibility, and generates constructive feelings about you as a speaker.
Eliminate Irrelevant Language It’s a good idea to avoid the use of unnecessary verbiage or linguistic clutter. A speaker who constantly repeats words and phrases such as “like you know,” “and so,” and “well”
Being Appropriate 241
or vocalized pauses like “um” creates external noise, thus interfering with communica- tion and frustrating the listener. Dr. Nicholas Christenfeld, a psychologist at the Univer- sity of California in San Diego, has studied what he calls the “um phenomenon.” He reports that most people use several hundred vocalized pauses every hour, and some indi- viduals use as many as nine hundred verbalized pauses in one day. From his research, Christenfeld concludes that speakers who use irrelevant vocalizations are trying to buy time in order to struggle for the next word or phrase. He observes that “people don’t admire people who ‘um’”23
It’s also a good idea to avoid including irrelevant details that are not important to the speech. In this example, a speaker attempts to explain the tools needed for profes- sional painting but loses sight of the specific purpose:
First, you set up a flat table for your materials where you want to do the painting. I set mine up in the family room. You know, my wife and children spend a lot of time there—they enjoy watching TV, playing video games, or just reading. We find that the family room is a nice place to escape from it all. It’s also a great place to have parties with friends.
This speech began as a demonstration of the steps involved in painting a room but soon deteriorated into a trivial description of life in the family room. Listeners will lose interest in presentations that get sidetracked.
Avoid Trite Expressions Our vocabulary frequently suffers from underuse due to peer pressure, lack of knowledge, or just plain laziness. Imagine how disruptive it would be for a speaker to constantly repeat slang phrases, such as “Like, I don’t know,” “It’s bad,” “It’s awesome,” “She’s outta sight,” or “kewel.” English Professor Patricia Skarda of Smith College in North- ampton, Massachusetts, counted the use of the word like in a conversation between two students. She reported that one used the word forty-eight times and the other mentioned like thiry-seven times. Such trite language is referred to as “mallspeak” or “teenbonics,” which former Smith College President Ruth Simmons characterized as “repetitive,” “inarticulate,” and “imprecise.”24 To counteract mallspeak, colleges such as Smith, Mt. Holyoke, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Wesleyan University have instituted speaking-across-the-curriculum and speech-mentoring programs to help stu- dents organize logical arguments and express themselves with more verbal competence and confidence.25
Audiences also become tired of hearing trite expressions, such as “The moral of the story is,” “To each his own,” “The bottom line is,” “TMI,” or “And now, in conclusion I’d like to say …” It is better for speakers to avoid using these phrases and include lan- guage indicating that they are capable of thinking creatively and independently.
We aren’t suggesting that you must never use familiar expressions or slang in your presentations. The speech delivered by Lieutenant Commander Brown suggests that in some speaking situations the use of slang can appeal to specific audiences and reinforce important ideas. But it’s usually much more effective for a speaker to use inventive word- ing than to rely on clichés.
Eliminate Grammatical Errors Mistakes in grammar disturb listeners and tend to raise questions about a speaker’s credi- bility. Imagine that, after conducting a physical examination, your doctor said, “Your
242 Chapter 13 • Considering Language
X-rays don’t show nothin’. Everything come out fine.” Or suppose your pilot in a cross- country flight radioed to passengers that “I seen some turbulence up here.” Your confi- dence in the doctor or your pilot might deteriorate. The same principle can be applied to your own speaking situations. If in a job interview you claim to have a two- or a four-year college degree, your prospective employer will expect you to communicate without major grammatical flaws. Your instructor will no doubt insist on the same standard in your speeches.
It’s always possible to make a slip in noun-verb agreement as you are moving rapidly through a complicated speech in front of an audience. But it is important to avoid any consistent grammatical problems when you are delivering a speech. If you are weak in grammar, use the opportunity provided in your speech course to improve your skills. You may not be able to change all of your speaking difficulties in one semester, but you can reduce your grammatical mistakes by attending writing labs, taking a backup course, or getting tutoring help.
You aren’t expected to understand all the intricate details of the “King’s English,” but you should know enough about language to be aware of the difference between good and bad grammar. A basic knowledge of a few grammatical principles will enable you to use English that will build credibility with your listeners.
Build Vocabulary Skills Do as much as you can to increase your vocabulary. Take the time to look up unfamiliar words in the dictionary. Good reference sources like Roget’s International Thesaurus or the Random House Thesaurus can help you to choose effective wording for your presentation. The more varied your vocabulary, the more interesting and colorful the speech will sound to your audience.
Making Ideas Meaningful and Interrelated
Speakers can use language to create a sense of participation within an audience and to help listeners connect ideas smoothly. To achieve these objectives, you can employ per- sonal pronouns and transitions.
Personal Pronouns Listeners are more interested in a speech when they feel involved with the topic. An effective way to include the audience is to use personal pronouns like you, your, us, our. In the following example, notice how the speaker has excluded listeners:
Not many people in this country can say that three generations ago their family was only American. Most people in this nation were originally from somewhere else. Whether it was Russia, France, Italy, or Ireland, immigrants came here seeking freedom—freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom to contribute to this great country.
“Many people” and “immigrants” are vague and impersonal. The speaker does not allow listeners to feel any sense of involvement.
Now read this altered example:
How many of you can say that three generations back your family was “only American?” Almost all of our ancestors were originally from somewhere else.
Making Ideas Meaningful and Interrelated 243
Whether from Russia, France, Italy, or Ireland, they originally came here seeking freedom—freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom to contribute to this great country of ours.
—Evan Feinberg, student speaker
With some minor changes, the speaker has made the same passage much more personal. The introductory question addresses the audience directly—“you” and “your family.” Per- sonal pronouns used in phrases such as “our ancestors” and “country of ours” allow listeners to feel like participants.When it is appropriate in your speech, use these personal pronouns to relate to your audience. Avoid vague, third-person references such as “people,” “individuals,” or “they.” You want your listeners to feel they are a part of your topic whenever it is appropriate.
Transitions Suppose you have come to the end of the first of three main numeral headings in the body of your speech. One way to end is by saying, “I’ve finished my first point. Now for point two.” This external transition tells the audience they are about to hear your second main idea, but the line is abrupt and jarring. Improved language would enable ideas to flow more smoothly from one point to another. Transitions are connectives between major or minor ideas in a speech. External transitions connect main points; internal transitions join subordinate ideas within a point.
Here are some examples of external transitions:
Specific purpose: The purpose is to inform the audience about circus clowns.26
Thesis statement: Clowning has a history, an educational process, and famous personalities.
Possible transitions to introduce main point I, history of circus clowns:
1. Let me first tell you about circus clowns and their history. 2. Circus clowns have an interesting history. 3. I found out some really interesting aspects of clown history.
Possible transitions to introduce main point II, college for clowns:
1. Now that I’ve told you about clowns and their history, I want you to know that they also have their own college.
2. Circus clowns not only have a history; they also have a college. 3. While I found that clown history was interesting, I soon discovered that clown
college was unimaginable.
Possible transitions to introduce main point III, well-known clown personalities:
1. Since I’ve told you about clown college, I’d like you to hear about a few well- known clown personalities.
2. But clowns are not complete without personality, and I’d like to talk about some of the most famous clown personalities.
3. After I discovered clown college, I came across some fascinating clown personalities.
Possible transitions to introduce the conclusion:
1. Now that you’ve heard about clown history, education, and famous clown personal- ities, I hope you will have a little more appreciation of this art the next time you see a circus clown.
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2. In every part of the world, people of all ages have laughed at these interesting crea- tures called clowns.
3. I hope you’ve enjoyed some of the discoveries I’ve made about clowns.
Each external transition is a sentence that acts as a bridge to link the previous thought with the next main idea. Notice that a transition line after the thesis helps to make a smooth connection between the introduction and main point I of the body. Sim- ilarly, an external transition after the last main point of the body helps to bond the last point to the conclusion. Research indicates that external transitions flag main ideas and increase listener comprehension.27 Remember that members of your audience don’t have copies of your manuscript or outline; they won’t be able to distinguish major or minor points easily unless you clearly indicate them.
External transitions are complete sentences that separate main points in the body of the speech; internal transitions separate minor points under main points. Connectives such as also, then, and next can tell listeners that a subheading has several items that are linked together. Here are a few examples of internal transitions:
and and so in addition
then finally in addition to
next first, second, third … another
also often but
Be sure not to mix external and internal transitions. If you were to use also, and, or in addition as your only connecting transition between two main points in the body, you would confuse your audience because they would not be easily able to separate the major elements of the speech. Your presentation would sound like one long main point rather than a series of headings with subordinate points. If you use complete sentences as your external transitions between main ideas, then one-word connectives will work effectively for internal transitions between supporting points.
Summary You can communicate more successfully if your language is clear and direct, rather than obscure or euphemistic.
Concrete language is also more effective than ambiguity. If you want to evoke subjective feelings within listeners, use connotative rather than denotative language. You can develop a colorful and forceful style by using figures of speech like similes and metaphors and devices such as alliteration, amplification, antithesis, repetition, and mnemonic phrases.
The language of a speech should always be appropriate to the diverse members of your audience. Understand how culture and gender affect the language of your listeners. Avoid offensive words and terminology, and eliminate unnecessary language and extraneous verbal clutter. Avoid using trite expressions, and eliminate grammatical mistakes. Work to build a comprehensive vocabulary that enables your language to be more vivid.
You can make a speech more meaningful through the use of personal pronouns. Link your ideas together more effectively by developing external transitions to bridge main points and using internal transitions to connect subordinate elements.
Making Ideas Meaningful and Interrelated 245
Skill Builders 1. Select a speech presented by one of the famous speakers identified in this chapter
(Martin Luther King, Jr., John F. Kennedy, Abraham Lincoln, Maya Angelou, Jesse Jackson, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt). As you read, find examples of several figures of speech that the speaker uses and present the findings to your class.
2. Choose an effective speech from the present or recent past that represents an example of clear, direct language with colorful figures of speech. The speech can be one presented by a prominent individual in politics, sports, education, medicine, or entertainment. (A database search of Vital Speeches of the Day is one source that could be helpful for this assignment.) Present a summary of the speech to your class and provide specific examples of colorful language as well as figures of speech.
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter Thirteen, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www. cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
246 Chapter 13 • Considering Language
CHAPTER
14DEVELOPING THE DELIVERY
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Discuss techniques for proper breathing
2 Describe the elements of vocal delivery
3 Describe the elements of visual, nonverbal delivery
4 Know how to combine vocal and visual elements
5 Recognize how to build a skillful delivery
During the hotly contested Democratic primary campaign between Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton in 2008, candidates and their families crisscrossed the country looking for votes. Michelle Obama, Senator Obama’s wife, was introduced to an audience at a town hall meeting in Reno, Nevada, where she received a warm reception from the crowd. Mrs. Obama began her speech: “I’m really happy to be here in Nevada.”
Immediately, the warm welcome ended and the crowd began shouting at Mrs. Obama and some even started booing. what was the problem?Mrs. Obama had only stated the first line of her speech: what could she possibly have said that was so offensive? Well it happens that she mispronounced the name of the state. She said “Nah-VAH-da rather than the more nasal “Neh-VAAD-ah.” Nevadans want their state’s name to be pronounced accurately and audience reactions were meant to correct her mistake. Sufficiently embarrassed, Mrs. Obama quickly pronounced “Neh-VAAD-ah” several times correctly and went on to present a successful speech.1
Correct pronunciation is just one of many aspects of delivery that are necessary for an effective speech. In this last chapter of Unit Four, we identify the skills you need for a
AP Ph
ot o/
Da ily
Pr og
re ss
/K ay
lin Bo
w er
s “To be an orator, you haveto use your own words andbe on fire with them.”—Fulton John Sheen
247
successful delivery. We examine some of the important aspects of your vocal and visual delivery and consider some brief suggestions to help you develop your delivery techniques. Additionally, at the end of this chapter you’ll find a delivery checklist, which you can use to help ensure that your delivery will always be effective and appropriate. You can access this checklist online at the Building a Speech website under Chapter Resources for Chapter Fourteen.
Delivering the Speech
Students often ask public speaking instructors, “Is delivery or content more important in a speech?” The instructors’ usual answer is “yes.” The problem with this question is that it assumes delivery and content are somehow isolated and that a speech can successfully depend upon one or the other. An eloquent delivery is not helpful, however, if the mes- sage is disorganized or poorly researched. At the same time, well-researched and clear ideas can fail to communicate if the delivery is poor.
You need effective skills in both delivery and content to succeed in communicating your message. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech would have been only moderately interesting had it been published in a book or magazine. It was
A speaker’s facial expressions,
gestures, vocal inflections, and
voice projection can convey energy
and enthusiasm about a topic.
Key Terms appearance articulation body movement clavicular breathing culture diaphragmatic breathing dramatic pauses emphasis eye contact facial expression gender gestures inflection pauses phrasing pitch pronunciation quality rate vocalized pauses volume
Th om
so n
Le ar
ni ng
248 Chapter 14 • Developing the Delivery
the civil rights leader’s ringing style of delivery that projected King’s ideas forcefully to his audience.
There are two aspects of delivery—the vocal and the visual, or nonverbal. Imagine a speech that you hear over the radio. You listen to the speaker’s increase and decrease in volume, quickening or slowing of the speaking rate, and emphasis on key words and phrases. Now picture a televised speech with no sound as the speaker gestures, smiles or frowns, and makes visual contact with the audience. The radio or the silent TV speech can have a degree of success, but unless the vocal and visual aspects of delivery are com- bined, meaning will not be fully projected over all the available channels of communica- tion. For example, those who heard the 1960 presidential debates between Senator John F. Kennedy and Vice President Richard M. Nixon on radio thought Richard Nixon had been the most effective speaker. But most of those who watched the debates on televi- sion thought Kennedy was the clear winner. Richard Nixon’s “five o’clock shadow” and sluggish performance contrasted poorly with John F. Kennedy’s sharper image and ener- getic delivery. Vocal and visual delivery are equally important when you present a speech. If one channel is blocked, communication can be significantly altered.
Proper Breathing for Vocal Delivery
You need a supply of air not only to survive but also to produce the sound needed for an effective vocal delivery. It is the diaphragm that is primarily involved in inhalation. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle attached to the base and sides of the lower ribs sep- arating the abdomen from the chest. When you inhale, the diaphragm contracts and moves downward, while the ribs move upward and out, increasing the size of the chest cavity. At the same time, air flows into the lungs and fills the vacuum. As you exhale, the diaphragm slowly begins to relax, and the abdominal muscles exert pressure upward to force air out of the lungs, through the trachea and into the larynx, where the air vibrates the vocal folds and produces sound.
If you gasp for air or raise your shoulders when you inhale, you are possibly using clavicular breathing, or respiration from the top of the lungs. Slouching or leaning over a lectern can interrupt the natural process of inhalation and contribute to improper breathing. Clavicular breathing causes unsteadiness in the air supply and creates tension in the neck and throat. If you place your hand over your abdomen and inhale, you should feel the stomach muscles move forward in diaphragmatic breathing. A good, steady breath from the diaphragm produces the constant supply of air needed to produce sound.2 The following exercises can help you to breathe properly and to establish breath control.3
Exercise 1: Sit in a chair that is comfortable but firm and has good back support. Stretch your hands on your abdomen immediately below your ribs, with your thumbs pointing to the rear and fingers pointing forward. Sit erect but relaxed, with your feet firmly on the floor. Inhale slowly, then exhale. When you inhale, you should feel your stomach muscles push forward, and when you exhale, they should pull in. Now repeat this exercise, but this time take about five seconds to inhale. Then take ten seconds to exhale. If you run out of breath before ten seconds, try the exercise again and exhale much more slowly. Repeat this exercise several times.
Exercise 2: Stand up straight with both feet firmly on the floor. Inhale normally and then exhale on the sound s. Maintain the sound as evenly as possible for about ten seconds. Repeat the exercise and exhale on the sounds sh, th, and f.
Proper Breathing for Vocal Delivery 249
Vocal Delivery
In this section we will examine the following elements of vocal delivery: volume, articulation, pitch and inflection, quality, rate, pronunciation, pausing, emphasis, and phrasing.4
Volume Volume is the intensity, or loudness and softness, of your voice. If you have ever been approached by a person who shouts a ten-minute sales pitch at you, or if you have ever strained to hear a speaker in a large auditorium, you are already aware of the importance of volume in speech delivery. Either of these situations is irritating, and listeners will block out a speaker who fails to adjust volume to meet the needs of a particular speech setting. If you present a speech in a gymnasium without a microphone, you’d better be prepared to project your voice so the individual in the last row can hear you comfort- ably. Conversely, you may need to speak more softly to a handful of people in a small conference room.
In speech classes, people rarely have the problem of projecting too much volume; more often, they aren’t loud enough. It takes experience and training to develop vocal sensitivity. Experienced actors and actresses can project their voices, even in a whisper, without amplification in cavernous playhouses or in vast open-air amphitheaters. Unless there is a physical problem, most of us have the ability to develop good vocal projection. By doing some vocal exercises and practicing dia- phragmatic breathing, you can control the intensity of your voice so that the audi- ence can hear you comfortably.
Adjusting your volume can also be an effective way to emphasize significant portions of a speech. You can increase or lower your volume for dramatic empha- sis when you convey startling information or emotional examples. The late Leo Buscaglia—an educator, author, and public speaker who toured the country lecturing on love and human emotions—told this story of a smiling girl “with kind eyeballs” who was formerly a student in one of his huge lecture classes at the University of California:
And about five weeks into the semester this beautiful young girl was not in her seat and when Monday, Wednesday, Friday, Monday, Wednesday, Friday came, I became curious, and I went down and asked the people around her what had happened to her. And do you know that in something like six weeks of school, they didn’t even know her name? … and so I went to the Dean of Women and I asked about her … [and she said] “Oh Leo, I’m sorry, haven’t I told you? This girl went to Pacific Palisades (which is an area where many of you know where sheer cliffs fall into the sea), and there were people there having a picnic on the grass, and they saw her drive her car up and she left the ignition running and zombie-like, she walked across the grass and without a moment’s hesitation, threw herself off onto the rocks below.” She was 22.5
When he used this example, Buscaglia increased his volume on the words “they didn’t even know her name” to show anger and disgust. Then he contrasted that emo- tion by softening his voice almost to a whisper on the line “and threw herself onto the rocks below” to reinforce the tragedy and shock of the story. Volume can be an effective device to shade meaning.
250 Chapter 14 • Developing the Delivery
Articulation Another aspect of delivery is articulation, which refers to the clarity and enunciation of words, phrases, and sentences in a speech. Americans often exhibit sloppy enunciation; we frequently eliminate vowels and consonants, run words together, and mumble sen- tences. The unfortunate result often sounds like some kind of verbal jumble that not even fellow English-speaking citizens can easily understand. The following exchange could take place on almost any college campus in the country. See if you can decipher some of the garbled words and phrases.
Man: Haryadoin? Woman: Fine. Whatchurnam? Man: Laryowns—urz? Woman: Molyilsn. Whouwerkfor? Man: Blakndeckr. Wheryagodaskool? Woman: Eescampus. Man: O. Imonweseye. Wheryagoinow? Woman: I dunno. Man: Yasingl? Woman: Yeh. Man: Yawannagodamyplas?
Although the example may be humorous, it makes a serious point. To communicate effectively, a speaker must enunciate clearly. The audience must be able to understand words and phrases easily without having to guess at the meaning. When you speak, you should make the effort to open your mouth and use clear articulation. Remember that words have vowels and consonants, and some words must be distinctly separated in order to be understood. Try to pronounce each of the following words containing diffi- cult sound combinations:6
fifths grasped asks
frisked answer fists
sixths oaths months
thousands depths twelfths
widths lengths hundredths
Many problems of articulation are simply a result of bad habits caused by verbal lazi- ness. But there are some serious problems, such as stuttering, cleft palate, or aphasia, that may have emotional or physical causes requiring extensive speech therapy. Individuals with these speaking disorders need patience, love, and understanding in addition to good speech therapy to build confidence in their communication abilities. Many articu- lation problems can be improved through simple vocal exercises and by opening the mouth and speaking more distinctly.
Pitch and Inflection Pitch is the vocal element that refers to the highness or lowness of sound. If you spoke in a normal voice and struck a note on a piano corresponding to your vocal note, you would find your approximate pitch. Children have high-pitched voices, women have
Vocal Delivery 251
lower voices, and men’s voices tend to be still lower. Changes in pitch, called inflections, are important in effective vocal delivery. A presentation in which a speaker uses a variety of inflections sounds interesting. If you have ever had to endure a speaker who delivered an entire speech using the same monotonous pitch, you know how bored and frustrated you felt. The most interesting written material can often seem tedious if a speaker uses a monotone. Another problem can occur when a speaker uses the same cycle of inflections resulting in a repetitious or “sing-songy” pattern. An example would be a speaker whose voice has the same upward pitch at the end of every sentence. The repetitious inflection throughout a speech would sound highly irritating and cause listen- ers to tune out the speaker.
Here is an exercise underscoring the difference that proper inflection can make in the delivery of a speech. Read the following lines to a children’s story using either a monotone or repetitious pitch pattern:
Once upon a time, deep in the forest, there lived a talkative owl, a one-legged grasshopper, and a turtle who could climb trees. One day the owl swooped down near the ground and discovered the grasshopper hobbling along.
“Wholoo there,” said the owl perched on the lower limb of a tree. “I’ve been very lonely lately because I’ve had no one to talk to. Why don’t you jump up on this limb, climb on my feathers and we’ll go for a ride?”
“I can’t,” said the grasshopper slowly and sadly. “I lost a leg in a fierce battle with a kitten, and now I can hardly do anything at all.”
“Ha ha,” said the talkative owl, “at least you’re still alive!” “Not funny,” clicked the one-legged grasshopper. “Not funny at all. At least you
can fly.” “Oh yes,” said the owl, “and I can turn my head all the way around, and I have
sharp, sharp claws, and I am very, very wise.” “I’ve heard enough from you,” said the one-legged grasshopper, who began to
limp away. “Wait,” yelled the owl. “You can do all sorts of things that I can’t do. You can
sneak under doors and get into people’s houses, you can crouch into corners and not be seen, and best of all, you have a lovely, lovely voice to sing with. As a matter of fact, why don’t you sing and entertain me right now?”
Now do it again, this time using a lot of vocal variety and different voices for each character as if you were telling the story to an audience of preschoolers. If you let yourself go during the reading, your preschoolers would probably have been fasci- nated. Vocal variety helps you to emphasize meaning and to create interest in the material. You will get a similar result when you use vocal variety in your speeches. If you vary your inflection, your listeners will be much more interested and involved in your topic.
Quality Voice quality refers to the sound or timbre of the voice. It is the element that makes each speaker’s voice unique. No doubt you have heard speakers whose voices sounded harsh, nasal, breathy, gravelly, melodious, seductive, or hollow. Think of the differences in vocal quality of Fran Drescher, Barack Obama, Sarah Palin, Will Smith, Rosie O’Donnell, Marilyn Monroe, Chris Rock, Maya Angelou, Jerry Seinfeld, Roseanne, James Earl Jones, Jay Leno, Lady GaGa and David Letterman. We recognize each of these individuals by their unique trademark—the sound of their voices.
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Vocal quality can add to or detract from an individual’s speech. If you’ve ever picked up the telephone and heard a nasal “Hallow—Haw are yoooooo?” you probably had difficulty concentrating on the message because the nasal sound was so annoying. On the other hand, you probably listened actively to a speaker who greeted you in a rich, mellow voice.
The voice quality of most adults is usually established by long-term vocal habits. Frequently, however, some bad habits that are responsible for unpleasant voices can be altered through tension-reducing vocal exercises. A good voice and diction coach should be consulted for treatment.7
Rate The rate of speech refers to the number of words an individual speaks every minute. Your speaking rate can affect the audience’s comprehension of your meaning. If you rush through your speech, listeners cannot grasp your ideas or keep up with you. One student who delivered a speech too rapidly told a joke and was surprised to discover the audience laughing several seconds later when he had moved on to more serious information. A speaker needs a comfortable rate of delivery that allows ideas to sink in. The most desirable speaking rate falls somewhere between 125 and 150 words per minute.8 Anything significantly more or less than that is either too fast or too slow. Because of apprehension, many beginning speakers unconsciously speed up their rate. If this happens to you, try to make a conscious effort to slow down so that your listeners can absorb your ideas. Use dramatic pauses to break up important thought groups and to give listeners time to think about your ideas.
Rate can also be important in the interpretation of a speech. You can increase your rate when you want to create suspense and generate emotional feelings. You can slow down at the conclusion or during climactic points in the speech to demonstrate finality and resolution. Read the following dramatic incident aloud, and adjust your speaking rate to reinforce the meaning of the material:
The woman escaped from her assailant and ran out of the house. She ran up the street and began yelling and pleading, “Will anyone help me? Please, please, protect me. Someone’s trying to kill me!” She kept running and glancing over her shoulder to see if the assailant was coming after her. She ran around a corner and spotted a police car two blocks ahead. She ran the last two blocks waving her arms wildly. “Please, save me,” she screamed. Finally, finally, she saw the beautiful car with the red and blue revolving light coming toward her. She slowed to a half run, half walk. Between her sobs and heavy breathing she whispered, “Thank God!”
If you followed the events in the narrative closely, your speaking rate was probably rapid at the beginning. As the pace of the story quickened, you may have increased your rate, and as the events concluded, your pace decreased. Your rate of speech is a valuable tool you can employ to emphasize as well as interpret meaning.
Pronunciation Pronunciation describes the combinations of vowels, consonants, syllables, and accents a speaker chooses to emphasize in a specific word. As the introduction to this chapter indi- cates, it is important to know how to pronounce common English words as well as diffi- cult terminology you employ in a speech. Stumbling over words or making frequent errors in pronunciation interrupts the flow of ideas and raises questions about a speaker’s
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credibility. Michelle Obama discovered that listeners have difficulty getting past a glaring error that could have been avoided with proper research. Knowing how to pronounce a word means understanding the generally accepted pronunciation. While pronunciation can differ remarkably depending upon the region of the country, a good dictionary should be a helpful guide to the preferred pronunciation.
As part of your standard speech practice, you should check the pronunciation of any difficult words or terms unfamiliar to you. Here are some common words that are fre- quently mispronounced. Read the list carefully, and make sure that you are able to use the generally accepted pronunciation of each word.
adjective gesture picture
aluminum harassment potato
cavalry mischievous pumpkin
congratulate neither recognize
either nuclear statistics
escape particularly tomato
exits pecan veterinarian
Pauses Pauses are breaks or interruptions in speech that separate thoughts and ideas. Dramatic pauses are intentional breaks or silences between major ideas that can bring out the meaning of a specific passage. Dramatic pauses can help a listener to focus on a startling fact or create a moment that allows a listener to experience an emotion. Notice how the following passage reads when you place dramatic pauses in strategic parts of the story:
Melanie was a bright, 17-year-old girl. She was a straight-A student, she had numerous friends, and she was extremely attractive. Everything seemed to be going well for Melanie. But Melanie had one problem that few people knew about. [pause] Melanie was an anorexic [pause] and it was killing her!
You can use pauses effectively in a number of places to bring out the meaning of this passage. If you pause briefly at each punctuation mark and then use longer pauses at the brackets, the punch line to the story is dramatically emphasized. Read it several more times, and experiment with different combinations of pauses. Experiment in your speeches as well. Use pausing where it is most likely to enhance and emphasize emo- tional examples, startling statements, and colorful quotations.
Vocalized pauses are verbalizations, such as “uh” and “um,” that cause distrac- tions in speaking. Speakers sometimes use vocalized pauses because they are nervous or because they may be uncomfortable with silence. It was not helpful to Caroline Kennedy’s failed attempt to seek appointment to Hillary Clinton’s New York senate seat when she uttered the words “you know” numerous times in a brief televised inter- view. As he was giving impromptu remarks, former President George W. Bush often used the vocalization “um.” Try to eliminate this habit from your verbal delivery. Vocalized pauses are annoying and keep listeners from concentrating on your presentation.
Remember that you don’t have to verbalize 100 percent of your speaking time. Use silences to your advantage when delivering your presentations. Dramatic pauses can help you to separate thoughts and can give the audience time to grasp your ideas.
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Emphasis and Phrasing You use emphasis in a speech when you alter your rate, volume, and pitch to highlight significant words and sentences. In phrasing, you group words and sentences into units of thought that make ideas easier to understand. Both emphasis and phrasing help to make a speech interesting and clear. In the following example, emphasize the italicized words by increasing your volume and slowing your rate. Use pauses wherever you see the caret (^).
The U.S. national debt is fifteen-and-a-half trillion dollars. ^ Think of it. ^ fifteen-and-a-half
^ trillion ^ dollars.
You can hear how emphasis verbally helps to underscore important words and thoughts and how phrasing helps to clarify the meaning by grouping sentences into smal- ler thought units. The markings reflect the emphasis and phrasing each individual used to deliver the following passages:
And so, my fellow Americans: ^ ask not what your country can do for you—^ ask what you can do for your country.
—John F. Kennedy
First Lady Michelle Obama uses
forceful gestures when she
speaks about issues such
as the family and American
troops abroad.
RI CK
W IL
KI N
G/ Re
ut er
s/ La
nd ov
Vocal Delivery 255
I have a dream ^ that my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today.
—Martin Luther King, Jr.
The only thing we have to fear is ^ fear itself.
—Franklin D. Roosevelt
The ideas are dynamic enough. But each speaker used his unique delivery to pro- mote an even clearer understanding of his words. The results were powerful. If you reread each quotation using different emphasis and phrasing, the meaning is altered, and the overall effect is much less dramatic.
Your ideas can be emphasized in many ways, and your words can be grouped into a variety of patterns. Choose the emphasis and phrasing that most effectively reflect your intention and that will, in turn, contribute to the audience’s understanding of your meaning.
Visual, Nonverbal Delivery
Visual delivery refers to the nonverbal aspect of communication. This aspect of speaking is important because we communicate so many of our thoughts and feelings spontane- ously through facial expressions, eye contact, or body movements. One study, for exam- ple, indicates that 55 percent of meaning conveyed in conversation is expressed through the face.9 In addition, a speaker’s appearance or “physical attractiveness” can signifi- cantly enhance a speaker’s persuasive influence.10 So, it is helpful to understand that your eye contact, appearance, gestures, facial expressions, body position, and movement, as well as characteristics related to your culture or gender, can have a significant impact on audience perceptions of your communication.
Eye Contact Eye contact is a very important aspect of your visual delivery. Through the eyes, you can reach the intellect and emotions of your audience and gauge their feedback to your ideas. Research indicates that poor eye contact may even have a negative impact on the amount of information an audience comprehends during a speech.11 Any audience wants the speaker’s recognition and awareness. A speaker who reads word for word, without ever looking up, will promote indifference and boredom.
The teacher arrived for every class period just 3 minutes late. She always sat down gingerly, pulling her chair up very slowly under the desk. She tugged three times at her skirt, making certain that it was stretched over her knees. She then began the lecture, without ever once looking at her students. “Today we are going to discuss the dangling participle,” she droned in a monotone, “… an exciting lesson in rhetori- cal dysfunction.”
One student commented at the end of the semester, “She never looked at me any time during the whole course. I don’t think she ever knew I was alive. The trou- ble is, I’m not sure that she was alive.”
Contrast this experience with one of your most interesting instructors. You’ll find that the professor who is an effective communicator uses a great deal of eye contact.
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The good instructor is always aware of student reactions and knows when to repeat ideas, ask questions, or proceed to new information. This instructor combines good eye contact with many other techniques of effective delivery. The communicative professor walks around, gestures, uses facial expression, and shows interest in students who respond by becoming actively involved and interested in class discussions.
When delivering a speech, you must establish visual contact with your audience. You aren’t expected to memorize the speech, but you should have rehearsed enough to free yourself from paying too much attention to notecards. It may take some practice and repeated experience to discover how often to glance at notes and how much visual con- tact to make with listeners. When you look at the audience, sustain eye contact long enough to let them know you see them and are following their reactions. Look at each area of the audience at some point in your speech. Avoid bobbing your head up and down between notecards and audience. This practice detracts from your speech and doesn’t establish eye contact. If you feel insecure in front of people, find several friendly, attentive faces at the right, center, and left. Begin by looking at these supportive indivi- duals and gradually expand your field of vision to other audience members. Practice your speech thoroughly so that you will feel confident enough to look away from your note- cards and establish rapport with your audience.
Appearance Your appearance can support or detract from the communication process. A student who worked as a school-crossing guard gave a speech informing the audience about the duties and responsibilities of her job. On the day of the speech she wore her school guard uni- form, complete with hat, badge, and whistle. She spoke of her role as a protector and guardian of “her kids” and firmly reminded the audience that it is her job to stop traffic whenever it is in the children’s best interests. The speaker’s words and feelings conveyed commitment to the topic, while her appearance communicated authority and dedication on a nonverbal level.12
Politicians carefully analyze speaking situations when they make decisions about their appearance for important speeches. A governor eating chicken and politicking for votes at the local county fair may wear blue jeans and suspenders. But the same governor will probably choose a conservative suit with red, white, and blue accessories for the inaugural address at the state capitol.
At the beginning of the lengthy O. J. Simpson murder case, prosecuting attorney Marcia Clark appeared in court each day with a distinctive curly hairstyle. At the mid- point of the trial, however, Clark had a makeover, transforming her hairdo into a darker, straighter style. Some legal analysts suggested that it might have been unwise for the prosecutor to modify her appearance during the course of the trial because the change could have negatively affected the relationship between the attorney and the jurors.13
You create a positive impression when you dress appropriately for the audience, the occasion, and the topic. Avoid distracting styles: straps that fall down, skirts that ride up, jewelry that dangles noisily, hair that hides eyes or face, shoes that skid or squeak. An appropriate appearance—neat, clean, neither too formal nor too casual—lets the audi- ence know that you care about the speech and that the occasion is important to you.
Gestures Enhance your speeches by using gestures to emphasize words or phrases, to describe physical objects or events, and to point out directions or locations. In the early part of the twentieth century, there was an emphasis on elocutionary speaking, which
Visual, Nonverbal Delivery 257
involved the study of vocal production and gesturing in speech delivery. Speakers practiced complicated vocal exercises and studied manuals containing illustrations and definitions of gestures. From this analysis, speakers learned to project their voices in large assembly halls and to use gestures forcefully in their presentations. William Jennings Bryan, Teddy Roosevelt, and Robert Lafollette were prominent elocutionists of this time whose booming voices and animated delivery influenced millions of Americans. Although these speakers were effective in their era, their speeches would seem overdone today. Radio, television, and microphones have enabled speakers to be more conversational and to use more descriptive gestures in speech delivery. Modern speech educators feel gestures should be spontaneous and reflective of an individual’s feelings and energies.
While it’s not advisable to memorize gestures, as some of the elocutionists did, you can increase the effectiveness of your gestures through practice. Successful gestures are precise and punctuate your words and ideas clearly. Think of the varieties of gestures you might need to describe tying a shoelace or giving directions to your home. Begin- ning speakers are sometimes afraid to use gestures in their presentations. They often stand with their arms stiffly at their sides, hands clasped behind or in front of them or resting rigidly on the speaking lectern. If you make a conscious effort, you will find that gestures can help you work out some of your nervous energy in a speech. Don’t let your- self be controlled by nervous mannerisms such as distracting hand, arm, or body move- ments. Show enthusiasm and project confidence to your audience by using gestures to punctuate ideas and to describe objects and concepts.
Facial Expression Our memories are imprinted with the stark images of the crumbling World Trade Center, the blazing Pentagon, and the smoking Pennsylvania crash site as a result of the September 11 terrorist attacks. But the heroic image that also remains in our memo- ries is the photograph of three firefighters raising the American flag amidst the rubble of the Twin Towers. No words are needed to describe the picture; the image alone expresses the power, hope, and determination of the American spirit.
Each of us has an extraordinary set of muscles in our faces that can express a silent picture. We can smile, frown, show sadness and anger, or convey love and joy. Our facial expressions help to reinforce our words. If you were to say “I love you” and show anger in your expression, your listener would either be confused or interpret the message negatively. If you had a blank facial expression, your listener might wonder if you had any feelings of love at all. A student presenting a speech about the importance of seat belts smiled broadly as he said, “If you were involved in a traffic accident and you didn’t wear your seat belt, you might die!” The audience didn’t take the speaker seri- ously, because his facial expression wasn’t appropriate.
Your facial expression should clearly support your verbal message. If you talk about parental kidnapping, your expression should reflect anger and concern; if your topic is space exploration, your face should convey adventure and curiosity; if you are speaking about chronic illness, your face should show empathy and hope. Your facial expressions cannot be mechanically planned in advance. Like gestures, they should be spontaneous and reflect your natural feelings. Practice your speech in front of a friend or, if possible, a video camera to get some clues about your expressions and determine if they support your verbal messages. A speaker who projects emotion about a topic through facial expression will tend to receive a similar emotional response from the audience.
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Body Position and Movement Your stance, posture, poise, and body movement can also contribute to your communi- cation. An individual who has good posture appears to be more prepared than does a speaker who slouches or leans on the lectern. Standing on both feet gives a speaker greater stability than shifting from one leg to another. Good posture also allows a speaker to breathe more effectively to produce sound.
A student was in the process of presenting an informative speech about learning dis- abilities. She had researched the topic well, and she had found a number of interesting examples, statistics, and testimonies to support her main points. During her speech, how- ever, she often wrapped one leg around the other the way a contortionist does at the circus. The audience was fascinated as they watched her legs tangle and unwind. It’s obvious that the awkward body movement was a distraction that kept the audience from hearing the speech.
It’s good speech practice to develop posture that is both relaxed and erect. Practice using your stance and body position to your advantage. A tall speaker with good posture can use height as an added means of persuasion. A short speaker can stand beside the lectern and develop greater intimacy with the audience. Be sure that your stance and posture add to your presentation and do not interfere with the message.
When you become a confident public speaker, you can develop some variations in body movement to emphasize the transitions in your speech. Here are some suggestions:
Specific purpose: To inform the audience about dyslexia Thesis statement: Dyslexia has several causes and effects that can be described in a
case study.
BODY SUGGESTED MOVEMENT
I. Causes of dyslexia Transition line 1: “I’ve just told you about some of the major causes of dyslexia; now I want to go into some of its effects on children.”
Move to right of lectern
II. Effects of the learning disability Transition line 2: “Now that I’ve considered some of the effects, let me tell you a personal experience that happened to my family.”
Move in front of lectern
III. Case study of dyslexia
In this presentation, the speaker begins the introduction and main point I of the body while standing behind the speaker’s lectern. When delivering transition line 1, the speaker moves to the right of the lectern, thus reinforcing the change in thoughts. Again, when delivering transition line 2, the speaker moves in front of the lectern, standing closer to the audience. This final action not only supports the change in ideas but also establishes greater intimacy with listeners during the presentation of the per- sonal experience.
You may want to gain some confidence behind the speaker’s lectern before trying some of these suggestions. Experiment with body movement when you have become comfortable with your audience.
Visual, Nonverbal Delivery 259
Culture and Nonverbal Delivery You can see that the nonverbal aspects of delivery can enhance and support a speaker’s message. But although gestures, eye contact, facial expression, appearance, and body movement are important elements in presenting public speeches, not everyone uses and interprets these symbols in the same way. Nonverbal messages can vary widely depending on our culture and background.
A Caucasian American might look directly into the eyes to establish solid visual contact with listeners. But a speaker from Japan, China, or India might find such directness inappropriate, preferring instead to use only brief, peripheral glances. Some Native American cultures interpret direct eye contact as rude or offensive.14 A speaker from southern Europe, Africa, the Middle East, or Latin America might decide to make a point by moving extremely close to the audience, showering listeners with a liberal supply of mouth spray. To many Americans, however, this behavior would be con- sidered intrusive and a violation of personal space. Americans use the rounded “O” formed with the thumb and index finger to signify that something is “OK.” But a similar gesture made by a French speaker indicates that the object under discussion is worth a zero; and for many Latin Americans, the gesture is obscene. In the United States, nodding the head up and down conveys a “yes” response, but in Greece or Turkey the movement means “no.” American women enjoy a great deal of flexibility in dress and appearance, but many women in the Middle East are expected to have the
Cultures teach individuals to use
nonverbal “language” uniquely.
A listener must remember to keep
an open mind when encountering
differences in a speaker’s gestures,
expressions, or other nonverbal
symbols.
Jo el
Go rd
on
260 Chapter 14 • Developing the Delivery
body, limbs, and head completely covered. And in Indonesia, a speaker would not show or point the soles of the shoes toward a listener, because the action would signal that the listener is beneath or inferior to the speaker.15 When George W. Bush visited Iraq in the final weeks of his presidency, he encountered a furious Iraqi reporter who threw shoes at the president during a news conference to show contempt and extreme disrespect.
Upon hearing this classroom discussion about cultural differences in nonverbal com- munication, one student commented humorously, “Does this mean that we should be careful not to point our shoes at listeners when we deliver our speeches?” Well, not exactly, but the discussion does imply that both speakers and audiences need to make significant efforts to understand the differences in culture and be more aware of how these differences influence the speaking message or audience response.
When you speak or listen to someone from another culture:
• Avoid making quick decisions about the individual’s nonverbal “language.” • Take time to observe a speaker’s stance and body movements. • Determine if the speaker is from a culture where there is little need for personal
space, and if the speaker has less concern about “being too close” than do members of the audience.
• Understand differences that occur in appearance: does the speaker wear a sari, facial dots, or other markings to indicate a distinct tribe, caste, or family classification?
• Be aware of variations in eye contact and facial expressions: does the speaker avoid direct eye contact and facial expressions, or is the speaker accustomed to showing animated facial expressions and looking at listeners in a straightforward manner?
• Notice how culture influences the speaker’s gestures.
Fiorello La Guardia was New York City’s colorful mayor from 1934 to 1945. As a fluent speaker of three languages, La Guardia was a skillful politician. When campaign- ing for office in his native Italian, La Guardia used a particular set of gestures. But when he spoke in English, the mayor employed other gestures, and when he spoke to Jewish audiences, he used another set of actions to support his speeches.16 Recognize that cul- tures teach individuals to use gestures differently and employ codes or emblems uniquely. In some cultures, gestures may be animated and energetic; in others, physical actions may be much more restrained.
When you encounter different nonverbal languages, avoid making snap judgments that categorize the behavior as “right” or “wrong.” Observe the behavior and make deter- mined efforts to understand the cultural differences by keeping an open mind. If you are uncertain or confused about nonverbal symbols, don’t be afraid to ask questions of the speaker and audience. Remember that your objective is to understand and interpret the differences in culture so that you can convey your thoughts, ideas, and feelings with clarity, sensitivity, and efficiency.
Gender and Nonverbal Delivery In American society, the roles of men and women have undergone tremendous changes in recent decades. As we saw in Chapter Four, occupations that were once viewed as only men’s or women’s are now frequently assumed by the other gender. But even though occupational roles may have changed, women and men still exhibit more
Visual, Nonverbal Delivery 261
traditional differences in their nonverbal communication patterns. Consider the research findings in the following box.
Research shows that women … And men …
• tend to be more expressive in their gestures than men are.
• are more touch-oriented than men are.
• show more emotion, such as sadness or fear, than men do in facial expression and in the eyes.
• maintain more fixed eye contact and stand physically closer to each other than men do.
• are given more permission, in American society, to touch or hug another woman than men are to hug another man.
• interpret nonverbal language cues more effectively thanmales do and can more quickly read facial expressions such as anger, sadness, and fear.17
• are often rewarded for showing posi- tive emotions such as smiling.
• are not encouraged to display strong or forceful displeasure.
• often mask their anger with tears. • are seen as appropriate if they cry. • are seen as “unladylike” if they
display anger.18
• tend to use more powerful and forceful nonverbal cues.
• make larger gestures and occupy more space and territory than women do.
• are not allowed to show as much sadness or fear as women can.
• are given more latitude than women in expressing hostility and aggression.
• often use anger to mask pain and sorrow.
• are able to read facial expressions that indicate disgust or dislike.
• have difficulty perceiving more subtle emotions.
• are considered “unmanly” if they cry. • use restraint in facial expressions. • stand farther apart from each
other than women do. • stand much closer to the opposite
gender than women do. • have much less physical contact
with members of the same sex than women do.
• display physical contact with other men through aggressive touch, like handshaking, playful jabbing, or backslapping, within well-defined boundaries such as sports, occupa- tions, or partying.
• are still regarded as the initiators of touch in male-female relationships, and women are expected to be the responders.
So what can we learn about our differences? First of all, it is helpful if we don’t over- generalize about the nonverbal cues we perceive. Listeners should take time to observe patterns of behavior and interpret nonverbal expressions and gestures in context. The behavior we see may have nothing to do with gender. A woman presenting a speech with a constant smile could be experiencing speech anxiety, or a man who frequently pounds the lectern with his hand could simply have an annoying mannerism. Recognize that differences due to gender represent generalizations and should not be viewed as con- crete conclusions, because there are always exceptions. A female speaker can show strong anger to support a message, and a male is capable of expressive gestures. Also remember that nonverbal speaking actions can be influenced by numerous elements, such as the audience-speaker relationship, the topic, or the situation. A man delivering a speech to a lifeless audience may need to use a wide variety of facial expressions, gestures, and body
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movements to energize listeners. A woman presenting a speech on a highly controversial issue may want to use restrained expressions for a more rational approach to the topic. A speaker delivering a presentation to a large audience may need to use more expansive gestures, and a speaker lecturing to a small group could be more subtle.
Remember that effective speakers, whether men or women, should adopt styles that are relevant to the needs and requirements of particular speaking situations. Try not to read too much into a speaker’s every gesture, expression, or action, and avoid interpret- ing nonverbal cues in isolation. Recognize that men and women can complement each other’s nonverbal behavior and offer different perspectives that enrich and enlighten the listener. Above all, learn to enjoy the subtleties and nuances of nonverbal behavior, and be cautious when making judgments and observations.19
Combining Vocal and Visual Delivery
Vocal and visual delivery are combined in the enthusiasm and vitality that a speaker projects to an audience. An enthusiastic speaker uses vocal inflection, volume, pauses, eye contact, gestures, and facial expressions to convey a feeling of involvement in his or her topic. Audience members experience the speaker’s energy visually and verbally and think, “This person really cares about the topic—I’d better listen.”
In the second 1992 presidential debate between President George H. W. Bush and Governor Bill Clinton, a voter asked how the recession had personally affected the lives
Effective skills in vocal and visual delivery allow a speaker to project ideas with clarity, passion, and style.
Go Go
Im ag
es /J
up ite
r Im
ag es
Combining Vocal and Visual Delivery 263
of each candidate. President Bush’s stumbling response included the comment “I’m not sure I get it.” This reaction demonstrated the president’s difficulty in communicating his con- cern about the economic hardships suffered by many Americans. By contrast, Governor Clinton used facial expression, body movement, and gestures to convey his emotional response: “In my state when people lose their jobs, there’s a good chance that I’ll know them by their names.” An individual does not have to be a vibrant public speaker in order to be president, of course. America has had many presidents who have not been effective speakers, for example, Calvin Coolidge, Lyndon Johnson, Richard Nixon, and Jimmy Carter. But some of our strongest leaders have also been dynamic public speakers—among them are Teddy Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy, and Ronald Reagan.
To be successful in a speech, show that you care about the topic. Employ good eye contact with the audience; use your facial muscles to show appropriate emotion; alter your pitch for vocal variety and adjust your volume, rate, and phrasing for emphasis; use gestures to reinforce your ideas; and reflect your commitment in your appearance. Combine all of the vocal and visual aspects of delivery into a speaking performance that is enthusiastic and energetic.
Building Skills in Delivery
Here are a few suggestions to help you develop your skills in speech delivery.
Know Your Material One of the first principles of an effective delivery is to be knowledgeable about your material. Your research should be thorough, your sources should be credible, and your under- standing of the topic should be extensive. Know how to pronounce difficult names, terms, or concepts, and be familiar with your supporting materials. One key to a successful delivery is confidence in your material, which can free you to relay the topic to your audience.
Be Well Organized You need a good outline, written on notecards, to deliver a speech effectively. (See Chapter Ten for discussions of outlining and creating notecards.) Make sure the outline is clear and complete. Know exactly how you are going to begin and end the speech. Be certain that your specific purpose is defined and that the main points of the body are identifiable. Check your notecards for ease in reading. Write large enough to see com- fortably, and double-space between phrases and sentences. Number your notecards in the upper corner to keep them in the proper order.
Prepare Your Speaking Notes Preparing speaking notes for extemporaneous delivery involves jotting down key words and phrases on note cards so you can see the main ideas quickly and maintain good eye contact with your audience. Notice the sample speaking notes in Figure 14.1 that correspond to the speech in Chapter Twelve, “How Do Airplane Wings Produce Lift?” (pages 223–227). You will see that the speaker has placed the key ideas in outline form and used double-spacing in order to follow them at a brief glance. The main points of the body are placed in bold type and other important phrases are highlighted or under- lined for emphasis. Also notice that sources for significant information have been placed in parentheses to remind the speaker to state them in order to validate the material and increase credibility with the audience. Parentheses are also used to indicate where the speaker should use a model airplane and PowerPoint slides during the speech.
264 Chapter 14 • Developing the Delivery
FIGURE 14.1 Example of Speaking Notes Using Key Words
INTRODUCTION (1)
I. “For once you have tasted flight, you will walk the earth with your eyes turned skyward …” da Vinci quote. (slide 1)
II. da Vinci fascinated by flight 500 years ago (Jeppesen, Pilot Manual)
III. Manuscripts contain sketches, drawings of flying machines (slide 2)
IV. Thesis—3 components of lift: 1. airfoil design, 2. Sir Issac Newton’s Third Law of Motion, 3. Daniel Bernoulli’s principle. (slide 3)
BODY (2)
I. Airfoil: lift interacting with air (slide 4)
A. Propeller and wing similar B. Leading edge (Show model airplane: point to front of wing) C. Trailing edge (Point to rear of wing) D. Camber: curvature of wing (Use model) E. Downwash: air movement over camber directed downward
(Use model, slide 5) F. Garden hose analogy
(3)
II. Newton’s Third Law of Motion (Irvin Gleim, Pilot Handbook, slide 6)
A. 17th Cent. Physicist-mathematician B. For every action, equal, opposite reaction (Use model) C. Draw line through longitudinal axis & lead./trailing edge of wing (slide 7)
1. Forms small angle: angle of incidence (slide 8) 2. Upward slant of wing compared to long. axis of plane 3. Action: air hits beneath wing, deflects downward (slide 9) 4. Reaction: upward force, lifting of plane (slide 10)
(4)
III. Daniel Bernoulli, 18th century Swiss mathematician (slide 11)
A. Principle: as velocity or air increases, pressure decreases B. Air moves over wing (Jeppesen, Instrument/Commercial Manual)
1. Velocity increases (Use model, slide 12) 2. Travels longer distance over camber 3. Decreases air pressure 4. Underneath wing pressure increases 5. Pressure underneath tries to get on top to equalize 6. High pressure getting on top of wing pushes plane
CONCLUSION (5)
I. “As a result of Newton’s Third Law of Motion …” (slide 13)
II. Summary of main points:
A. Action/reaction of the lifting of airplane, B. Bernoulli’s Principle-as velocity of air increases, its pressure decreases, C. Shape of airfoil: air over wing camber creates downwash, causing lift
Students sometimes complain that speaking notes with only key words don’t contain enough written information to help them deliver the speech effectively. Remember that
Building Skills in Delivery 265
in extemporaneous delivery, speaking notes are only a guide: careful practice will allow you to fill in the missing verbal gaps. If you rehearse the speech several times using your key word notecards, you will find it easier than using a detailed manuscript that becomes a crutch and causes you to read word-for-word. You can use as many keywords, main points, and subtopics as you feel are necessary to present the speech. But don’t use so many words that you have to read in order to convey the information. Speaking notes that are simple, clear, and concise will help you to communicate and connect with your listeners verbally as well as visually.
Practice the Delivery When you have organized your material, and you know what you want to emphasize, prac- tice the speech several times. (Review the delivery checklist in Figure 14.2.) Whenever
FIGURE 14.2 Delivery Checklist DELIVERY CHECKLIST
Vocal Delivery
Volume—Is your voice loud enough for everyone to hear in the room where you are speaking?
Articulation and Pronunciation—Is your speaking clear, and do you know how to pronounce words and difficult terminology correctly?
Pitch—Do you avoid a monotone delivery and use a variety of vocal inflections, making your voice sound interesting and enthusiastic?
Quality—Do you know how your voice sounds to others, and have you done any vocal or breathing exercises to assist you?
Rate—Are you speaking at a moderate rate that allows listeners to hear and comprehend your ideas easily?
Pauses—Do you use silences as a tool to allow listeners to absorb meanings, and do you avoid vocalized pauses such as "um"?
Emphasis and Phrasing—Do you verbally stress specific words and phrases to highlight ideas and units of thoughts?
Visual, Nonverbal Delivery
Eye Contact—Do you look at your listeners consistently, using brief glances at your notes but avoiding distracting head movements?
Appearance—Is your appearance appropriate to your topic, audience, and occasion? Are you careful to avoid any hair or clothing styles that distract?
Gestures—Do you show enthusiasm with spontaneous gestures that support your speech? Are you avoiding any mannerisms that take away from your presentation?
Facial Expression—Do your facial expressions show commitment to the topic and enthusiasm about sharing ideas with your listeners? Do you use the appropriate facial expressions to support emotions such as joy, sorrow, surprise, anger, happiness, humor, or concern?
Body Position and Movement—Do you have good posture as you are speaking? Do you use your position and movement to reinforce ideas, avoiding body motions that are distracting or unnecessary?
Cultural Differences—Are there any specific differences in culture between you and your audience that could affect your nonverbal delivery? How can you make alterations to bridge these differences?
Gender Differences—How could gender differences play a role in the delivery of your speech? What can you do to adjust to these differences?
266 Chapter 14 • Developing the Delivery
possible, it is helpful to practice in an environment similar to your speech setting. Stand behind a speaker’s lectern so that you can rest your notecards and practice some gestures. Rehearse the speech aloud and work on your vocal inflections, volume, articulation, and speaking rate. Rehearse your phrasing to develop pauses between the appropriate thought groupings. If you have an audio recorder or video camera, use it in your practice sessions. Replaying the speech can help you to evaluate your vocal delivery and detect vocalized pauses, improper pronunciation, and monotonous pitch.
It is also helpful if you can practice your speech in front of a friend or video camera. You can determine the success of your eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, and body movement as you deliver the presentation. Notice how often you need to look at your cards and how comfortably you manage your notes. Try to develop a visual delivery that reinforces every aspect of your material.
Situations frequently arise where speakers cannot engage in practice sessions. Executives, physicians, and business- or salespeople are often too busy with scheduled appointments to devote time for speech rehearsal. In such cases, it is helpful to have a “think-through” session on the plane or in the car on the way to the speech setting. In these brief sessions, the speaker can mentally review the main points of the presenta- tion or jot down a few notes on a legal pad to organize the thought process.
Whether you have a think-through session or a formal rehearsal, work to project enthusiasm and confidence during the speech. Although it is appropriate to use your pre- pared notes, know your material well enough to maintain eye contact with your listeners without reading word for word. Concentrate on your ideas, and be natural and spontane- ous. Your goal is to refine all the elements of your delivery into a smooth, unified presentation.
Summary In this chapter we have examined proper breathing practices needed for an effective vocal delivery. We have also considered the aspects of vocal delivery: volume, articulation, pitch, quality, pronunciation, pauses (including dramatic pauses and vocalized pauses), emphasis, and phrasing. In addition to vocal aspects, we’ve focused on the importance of the visual or nonverbal aspects of delivery. A good speaker maintains eye contact with the audience; dresses appropriately for the audience, speech, and occasion; and uses gestures, facial expressions, and body movement. Listeners need to recognize that differences in culture and gender can influence the nonverbal behaviors of speakers. It is important to observe a speaker carefully and avoid making snap judgments about nonverbal delivery. When you combine all aspects of delivery, you should be projecting enthusiasm and vitality. Here are four simple guidelines to help you develop delivery skills: (1) Know your material, (2) be well organized, (3) mark your notes, and (4) practice the delivery. Perform a check of the verbal and nonverbal aspects of the speech to build a successful delivery.
Skill Builders 1. Working with your instructor, create a plan to improve your delivery in weak areas.
For example, if you need to work on volume, rate, gestures, eye contact, or artic- ulation, read portions of this chapter or a speech in front of a friend or classmate to achieve greater improvement in these areas of delivery.
Building Skills in Delivery 267
2. Go to your library’s website or media department and request a video of one of the famous speeches referenced in Chapters Thirteen and Fourteen. Watch the speech and write down all of the effective aspects of vocal and visual delivery the speaker uses to convey his or her ideas.
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter Fourteen, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www.cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
268 Chapter 14 • Developing the Delivery
UNIT F IVE Considering Different
Types of Structure
Chapter 15 Speaking to Inform
Chapter 16 Speaking to Persuade
Chapter 17 Speaking to Persuade: Motivating Audiences
Chapter 18 Speaking for Special Occasions
Chapter 19 Speaking in Groups
CHAPTER
15 SPEAKING TO INFORM
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Recognize the difference between information and persuasion
2 Describe several types of informative speeches
3 Know how to build a descriptive speech
4 Be able to analyze and present an informative descriptive speech
5 Be able to analyze and present an informative demonstration speech
A Fox news reporter describes the massive uprising at Tahrir Square in Cairo, Egypt. A diver explores an undersea wreck on live streaming video. A political observer comments on the results of the vote for nationhood in South Sudan. A neurosurgeon provides a comprehensive diagnosis to doctors in a distant hospital via skype. A curator at an antiquities museum guides visitors through the Aztec art collection in
Mexico City. A baseball commentator enumerates season averages for each player in the World Series. Even in an age of technology, it is still the responsibility of human beings to research, analyze, organize, and present information effectively.
Communicating in the information age isn’t easy—there is an art to being clear, accurate, and concrete. This first chapter of Unit Five helps you develop your informative speaking skills. We’ll examine the difference between information and persuasion, consider several categories of informative speeches, and explore some guidelines to help you build informative descriptive and demonstration speeches. Additionally, near the end of this chapter you’ll find an analysis sheet (Figure 15.1) to help you evaluate an informative presentation.
“The best way to sendinformation is to wrap itup in a person.”—Robert Oppenheimer
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The Difference Between Information and Persuasion
As you begin to build your speech to inform, clearly recognize the difference between information and persuasion. Some rhetoricians agree with Aristotle that all speaking is persuasive; speeches differ only in the relative strength and weakness of the persuasion. This text, however, draws a distinction between communication that is informative and communication that is persuasive.1
Overall, an informative speech promotes understanding, enlightenment, and educa- tion about a topic; a persuasive speech seeks to influence and alter the beliefs, feelings, or behavior of listeners. Specifically, speeches to inform can be grouped into the follow- ing categories: description, demonstration or process, definition, personal experience, the report, and the lecture.
For the following three topics, consider how the specific purpose sentences would be phrased as informative and persuasive presentations:
TOPICS TO INFORM TOPICS TO PERSUADE
To define the al-Qaeda organization To convince the audience that the U.S. government did not take strong enough action against the al-Qaeda terrorist network from the beginning
To provide a profile of a troubled teenage killer
To convince the audience that juveniles who commit violent acts in public schools should be tried as adults
To explain how an electric-gas hybrid vehicle works
To actuate the audience to support efforts to grant more tax benefits to owners of hybrid vehicles.
The topics on the left generally provide information on an issue, while the topics at the right seek to influence the audience to agree with the speaker’s point of view. In the list of informative topics, “al-Qaeda” would be considered a speech of definition, “profile of a troubled child” would be a descriptive speech, and “electric-gas hybrid vehicle” would be considered a process speech.
Some communication specialists feel that informative speeches are “factual” while persuasive speeches are more “emotional.”2 We would like to caution you, however, about making this distinction. It is true that informative speeches can contain supporting materials such as statistics, surveys, or polls and visual materials such as graphs, maps, and charts. But informative speeches should also incorporate emotional elements such as personal experiences, illustrations, and examples that interest the audience. And although persuasive speeches should make use of strong emotional appeals, they should also be grounded in supporting evidence that incorporates sound logic and fact.
Recognize also that speeches are not always strictly informative or persuasive. Infor- mative presentations often contain elements of persuasion that modify the thinking or behavior of listeners over a period of time. In persuasion, speakers often include large portions of informative material to educate and enlighten listeners before asking them to change attitudes or take action. Speeches frequently exist on an informative- persuasive continuum, with some presentations clustering around the informative end and others tending toward the persuasive.
Key Terms definition speech demonstration speech descriptive speech informative speech lecture personal experience report
The Difference Between Information and Persuasion 271
Up to this point, we’ve been talking about defining informative speeches based on the topic. But sometimes it’s the audience that will determine whether a topic is infor- mative or persuasive. For example, after conducting careful research, you present an informative speech with the stated intention “to acquaint the audience with some interesting biographical data about Candidate X,” a Libertarian. Your listeners, however, might have different ideas. If the audience members consisted of Republicans or Democrats who favored other candidates, they might feel that your speech was subtly persuasive rather than informative.
Types of Informative Speeches
In this chapter, we will consider four categories of information: (1) description; (2) dem- onstration; (3) definition; and (4) reports, lectures, and personal experiences.
The Descriptive Speech In descriptive speeches, speakers inform audiences about persons, places, objects, or events. (Note that an object includes both the animate and the inanimate, and an event is defined as an incident or an occurrence.) Here are several examples of specific purpose statements for descriptive speeches about these topics:
PERSON To describe the life of baseball legend Lou Gehrig To describe the feats of the tennis champions the Williams sisters To describe the culture of the Eskimo To describe the accomplishments of Susan B. Anthony
PLACE To describe the Baseball Hall of Fame To describe the National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, D.C. To describe life in Japan To describe the largest mall in America To describe the newly discovered planet in our solar system
OBJECT To describe the new 9/11 Memorial in New York City To describe the relationship of color and personality To describe the history of trademarks To describe the wonderful, wily cat To describe algae as an alternative fuel
EVENT To inform an audience about the summer Olympics in London, England To describe the next generation of space vehicles after the Space Shuttle To inform an audience about the causes of fires in California To inform an audience of measures the government is taking to reduce high unemployment
To describe the benefits of the Special Olympics
272 Chapter 15 • Speaking to Inform
An Example In the following example, the speaker attempts to describe some of the highlights of Mexico City, with mediocre results:
Mexico City is a huge city in the mountains inhabited by millions of people. The city contains artifacts dating back to the ancient Aztecs, buildings constructed by the Spaniards, and structures that reflect modern Mexico.
The terminology here is only denotative. Words such as huge, artifacts, buildings, or structures do not create mental images. The speaker employs vague generalities and uses no concrete supporting materials. This description will have little impact; the speaker has lost a wonderful opportunity to arouse interest.
Notice the improvement:
In today’s Mexico City, you can sample a tasty enchilada made with white cheese; feel the rough chisel marks of an ancient Aztec pyramid; take a leisurely stroll through the cool green palms and curving lakes of Chapultepec Park; experi- ence the excitement of the clubs, cabarets, and outdoor cafes in the Zona Rosa; browse through shops filled with mounds of solid silver jewelry; contemplate the classic beauty of the oldest Spanish church in the Americas; navigate the flowered canals of the Xochimilco; and dance to the melodies of a hundred mariachi groups in Garibaldi Square.
This description is effective because the words are connotative and the speaker uses numerous sensory examples as supporting materials. Vivid language such as “tasty enchi- lada,” “rough chisel marks,” “flowered canals” and action words such as “feel,” “sample,” “navigate,” and “dance” invite listeners to participate with all their senses. Words that identify objects with their color (“white cheese,” “green palms”), shape (“curving lakes”), and size (“mounds of … silver”) add to the visual imagery. Notice the foreign names that the speaker needs to pronounce correctly. The speaker has successfully created a variety of mental images.
Informative speeches can
educate and enlighten
listeners about places,
persons, objects, or events.
Here, jubilant Navy divers
raise the turret from the
wreck of the USS Monitor,
which remained on the ocean
floor for 140 years. The
history and the fascinating
recovery expedition of the
Monitor are described in the
speech featured at the end
of this chapter.
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Types of Informative Speeches 273
Building the Descriptive Speech>>> Because a descriptive speech is one of the major types you will probably deliver in your speech course, here are some specific guidelines to help you build this presentation.
1. Choose an interesting topic. a. Choose an innovative topic providing new information. b. Select a topic that is interesting to you, the speaker. c. Examine your personal interests, experiences, and knowledge. d. Avoid repeating information the audience already knows. e. Choose a topic that is appropriate to listeners.
2. Conduct careful research. a. Review personal experience for primary source material. b. Use sources that are accurate, reliable, and up-to-date. c. Avoid sources lacking in credibility, such as House and Garden or
condensed magazines for medical or scientific facts. d. Conduct interviews with experts. e. Build credibility with accurate examples, statistics, testimony, and
audiovisual aids. f. Check details such as events, numbers, dates, and quotations for
precision and accuracy. 3. Organize the speech in a logical sequence.
a. Develop a creative introduction with a clear thesis identifying the main points in the body.
b. Choose an organizational plan appropriate to the topic. (1) Use external transitions to emphasize major headings. (2) Employ internal transitions to link supporting ideas.
c. Construct an interesting conclusion conveying finality. (1) Choose a poem, quotation, or example that resolves or
summarizes the topic. (2) Avoid providing new information during the conclusion.
4. Employ vivid language. a. Use clear, colorful, connotative language. b. Employ images that evoke mental pictures and appeal to the senses. c. Avoid trite phrases or vague jargon such as “to each his own” or “stuff
like that.” 5. Use concrete supporting materials.
a. Humanize the topic with realistic supporting materials such as examples, testimonies, and statistics.
b. Round off statistics for easy comprehension. c. Employ colorful quotations. d. Avoid stringing together lists of statistics or hard facts. e. Use audiovisual aids for variety and interest.
6. Develop a clear, personal delivery. a. Pronounce difficult names and technical terms correctly. b. Define unfamiliar words or phrases. c. Avoid extensive technical terminology; use words and phrases that
listeners understand. d. Maintain eye contact with the audience. e. Use personal pronouns such as you, we, and us to include listeners.
274 Chapter 15 • Speaking to Inform
Outlining the Descriptive Speech When developing the outline for the descriptive speech, you should follow the organizational principles suggested in Chapter Ten. Remember that the main points of the body should be arranged according to chronology, space, cause-effect, topic, or a combination of sequences. Here are three examples that show how these sequences can be combined.
In the following descriptive topic, the speaker combines chronological with spatial order:
Specific purpose: To describe the Baseball Hall of Fame at Cooperstown, New York Thesis statement: The Baseball Hall of Fame has a unique history, and exhibits
in the first, second, and third floors that preserve the legends of baseball for posterity.
BODY
I. Brief history of museum II. First-floor Hall of Fame gallery III. Second-floor history sections IV. Third-floor rooms of memorabilia
Notice that subheadings under main point I would be arranged according to order of events and that main points II through IV are arranged spatially according to location of rooms in the museum.
In the next example, the speaker has organized main points using a combination of chronological and topic sequence.
Specific purpose: To describe the wonderful, wily cat Thesis statement: Cats were respected in Egyptian times and feared in the Middle
Ages; they are equipped for savage battle, yet make loving members of any family.
BODY
I. Cats in Egyptian times II. Cats in the Middle Ages III. Cats as hunters IV. Cats as pets
The speaker uses chronology for the history in main points I and II, then incorpo- rates a topical sequence for the last two headings.
f. Be conversational, use extemporaneous delivery, and avoid reading word for word.
g. Make effective use of your eyes, face, hands, and voice. h. Stimulate feedback by using humor, asking rhetorical or open-ended
questions, and employing emotion. i. Be sensitive to audience feedback, making minor adjustments to
content or delivery based upon audience response. j. Practice the speech to gain confidence.
Types of Informative Speeches 275
In the next example, the speaker combines topic with cause-effect sequence.
Specific purpose: To inform you about the dangers of steroids Thesis statement: I want to provide an explanation of steroids, describe their
intended purpose, and identify their desired effects as well as their damaging consequences.
BODY
I. General explanation of steroids II. Intended purpose of steroids III. Desired effects IV. Damaging consequences
Main points I and II are arranged in topic sequence, and points III and IV charac- terize the issue by describing its effects.
The Demonstration Speech One important type of informative speech is the demonstration, which usually includes a variety of visual aids to show the steps of a process. In most businesses, institutions, and
After leading the Los Angeles Lakers to five
NBA championships, Earvin “magic” Johnson
retired when his doctor informed him that he
was HIV-positive. Today he is a prominent
HIV/AIDS activist, motivational speaker, and
successful entrepreneur, developing innercity
communities across the country.
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276 Chapter 15 • Speaking to Inform
professional organizations, employees at all levels are required to present or participate in programs that explain procedures and processes. Seminars are conducted to teach work- ers how to use the Internet, new computer programs, or laser technologies; how to fill out purchase orders, insurance forms, or government documents; how to confront sexual harassment, use new sales techniques, or handle consumer complaints; how to treat new diseases, implement new manufacturing procedures, or conform to safety standards.
These training sessions protect the company and employee, help to maintain a com- pany’s competitive edge, and improve workers’ productivity or efficiency.
No matter what your career or profession, you will probably be required to explain how something works, how something is made, how something is done, or how some- thing happens.
HOW SOMETHING WORKS To demonstrate how the eye works To demonstrate how a DVD system operates To demonstrate how a hybrid engine works To demonstrate how a Revolutionary War musket operates
HOW SOMETHING IS MADE To demonstrate how a guitar is constructed To demonstrate how the Chinese weave rugs To demonstrate how Greek moussaka is made To demonstrate the art of Japanese origami
HOW SOMETHING IS DONE To demonstrate how to tune a piano To demonstrate how to shear sheep To demonstrate how to mine rubies To explain how to rig a sailboat
Venus and Serena Williams
use visual aids to explain
and demonstrate their
tournament-winning tennis
serves to school children. AP
Ph ot
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ai ne
Th om
ps on
Types of Informative Speeches 277
HOW SOMETHING HAPPENS To explain how geysers develop To explain how dreams occur To explain how pearls form To explain how Parkinson’s disease attacks the body
An Example Demonstrations are not simplistic show-and-tell speeches; they are sophisticated presenta- tions that include carefully crafted visuals that support the process. For example, a student who was an avid mountain climber demonstrated how to do rappelling—descending a steep incline with a secured rope. He took the speech class outside to an eight-foot-high retaining wall on campus, where he described the necessary equipment and the proper procedure to descend the wall. Class members watched and listened intently as the speaker slowly low- ered himself down the wall, carefully explaining each step of the process. Listeners commen- ted that the speaker’s creative approach made the speech important and “alive.”
Outlining the Demonstration Speech Most process speeches incorporate numerous steps or phases that are often difficult for listeners to recall. For example, “refinishing furniture” would include more than fifteen steps, and “decorating a wedding cake” could incorporate more than twenty-three proce- dures. The body of a demonstration should never contain fifteen or twenty-three numeral headings. To keep the process simple, group the steps into categories.
Specific purpose: To demonstrate how to refinish furniture Thesis statement: Refinishing furniture requires gathering the needed materials and
following a structured procedure to create an attractive finished product.
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER
Steps Grouped by Categories Steps of the Complete Process
I. Selecting materials A. Type of furniture for refinishing B. Sandpaper—coarse or fine C. Paintbrushes D. Stain E. Polyurethane varnish F. Cloths
II. Following a procedure A. Clean surfaces with cloth B. Begin sanding C. Inspect sanded surface for missed spots D. Wipe surface E. Apply stain F. Allow to dry G. Apply polyurethane varnish H. Allow surface to dry I. Apply several more coats of varnish J. Let surface dry between coats
III. The finished product A. Display results of refinished furniture B. Describe variations of refinishing
process
278 Chapter 15 • Speaking to Inform
Notice at the right that there are at least eighteen separate steps in the process of refinishing furniture. Like any other five- to seven-minute speech, process speeches should contain no fewer than two and no more than four main points in the body. On the left, you can see that the refinishing process can be grouped into three principal steps that incorporate all eighteen items. The three main points make the demonstration clear and easy to follow.
Notice that main points in the body of most demonstrations will be arranged according to some form of chronological sequence—by time or events. In the preceding example, main points are organized according to the order of occurrence. Some topics can be organized by combining chronological sequence with another arrangement. For example, Ann Foley combined topic sequence with chronology in the following demon- stration of “fingerprinting.”3
Specific purpose: To demonstrate the science of fingerprinting Thesis statement: Fingerprinting, an important science that identifies individuals’
fingerprint types, is an interesting process used in police work.
BODY
I. The importance of fingerprints A. Identify fugitives B. Identify victims C. Provide unmistakable verification
II. Different types of fingerprints A. Plain arch B. Fented arch C. The loop D. Plain whorl E. Central pocket loop F. Double loop G. Accidental (no set pattern)
III. The process of fingerprinting A. Insert fingerprint card in card holder B. Use small amount of ink on roller C. Apply thin ink coat with roller to glass inking plate D. Place subject approximately forearm away from fingerprint card E. For right hand, stand to left of subject F. Take right thumb and roll on inking plate G. Place inked thumb on fingerprint card H. Roll thumb from left to right for complete rounded print I. Continue with rolling process for other fingers J. Take prints of four fingers without rolling K. Repeat entire process with left hand
Ann chose a topic that could be demonstrated rather quickly. To give her speech more depth, she spent a few minutes explaining the importance of fingerprints and iden- tifying the various types. Ann arranged her three main points in a simple topical sequence. Then in point III, “The process of fingerprinting,” she used chronological order for the subdivisions. Because of her organization, Ann included enough material for an effective six- to seven-minute process speech.
Types of Informative Speeches 279
The Speech of Definition In a speech of definition, you inform your audience about a philosophical concept, such as a theory or idea, or a more concrete subject like a science or art.
SCIENCE OR ART What is cryonics? What is impressionistic art? What is a phobia? What is vegetarianism?
THEORIES OR IDEAS What is ethnic cleansing? What is Basque separatism? What is Shi’ite Islam? What is libertarianism?
With any of these topics, the thrust of your information would be to explain the meaning of an unknown term to your audience. When defining such terms, follow guidelines suggested for the descriptive speech. Be concrete and accurate, use plenty of supporting materials, and work to maintain the interest of your audience. Remember that definitional speeches are not simply intellectual explanations of dry theories or com- plex subject matter; these speeches must be just as creative and alive as any other infor- mative presentation.
Here are two structural examples of speeches defining terms. The first example uses chronological sequence; the second employs topical order.
EXAMPLE 1: CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCE
Specific purpose: To define Shi’ite Islam Thesis statement: Shi’ite Islam is a religion originating in the Middle Ages and
exhibiting specific characteristics today.
BODY
I. Shi’ite Islam in the Middle Ages II. Characteristics of the movement today
EXAMPLE 2: TOPICAL SEQUENCE
Specific purpose: To define the term vegetarian Thesis statement: Vegetarianism is a dietary practice that includes vegans as well as
lacto-ovo vegetarians and that has clear advantages as well as disadvantages.
BODY
I. Vegans—eliminating all animal foods II. Lacto-ovo vegetarians—using eggs and dairy products III. Advantages of the vegetarian diet IV. Disadvantages of the vegetarian diet
Notice that the Shi’ite Islam speech is organized according to chronology and that the one on vegetarianism is structured according to the natural headings reflected in the research.
280 Chapter 15 • Speaking to Inform
For these topics, speakers can motivate listeners by using effective supporting mate- rials. A presentation on Shi’ite Islam could incorporate visual aids and examples relating to current events taking place in Middle Eastern countries. A speech about vegetarian- ism could relate the topic to the physical health and welfare of listeners. In both topics, speakers can provide new, interesting, and helpful information to members of their audiences.
Building the Demonstration Speech>>> Demonstrating a familiar process may sound easy, but when you are in front of an audience, many things can go wrong. Lack of preparation can cause misplacing or dropping a visual aid or displaying objects that are too small for the audience to see. To help you avoid these and other difficulties, here is a list of guidelines for building the demonstration or process speech.
1. Choose a topic from your experience or knowledge. a. Examine your professional expertise and life experience. b. Choose a topic that is demonstrative: how something works, happens,
is made, or is done. 2. Investigate the location of the speech.
a. Does the room or auditorium have everything necessary to support audiovisual aids?
b. Do you need to bring extra equipment or supplies? c. Can the audience see your visuals easily?
3. Develop a logical outline. a. Include all required structural elements: an interesting introduction, a
purpose statement, a well-organized body, and a clearly defined conclusion.
b. Combine information in the body of the demonstration into overall categories like “gathering materials,” “preparing for the process,” or “finished product.”
c. Use chronological sequence to arrange events in order of occurrence. d. Employ any type of conclusion, using a summary to reinforce
complicated or unfamiliar procedures. 4. Apply principles of effective delivery.
a. Be clear. (1) Verbally emphasize important points and repeat steps, key ideas,
or complicated material when necessary. (2) Use gestures to point out significant details. (3) Clarify main headings in the body with external transitions. (4) Use internal transitions—then, next, finally—to connect steps
grouped beneath main headings. (5) Employ simple terms, defining unfamiliar words and pronouncing
difficult terms correctly. (6) Speak slowly enough to allow listeners to follow the steps of the
process. (7) Relate ideas to listeners with concrete examples.
Types of Informative Speeches 281
Other Informative Types: Reports, Lectures, and Personal Experience The report is often required in business or industry. You may already have had to present reports to supervisors, committees, or clients. In this important speech, the quality of your presentation can improve or hinder your chances for success. Topics for reports are usually based on limited issues, such as “the decrease in sales for the third quarter,” “decisions of the search committee,” or “marketing committee actions.”
In many cases, your report will summarize the work of a committee or other employee unit. You need to be completely accurate, and your comments must reflect the collective decisions of the group. Even though your report is technical, it should still be interesting,
b. Keep the speech moving. (1) Keep talking as you demonstrate, avoiding awkward pauses or
silences. (2) Be prepared with additional comments if the procedure takes
longer than expected. (3) Keep to the time limit. (4) Include only essential elements of the process, eliminating
unnecessary detail. c. Know how to use visuals.
(1) Set up visuals in advance if possible. (2) Use enough visuals to support the process; avoid using too few or
too many. (3) Reveal visuals at the right psychological moment. (4) Avoid distractions by not passing out objects while you speak. (5) Be sure that visuals are large enough for listeners to see. (6) Integrate visuals smoothly into the speech, eliminating
awkwardness. (7) Remove visuals quickly if there are other speakers following your
presentation. d. Be prepared.
(1) Rehearse with all the visuals you intend to use. (2) Show enthusiasm and interest through vocal variety, facial
expression, and gestures. (3) Maintain eye contact with the audience.
5. Avoid the following problems: a. Long silences b. Lengthy, overly complex details or terms c. Visuals that are too small d. Too many audiovisuals e. Creating distractions with audiovisuals f. Disorganization g. Last-minute preparation h. Going over the time limit
282 Chapter 15 • Speaking to Inform
clear, and well organized. Know your material thoroughly, maintain contact with your audience, interject humor when appropriate, and use concrete examples.
Business reports often incorporate visuals: PowerPoint slides, transparencies with overhead projectors, chalkboards, whiteboards with Magic Markers, and flipcharts on easels. Remember that effective use of visuals can create the perception among cowor- kers that you know what you’re doing.
Lectures are presentations given by experts for instructional or educational purposes. Colleges and universities often receive grants to invite well-known authorities in science, humanities, and industry to speak on topics of national interest. Lecturers frequently read lengthy presentations from manuscripts and incorporate question-and-answer sessions at the end.
You already know from your own classroom listening experience that a two-hour lecture can seem like either minutes or days, depending on the speaker’s organization and enthusiasm. Some campus student groups publish evaluations rating faculty lectures according to interest, enthusiasm, and scholarship. There are also websites where stu- dents can rate their professors according to difficulty and interest level. Lectures don’t have to be boring. They can be fascinating if the speaker is knowledgeable, has struc- tured his talk effectively, and communicates new or complicated information creatively. You will probably give a lecture, however, only if you are an expert in a particular field.
Lectures are presented by
experts in fields such as
history and technology for
instructional or educational
purposes.
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The personal experience speech provides information about an encounter or obser- vation. Travelogues, harrowing adventures, or expeditions are good subject areas for per- sonal experience speeches. These presentations are often exciting and interesting; they are also potentially boring. Use good judgment in developing the topic, and be sensitive to your listeners.
In your speech class, your instructor may ask you to present a brief personal experi- ence speech. But remember not to substitute one lengthy personal experience for a major informative speech that requires a variety of research materials.4 Figure 15.1 provides a checklist for you to use in evaluating informative speeches.
FIGURE 15.1 Analysis Sheet for the Informative Speech
ANALYSIS SHEET FOR THE INFORMATIVE SPEECH
Introduction
Curiosity device Did the speech contain an effective device for building curiosity, such as a case study, question, or shocking statement?
Did the end of the introduction contain a clear specific purpose and/or thesis statement?
Content Topic Was the topic sufficiently limited and innovative?
Was the topic appropriate and interesting to the audience?
Organization Were main headings and supporting points structured in a clear, logical, and interesting manner?
Were the main headings thoroughly developed?
Accuracy Was the information accurate, up-to-date, and verified by credible sources?
Supporting materials Did the speech contain a variety of clear, concrete, and creative supporting materials—examples, statistics, quotations, audiovisuals?
Delivery Language Did the speaker use connotative words and vivid language to create mental images?
Was the speaker’s language appropriate to the topic?
Did the speaker’s language reflect good English usage?
Clarity Did the speaker use external transitions to flag main points and internal transitions to connect subordinate points?
Delivery (continued) Did the speaker adhere to the topic and keep ideas moving in a logical sequence?
Were steps in demonstrations clear and understandable?
Did the speaker define and clarify unfamiliar terms?
Vocal delivery Did the speaker enunciate words and phrases clearly?
Did the speaker pronounce difficult terms effectively?
Did the speaker’s volume, rate, and vocal inflections enhance the speech?
Visual aids Did the speaker spend time and effort developing audiovisual aids?
Did the speaker know how to use visual aids?
While using visuals, was the speaker able to keep the speech moving without awkward “dead space”?
Enthusiasm Did the speaker’s voice, eye contact, facial expression, gestures, and posture reflect enthusiasm for the topic?
Emphasis Did the speaker employ verbal emphasis and/or repetition to highlight important areas?
Did the speaker support verbal emphasis with appropriate gestures, movement, and facial expression?
Other Did the speaker display any other effective or ineffective techniques (pauses, mannerisms, movement, appearance) that would enhance or detract from the delivery?
Conclusion Method of ending Did the speech contain a clear device (quotation, summary, story, question) to provide closure to the topic?
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SAMPLE SPEECH: Raising the Monitor This informative descriptive speech provides new information about an item of Civil War history that was once thought to be lost. Researched and presented by a public speaking student, “Raising the Monitor” includes remarkable supporting materials, such as narratives, statistics, quotations, and PowerPoint slides, to describe the historical significance of the USS Monitor and explain the complexities of recovering the vessel’s bulky turret from the bottom of the ocean. The speaker has written an additional introduction and conclusion to show how differ- ent strategies can be developed to stimulate audience interest.5 You can find more information about this amazing artifact at http://www.monitorcenter.org. (A complete outline of this speech is presented at the end of Chapter Eleven on pages 200–203.)
INFORMATIVE DESCRIPTIVE SPEECH Chaim Verschleisser
1. March 8, 1862 (slide 1). The Confederate ship known as the Virginia virtually deci- mated a Union fleet of wooden warships off the coast of Newport News. She destroyed the Cumberland and the fifty-gun frigate Congress and forced the Minnesota to run back to shore. The Virginia was originally a Northern-built steam frigate called the Merrimack, but the Confederates salvaged the ship from a Norfolk navy yard. They cut away the upper hull of the 263-foot ship, armored her with iron, and rechristened her the Virginia. The morning following the attack, the Virginia opened fire on the Minnesota just after 8:00 A.M. And that is when the Monitor appeared (slide 2). The Union’s ironclad was 172 feet long and was equipped with an armored revolving gun turret. For hours, the two ships passed each other back and forth. Both crews lacked training, and firing was not very effective. The Monitor could fire only once in seven or eight minutes, but it was faster and more maneuver- able than the Virginia. Eventually, the Monitor’s pilothouse was hit, and the ship sheered into shallow water. The Virginia assumed that the ship was disabled and turned to fire on the Minnesota again, but her officers reported low ammunition and damages, so instead she headed home. The Battle of Hampton Roads, history’s first battle between ironclad warships, was over. Although the confrontation was inconclusive, it signaled the start of the age of armored battleships. The ingenuity that went into the creation of the Monitor altered the course of modern naval warfare.
2. The historical significance of the Monitor led scientists and nautical engineers to over- come extreme challenges that resulted in the successful recovery of the vessel’s turret.
3. (slide 3) The Monitor was built in Greenpoint, Brooklyn, and launched into the East River on January 30, 1862. The distinguishing feature of the ship was her rotat- ing turret, a technological first that is now standard on all modern warships. With eight-inch-thick walls of iron plating, the turret measured nine feet high, twenty- one feet across, and weighed 150 tons. It housed two nine-foot, Dahlgren- manufactured guns that were capable of firing shells or cannonballs farther than two miles. After the historical battle, the Union began building a whole new class of Monitor-type vessels. According to a July 2002 New York Times article, when the British Royal Navy heard about the clash of the two ironclads, the world’s preemi- nent naval force canceled all construction of wooden warships.
1. The speaker gains the attention of listeners with a historical narrative describing the famous battle between the Virginia (Merrimack) and the Monitor.
The PowerPoint slides showing the paintings of the battle provide the introduction with a sense of realism.
2. A three-point thesis is presented at the end of the introduction.
3. The speaker begins main point I of the body by describing the statistical dimensions of the Monitor. The slide gives visual support to the statistics.
The speaker uses a credi- ble source to verify the vessel’s significance in transforming the con- struction of warships.
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4. (slide 4) Nine months after the battle, the Monitor encountered a violent storm off the coast of Cape Hatteras on New Year’s Eve. At 10:30 P.M. the commander sent a distress signal, via lantern, to a tow vessel. Some of the men were saved, but shortly after midnight the lantern disappeared. The famous turret came to rest upside down on the seafloor at a depth of 240 feet (slide 5). Among the missing were twelve crew members, four officers, and the ship’s mascot, a black cat. The ship was lost until 1973, when a Duke University expedition found the scattered remains sixteen miles off Cape Hatteras.
In 1975, it was named the nation’s first marine sanctuary to protect the wreck from treasure hunters. A hull plate and the signal lantern came up in 1977, and the anchor was recovered in 1983. The turret, however, was the prize they were aiming for. Aside from its historical significance, the turret may contain the answers to 140-year-old questions. The turret was the only way out of the ship, so scientists expected to find human (or even feline) remains as well as important artifacts that may have been dropped by crew members trying to escape. Federal officials laid plans in 1997 for more extensive retrievals.
SLIDE 1 SLIDE 2
SLIDE 3 SLIDE 4
4. The speaker returns to the historical narrative and describes what happened to the Monitor.
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5. Clearly, the Monitor and her famous turret (slide 6) are of tremendous significance to our nation’s history, but the scientists and agencies involved in their retrieval were faced with very serious challenges in the process.
6. For starters, money was a major issue all along. The effort to raise the turret over the last five years had cost over $14 million, and that was not the biggest bill. There are teams of scientists working on ways to reverse the deterioration of the artifacts. Once artifacts are recovered, maintaining them properly is a very delicate and expensive process. The Mariners’ Museum in Newport News has plans to build a $30 million USS Monitor Center in which all of the Monitor’s remains will be conserved and publicly displayed. At one point the cumulative cost of recovery was approaching $20 million and archeologists began to worry more about funding for conservation of the relics they already had.
7. Then there was the issue of time (slide 7). The Atlanta Journal–Constitution reported in a May 2002 article that surveys in the mid-1990s showed that corrosion of the vessel was accelerating. These studies created additional pressure to complete the job. It had become a race against time and the elements. These issues also worried the scientists in charge of conserving the artifacts that had already been recovered. Those artifacts had continued to accumulate in outdoor tanks, and federal archaeol- ogists grew increasingly concerned that the continued exposure and rapid fluctua- tions in temperature might accelerate the deterioration. John Broadwater, manager of the National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Monitor Marine Sanctuary, expressed his concern for funding the conservation process. He told the Atlanta Journal–Constitution that “instead of $30 million for a new center, I think we’d rather see $30,000 worth of conservation.”
8. Aside from financial, time, and conservation concerns, the process of lifting the tur- ret was a massive undertaking in itself (slide 8). According to Dr. Broadwater, it was “one of the heaviest artifacts ever lifted from such a depth.” The operation was to be conducted from a 300-foot barge that was normally used for deep-water oil operations. It was predicted that the retrieval of the turret would take a crack team of Navy divers, working around the clock, seven days a week, at least four weeks. More than 100 divers and support staff were needed. To complicate things even
SLIDE 5 SLIDE 6
5. An external transition connects point I to point II.
The slides showing actual photos from the Civil War provide realism and stim- ulate listener curiosity.
6. The speaker uses statistics to describe many of the financial challenges of recovering the turret and preserving artifacts that had already been recovered.
7. The speaker uses a credible source to refer to surveys that showed the impact of corrosion.
Chaim uses a quote from NOAA expert Dr. Broadwater to support the need for conservation. Notice that the speaker uses the Atlanta Journal–Constitution to verify the quotation.
8. The speaker cites another quotation and presents a fascinating narrative of the process of lifting the heavy turret from the ocean floor.
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more, there were swift currents on the ocean floor, the weather was unpredictable, and the depth of the operation required sophisticated mixed-gas diving. To reach the turret, divers had to cut away a forty-foot section of the ship’s armor belt. Then they had to attach a lifting device, dubbed the “spider and claw,” to cradle the treasure in hopes that it wouldn’t collapse when they picked it up.
9. After months of working through all of these complex challenges (slide 9), Navy divers lifted the 200-ton turret (including its contents) of the USS Monitor from the graveyard of the Atlantic on Monday, August 5, 2002.
10. First to be hoisted into view was a flag that had been planted by Navy divers—a replica of the 1862 U.S. flag that the Monitor was flying when it sank. Navy Commander Bobbie Scholley reported that “for a bunch of pretty tough Navy divers, there was a lot of cheering and hugging going on [ … ] I’m glad I was wear- ing sunglasses so the men couldn’t see me cry.” An August 2002 Newsday article quoted Dr. Broadwater as saying, “It’s fantastic [ … ] It’s sitting on a barge, and we’re looking at dents that the Virginia put on it March 9, 1862.”
SLIDE 7 SLIDE 8
SLIDE 9 SLIDE 10
9. The speaker states a transition between main points II and III of the body.
10. The narrative describes the first sight of Monitor’s turret above water since 1862.
The two quotations provide the emotional reactions of the men who labored to retrieve this prized artifact.
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11. The retrieval of the turret has already brought many new and important discoveries. Some bones from three different human bodies were found (but no cat yet). Experts resurrecting the ship are finding that the Monitor’s remains are actually quite differ- ent from plans, documents, and period drawings. There are many undocumented parts and braces. A presumed gauge turned out to be a large clock. Upon closer inspection, they found that the last positions of the hands were near the one and three. William F. Keeler, a paymaster who had survived the sinking, wrote that the ship went down a little after 1 A.M. In response to the discoveries, Dr. Broadwater said, “it turns out we didn’t have the big picture.” In a more mundane discovery, it seems that the Union sailors used to cover their meals with mustard, judging by the many condiment bottles found at the wreck site. According to a July 2002 New York Times article, the president of the Mariners’ Museum, John Hightower, explained that they “suspect the food needed all the help it could get.” Curtiss Peterson, the chief conservator at the Mariners’ Museum, was removing encrusta- tions from an old engine gauge, and he uncovered the word “Monitor” etched across the top. He said, “I smiled ear to ear [ … ] If it had said something like ‘Toledo’ we would have been in deep trouble.”
12. The USS Monitor’s turret will now join the collection of over 400 other Monitor arti- facts (slide 10). And just like all of the other artifacts, the turret is teaching scientists and historians a wealth of new information. The Monitor and its famous turret repre- sent American innovation and bravery. The impact that this incredible ship made is still felt today by navies and shipbuilders throughout the world. The recovery of such an important artifact helps us to learn more about the brave men that fought in it.
The delicate paper scales found in hydrometers illustrate how fine-tuned the skills of these sailors had to be in order to keep the ship running at optimum performance. In the words of Robert Sheridan, a geophysics professor from Rutgers University, “history becomes so much more meaningful when you can see the things that made it.” Perhaps that was what the hundreds of dedicated scientists, engineers, and divers were thinking. Perhaps that is what drove them to continue working at a goal that, at times, seemed unachievable.
13. In a recent letter, President Bush praised the museum for preserving the remains. He called the job “an important service in these challenging times.” Indeed, these times are challenging, and a recovery like this one is exactly what this country needs. It reminds us that we have been through rough times before, and that the innovation and ingenuity of our great nation persevered and pulled us out of the slump. It reminds us of our nation’s powerful history and traditions. It reminds us that when we stand together as one and aim for a common goal, we can accomplish amazing things.
Alternative Introduction: Series of Questions
1. Do you remember learning about the Monitor and the Merrimack back in elementary school? Is there anyone in this room that was sitting in that history class thinking, “Wow, those ironclad ships were amazing!” Have any of you ever wished that, one day, you would have the opportunity to look at the actual Monitor itself? I suspect that most of the people here probably feel the way I felt about the Monitor before I read up on it: “It’s a neat story and all, but what’s the big deal? It’s just an old boat, right?”
11. The specific details of the discoveries inside the turret are fascinating: the human bones, the clock with hands pointing to the hour the Monitor sank, and the numerous mustard bottles.
The speaker uses another credible source to sup- port his ideas.
The Peterson quotation provides some humor to the speech.
The speaker summarizes portions of the speech.
An example is provided to relate to the Monitor’s broader historical significance.
The speaker uses a brief quotation as reinforcement.
12. The speaker begins his conclusion.
13. Beginning with a brief quotation from President Bush, the speaker reminds listeners of the challenges of “rough times”—an indirect reference to the events of September 11. But the last PowerPoint visual makes a powerful patriotic statement.
1. The speaker poses a series of rhetorical questions to the audience.
The speaker connects his thoughts to listeners’ perceptions in order to establish common ground and prepare listeners to take a different look at an old topic.
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2. What I did not realize was that the effects of that old boat are what we think of today when we think of battleships, aircraft carriers, submarines, and even cruise ships. The ironclad revolutionized the nautical world. The historical battle between the Monitor and the Virginia—formerly known as the Merrimack—was not only a battle between two new-age warships. It was a battle of technological advancement and status that had major social effects as well. The Monitor was the icon of Yankee ingenuity, bravery, and accomplishment.
3. The historical significance of the Monitor led scientists and nautical engineers to overcome extreme challenges that resulted in the successful recovery of portions of this priceless artifact.
Alternative Conclusion: Quotation
1. The executive officer of the USS Monitor, Lieutenant S. Dana Greene, wrote up a document titled “In the Monitor Turret,” in which he recalls his experiences on the ship. After describing the battle in incredible detail and illustrating the aston- ishing heroism of the men onboard the Monitor, Lieutenant Greene concluded with words that give us a good understanding of the influence that the great iron- clad had on Americans at that time: “No ship in the world’s history has a more imperishable place in naval annals than the Monitor. Not only by her providen- tial arrival at the right moment did she secure the safety of Hampton Roads and all that depended on it, but the idea which she embodied revolutionized the sys- tem of naval warfare which had existed from the earliest recorded history. The name of the Monitor became generic, representing a new type; and, crude and defective as was her construction in some of its details, she yet contained the idea of the turret, which is today the central idea of the most powerful armored vessels.”
2. In a world of wooden warships, the ironclad was not only an innovation, she was an inspiration. She inspired navies worldwide to follow in her footsteps. She inspired the citizens of a nation in the midst of civil war to regain the morale that they had lost. She was the icon of American ingenuity and accomplishment in her time. Now, as she rests in plain view once again, we can look to her with pride and patri- otism, and we can recognize her testimony to the honor and bravery of our great nation.
Summary When you deliver speeches to inform, you seek to educate and enlighten your audience— not to influence their beliefs, feelings, or behavior. Four categories of informative speeches are description, demonstration, definition, and other informative types (reports, lectures, and personal experiences). The descriptive speech is related to a person, place, object, or event. The demonstration speech describes a process: how something works, how something is made, how something is done, or how something happens. A speech of definition identifies and explains a theory or subject area. Three other informational types are the report, which is used primarily in organizations and institutions; the lecture, which is presented by experts; and the personal experience.
2. The speaker describes the significance of the vessel as a preparation for the thesis statement.
3. The thesis is stated.
1. The speaker acquaints listeners with the Monitor’s executive officer, who wrote the ending quotation.
2. The speaker ends with an affectionate tribute to the Monitor and acknowledges its permanent place in history.
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Skill Builders 1. Following the guidelines presented in this chapter, develop four topics that
would be suitable for a descriptive speech about a person, place, object, or event. After listing the topics, identify several credible sources where you can find effective supporting materials. Write a specific purpose and thesis statement for each topic.
2. From your own knowledge, interest, and/or research, select four topics for a demonstration speech in these categories: how something is done, works, is made, or happens. Write a specific purpose and thesis statement for each topic. Describe the types of visual aids you intend to use for your demonstration. (See Chapter Twelve.)
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter Fifteen, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www. cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
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CHAPTER
16 SPEAKING TO PERSUADE
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Discuss the nature of persuasion
2 Describe three types of persuasive speeches
3 Develop propositions of fact, value, and policy
4 Describe the three means of persuasion
5 Describe unethical persuasive practices
6 Define and develop three types of logical arguments
7 Describe and define fallacious arguments
8 Analyze a persuasive convincing speech
9 Develop and present a persuasive convincing speech
Think of all the persuasive situations you encounter in a day or a week. A telethon appeals for donations to help victims of the earthquake and tsunami in Japan. A smiling politician shakes your hand requesting your vote. You text a friend to meet for lunch. Four- dollar-a-gallon gas persuades you to think more seriously about buying a hybrid or flex-fuel vehicle. A homeless person huddled at a street corner asks you for money. A coworker wants you to wear a pink ribbon
and participate in the walk for cancer prevention. The severe recession convinces you to tear up your credit cards. Whether you are asking your boss for a raise, listening to a eulogy, or trying to talk your way out of a speeding ticket, you are involved in a persuasive activity. Because persuasion is so important in your life and in our society, it is helpful to understand, acquire, and practice the skills that can increase your persuasive effectiveness.
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In this chapter we consider persuasion in today’s society, the nature of persuasion, and the different types of persuasive appeals. We also examine the elements of persuasive organization and look at some guidelines to help you construct the persuasive speech to convince.
Persuasion in Today’s Society
We are bombarded with hundreds of persuasive messages each day. Television ads tempt us to buy “green” automobiles or switch our cell phones to more convenient and less expensive plans. Police officers solicit nationwide help in the search for a child kidnapped from her home. Jurors debate the verdict of a teen who is being tried as an adult for mur- dering his parents. A Fox news website asks Internet users to vote on whether or not they agree with attempts to solve illegal immigration. Commentators on a Sunday morning news program debate the pros and cons of a judicial nominee to the Supreme Court. Editorials in the media criticize judicial decisions that force reporters to reveal their sources in special circumstances. Organizations use television, the Internet, e-mail, or direct mail to ask individuals to buy virus protection, donate to disaster victims, volunteer time in nursing homes, join religious groups, or become involved with twelve-step programs. Radio talk-show hosts rant and rave about contemporary issues, claiming to transmit truth.
The trouble is that after being subjected to so many persuasive messages, how are we to judge the value and content of ideas? How do we evaluate which argument is the most cred- ible or logical? How are we to know if a speaker is genuinely concerned about the commu- nity or merely wants to exploit us? How do we know which course of action is the best for us to take? How can we decide if a message is good for us or potentially harmful? How do we know if a radio talk-show host is really stating facts or simply spouting forth his biased, unsubstantiated opinions? Here’s what Don Trent Jacobs, a health psychology professional and writer of the book Patient Communication says about persuasion in our modern world:
An accomplished persuader knows how to use the tools of language to achieve his purpose. In particular, these tools include “persuasive words.” Top salespeople, negotiators, and trial lawyers use them regularly. Most of us do not fully understand how or why their words wield such power, but university research shows that certain kinds of language can significantly diminish a listener’s critical thinking.1
Dr. Jacobs clearly indicates that “persuasive words” can be used as tools to sway listen- ers who are unaware of manipulative or coercive strategies. Such manipulation is frighten- ing and, if received uncritically and unchallenged by listeners, can cause great harm.
It is evident that in order for us to cope with the daily barrage of persuasion, we must become educated about the different kinds of persuasive messages and the various techniques speakers use to persuade us. Once we are equipped with the knowledge and awareness of persuasive strategies, we will be able to think more critically and logically about the values of a speaker and the merits of a persuasive message. When we are armed with the tools of critical analysis and alert thinking, we will be able to make judgments and take actions that are beneficial to our well-being.
The Nature of Persuasion
Persuasion can be defined as communication that influences and changes the beliefs, feelings, or behavior of a listener. Persuasive speeches convince, stimulate, and actuate. To develop the correct speech for the appropriate persuasive situation, you must know how each of these types of presentation differs.
Key Terms actuate analogy argument causation charisma comparative advantages convince enumeration ethos fallacies logos opposition argument pathos persuasive speech problem-solution proposition—fact,
value, policy reasoning reasons rebuttal argument status quo stimulate unethical practices
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Speeches to Convince The goal of the speech to convince is to alter the beliefs and judgments of an audience. A prosecuting attorney tries to convince jurors that a defendant is guilty. A senator attempts to convince other legislators that the federal budget should be severely cut to reduce the deficit. A parent tries to convince the board of education to adopt stricter policies against school bullies. Although a convincing speech may lead an audience to take some future action, it is important to emphasize that the immediate goal of a speech to convince is to obtain mental agreement with the speaker’s position. In a speech to convince, a speaker persuades an audience to believe that a problem exists, that a pro- posed solution is a better alternative, or that some future action may be required.
Speeches to Stimulate In a speech to stimulate, the speaker seeks to reinforce and intensify the beliefs or feel- ings of listeners. A coach gives the football team a pep talk at halftime to generate enthusiasm and a winning spirit. A religious leader reminds the congregation about basic beliefs to strengthen faith. A political leader makes a speech on September 11 to honor the memory of those killed in the terrorist attacks. Therapeutic groups come together for mutual reinforcement. Members of Alcoholics Anonymous, drug rehabilita- tion centers, or divorce recovery groups relate their personal experiences for empathy, encouragement, and positive change. As a rule, agreement already exists between speaker and audience about basic beliefs and goals. It is the purpose of the stimulating speech to focus on these sentiments and bring them to the surface.
Speeches to Actuate Speeches to actuate motivate audiences to action. A salesperson selling a product, a can- didate asking for votes, or a humanitarian appealing for donations to a worthy charity are all seeking to affect the behavior of the audience. Highly effective 30- to 60-second
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commercials motivate children, teenagers, young adults, or senior citizens to buy pro- ducts designed “with you in mind.” In a speech to actuate, a speaker generates curiosity, clarifies a problem, identifies a solution, and then persuades the audience to perform a specific action related to the solution. The action the speaker solicits is clear, direct, and observable.
Selecting the Persuasive Topic When beginning to build your persuasive speech, you must first choose a topic with potential to influence your audience. Begin by analyzing some of your interests, con- cerns, and activities. You might have a concern about global warming. You might be an avid hunter who opposes gun-control legislation. Or you might be upset about the high cost of energy. Hundreds of issues would make excellent topics for persuasive speeches. The key to your success, as in any speech, is your degree of commitment to the issue, your ability to select appropriate supporting materials, and your competence in organizing and delivering your thoughts.
Wording the Proposition Statement Once you have selected a topic, write a statement called a proposition: an arguable res- olution phrased in a declarative sentence. The proposition acts as the focal point for your arguments and supporting materials. Like the specific purpose sentence, the propo- sition statement is made at the end of the introduction and relates the overall objective of the speech. But unlike the specific purpose, the proposition reveals a clear point of view on a controversial topic.
To convince your audience that a relationship exists between the Web and teenage violence you could state several propositions:
Websites such as YouTube contribute to violence among teens. Teenage acts of violence that are posted on the Web contribute to greater violence among teens.
Videos showing acts of bullying or teen violence should be banned from the Web.
You would select one of these three statements and conduct research to find sup- porting evidence—statistics, testimonies, examples, and audiovisual aids. You would need to be certain that the evidence did indeed back up your proposition. If it did not, you would be faced with three choices: (1) conduct a more extensive search for evidence until you found suitable data, (2) rephrase the proposition to correspond to existing evi- dence, or (3) look for another issue.
It is important to select a topic and word a proposition that seeks reasonable change within your listeners. For example, a speaker who attends an antiabortion meeting and attempts to deliver a speech supporting a proposition that “more pro-choice justices should be appointed to the Supreme Court” would be unrealistic in expectations. Listen- ers in direct opposition to such a topic are often fixed in their opinions and may be unwilling to change their viewpoints after hearing only a brief five- or seven-minute speech. Carefully analyze your audience, and avoid extreme topics that are directly opposed to audience values or opinions. Select topics that give you a realistic opportunity to change your listeners’ beliefs, feelings, or actions. (For more information on this issue, see “Audience Perception of the Topic” in Chapter Three, “Analyzing Your Audience.”)
Once you have written your proposition and gathered your evidence, you would construct logical arguments to support your point of view. (We will consider logic and
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reasoning later in this chapter.) Thorough research and appropriate evidence are extremely important to your success as a persuasive speaker. Your speech will have a significant impact on your listeners if they feel your proposition is validated by careful research and good evidence.
Propositions of Fact, Value, and Policy You can select any of three proposition statements for a persuasive speech: propositions of fact, value, or policy.
Propositions of Fact In a proposition of fact, you develop a statement you believe is true and must be verified by evidence. Here are some examples:
Terrorist attacks will continue on coalition countries that invaded Afghanistan. Columbus did not discover America. Victims of rape are treated as criminals by the judicial system. There will be a major volcanic eruption on the West Coast of the United States within the next five years.
Global warming is a myth. Pluto is a legitimate planet in our solar system.
These propositions are not actual facts, but facts as they are perceived by the persuasive speaker. If you took a survey in most audiences, you would probably find a variety of opinions about each statement. It is the speaker’s job to gather evidence that persuades the audience that the perceived fact stated in the proposition is correct.
Propositions of Value In a proposition of value, you are required to judge or evaluate an issue. You ask the audience to believe something is right or wrong, good or bad, effective or ineffective.
Home schooling is beneficial to children. Failure to cut government spending will harm the U.S. economic recovery. Fast food is dangerous to your health. The Patriot Act violates the U.S. Constitution. Excessive use of cell phones is physically harmful. Illegal immigration is damaging to the U.S. economy
Notice that these propositions contain words like beneficial, dangerous, violate, harmful, or damaging, which contribute to judgment or evaluation of the issue. If you choose a proposition of value for your persuasive speech, you must support it with appro- priate evidence.
Propositions of Policy If you were to select a proposition of policy, you would advo- cate the adoption of a future action or behavior.
The national health care law should be repealed. America should stop giving foreign aid to other countries. Botox parties should be prohibited. The United States should place a 10 percent luxury tax on all SUVs. America should not invade foreign countries without provocation. The Internet should be strictly regulated and controlled.
Each proposition contains the word should and proposes an action or a change in the status quo. The status quo represents the existing condition or present state of
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affairs. For example, in each of these propositions, the status quo is the opposite of the statement: the national health care law was enacted by Congress and signed into law by the President, SUVs are not subject to a luxury tax, and Botox parties occur openly. A speaker who selects any of these propositions wishes to change the status quo or current state of affairs. Each issue requires extensive evidence to persuade the audience to believe that the intended policy is the correct course of action.
Spend some time developing your proposition statement. Choose simple words and clear phrases so that the statement flows evenly and conveys your viewpoint on a debatable issue regarding a fact, value, or policy.
Ethos, Pathos, and Logos: The Means of Persuasion
The Greek rhetorician Aristotle wrote that there are three means of persuasion: “The first kind reside in the character [ethos] of the speaker; the second consist in producing a certain attitude [pathos] in the hearer; the third appertain to the argument proper [logos].”2 In ancient Greece these three elements were considered as separate structures, but today we view them as interrelated. Think of ethos, pathos, and logos as a pyramid that is not complete without any one of its three sides. Persuasion without ethos has no credibility; a speech without pathos generates no feeling; and a speaker deficient in logos reasons without sound argument. Although we will consider each area separately, it is important to remember their interconnection.
Ethos: The Ethical Appeal Ethos represents the dimension that causes us to trust and believe the individuals per- suading us. We have confidence in speakers when they are sincere and knowledgeable about issues, show commitment to their persuasive goals, and demonstrate concern for the welfare of others. Ethos involves ethics, character, and credibility. To Aristotle, ethos was “the most potent of all the means to persuasion.”3
A student remarked in class, “I believe that the most important thing in persuasion is the number of individuals the speaker is able to influence. If the speech changes the opinions or behavior of a lot of people, then it was successful, don’t you think?” The problem with this idea is that it measures persuasion in terms of outcomes, without considering the means to the ends.
The success of a persuasive speech must not be measured entirely by outcomes, or civilization will continue to nurture terrorists like Osama bin Laden, Abu Nidal, Adolf Hitler, Jim Jones, or David Koresh. A persuasive speech should be judged by the ethical means speakers use to influence listeners. When Osama bin Laden appeared in propa- ganda videos taped before his death in 2011, Americans reacted with intense anger because of the horrifying terrorist attacks of September 11. When former South African President Nelson Mandela presents a speech, however, we listen with interest because of his lifelong struggle against the practice of apartheid and his devotion to democratic reforms for the people of South Africa. Because of her unselfish service to humanity, people of all spiritual beliefs responded to the words and deeds of the late Mother Teresa. If a speaker advocates ideas that benefit others, demonstrates commitment to persuasive goals, and displays personal behavior consistent with stated beliefs, the persuader will be establishing a positive foundation for ethical appeals.
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In a democratic society, citizens expect ethical persuasive techniques. To help you become more aware of unethical practices, here is a partial list, including some brief explanations and examples.
UNETHICAL PERSUASIVE PRACTICES: Advocating harm: Withholding information necessary for people’s welfare; inciting people to violence; scapegoating, or isolating groups according to ethnicity, race, religion, or other characteristics for the purpose of assigning blame. Prior to World War II, Hitler blamed the Jewish people for all of Germany’s economic problems. Scapegoating was just one sinister tactic Hitler used to prepare for the Holocaust. America also used scapegoating by placing many Japanese citizens in internment camps because of fear they would be disloyal.
Name-calling: The so-called ad hominem argument that attacks the character or personality of an individual; the use of loaded words to attack an individual or group. In the 1950s, Senator Joe McCarthy falsely accused many Americans of being “card-carrying Communists.” The accusations led to congressional hearings, poisonous recriminations, and unjustified firings of many innocent people.
Plagiarizing: Intellectual stealing; quoting or paraphrasing words and phrases without identifying the source. In a speech to the 2010 graduating class at Columbia University, valedictorian Brian Corman delivered a speech in which he plagiarized a section of a comedy routine that comedian Patton Oswalt posted on YouTube. The dean of general studies issued a statement that the university was “surprised” and “disappointed” to learn of the incident and noted that the student had apologized for his lack of proper citation to his fellow students and to the comedian.4
Providing false information: Any argument that is inaccurate, false, taken out of context, or deliberately distorts information to mislead the audience. This practice is often called “the big lie.” In a 2007 speech at Columbia University, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad denied that the Holocaust ever happened by saying “there’s nothing known as absolute.” Also, in response to a question about the execution of homosexuals in Iran, he stated, “In Iran we don’t have homosexuals like in your country.”5
Using offensive language: Language that is vulgar, obscene, or insulting; language that is offensive or injurious to any person or group. Any public speaker who uses obscenities for shock value violates the ethical standards of the community and causes most audience members to stop listening. During his unsuccessful reelection campaign in 2006, Senator George Allen of Virginia referred to a college student of Indian descent in his audience as “Macaca, or whatever his name is.” The word “macaca” is a type of monkey and is sometimes used as a racial slur.6
Card stacking: Presenting arguments in a biased and unfair manner; arguments that unfairly stack the deck for or against an issue; selecting only favorable evidence; deliberately ignoring opposite information. For example: “Join the military and become a soldier. See the world. Earn a living and let the U.S. government pay for your education. Be everything you want to be.” This argument disregards the fact that soldiers are not sent to vacation spots but to war zones and are often killed or wounded in the line of duty. It also fails to state that those serving in the military are away from families and friends for months and sometimes years.
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Pathos: The Emotional Appeal Pathos plays a very important part in persuasion. Speeches come alive when the speaker appeals to the heart as well as the intellect of the listener. Without emotion, persuasive speeches would contain a lifeless collage of intellectual quotations and statistics. Think of a speech about throat cancer with no reference to Michael Douglas, or a presentation about pancreatic cancer with no mention of an individual such as the late Patrick Swayze. It is emotion that helps to connect an audience to a topic and create sympathy for the speaker’s point of view.
The emotions that are employed in a speech usually depend upon the topic, audi- ence, speaker, and occasion. As you think about the use of emotion, ask yourself the following questions about the speech:
1. What emotions are appropriate to my topic? 2. What are the characteristics of my audience, and which emotions will be most
persuasive to them? 3. What feelings do I have about the topic, and which emotions could I convey
spontaneously and effectively? 4. What emotions are appropriate or inappropriate to the occasion of the speech?
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Identify Emotions As you are preparing your speech, identify the specific emotions you want to reach within your listeners. Do you want them to experience a feeling of empathy, or should they be angry because of a problem or issue? Should they feel compassion or resentment due to an ongoing condition or situation? The following list presents several emotions, with sample issues, that you might use to influence your audience. Remember, however, that this is only a partial listing of all the emotions and combinations of feelings that are available for persuasive presentations.
EMOTIONS THAT CAN BE EMPLOYED IN A SPEECH Anger: The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001; treatment of rape victims; drug- related crimes; abuse of children by a religious sect or members of the clergy; female circumcision in Third World countries; airline delays; four-dollar gas at the pump
Despair: Famine and starvation in Ethiopia or Somalia; public school beatings or shootings of teachers and students; continued worldwide terrorist attacks; destruction from a tornado; enslavement due to alcohol, heroin, or gambling addiction
Fear: Chemical and biological warfare; losing health insurance, Social Security, or Medicare; global warming; the lack of automotive or airline safety; identity theft; bankruptcy; violent crime; losing a job
Hope: Progress in the war against terrorism; the ability of people to work together to help people afflicted with muscular dystrophy, cystic fibrosis, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, and autism
Horror: Witnessing the devastation from a tsunami; women being stoned as a punishment for committing adultery; a child kidnapped from a parking lot
Joy: Watching troops return home from a war; winning the World Series or Super Bowl; witnessing the nighttime eruption of a Hawaiian volcano; conquering cancer; surviving paralysis; overcoming addiction; losing weight
Love: A grandparent or parent; husband or wife; a child, friend, or pet Pride: Work; physical appearance; saving lives; a hobby or interest; church, community, city, state, country, or flag
Sorrow and compassion: Families who lost loved ones in the earthquakes in Japan and Haiti; an Alzheimer’s patient and family; death of soldiers killed in battle; individuals losing worldly possessions because of a hurricane, war, flood, forest fire, earthquake, or volcano
After researching her topic, Pamela Rumber became concerned about disreputable online pharmacies and the ease with which many Internet users could bypass physicians and get prescriptions without a physical examination or adequate diagnosis. As you read this passage from her persuasive speech, notice how the speaker uses emotional appeals to convince listeners that Internet pharmacies should be banned.
Disreputable online pharmacies don’t care about your health and well-being. They only want your money and they will deceive you in order to get it. Do you know how these disreputable pharmacies operate? Well, they’ll have you fill out an online questionnaire and may have the correct answers already filled in. For example, in a WebMD Medical News article I read that Texas Attorney General John Conran described a sting operation where two online dot-com websites had the question “Do you have high blood pressure?” and they already had the answer “No” checked off. They then proceeded to sell the medication. According to an article in the February 2000 issue of Business Week, some dot-coms go so far as to brag
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“no medication, no problem.” And some make outrageous, untrue, and unsubstan- tiated medical claims that shark cartilage and cat’s claw will cure cancer, arthritis, and AIDS.
Think about it. How many men with heart disease can resist the temptation of what Viagra can do for them even if they have to go against their doctors’ orders? How many anorexics and bulimics can resist being able to buy Meridia to help them lose weight? What about all of the addicts out there? Can they resist being able to buy mind-altering drugs like Prozac, Valium, amphetamines, and morphine? What about that 15-year-old boy who decides to bulk up on steroids because he was too small to make the football team last year? And what about those of you who have small children at home? You love these children, you care for them, you protect them. I’m sure you would never allow a common drug dealer to come into your home and fraternize with your children. However, even though you don’t mean to, that’s what you’re doing every time you allow them to log on to the Internet.7
Pamela clearly understood the emotions she wanted to reach. She made listeners angry by asserting that disreputable prescription websites don’t care about the health of consumers. After substantiating her claim with effective supporting materials, she asked the audience a series of direct questions, making them feel uneasy about the types of people who could purchase medications online. The final question about their “small children at home” was a direct threat to the safety and security of listeners, designed to make them feel fearful and threatened by unscrupulous Web-based pharmacies. Notice that the speaker documents her speech with credible research sources.
Understand Audience Emotions As you think about developing emotional appeals, you need to analyze your audience thoroughly in order to discover what emotional buttons to push.
1. Are listeners college students who are angry at rising tuition costs and supplemental “user fees” such as parking permits, library cards, laboratory charges, and technology fees?
2. Are they minorities who have experienced feelings of hurt and anger as a result of prejudice and discrimination?
3. Are your listeners new parents who have experienced the joy and pain of childbirth, yet face the future with insecurity and uncertainty?
If you know the motivations and needs of your audience, you will be able to develop appeals that connect to their interests and gain sympathy for your cause.
This speaker carefully analyzed the emotions of his audience. He knew that many of his listeners were parents with school-age children, and he also knew that they had computers at home. Notice how the speaker combined vivid examples with concrete language to create emotional appeals that frightened the parents in his audience.
Imagine that a child you know well is lured away from home by a pervert that he met online. Imagine that another child has a new friend that he spends countless hours with online, and that this “new friend” is not a peer, but turns out to be a pedophile. Imagine that a young girl has nude pictures of adults engaged in acts of bondage and sodomy that she has obtained online. These online services should be banned until they are childproof because our children are being lured away from their homes and abused, our children are being exposed to explicit photos and texts, and pedo- philes are cloaking their real identities.
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• In 1993 a 51-year-old man in Fresno, California, met a 16-year-old boy online and lured him to his home by pretending to have some brand-new software. The boy was raped and later attempted suicide.
• In a 2003 case in Westchester County, New York, a twenty-year-old man was arrested and charged with raping and sodomizing a thirteen-year-old girl who communicated with him in a chat room for four months.
• In a 2006 Long Beach, California, sting operation, more than three dozen alleged sexual predators ages twenty-two to fifty were arrested for using Internet chat rooms in an attempt to have sex with children under thirteen.
These Internet, online services provide the perfect cover for people who would victimize our children. People pose as sisterly or brother figures, motherly or fatherly figures, they masquerade as other children, and they pretend to be devoted to hob- bies or subjects that interest our kids. One man went so far as to set up his own Star Trek bulletin board to attract children that he later abused.8
Kenneth Ruffin openly appealed to fear and anger. The speaker used the words “our children,” “victimize,” and “online” as tools to underscore the intensity of parental emo- tions and get to the heart of the issue. Following the speech, a spirited discussion took place. Audience members said they often felt “violated” by the Internet and “helpless” when attempting to control these online services coming into their homes. One parent also expressed frustration at her inability to closely monitor her children’s computer activities outside the home. Ken’s study of the audience paid off. His research enabled him to select an issue that was vitally important to listeners.
Express Your Own Feelings A personal commitment to a topic is extremely helpful when a speaker wants to convey the emotional aspects of a presentation. Topics that are linked to your interests, experi- ences, and/or knowledge can provide the stimulus for expressing your feelings spontane- ously to listeners. You can share your feelings more deeply if you have a personal involvement or interest in the issue.
Emotions can seldom be mechanically rehearsed or artificially staged; they are expressed more effectively when the speaker allows feelings to surface naturally during the course of a speech. A successful speaker conveys the degree and intensity of these natural emotions through the delivery of the presentation. Increased or decreased volume can communicate strength of feeling. Verbal emphasis, facial expression, move- ment, and gesture can reinforce important emotional segments such as stories or exam- ples. Dramatic pauses or silences can allow time for feelings to sink in. A speaker cannot influence listeners effectively without knowing how to deliver the emotional elements needed for persuasion.
This speaker selected a topic from her own painful experience with an alcoholic parent. Notice how she combined logical appeals with emotions in this brief narrative.
Of 28 million children of alcoholics in this country, the odds are that there are two within this class. Now I’m not going to survey and try to prove or disprove the odds. I will tell you that there is definitely one. Like Suzanne Somers, I too am an adult child of an alcoholic. I am in the process of learning how to talk about it, how to trust, and how to feel and own all my emotions. Suzanne’s story is incredible because her entire family recovered, including those who were alcoholic. In my fam- ily there were four children. I too, like Suzanne, escaped alcoholism. But two of my siblings did not. It is my hope that, one day, my entire family will recover.
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The statistic, example, and testimony comprise the logical, factual evidence. But the evidence becomes deeply emotional when the speaker reveals her personal experience. The emotion genuinely moved the audience because the speaker used effective facial expressions, vocal inflections, and eye contact to communicate strong personal feelings. As Aristotle said about pathos, “we give very different decisions under the sway of pain or joy, and liking or hatred.”9
Connect Emotions to the Occasion Numerous speeches are presented to celebrate or pay tribute to individuals, groups, sym- bols, or events on important occasions. Speakers who want to be well prepared seek to understand and acknowledge the emotions that are significant on these occasions. A supervisor might pay tribute to the loyalty of a worker who is retiring after thirty-five years of service. A religious official might refer to shared spiritual values when dedicating a new church, mosque, or synagogue. A family friend could reminisce about a couple’s courtship at a fiftieth wedding anniversary. And a governor might acknowledge the shared pain of citizens on the anniversary of a bombing, a natural disaster, or an assassination. No matter what the event, the speaker must understand the occasion completely in order to develop language and create images that will elicit the appropriate feelings and response.
On August 31, 1997, Princess Diana of Great Britain was involved in a tragic auto- mobile accident in Paris, France. In just a few hours, the shocking news spread through- out the world of the car crash that killed the princess, her companion (Dodi Al Fayed), and a driver and seriously injured a bodyguard. The world community reacted with disbelief as the details of the accident investigation revealed facts about an intoxicated driver operating the Mercedes at excessive speeds to escape the ever-present media or paparazzi. Several days later, a memorial service was held in London’s Westminster Abbey to honor the life of the beloved princess. It became the task of Diana’s brother, Earl Spencer, to eulogize his sister in an emotional tribute witnessed by Diana’s two teenage sons, her ex-husband Prince Charles, the British Royal Family, and an immense worldwide audience:
I stand before you today the representative of a family in grief, in a country in mourn- ing before a world in shock. We are all united not only in our desire to pay our respects to Diana but rather in our need to do so. For such was her extraordinary appeal that the tens of millions of people taking part in this service all over the world via television and radio who never actually met her, feel that they, too, lost someone close to them in the early hours of Sunday morning. It is a more remark- able tribute to Diana than I can ever hope to offer her today.
Diana was the very essence of compassion, of duty, of style, of beauty. All over the world she was a symbol of selfless humanity, a standard-bearer for the rights of the truly downtrodden, a truly British girl who transcended nationality, someone with a natural nobility who was classless, who proved in the last year that she needed no royal title to continue to generate her particular brand of magic….
Without her God-given sensitivity, we would be immersed in greater ignorance at the anguish of AIDS and HIV sufferers, the plight of the homeless, the isolation of lepers, the random destruction of land mines. Diana explained to me once that it was her innermost feelings of suffering that made it possible for her to connect with her constituency of the rejected.10
Spencer clearly understood the intense emotions of the occasion. He acknowledged the feelings of millions who felt an emotional link to the princess, and he was candid about Diana’s deep insecurities that led to eating disorders and other difficulties.
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Although the speech was not without controversy in its remarks aimed at the Royal Family, it honored Diana’s memory and her earnest dedication to humanity.
Charisma Some speakers possess special magnetic qualities, called charisma, that attract audiences and inspire confidence. Franklin D. Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Jr., Ronald Reagan, Maya Angelou, and Barack Obama are speakers who have influ- enced audiences because of these unique abilities. No one expects you to have the charisma of these effective leaders. But every speaker has a unique personal style that can be developed with speaking experience. Whether you use dramatic pausing, effective gestures, or vivid mental images, you can refine your personal style to communicate emotion successfully.
A Word of Caution Emotion is a powerful motivator, and audiences are often capti- vated when charismatic speakers employ passionate examples. Emotion can be inappropri- ate, however, if speakers use a long string of emotional examples without appealing to the listener’s intellect. Although emotion can arouse curiosity and maintain audience interest for a while, strong emotion tends to fade, resulting in a shallow basis for persuasion.
Emotion and charisma can also be dangerously exploitive. In Chapter Six we dis- cussed how a strong emotional appeal and a magnetic personality may often conceal hid- den agendas of greed. Numerous charlatans have successfully contrived emotional appeals to religious feelings, humanitarian causes, or consumer needs to reap huge personal bene- fits. Be wary of the individual who uses only strong appeals to personal feelings. Remember that the effective persuader must appeal to ethics and logic and use emotion judiciously.
Logos: The Appeal to Reason
Your ultimate goal in a persuasive speech is to influence the audience to consider, and ultimately to accept, your point of view through logos. Your task is similar to that of a trial attorney who builds a case based upon solid evidence and draws conclusions to persuade jurors of a defendant’s guilt or innocence.
One way to achieve your persuasive objective is to follow a process called reasoning, in which you present logical arguments to your audience. Most people are familiar with arguments or disputes in which we express our feelings and personal opinions about rela- tionships, current events, movies, or fashion. Logical arguments in a persuasive speech, however, must be grounded in clear and correct facts, complete evidence, and accurate reasoning. A common way for persuasive speakers to develop arguments is by presenting relevant supporting materials such as statistics, testimonies, and examples and by drawing conclusions from the data to back up a point of view.11
A speaker wanting to support a claim that a campus parking problem exists could phrase an argument like this:
I’m sure many of you already know that we have a severe parking problem on our campus. Statistics from the Dean of Student’s office indicate that there are 2,000 more commuter students than there are parking spaces. I did an informal survey of fifty students and asked them if they thought there were parking problems on campus. Thirty-nine of them said yes, six who used the bus said no, and five didn’t have an opinion. The majority of the students in this survey—78 percent—felt that a parking problem exists. I also interviewed the Director of Student Activities who told me that [quote] “We have a campus parking crisis.” And I want you all to know that I was ten minutes late for this class, and almost missed my speech today, because I had to “hawk” a parking place way over on the other side of campus next to the stadium. You can see that the evidence indicates that we have a severe problem— a problem that we’ve got to solve.
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The speaker has provided a list of supporting materials that include two statistical cases, one testimony of authority, and a personal experience. The speaker cites a clear conclusion to summarize the data and to support the claim. The logical argument can be written in the form of a diagram.
Claim: There is a parking problem on campus. Supporting evidence: A. There are 2,000 more commuter students than parking
spaces. B. Seventy-eight percent of students in informal survey said
there was a parking problem. C. Director of Student Activities says there is a parking
“crisis.” D. I was late for class because of parking problem.
Conclusion: Evidence indicates that there is a parking problem on campus.
When constructing arguments, be very careful how you draw conclusions from your data. Notice how this speaker states that the evidence “indicates”—the speaker does not say that it “proves” the conclusion. Evidence does not offer conclusive proof, but rather points to a conclusion. Your audience will be more open to persuasion if you use terms such as imply, signify, suggest, indicate, or reveal and stay away from terms that express absolute statements of proof.
When you use a logical argument, you must avoid fallacious reasoning. A fallacy occurs whenever a speaker uses unclear or incorrect facts, incomplete evidence, and/or erroneous reasoning.
Biased sampling is a fallacy occurring when statistics or examples are not representa- tive of the entire population. For instance, were students in the informal parking survey selected by random sample, or were they deliberately chosen because they already agreed with the speaker’s point of view?
A hasty generalization is another fallacy that occurs when a speaker draws a faulty conclusion from extreme exceptions or from limited evidence. Are there other university officials who agree with the student activity director’s viewpoint, or is the director an exception? Were the parking difficulties experienced by the speaker a normal occur- rence, or were they due to a special event such as a conference or a basketball game? We’ve all been guilty of making hasty generalizations. The victim whose home has been burglarized declares, “I came home and discovered I was robbed. I called the 911 emergency number, and it took twenty-five minutes for the police to respond. The cops are never around when you need them.” The victim is obviously frustrated, but the one example could have been an isolated case. Much more statistical and testimonial evidence must be presented before a speaker should draw such a conclusion. Some argu- ments are so frequently used that they have been classified and labeled. These arguments can help you apply general models of reasoning to your persuasive speeches. We will consider arguments based upon enumeration, analogy, and causation.12
Arguments Based on Enumeration When you employ enumeration in a speech, you cite a series of specific cases to support a generalization. If you wanted to support a claim that most large cities have a drug prob- lem, you could develop the following argument of enumeration:
Claim: Most large cities have a drug problem. Supporting evidence: A. Los Angeles, in the top twenty largest cities, has a drug
problem.
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B. New York, in the top twenty largest cities, has a drug problem.
C. Chicago, in the top twenty largest cities, has a drug problem. D. Houston, in the top twenty largest cities, has a drug problem.
Conclusion: Most of the top twenty largest cities have drug problems.
In this argument, the speaker cites four different examples of large cities with drug problems and states a conclusion that accurately reflects supporting evidence. The speaker uses the word most in the conclusion to indicate that “a great majority” of the largest cities have drug problems. The speaker could present a stronger argument by stating “All of the twenty largest cities have a drug problem.” The word all cannot be used, of course, unless each of the twenty largest cities has been researched and found to have these difficulties. The weakest arguments are those where the word(s) some or a few are used. If supporting evidence were to force a speaker to draw the conclusion that only “some cities have a drug problem,” then the argument would lack strength and influence.
Determine the amount of evidence you need for a particular conclusion. If your conclusion is highly controversial—such as for or against Internet regulation, surrogate parenthood, or the right to die—you will need many more statistics, examples, and testi- monies to construct coherent arguments and draw logical conclusions.
Arguments Based on Analogy When you reason from analogy, you are comparing two or more similar cases to show that, because of their similarity, what applies to one case can also apply to the other.13
For example:
Claim: Detroit is similar to other cities with urban revitalization programs. Supporting evidence: A. Jacksonville, Baltimore, and Cleveland have populations
of 500,000 or more. B. These cities have had similar economic and urban
decline. C. Jacksonville, Baltimore, and Cleveland all have allocated
considerable funds to rehabilitate downtown areas. D. Further, we know that Jacksonville, Baltimore, and
Cleveland have been successful with their inner-city development programs.
Conclusion: Because Detroit is similar in important ways to other cities that have been successful with inner-city revitalization, it is likely that Detroit will be successful as well.
In this analogy, the speaker has cited examples to illustrate the similarity of other cities to Detroit. The conclusion then seeks to persuade listeners that because conditions in Detroit are similar to conditions in other cities, Detroit will obtain a similar result.
Arguments based on analogies can be effective if the examples being compared share a number of characteristics. Faulty analogies occur, however, when examples are dissimilar. A speaker in New Jersey who wants to raise the speed limit to seventy on state highways and compares New Jersey to Wyoming and Kansas is guilty of a faulty analogy. New Jersey is an urban state with high population density, while Wyoming and Kansas are not. For an effective analogy, your examples must have a variety of simi- lar principles or characteristics. Your audience will be persuaded if your analogy is valid in several areas.
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Arguments Based on Causation When you use logical arguments based upon causation, you identify known causes to determine unknown effects (cause-to-effect reasoning) or you identify known effects to determine the unknown cause (effect-to-cause reasoning). Here is an example of cause- to-effect reasoning:
Claim: The current severe drought in the Midwest will contribute to higher food prices in the fall.
Supporting evidence: A. People continue to buy food during droughts. B. Severe droughts contribute to food shortages. C. In the past, severe droughts have created higher food
prices. Conclusion: The current drought will create a shortage that will cause food prices to rise in the fall.
In this argument, the speaker has used the known cause—the current drought—as well as evidence of past droughts to predict the unknown effect: that prices will rise in the fall. So the speaker’s claim that food prices will rise during the harvest is persuasive because it is based upon good evidence and sound reasoning.
Fallacies, known as faulty causes or faulty effects, can sometimes occur in causative reasoning. Effects often have more than one cause. For instance, the food shortage could have other causes, such as fewer farms producing wheat due to the grain-subsidy program and/or massive government exports that depleted grain reserves. Also, some causes are not capable of producing the assumed effects. For example, erratic weather conditions in the United States are often said to be caused by a phenomenon known as El Niño, which refers to a gradual warming of the oceans. Although this natural occurrence is a legitimate scientific explanation for many irregular weather patterns, El Niño often takes the blame for anything unpleasant, such as an earthquake, a downturn in the stock market, or rising food prices.
Make certain that your evidence clearly supports a single cause of the effect and that the cause is capable of producing the identified effect. Here is an example of reasoning based upon effect to cause:
Claim: High cholesterol contributed to Jack’s heart attack. Supporting evidence: A. Jack’s doctor repeatedly warned Jack to lower his intake
of cholesterol. B. Diets containing high cholesterol can increase blockage
of arteries, which according to the American Medical Association contributes to heart attacks.
C. Jack’s cholesterol level was checked a week before his heart attack and found to be high.
Conclusion: Jack’s diet of high cholesterol contributed to his heart attack.
In this example, the speaker has observed the known effect, Jack’s heart attack, and drawn a speculative conclusion about the unknown cause from supporting data provided about Jack. Although it is highly probable that Jack’s diet of high cholesterol contributed to his heart attack, this may be a faulty cause. Were there other possible causes of the heart attack such as Jack’s weight, his lack of exercise, or his stressful lifestyle? Was his diet of high cholesterol merely a coincidental contributing factor? If Jack had lost weight, exercised, and reduced tension, would his diet have contributed to a heart attack?
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Use caution when you reason from effect to cause. A woman with a black eye may not have been beaten by her husband but might have been in a car accident. The recession of 2008 may have been caused not only by high oil prices; there could have been a variety of reasons, including the subprime mortgage crisis and a downturn in global economy.
Keep in mind that arguments of enumeration, analogy, and causation are often used interchangeably throughout most types of persuasive speeches. They are also used to support various methods of persuasive organization. Some arguments are more logi- cally applicable to particular organizational methods than others are; we will consider these arguments in the section “Methods of Organizing Persuasive Speeches.”
Developing Rebuttal Arguments Some persuasive issues are so controversial that audiences will listen with skepticism and doubt about the wisdom of the speaker’s proposition. A speaker who ignores this resistance will not be taken seriously. It is crucial for a persuasive speaker to acknowledge the viewpoint of listeners who strongly disagree with the speaker’s proposition and use powerful counterarguments to undermine the opposing idea. The argument that is held by audience members who strongly disagree with a speaker’s proposition is called an opposition argument. The counterargument that the speaker uses to weaken the opposition is known as the rebuttal argument.
For example, imagine a speaker who believed that nuclear power was the answer to America’s energy problems developed a proposition of policy, stating that more nuclear power plants should be built in this country. After an effective introduction, the speaker presented a thesis declaring that nuclear power plants are safe, efficient, and
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cost-effective. Upon hearing the speaker assert that nuclear plants are safe, many listen- ers would immediately recall the damage to Japan’s nuclear reactors after the 2011 earth- quake and tsunami or earlier disasters at Chernobyl and Three Mile Island. These failures would raise serious disagreements with the speaker’s proposition. The speaker cannot press on without ever acknowledging or answering the strong objections of the opposition; to do so would be persuasive suicide. Audience members would question the speaker’s concern for their welfare, awareness of the facts, and understanding of the problem. One way for the speaker to address this challenge would be to meet the opposition argument head-on.
The speaker could say, “When you hear that nuclear power plants are safe, I’m sure many of you may think about the recent disasters at the Fukushima nuclear power plants in Japan or earlier failures at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl. I under- stand your concerns, and I want to assure you that such tragedies must be prevented.” After establishing and developing the opposition argument further, the speaker would then begin to form a rebuttal argument to undermine the opposition and provide evi- dence that the opposing view was flawed or inaccurate. The speaker could begin the rebuttal in this manner: “These disasters represent well-publicized failures that do not fairly represent the safety technology built into the newest generation of nuclear reactors or the more stringent safety policies governing nuclear reactors in America.” The speaker could provide additional rebuttal information about the inadvisability of building Japan’s reactors on earthquake fault lines and the flawed structure and regula- tion of the Soviet reactor or improper management and safety inspection of the Three Mile Island plant.
It is important for a persuasive speaker to carefully craft opposition and rebuttal arguments to gain the confidence of listeners and demonstrate a thorough understanding of both sides of the issue.
Summary of Logical and Ethical Fallacies
Here is a chart summarizing the different logical and ethical fallacies presented in this chapter. The chart also includes several additional logical fallacies to help you avoid some common pitfalls presented by faulty reasoning.
Logical Fallacies Definition Example
Biased sampling Statistics or cases are not representative of the population.
“90 percent of smokers are against the campus smoke-free policy.”
Hasty generalization Conclusion is drawn from limited or extreme evidence.
“I visited Memphis recently and was treated really well. Southerners are friendly and helpful.”
Faulty analogy Comparisons between two examples that are not similar.
“America should adopt the same strict punishment for burglary as in Saudi Arabia.”
(continued)
Logos: The Appeal to Reason 309
Logical Fallacies Definition Example
Faulty cause-to-effect One known cause is used to predict only one effect. (Causes often have more than one effect.)
“The long drought in the southwest will cause unemployment to rise.”
Faulty effect-to-cause One known effect is used to assume only one cause. (Effects often have more than one cause.)
“Jan’s heart attack was due to her lack of exercise.”
Either/or fallacy A simplistic choice between two extremes: one evil, one good.
“We can continue the high deficits and corruption of this administration, or we can elect a new competent, honest government.”
Begging the question Circular reasoning that restates the issue and offers the claim as evidence.
“Donald Trump is a rich businessman because he has been successful in business.”
Complex question Many complicated issues are combined into one misleading statement.
“America’s energy problems can be solved by banning SUV’s.”
False authority An authority figure who is not an expert in a field is used to validate a claim.
“David Letterman said on his show that the economy is improving.”
Irrelevant evidence Unrelated information is used to sup- port a claim.
“Janet Jones should be elected state treasurer because she believes in family values, is a true humanitarian, and a church member.”
Red herring A way to avoid addressing an issue by diverting to another topic.
“Some states may be allowing the sale of medical marijuana but how will we stop drugs from coming into our country?”
Straw man An attack on an opposition argument by distorting or over simplifying it and then shooting it down.
“Our opponents want to repeal national health insurance because they don’t care about people.”
Slippery slope An appeal to fear that if one bad sit- uation occurs, other bad events will follow.
“If gun control legislation is passed, Americans will be disarmed, and we all will lose our constitutional rights.”
Loaded question The question forms a no-win trap that is condemning whether it is answered “yes” or “no.”
“Are you still cheating in class?”
(continued)
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Methods of Organizing Persuasive Speeches
Because there are different goals in persuasion, there are different methods of structuring per- suasive messages. In an actuating speech, for instance, the speaker must organize the message to identify a problem that requires solution and action. In a speech to convince, the speaker uses reasons to develop a positive case in support of the proposition. To build a successful persuasive speech, you need to understand and be able to apply the best methods of organi- zation for your particular assignment. You can structure persuasive messages according to reasons, problem-solution, comparative advantages, and the motivated sequence.
Reasons Using the method of citing reasons is a clear and straightforward organizational approach, especially in a speech to convince. With this method, a speaker uses the
Ethical Fallacies Definition Example
Advocating harm Suggesting policies that hurt people such as violence, scapegoating, or other harmful practices.
“People that enter our country illegally should be shot on sight.”
Name-calling The use of loaded words to attack the character or personality of another.
“My opponent is a slimy snake.”
Plagiarizing Intellectual stealing; quoting word- for-word or paraphrasing without identifying the source.
“Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.”
—John F. Kennedy “Don’t ask what your nation can do for you, ask what you can do for your nation.”
—plagiarized passage
Providing false information
An argument that is deliberately false, inaccurate, taken out of context, or distorts information. It is often called “the big lie.”
“All my people with me, they love me.”14
—Col. Moammar Gadhafi
Using offensive language
Language that is vulgar, obscene, and/ or offensive to a person or group.
“That’s some rough girls from Rutgers. Man, they got tattoos…That’s some nappy-headed hos there.”15
—Don Imus
Card stacking Presenting biased arguments that unfairly stack the deck against an issue, ignoring opposite information.
“The national health insurance act is bad law, it will cost us more, it will ruin the health care system, and it will bankrupt our country.”
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three or four convincing reasons as main headings in the body of the outline. If you use this technique, be certain that your reasons are the strongest possible, that they support the specific purpose or proposition, and that they themselves can be supported with con- crete evidence.16
The reasons organizational sequence is often combined with arguments of enumera- tion. Each reason that supports a proposition lists or “enumerates” the evidence that backs up the reason. For example, the following speaker, Anna D’Archangelis, wanted to convince her audience that computer-enhanced advertisements should be labeled. After researching her proposition of policy, Anna found three strong reasons that she felt would persuade the audience to agree with her. She then supported each reason with an argument of enumeration that listed supporting evidence—statistics, testimonies, examples, visual aids—to validate the reason.
Specific purpose (proposition of policy): Computer-generated or airbrushed advertisements should legally be labeled as such.
Thesis statement: Computer-enhanced advertising misrepresents products, portrays women unrealistically, and induces unhealthy behaviors.
BODY
Reason 1 I. Misrepresents products A. Use of products creates happiness (quote from former model, PowerPoint
examples) B. Both men and women targeted (testimony, PowerPoint examples) C. 3,000 marketing messages sent daily (statistics)
Reason 2 I. Portrays women unrealistically A. Blurs line between fantasy and reality (magazine cover example, humorous
example) B. Promotes dissatisfaction, unhappiness with body (statistics) C. Shows severely underweight “ideal models” according to Body Mass Indexing
(stats)
Reason 3 I. Induces unhealthy behaviors A. Eating disorders (statistics) B. Obsession with appearance (quotation) C. Low self-esteem (quotation, example of former model)
The speaker, Anna, was successful in choosing three equally strong reasons to sup- port the proposition. Notice that she supports each reason with an argument of enumer- ation that lists a combination of statistics, examples, quotations, and visual aids to draw a conclusion and validate the reason. You can read the entire persuasive speech at the end of this chapter.
Students sometimes have difficulty coordinating their reasons smoothly with the proposition. To phrase each heading of the body more clearly, place a mental “because” in front of each reason. This method is an effective organizational tool for both speaker and listener: it helps a speaker to be logical and clear in supporting the proposition, and it enables the listener to follow the speaker’s principal arguments.
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Problem-Solution The problem-solution method is also useful in structuring a speech to convince. This method reflects the problem-solving techniques developed many years ago by educator John Dewey in his book How We Think.17 (Read “Developing a Problem-Solving Agenda” in Chapter Nineteen, “Speaking in Groups,” for a discussion of John Dewey’s problem- solving techniques.) The problem-solution method is most often used for propositions of pol- icy, and it is easy to incorporate into a speech outline. Problem-solution organization can be combined with arguments of enumeration and causation. In the following outline about the automotive repair industry, Karen Anderson made effective use of the problem-solution structure by employing arguments of enumeration to support the problem and solutions.
Specific purpose (proposition of policy): To convince the audience that the auto repair industry should be strictly regulated
Thesis statement: Incompetent and unnecessary repairs must be corrected by strict regulations.
BODY
Problem I. Americans are taken advantage of A. Forty percent of consumer auto repair spending wasted on unnecessary repairs B. Sears scandal demonstrates company fraud C. “Gypsy” parts are purposely inferior D. Small, everyday scams rip off public E. Incompetent service affects consumer
Alternative solutions I. Several means exist to rectify problem A. Voluntary certification B. Industry-wide control C. Consumer awareness
Selected solution I. Regulation can help consumer A. Mediate disputes B. Detect fraud C. Protect consumer
The body of the speech contains three main headings that identify the problem, explore alternative solutions, and present the desired solution. The speaker uses an argu- ment of enumeration to list a combination of statistics and examples as evidence to sup- port her three headings.
One variation of this method is the “problem-cause-solution” sequence, in which the speaker incorporates an argument of causation to include a section identifying prin- cipal causes of, or reasons for, the problem. Here’s how the preceding outline can be adapted to this method:
Thesis statement: Incompetent and unnecessary repairs, caused by lack of control, must be corrected by strict regulations.
BODY
Problem I. Americans are taken advantage of
Methods of Organizing Persuasive Speeches 313
Cause of problem II. Lack of control contributes to negligence
A. Anyone can claim automotive expertise B. ASE sets only voluntary standards C. Consumers are uneducated D. Most states don’t regulate
Alternative solutions III. Several means exist to rectify problem
Selected solution IV. Regulation can help consumer
In this outline, numerals I, III, and IV were organized using arguments of enumera- tion. Numeral II, however, uses a causal argument to list the principal causes of the problem, or the reasons that Americans are exploited. You can see that the problem- solution method is adaptable to a variety of arrangements. You don’t need to let any of these methods constrict your topic; adjust the approach to the unique demands of the topic, developing your speech in logical sequence.
Developing a Controversial Issue: An Example>>> We will examine a topic appearing in the Opposing Viewpoints18 database to see how a controversial issue can be developed into two contrasting persuasive speeches. You will notice a clearly worded proposition, a two-point thesis on opposite sides of the issue, and supporting materials that validate each position. Recognize that these arguments represent an early stage of speech planning. More research and preparation will be necessary to develop six- to seven-minute speeches that are satisfactory for classroom presentation. Proposition of policy: The detention facility at Guantanamo Bay should be closed and detainees should be brought to trial in U.S. civilian courts.
Favor Opposed
Thesis statement: Closing Quantanamo will make America safer and permit more convictions in U.S. courts.
Thesis statement: Closing Guantanamo poses a security threat to the U.S. and is opposed by numerous Americans.
I. Make America safer
According to an article in a 2011 Opposing Viewpoints, Guantanamo Bay was a recruitment and propaganda tool for al Qaeda and a leading cause of anti- American feeling in the Islamic world. Many nations were also alarmed at the types of interrogation procedures, such as water-boarding, that occurred at Guantanamo during the Bush Administration. Shutting down the
I. Poses risks to the U.S.
According to a May, 2009, issue of the Washington Times, FBI Director Robert S. Mueller testified at a House hearing that closing Guantanamo and bringing 172 suspected terrorists to the U.S. could radicalize individuals and contribute to increased attacks against America. In addition, if a U.S. court finds that detainees have been unlawfully held, they could be released
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Comparative Advantages The comparative advantages method is helpful in organizing convincing or actuating speeches that pose problems with many solutions. When using this organizational tool, speakers usually assume their listeners already agree that something must be done, although they may disagree about the solution. The speaker then tries to persuade the audience that the selected solution is superior to all others. The comparative advantages
Guantanamo detention facility could restore respect within the Islamic world and among America’s allies. A 2009 Washington Times article reported that six retired mili- tary leaders believe the closure would also remove a valuable propaganda weapon for terrorist recruitment, makingAmerica safer.
in the U.S., posing a direct threat to the American people.
II. U.S. civil courts are more effective at convicting terrorists than military tribunals at Guantanamo
An article in a 2011 Opposing Viewpoints stated that in U.S. civilian courts prosecutors can charge suspected terrorists with conspiracy, support for terrorism, as well as other crimes. But military tribunals in Guantanamo cannot charge suspected terrorists with these types of crimes and are limited only to serious violations of the laws of armed conflict. Since 9/11, for example, there have been more than 400 convictions in the U.S. for crimes that are related to terrorism, but only six detainees have been convicted by the military tribunal system at Guantanamo. If brought to trial in the U.S., more detainees could be convicted of a broader range of crimes.
II. Americans oppose bringing detainees to the U.S.
According to an article in a 2011 issue of Opposing Viewpoints, the Obama administration attempted to relocate and try 9/11 mastermind Khalid Shaikh Mohammed in a York City federal court. Public opinion was solidly against the policy and opponents charged that security measures alone would cost one billion dollars. Mohammed was never brought to the U.S.
The same article states that in 2009, Congress refused to approve money to upgrade a maximum-security prison in Illinois for detainees. In addition, both the previous Democratic- and current Republican-controlled House of Representatives have opposed providing funds to close the Guantanamo detention facility and bring detainees to the U.S.
Although Candidate Obama denounced Guantanamo during the 2008 campaign and signed an executive order as President to close the facility within a year, Obama has conceded that Congress will not support closure and the facility remains open with military trials continuing.
Methods of Organizing Persuasive Speeches 315
structure is often used with propositions of polices and supported by evidence that pro- vides comparisons and contrasts.
Specific purpose (proposition of policy): To persuade the audience that Ms. Juanita Hernandez should be elected president of the United States
Thesis statement: Ms. Hernandez is more sensitive to health care issues, more experienced in foreign policy, and has a better economic plan.
BODY
I. Ms. Hernandez is more sensitive to health care issues. A. She overhauled the health care system as governor of State X. B. As a Hispanic, she is sensitive to minority workers without health care. C. As a wife and mother, she is sensitive to family health issues.
II. Ms. Hernandez has more experience in foreign policy. A. She was U.S. Secretary of State. B. She was the president’s national security advisor.
III. Ms. Hernandez’ economic plan will provide more jobs. A. As governor of State X, her economic plan lowered jobless rate. B. Her plan provides more incentives to business and industry to hire and train new
workers.
With this topic, the speaker can assume that most listeners are voters who are inter- ested in selecting a new president. But the speaker has chosen a candidate and provided three comparative advantages to show that Ms. Hernandez is more qualified than all other presidential candidates. Each numeral is then supported by evidence that uses comparative examples to show that the selection of Ms. Hernandez would be the superior choice. With this organizational tool, speakers often use arguments of analogy as well as enumeration. For example, in numeral IIIA, the speaker might say, “As gover- nor of State X, Ms. Hernandez lowered unemployment to 3.5 percent. As president, Ms. Hernandez will carry out an economic plan to do the same.” In addition, each numeral uses an argument of enumeration to list evidence to show how Hernandez is qualified.
Motivated Sequence The motivated sequence is an organizational method that is used in speeches to actuate. This strategy is composed of five steps: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action. In Chapter Seventeen, we will examine this important technique in detail.
Building the Persuasive Speech to Convince>>> We’ve discussed the nature, means, and organization of several persuasive speeches. Here is a list of guidelines to help you build your persuasive speech to convince.
1. Choose a controversial topic. a. Examine your attitudes and the opinions of others. b. Select a topic that is appropriate to listeners. c. Explore current events topics. d. Avoid overworked issues. e. Provide new insights into familiar topics.
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2. Conduct extensive research. a. Examine library sources for testimonies, statistics, and examples to
build your case. b. Be certain that sources are accurate and up-to-date. c. Interview experts on the topic. d. Research specialized institutions and organizations. e. Develop visual aids for variety. f. Be willing to change or modify the topic if evidence does not support
your viewpoint. 3. Phrase a clear proposition.
a. Know the difference between fact, value, and policy propositions. b. Make sure that the proposition is controversial.
4. Analyze the audience. a. Determine prior attitudes about a topic through interviews, surveys, or
questionnaires. (1) Agreement implies the opportunity of using evidence as
reinforcement of audience attitudes. (2) Neutrality indicates the necessity of employing strong evidence to
influence listeners. (3) Opposition to the topic suggests the need to present extensive
supporting evidence. b. Develop persuasive appeals linking your topic to audience interests
and motivations. c. Make the audience the central focus of speech development.
5. Develop sound arguments and coherent organization. a. Present well-defined claims supported by good evidence and sound
reasoning. (1) Use evidence in the context of its intended meaning. (2) Include materials that are relevant and up-to-date.
b. Avoid using subjective phrases such as “I think” or “in my opinion.” c. Identify research sources to build credibility. d. Avoid unethical practices. e. Avoid logical and ethical fallacies19
f. Use a balance of logic and emotion. g. Choose an appropriate organizational method for the topic. h. Use external transitions to emphasize major arguments.
6. Construct a sophisticated introduction. a. Choose a strategy to generate curiosity and establish rapport. b. Present the proposition and thesis statements at the end of the
introduction. (1) Avoid opinionated statements such as “I’m going to convince” or
“prove,” which alienate the audience. (2) State the proposition in a straightforward manner. (3) State the thesis clearly, creating receptiveness among listeners.
7. Develop a forceful conclusion. a. Use a challenge in the convincing speech to stimulate thought or ask
listeners to change their minds. b. Use the challenge in combination with most types of conclusions. c. Avoid summary conclusions in convincing speeches.
Methods of Organizing Persuasive Speeches 317
SAMPLE SPEECH: Computer-Enhanced Advertising Should Be Clearly Labeled
Anna D’Archangelis, a speech communication student, was concerned about computer- enhanced advertising that affected the image of women (and men) in the media. Through her research, she discovered that computer-altered photos and ads portrayed women as unrealistically perfect and even dangerously thin. To underscore her persuasive view- point, Anna assembled an impressive collection of PowerPoint slides that reinforced her conclusions and maintained the interest of her listeners. As you read this engaging and conversational speech to convince, notice how Anna draws the audience into the topic and uses Aristotle’s three means of persuasion to influence listeners to accept her proposition. Convincing speeches can be organized by using a reasons, problem-solution, or comparative advantages sequence. This speech is arranged according to the reasons organizational sequence.
PERSUASIVE SPEECH TO CONVINCE Anna D’Archangelis
1. When you look at any women’s magazine or picture, what do you normally see? (slide 1) You see beautiful women with clear, flawless skin, great hair, (slide 2) trim waists, per- fect makeup, and cool clothes, right? (slide 3) Many women see these models as idols, or what Don Oldenburg in a June 1998 article in the Washington Post likes to call, “the ideal of feminine attractiveness.” In all reality, yes, these are real women posing in front of the cameras, but also computer-generated and airbrushed before being put on the cover. Let me show you a couple examples. (slide 4) Here is a photo of a thirteen- year-old girl. She’s a good-looking teenager, right? OK, she has a few wild strands of hair, some facial blemishes, and uneven eyebrows, but so what. But wait. Let’s make some improvements. We’ll give her rosy cheeks, a better hair day, some whitened teeth, and even up the eyebrows a little. We’ll even take the lines out of her face—and ta da! There she is on the right. We’ve just digitally altered her appearance. Here’s another. (slide 5) The same girl on the left looks good, but let’s make her taller, slim- mer, and less real, like the girl on the right. There you go! You saw it. Computer magic!
2. Computer-generated or airbrushed pictures and ads should legally be labeled as such because they misrepresent the product, portray women unrealistically, and induce unhealthy behaviors.
8. Build an effective delivery. a. Maintain eye contact with listeners when conveying emotional
examples. b. Report statistics accurately without stumbling. c. Use gestures to emphasize arguments and facial expressions to express
emotion. d. Express feelings through enthusiasm, verbal emphasis, and vocal
inflections. e. Practice the speech in order to project confidence in the topic.
1. In her introduction, the speaker uses a series of carefully crafted PowerPoint slides to demonstrate the differences between the natural flaws of posed models and the more “perfect” images created through computer enhancement.
2. The speaker states the proposition of policy, followed by her three reasons.
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SLIDE 1 SLIDE 2 SLIDE 3
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3. The misrepresentation of products is seen all over the place. A lot of times these pic- tures show thin, sexy women endorsing their products, putting into women’s minds that if you buy their products, you too will be happy, beautiful—just like them. The advertisers will tell you that their ads are intended to help women focus on exterior problems and offer products in slick, glossy images to reduce weight, become more physically beautiful, and look more fashionable. But former model Jane Kilbourne writes in her book titled Deadly Persuasion: Why Women and Girls Must Fight the Addictive Power of Advertising that “the problem with advertising isn’t that it creates artificial longings and needs, but it exploits our very real and human desires.” Kilbourne says that while these ads appear to focus on exterior problems, “the pro- ducts themselves claim to satisfy internal needs for connection, self-worth, and love.” A lot of times these ads show very happy, beautiful people, but they are really just giving you a substitute for something you are not getting anywhere else.
4. Not only women are affected by these ads, but men too. (slide 6) As you can see, this guy—he looks charming, handsome, cool, right? Any guy wants to be like that. (slide 7) Same thing with these guys. Who knows? Do their bodies really look like that? I don’t think so. Airbrushed and computer-generated images are used to sell anything from perfume (slide 8), to hip clothes (slide 9), underwear (slide 10), and even alcohol (slide 11). Just looking around the room, what does this image say to you? Women and men are influenced all the time during the course of the day. Kilbourne points out again that an average American is exposed to 3,000 marketing messages every day without even realizing it.
5. If there is anything that misrepresentation can do, it makes us perceive women unrealistically.
6. (slide 12) Just take a look at this cover featuring Gwen Stefani. How skinny can she possibly get? Seeing these pictures of unrealistic women is kind of the same as the Barbie doll rumor we’ve all heard, right? Wait a minute—you don’t know? OK. Let me tell you. Barbie’s breasts are so big and her legs are so long that if indeed she could possibly stand up, she would immediately fall over forward and have to walk on all fours. Anyway, Jane Brody, from a November 19th, 2002, article in the New York Times, states that “photographic editing, soft-focus photography techniques and airbrushing have blurred the line between fantasy and reality, making ideals seem more attainable and to me, way too unrealistic to ask of any woman.” Many women strive to be what they see on these magazine covers—to conform to an ideal, slender body, to have definition, and bigger breasts. A study reported in the Washington Post (previously mentioned) has shown that about 80 percent of American women are dissatisfied with their bodies and when they fail, they suffer unhappiness and disap- pointment. Many people who used to be considered healthy are now considered over- weight, whereas many years ago being full-bodied, maybe a little overweight, was considered attractive. It showed fertility. It showed wealth. What does it show now? It shows that you eat too much, right? The Washington Post article says that the Federal government’s new guidelines have been lowered for the body mass index or what we like to call BMI and separates normal weight from overweight. Patricia Owens, a professor of psychology at St. Mary’s University in San Antonio, found in a case study called “Weight and Shape Ideals” that almost half of the Playboy center- folds and a little more than a third of the Internet models met malnutrition criteria for being severely underweight. As we all know, we see Playboy models as being
3. The speaker begins reason 1 by stating the opposing argument offered by advertisers. She then uses quotations from a verifiable primary source—a book written by a former model—for the rebuttal argument.
4. As in the introduction, Anna appeals to men in the audience by using examples showing slides of male models in addition to the slides showing “ideal” women.
The speaker uses a statis- tic as support for her reason.
5. The external transition clearly ends reason 1 and begins reason 2.
6. Throughout the speech, Anna uses arguments of enumeration to support her reasons. Here, she uses a humorous analogy to show how unrealistic computer advertising can be.
Next, she cites a quotation from a credible source.
The speaker also cites a statistic from the Post.
The speaker continues by reporting a study from a psychology professor.
Interesting statistics are cited about the BMI that were reported in the Post.
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SLIDE 7 SLIDE 8
SLIDE 9 SLIDE 10
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sleek and sexy but not really knowing that most of them are underweight. A person’s BMI should fit together with their height and their weight. At a height 5 6-½ , a one-hundred-pound model scores a BMI of 15.6. This is twenty-eight pounds under the weight criteria needed to score on a healthy guideline. A healthy range would be anywhere between 20 to 25. Many women strive to be these ideal weights not knowing that these women are unrealistic and under a healthy weight range.
7. Now seeing how magazines and advertisers have represented women unrealistically, you can only imagine the unhealthy behaviors that are induced from these images.
8. Did you know that because of our media today an estimated 3 percent of young American women suffer from eating disorders? The New York Times reported a sur- vey from the National Institutes of Mental Health that says this percentage may be five or six times as high among college women my age. This is what I look at every day. It was also reported that there is a growing dissatisfaction with appearance which is directly linked to the parade of thin bodies in movies and sitcoms. But we all know that these magazines like to keep us depressed and keep our self-esteem nice and low. How else would they keep selling their magazines? Many women are obsessed with their bodies. They love reading fifty-three ways to a brighter smile or how to lose those saddlebags and keep them off. Patricia Owen says that “if these models were exemplars of ideal beauty, then the measure for women is that to be beautiful, starvation-level fitness is required.” A lot of these beautiful images cause self-loathing among women. They think, “I’m not thin enough, my boobs aren’t big enough.” This thinking sometimes brings on eating disorders and plastic surgery— all this to get out of their poor body image. Previously, I mentioned a book written by former model Jean Kilbourne. Well, she writes not only from her modeling expe- rience but also because she was once addicted to drugs and alcohol. Unfortunately, Jane Brody of the New York Times says in a 2002 article that “the poor body image is more likely to lack in self-esteem”—true—“confidence”—true again—“which in turn can impede social, academic, and vocational pursuits.” You can see that many women obsess over their bodies day after day and become malnourished and only worry about what they look like on the outside and constantly judge one another.
9. On advertisements and catalogs that have sleek, sexy models, does there need to be a warning that says: “Health hazard: models appear thinner than physically advis- able?” Maybe then women would take into account their own health. Making a label on advertisements and pictures that are computer-generated or airbrushed would be an effective way to help women realize that we don’t have to live in a fan- tasy world. As Dr. James Claiborn, a psychologist in Manchester, New Hampshire, and Cherry Pedrick, a registered nurse, once wrote in their book on body image disorders: “It’s time to accept and embrace the many variations of our bodies rather than strive to conform to unrealistic ideals determined by the cosmetic, fashion, and diet industries. We are more valuable than our outer packaging.”
Summary Persuasive speakers influence audiences by altering beliefs, reinforcing feelings, or generating action. Speakers phrase persuasive topics into arguable propositions of fact, value, or policy. To persuade an audience, a speaker must construct ethical appeals to build trust
7. The external transition connects reasons 2 and 3.
8. The speaker cites a survey from the New York Times.
Anna uses an appeal to relate the topic to her college audience and to herself.
She uses a quote as supporting material.
Anna uses an effective example about self- destructive behavior by the author and former model mentioned previously.
Notice the conversational delivery Anna uses to state the Brody quote from the New York Times.
9. The speaker begins her conclusion by paraphrasing her proposition.
At the end, Anna uses a quotation from a reputable psychologist and a nurse to challenge listeners to accept her point of view.
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and confidence; emotional appeals to deepen feeling; and logical arguments based upon correct facts, complete evidence, and accurate reasoning. At the same time, a speaker must avoid unethical practices, extreme emotionalism, and fallacious reasoning.
Persuasive speeches can be structured according to reasons, problem-solution, compara- tive advantages, and the motivated sequence.20
Skill Builders 1. Choose two controversial topics for a persuasive convincing speech. Investigate
your library databases to gather credible resources to find appropriate examples, quotations, and statistics to support your topic. Write propositions and thesis statements for each topic following the guidelines presented in this chapter.
2. Using your library databases, find a persuasive speech from current events or from history that demonstrates Aristotle’s three means of persuasion. As you read the speech, write down the appeals to ethos, pathos, and logos. Be specific with your examples from the speech and present your findings to your class.
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter Sixteen, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www. cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
Methods of Organizing Persuasive Speeches 323
CHAPTER
17 SPEAKING TO PERSUADE: MOTIVATING AUDIENCES
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Develop strategies for motivating listeners
2 Describe the motivated sequence
3 Analyze a persuasive actuating speech
4 Develop and outline a persuasive actuating speech using the motivated sequence
If you remember any of the following wacky advertise- ments, you are one of more than 90 million people who watch about fifty TV commercials during the Super Bowl.
• A Dalmatian becomes a personal trainer for a horse who wants to be a famous Clydesdale pulling the Budweiser wagon.
• A giant Dorito rat attacks a man eating a potato chip.
• A store security camera reveals a Coke delivery man trying to steal a Pepsi from a cooler while background music plays “Your Cheatin’ Heart.”
• A husky tow truck driver gulps down an energy drink and connects jumper cables to his nipples to charge a car battery.
• A talkative baby ends a monologue about making investments and trading stocks by throwing up.
Although these ads are funny and entertaining, the business behind them is very serious. In 2010 alone, advertisers paid $324,000 per second or between $2.5 and $2.8 million for a half-minute of TV time to promote their products during the Super
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Bowl. Over the past two decades, Anheuser-Busch has spent $275 million on Super Bowl ad time and Pepsi has bought $193 million. Why? Because these companies know that good advertisements are successful selling their products to a huge captive audience.1 A Super Bowl ad is one type of a motivational presentation, similar to a persuasive actuating speech. If someone asks you to buy a product, donate to a cause, or volunteer in your community you are listening to a persuasive speech to actuate.
This chapter helps you understand how people are moved to action. We will consider strategies for motivating audiences, Monroe’s motivated sequence, and guidelines for constructing the persuasive actuating speech.
Strategies for Motivating Listeners
As a persuasive speaker, you can influence listeners to believe in your message, feel more deeply about an issue, or act upon a proposal. It is difficult to be effective, however, unless you find specific ways of motivating your audience. Here we examine several strat- egies: appealing to needs, appealing to beliefs and values, providing incentives, and involving emotions.
Appeal to the Needs of the Audience In Chapter Four we considered some of the basic needs that all human beings have in common, and we looked briefly at how one psychologist, Abraham H. Maslow, organized these drives into five levels called a hierarchy of needs. If you connect your topic to one or two of these strong drives, your persuasive speech will have more impact upon listeners. For example, if you wanted to persuade your audience to plant trees to improve the environment, you could conceivably develop persuasive appeals for each level of Maslow’s hierarchy. Here are some examples:
Physical
Trees remove the carbon dioxide from our air and give us oxygen. One acre of trees can keep fifteen people breathing for one year. Unfortunately, we are losing this valuable resource at the rate of 3,000 acres per hour.
Safety and Security
Trees keep us warm in the winter, and they cool us with their shade in summer. Trees hold large amounts of soil that help to control erosion and filter out nitrogen and phosphorous contained in runoff. When trees are cut down, a chain reaction is started that not only harms the ecology but affects us as well. When too much nitrogen and phosphorous enter the water system, algae grows and shades aquatic grasses, which are nurseries for fish. When aquatic grasses are shaded they die, and there is no food for fish. When the fish die, our food supply is depleted, the fishing industry is affected, and the economy is damaged.
Love
Trees provide wildlife with habitat, from the tiniest little microorganism to the largest elk. Trees are the oldest living things: there’s a bristlecone pine tree in California that is more than 4,600 years old.
Key Terms action step attention step hierarchy of needs long-term incentives Monroe, Alan motivated sequence need step satisfaction step short-term incentives visualization step
Strategies for Motivating Listeners 325
Esteem
The governor has officially declared this month to be “Tree-mendous” month. So why don’t we all pitch in and help plant a tree to make our community better? If you plant a tree, you can return this application to the agricultural department, and you will receive a certificate identifying you as a “Tree-mendous Marylander.”
Self-Actualization
Teddy Roosevelt established the national park system in order to preserve the beauty and wonders of nature for future generations. Today, there are over 200 million acres of forests in these national parks for all of us to enjoy.
The speaker reminds listeners that trees provide the oxygen necessary for physical survival. She also describes how the lack of trees can lead to a chain reaction that is harmful to the safety and economic security of the audience. Next the speaker uses the elk and the bristlecone pine to appeal to her listeners’ love of wildlife and respect for antiquity. She introduces esteem by referring to the governor’s program and awarding certificates to those who plant trees. In a final appeal to self-actualization, the speaker asks listeners to “enjoy” and “preserve” the wonder and beauty of these forests.2
Many persuasive topics cannot be linked so comprehensively to audience needs. You can be successful if you select one or two levels of Maslow’s hierarchy and develop strong persuasive appeals that connect the topic to your listeners’ needs.
Appeal to Listeners’ Beliefs and Values As you develop motivational appeals, it is important that you understand the specific beliefs and values of your audience. What beliefs do listeners have in common? What goals are important to audience members? What characteristics or qualities do
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your listeners most admire? You can influence listeners by explaining how your proposal is in harmony with their beliefs and value systems.
As the introduction indicates, some of the most common examples of appeals to values and beliefs are found in media advertising campaigns. An ad showing a smiling sun, a damp cloud, and a colorless rainbow markets ready-made Jimmy Dean breakfasts to families in a hurry. General Motors used a religious appeal—“What would Jesus drive?”—to sell Chevys in its ad campaign against SUVs. And a previous Super Bowl ad for CareerBuilder.com, a web-based employment site targeting job seekers, pictured an unsuccessful man working in a dead-end job and surrounded with chimpanzee workers—one of which literally kissed the rear of the chimpanzee boss.3
Appeals to beliefs and values can also be successful in a negative sense. The R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company created a magazine ad picturing a hip cartoon charac- ter named Joe Camel enjoying a cigarette. The ad attracted the attention of numerous children, who are fascinated by cartoons and caricatures. Armed with studies from the Journal of the American Medical Association, health groups protested the ad campaign and accused Camel of devising strategies that persuaded children as young as twelve to smoke cigarettes.4 The tobacco company denied the allegations and continued the ad campaign using the Joe Camel character until a lawsuit filed by forty states forced tobacco companies to stop these types of cartoon and billboard ads.5
These strategies were effective because the advertisements connected products to the values of listeners. If you are interviewing for a job, you can sell yourself by linking your qualifications to the goals of your prospective employer. If you are presenting a classroom speech, you can relate many topics to the specific interests and values of your listeners. If you are required to promote your company’s products at a trade convention, you can look for creative ways of appealing to the beliefs and values of prospective customers. Remember that it is the speaker’s responsibility to analyze and understand the values of a specific audience in order to develop appeals that are successful.
Provide Listeners with Incentives When you are presenting a persuasive speech, you need to be aware that listeners will silently ask themselves how they will benefit from your proposals. An effective persuasive speaker clearly communicates the advantages of a proposal by providing long- and short- term incentives for the audience.
Long-term incentives are benefits that listeners gain over a period of time after agreeing to a speaker’s proposal. One speaker advocated a tax deduction for responsible pet owners. She provided statistics showing that county governments are spending signif- icant tax funds to maintain animal shelters for stray pets. The speaker provided two long-term incentives for those who agreed with her plan: (1) deductions would provide financial assistance to individuals who adopted stray animals; and (2) increased pet adoptions would save taxes by reducing the number of strays in animal shelters.6
Another speaker who urged listeners to research their family genealogy identified these specific incentives: (1) researching family history can help individuals discover genetic illness; (2) understanding genealogy can encourage people to alter previous family life- styles and prolong life; and (3) understanding our heritage can lead to actions that improve the health of future generations in families.7
In these examples, speakers explained that listeners would benefit by saving money or improving their health. If audience members are told that a proposal will help them to look or feel better, protect their families, save money, improve their safety, be wiser consumers, or live more successfully, they will see the long-term advantages of supporting the plan.
Strategies for Motivating Listeners 327
Speakers can also include short-term incentives to motivate listeners and provide immediate reinforcement of ideas. A speaker who advocated courteous driving practices handed out buttons with the slogan “Please be patient: God isn’t finished with me yet.”8
Another student who suggested that listeners improve their nutrition passed out carrot sticks at the end of a speech. A speaker who urged audience members to bring toys for tots at Christmas presented a carnation with a friendly reminder to each listener. Bumper stickers saying “I brake for animals” were given out to support a speech on animal rights. Speakers have used pamphlets, seeds, T-shirts, pens, sugarless cookies, refrigerator magnets, and pins as short-term incentives to reinforce messages. Remember that these items should not detract from the speech and should be handled in a manner that enhances the presentation.
Present listeners with long- and short-term incentives. Let members of your audi- ence know how their lives will be improved by agreeing to your proposal, and provide immediate incentives to encourage them.
Involve the Audience Emotionally A persuasive speaker cannot be completely successful unless listeners experience an emotional connection to the topic. Speakers make these connections by using colorful language, stirring examples, and an expressive delivery.
Pat Masimore, a speaker of Native American descent, believed that professional teams should not adopt Indian names because the practice is insulting and disrespectful. She described how sports fans who wear costumes made from chicken feathers unknow- ingly ridicule the Native American ceremonial headdress of eagle feathers. She used this quotation from an editorial in Sports Illustrated9 to express her strong emotional feelings about Indians:
An anthropologist was studying Indians in the mid-1800s when he came across an old, old tribal chief. He asked the chief what America was called before the white man came. The old Indian looked at him and said, “Ours.”
The speaker used vocal emphasis and a dramatic pause to stress the emotion in the line containing the Indian’s response. Audience members got the message.
Another speaker conveyed sympathy for the homeless by asking listeners to hold small plastic bags filled with ice cubes during a portion of a speech. When audience members became uncomfortable with the subfreezing temperatures, Becky Meyers asked listeners to briefly express how they felt. One listener commented, “My fingers were so numb that I could hardly concentrate on what you were saying.” Another observed, “If I had difficulty holding ice cubes for 2 minutes, imagine how a homeless person feels, existing in these temperatures for an entire winter.” Becky had succeeded in using emo- tion to link the audience members to her topic.10
Ashley Pettis wanted listeners to volunteer for Movable Feast, an organization that distributes one meal a day to AIDS sufferers. At one point in the presentation, the speaker played a videotape of her interview with a patient who had benefited from the program. In simple but emotional words, the AIDS victim appealed to Ashley’s audi- ence: “I don’t know what to say, but I know it’s a great organization, and I certainly couldn’t have done without it. I didn’t realize it existed until I needed it. They’re beautiful people.”11
These speakers understood the importance of relating their topics to the emotions of audience members. Similarly, you can employ emotional examples, vivid language, and expression in your persuasive speeches. Recognize that listeners will be more likely to accept your ideas if you touch their emotions.12
328 Chapter 17 • Speaking to Persuade: Motivating Audiences
The Speech to Actuate
The persuasive speech to actuate is an excellent presentation to build if you want to motivate listeners to perform a specific action. This speech often incorporates an organi- zational method known as the motivated sequence, which was developed by Alan Monroe, a professor of speech at Purdue University in the 1930s. Monroe used this method successfully to train sales personnel by combining problem-solution techniques with motivational approaches.13 The motivated sequence consists of five steps: atten- tion, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.
Attention Step The attention step is the introductory phase of the speech that arouses the curiosity and stimulates the interest of the listener. Any of the types of introductions we discussed in Chapter Eleven (including shocking statement, quotation, and narrative) would be appropriate techniques to get the attention of your audience in a speech to actuate.
Need Step Next, in the need step, a speaker must persuade the audience that there is a need or problem that remains unsolved. Issues such as “Our oceans and beaches are being polluted,” “We must become less dependent on oil imports,” or “The government should not provide billions to bail out the auto industry” can be appropriate choices for actuat- ing speeches. When identifying a problem, you can use statistics, testimony, and exam- ples to persuade the audience that there is a real problem and that the problem affects them. For example, if you show pictures of polluted beaches and cite instances of ocean dumping, you are providing supporting evidence for the problem. If you tell your audience about unpleasant vacations at the ocean, where hospital waste has washed ashore, your listeners will begin to see that the problem affects them directly.
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Satisfaction Step After identifying and developing the problem, you must provide a solution, or satisfaction step. It is helpful if you have evidence to indicate that the solution has worked in similar situations and that a number of authorities and experts have supported it. If you advocate that “the United States must allocate more resources to combat terrorism in subway, bus, and railway systems,” you need to supply statistics, testimonies, and/or examples to persuade the audience that this solution is sensible and workable.
Visualization Step In the visualization step, you must use vivid words and examples to help your audi- ence form a mental picture of what will happen in the future if they adopt your proposed solution—and the negative results if they do not. A speaker tells the audi- ence, “We can continue to watch gas prices increase from $3.00 to $5.00 per gallon or we can support a new energy bill in Congress that explores alternative methods of producing energy and reduces our dependence on foreign oil.” Although this state- ment must be supported with specific evidence, it is an effective visualization because it portrays both positive and negative results. Visualization is a crucial step in the actuating speech: audience members learn how supporting the solution will benefit their future.
Action Step The action step is the who, what, when, where, why, and how of the motivated sequence. The speaker tells audience members exactly what they are to do if they support the solution. The action should be as specific as possible—“Give blood next Wednesday,” “Register to vote,” “Join a health club”—so that listeners can take an active part. The action step is placed near or in the conclusion and can be combined with an appeal, personal testimony, or experience. If your action is clear and specific, your audience will be able to demonstrate their agreement with your solution by performing the action you advocate.
Phrasing the Thesis In a persuasive actuating speech that uses the motivated sequence, a speaker should develop a thesis that briefly summarizes the three steps in the body of the speech. The thesis should not include the action step, because the speaker wants the audience to listen to all aspects of the need, satisfaction, and visualization of a topic before asking them to perform a specific activity. The action is best stated near or in the conclusion of the speech.
When phrasing the thesis, you can follow or paraphrase a simple template that includes the need, satisfaction, and visualization steps. For example:
Actuating thesis template: is a problem that must be solved by in order to .
Here is how the template can be applied to an actuating topic:
Specific purpose: To actuate the audience to donate cans of food for the homeless Thesis statement: The lack of food for the homeless is a problem that must be
solved by our participation in order to restore hope to deserving Americans.
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BODY
Need step III. Lack of food for the homeless Satisfaction step III. How we can participate Visualization step III. Restoring hope
In this thesis, “the lack of food for the homeless” represents the need step, or numeral I of the body; “our participation” presents the satisfaction step, or numeral II; and “restore hope to deserving Americans” covers the visualization step in numeral III. Although the specific purpose clearly indicates what action the speaker wishes the audi- ence to perform, the specific purpose is not stated in the introduction, and the action is not included in the thesis statement.
Applying the Motivated Sequence
In this section we consider some examples from a speech that applies the motivated sequence to persuade and actuate the audience. We also examine how to incorporate the five steps of the motivated sequence into your speech outline.
Here are five excerpts from a speech to actuate—“Feeding the Hungry Here at Home,” by Kara Jenkins.14 Notice how the speaker develops each phase of the moti- vated sequence to reach her ultimate goal of action.
Specific purpose: To actuate the audience to bring cans of food for the hungry Thesis statement: The lack of food for the homeless is a problem that must be
solved by our participation in order to restore hope to deserving Americans.
Attention Step In her introduction, Kara gets attention by combining her personal testimony with a series of brief examples. She uses repetition of the words “A place where I saw” for emphasis and dramatic effect:
Not long ago, my older brother took me to a place that I will never forget. A place where I saw people who were homeless and poor and hungry. A place where I saw old women who carried trash bags with everything they owned in them. A place where a man begged me for one more piece of bread. A place where I saw a mother sit down with her four tiny children. This place is not on TV or in the movies—this place is not in Ethiopia. This place is Our Daily Bread—a soup kitchen right here in Baltimore.
The examples were short but powerful. Kara conveyed strong emotion as she related her personal testimony. The “I was there” approach achieved the purpose of the intro- duction and aroused the attention of her audience.
Need Step Kara uses testimony from two experts and her own observation to develop the problem:
I talked to Mrs. Johnson, a food coordinator for Social Services, and she told me that there are about thirty-one soup kitchens in Baltimore. I also talked to one of the workers at the soup kitchen, Raleigh Lemon, who said that anywhere from 350 to 500 people eat at Our Daily Bread in one day. The center is run by Catholic Charities and serves one meal between 11:00 A.M. and 1:00 P.M. Since this center is
Applying the Motivated Sequence 331
a private, nonprofit organization, it depends on volunteers and donations to keep it running. I remember when I was there they were having a shortage of rye bread, so we could only give one slice to each person. I remember one very shy old man whispering to me, “Please Hon, could you just get me one more slice of bread?” More food is needed so people don’t have to beg for another slice of bread. We need to develop some solutions to this problem.
The speaker used statistics as a logical appeal to help listeners understand how many people must be fed at the soup kitchen every day. She then quoted the old man to appeal to each listener’s emotions and to convey the human dimension of the problem. Kara’s use of logic and emotion was successful; listeners were deeply touched as they heard about the tragic consequences of hunger in their city.
Satisfaction Step The speaker tells the audience what other people are doing to help the homeless. The variety of solutions allows the audience to choose their degree of commitment to the issue:
Let me tell you what others are doing to help. Sue Thompson, an assistant director of Our Daily Bread, said that business groups sponsor breakfasts on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday mornings. Church groups, private organizations, and con- cerned individuals sponsor one main meal a month for the 350 to 500 hungry peo- ple. If that is too much for a small organization, they can sponsor just the juice, salad, or dessert portion of the meal. There are also many volunteers who donate their time to serve the food and help with the cleanup afterwards. And some who can’t donate a meal or their time donate canned goods, clothes, socks, or tooth- paste—anything that a homeless person could use. So while we may not be able to take 500 people into our own warm homes, the least that we can do is make sure that these people have some nourishing food.
Even though she lists a variety of solutions, notice that the speaker’s easiest alterna- tive—“some who can’t donate their time can donate canned goods”—is the last in the list. It is this solution that will be the requested action. Notice that the testimony from the assistant director provides valid evidence that businesses, churches, and “concerned individuals” are an important part of the solution.
Visualization Step The speaker provides both negative and positive visualization. She tells the audience what will happen if we “just sit back and do nothing,” and she explains how adopting her solution will answer the immediate need.
We’ve all driven past a bum or a bag lady, and most of us feel sorry for them and wish that we could do something. Today, I’m giving you all a chance to make a difference in their lives. We can just sit back and do nothing and that bag lady will miss another meal, and those children I mentioned earlier won’t get a second helping to fill their stomachs. Or we can provide more food so that all of these people can have nourishing and fulfilling meals. We can tell our friends, relatives, and neighbors about the ongoing need for food and keep providing these lifesav- ing meals.
Notice how skillfully Kara connects the solution to her listeners’ motivation or wish to help the hungry. Also notice the effective use of language (“filling their
332 Chapter 17 • Speaking to Persuade: Motivating Audiences
stomachs” and “fulfilling meals”) to visualize the results of supporting or of not support- ing the solution.
Action Step In the conclusion, the speaker requests a clear, direct, easy-to-follow action:
I hope that you all care about this problem and really want to help. I’m not going to ask for a big portion of your time or your money. All I want you to do is to reach into your pantry and pull out a couple cans of corn or green beans and bring them to class on Tuesday, May 17th, and I will take them down to Our Daily Bread. Remember when your mother said, “Eat all your food—there are starving people in Ethiopia?” I think she forgot that we don’t need to go as far as Ethiopia—there are people starving right here in Baltimore. I know that the people who eat your canned food may not know your name or who you are, but they will know that there is a light at the end of the tunnel—there is someone out there who cares. Please, won’t you take a few minutes of your time and be that light for these people?
In one brief sentence, the speaker has told audience members the what, where, and when of the action step: “Bring cans to class Tuesday, May 17th.” She has also taken the familiar motherly admonition of “Eat your food because of the starving in Ethiopia” and related it to the solution and action she advocates. Kara ends the speech with an earnest appeal to “take a few minutes of your time.”
Building the Persuasive Actuating Speech>>> We’ve considered several strategies for motivating audiences and examined the organization of the speech to actuate. Here is a list of guidelines to help you build this important persuasive message.
1. Choose a topic requiring audience commitment. a. Examine your attitudes and the opinions of others. b. Explore topics from current events. c. Avoid overworked issues. d. Provide new insights into familiar topics. e. Choose a topic that allows listeners to perform a specific action. f. Be certain the topic is appropriate.
2. Conduct extensive research. a. Examine library sources for testimonies, statistics, and examples. b. Interview experts on the topic. c. Research specialized institutions and organizations. d. Be certain that sources are accurate and up-to-date. e. Select audiovisual aids for variety. f. Be willing to change or modify the topic if evidence does not support
your viewpoint. 3. Phrase a clear, specific purpose and thesis.
a. The specific purpose contains the specified action but is not stated in the introduction.
Applying the Motivated Sequence 333
b. The thesis includes the need, satisfaction, and visualization steps of the body and is stated at the end of the introduction.
c. Avoid including the action in the thesis statement. 4. Analyze the audience.
a. Make the audience central to speech development. b. Determine prior attitudes about a topic through interviews, surveys,
or questionnaires. c. Develop persuasive appeals linking your topic to audience interests
and motivations. d. Plan alternative strategies if the audience resists solutions or suggested
actions. 5. Develop sound arguments and coherent organization.
a. Present well-defined claims supported by good evidence and sound reasoning. (1) Use evidence in the context of its intended meaning. (2) Include materials that are relevant and up-to-date.
b. Avoid subjective phrases such as “I think” or “in my opinion.” c. Identify research sources to build credibility. d. Avoid unethical practices. e. Use a balance of logic and emotion. f. Be able to apply the five steps of the motivated sequence. g. Use external transitions to emphasize major arguments.
6. Construct a sophisticated introduction. a. Employ a creative strategy for gaining audience attention. b. State a clear thesis at the end of the introduction.
(1) Avoid stating the specific purpose containing the specified action.
(2) Avoid opinionated statements such as “I’m going to actuate” or “prove,” thus alienating the audience.
(3) State the thesis in a straightforward manner, creating receptiveness among listeners.
7. Develop a forceful conclusion. a. Employ an appeal in the actuating speech to seek a specific
commitment from the audience. (1) State the action clearly. (2) Provide listeners with all necessary details of the action.
b. Use the appeal in combination with most types of conclusions. c. Avoid summary conclusions in actuating speeches.
8. Build an effective delivery. a. Maintain eye contact with listeners when conveying emotional
examples. b. Report statistics accurately without stumbling. c. Use gestures to emphasize arguments and facial expressions to convey
emotion. d. Express feelings through enthusiasm, verbal emphasis, and vocal
inflections. e. Practice the speech in order to project confidence in the topic.
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Outlining the Motivated Sequence It is easy to incorporate the motivated sequence into the traditional speech outline. This brief outline of the following speech, “Genocide in Sudan,” can help you structure the introduction, body, and conclusion of the speech to actuate.
Specific purpose: To actuate the audience to sign a letter requesting Congress to pass legislation that stops the killings in Sudan
Thesis statement: The genocide in Sudan is not only a crime against the citizens in Darfur but also a crime against humanity that is in desperate need of international intervention in order to prevent a greater number of atrocities from occurring.
INTRODUCTION
Attention Step I. “During the last hour we have been sitting in this classroom, more than thirteen people have died in Sudan.”
II. Startling statistics and examples followed by shocking PowerPoint photos showing atrocities.
BODY
Need Step I. Genocide is occurring in Sudan. A. Janjaweed (devils on horseback) kills women, men, elderly, infants, children. B. Over 180,000 are dead and climbing. C. Two million are short of food and water. D. World fails to classify atrocities as “genocide.”
Satisfaction Step II. Failed attempts made to stop genocide.
A. African Union only monitors and reports killings. B. International Criminal Court could help but U.S. fails to join. C. U.N. resolutions blocked by some countries supporting Sudanese government for
selfish reasons. D. Talks of travel bans, asset freezes, oil embargoes produce little action.
Visualization Step III. Further atrocities will occur if problem is not stopped.
A. Darfur could become worse than Rwanda, where 800,000 were slaughtered. B. Holocaust similar to Nazi crimes could occur.
CONCLUSION
Action Step I. “Today is Holocaust Remembrance Day and I ask that you take just a moment to consider what happened seventy years ago and take into account what is happening now and try to pull together to do something.”
II. An appeal A. Educate the public. B. Call killings in Darfur “genocide.” C. Sign letter addressed to members of Congress. D. Think about it.
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SAMPLE SPEECH: Genocide in Sudan Omolola Otukoya is a Nigerian American who is deeply concerned about the atrocities in Sudan and the indifference of the world community to the catastrophe. In her speech she used graphic visual examples, compelling statistics, and powerful quotations to persuade the audience that the problem needed immediate solution. As you read this effective persuasive speech, notice how the speaker blends forceful motivational appeals throughout the motivated sequence to move her listeners to action.15 Because the photos are very graphic in nature, they are not included with this text of the speech. If you wish to view the images, you can access the article—Kristof, Nicholas D. “The Secret Genocide Archive,” New York Times, 23 Feb 2005: A19—through most library databases.
A PERSUASIVE SPEECH TO ACTUATE Omolola Otukoya
1. During the last hour we have been sitting in this classroom, more than thirteen people have died in Sudan. (slide 1) By the time this day is over, 330 more people will have been senselessly murdered or raped in the name of racial cleansing. (slide 2) These are the victims of our indifference. The picture in the upper left is of a little boy. The picture does not show his five-year-old older brother who lay beside him because his face was so badly beaten that he was not recognizable. The picture also fails to show the corpse of his mother who had been shot and lay beside both of the boys. The picture at the upper-right corner shows a man who has obviously been shot and who could not make it out of the village when raiding Arab militiamen known as janjaweed terrorized their village. The picture at the lower left-hand corner shows the corpse of a man who fled barefoot and was unable to leave when the raiding militiamen entered the village. The picture in the lower- right corner shows a corpse that is still bound at the wrist. The pants are pulled down so that the militiamen could sexually abuse the victim before death. If it was a man, they would castrate him. If it was a woman, she was probably raped several different times by several men before she was shot and killed. These sickening images from a February 2005 issue of the New York Times are dramatic evidence that we are living in a time of a holocaust and we are witnessing what our grand- parents and great-grandparents witnessed sixty and seventy years ago during the Holocaust in Europe.
2. The genocide in Sudan is not only a crime against the citizens in Darfur but also a crime against humanity that is in desperate need of international intervention in order to prevent a greater number of atrocities from occurring.
3. (slide 3) This picture here is the country of Sudan and this is Darfur, the region of Sudan where the social repercussions are occurring. According to an article in an October 2004 issue of Time magazine, the genocide began in 2003. The most recent attacks have involved raping and murder. Men, women, children, and the elderly are targets. The raiding militiamen are known as “janjaweed,” which means devils on horseback. They come into the villages. They take the water supply. They kill infants and children, 3, 4, and 5 years old, as well as middle-aged and elderly women.
1. In her introduction, Omolola gets the attention of her audience through startling statistics and shocking photographs of the atrocities in Sudan.
The speaker verifies the credibility of her visual aids.
2. Omolola presents the thesis statement that includes the need, satisfaction, and visualization steps of the motivated sequence. Notice that the action is not stated in the thesis.
3. In numeral I, the need or problem is clearly developed by using a map of Sudan, a definition, statistics, and a quotation.
Notice that the supporting materials are well documented with verifiable research.
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An April 13, 2005, issue of the Christian Science Monitor says that the death and poverty rate is now numbered at over 180,000 dead and climbing. Two million are short of food and water and refugees have left and entered bordering countries like [points to map of Sudan] Chad, Eritrea here, and also this portion of Ethiopia. According to a March 2005 article in the New York Times entitled “The American Witness,” U.N. Undersecretary for Humanitarian Affairs Jan Egeland commented on the global inaction by stating, “The world is failing Darfur. We’re only playing the humanitarian card, and we’re just witnessing the massacres.”
4. A major problem is the world community’s apprehension in calling the atrocities in Sudan “genocide.” By labeling the problem as genocide, we give it power and recog- nize that there is a widespread problem occurring. In 1948 the U.S. among other countries signed a genocide treaty that was created by a man who left Poland during the Nazi invasion. The genocide treaty commits all signers to intervene at any time there is genocide occurring in the world. By not officially recognizing the problem in Darfur as genocide, the United States does not have to intervene and neither do the other countries or the U.N.
5. It is clearly evident that the genocide in the Sudan is definitely a problem that needs to be solved immediately.
6. (slide 4) The world community has made attempts to halt the genocide in Sudan. There is a group called the African Union. The pros of the African Union are that international workers come together to oppose what is going on in Sudan. However, they are limited and can’t really fight against the militia in the Sudan— they can only monitor it. So they basically witness what is going on and they write reports about it and report it to local news media groups. Another problem with the African Union is that they are not fully equipped with the right amount of troops and they are also limited to weapons that can only protect themselves. They do, however, feed and clothe some of the refugees and fleeing persons in Darfur. The March 2005 New York Times article quoted former Marine captain Brian Steidle, who was one of three U.S. military advisors to the African Union’s monitoring team in Sudan. Captain Steidle said that “it was extremely frustrating seeing the vil- lages burn, hearing gunshots and not being able to do anything.”
7. There is also the International Criminal Court, otherwise known as the ICC. The ICC’s basic job is to pinpoint problems of genocide and widespread problems in other countries and prosecute leaders of these countries once these crimes have been committed. However, the United States refuses to join and follow the ICC because the Bush Administration feels that the ICC could prosecute American troops for wrongdoing in other countries.
8. There is also international aid seen in the Darfur region. You have the U.N. coming in and providing food. However, food is running low and there is not enough food because of a shortage of funds to support the supplies that are being sent to Darfur.
9. We also have other countries that are coming together and are supporting the government of Sudan for selfish reasons. Arab countries are sympathetic to Sudan, and Pakistan and China are deeply involved in Sudan’s oil industry. Mainly China, which gets 10 percent of its oil from Sudan, has invested heavily in Sudan’s oil industry. The article I cited in the Christian Science Monitor reports that China
4. Omolola describes the indifference of the world community, which resists classifying the atrocities as genocide under the 1948 Genocide Convention.
5. The speaker states a clear transition between the problem in numeral I and the solution in numeral II.
6. The speaker begins the satisfaction or solution step by describing the African Union and its inability to stop the killings. A quotation from an eyewitness reported in a credible source strengthens her argument.
7. Omolola presents another solution that is weakened and rejected by the United States.
8. She also describes the shortage of food supplies.
9. Omolola provides examples indicating how some nations are blocking attempts to stop the killings. Again, she cites a credible source.
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has consistently blocked U.N. sanctions against Sudan to gain more influence and tap into more of Sudan’s oil reserves.
10. There are talks of oil embargoes, travel bans, asset freezes; however, amidst these talks neither former Secretary of State Colin Powell nor U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan have done anything to arm the African Union or other troops within Sudan.
11. Furthermore, these steps have not been successful on a wide scale and if the problem in Sudan is not stopped immediately, further atrocities will occur.
12. (slide 5) President John F. Kennedy once said, “The hottest places in hell are reserved for those who in a moment of moral crisis maintain their neutrality.” So I ask you today, where do you stand? Right now if nothing is done in Sudan, there will be a higher death rate. According to an October 2004 article in Time magazine entitled “Tragedy in Sudan,” if something isn’t done now, Darfur could become worse than Rwanda where 800,000 people died as a result of genocide in 1994. Also, there’s not enough food right now being sent by U.N. workers and Christian groups to feed the refugees that have fled to Chad and other bordering countries.
13. If we do not do anything to stop what is going on, we could see a full-scale holocaust in Sudan. There are a lot of similarities between what is happening in Sudan today and what happened in Europe seventy years ago when Adolf Hitler took command and the Nazis took over Germany and invaded other countries. We are appeasing Sudan. By not going in and just giving them warnings we are doing nothing—just as we did with Adolf Hitler seventy years ago.
14. Today is Holocaust Remembrance Day and I ask that you take just a moment to consider what happened seventy years ago and take into account what is happening now and try to pull together to do something. (slide 6) First, we can educate the public. We must spread the message and tell people what is going on in Sudan. Then we can call what is happening in Sudan by its rightful name: genocide. Then we can act collectively and individually. On Tuesday at our next class period, I’m going to bring in a letter addressed to our two Maryland senators and our entire congressional delegation, urging them to pass legislation to end the genocide in Sudan. I ask that everyone sign this letter in the hopes of stopping what is going on. (slide 7) Finally, I want you to listen to this quote written by a well-known Protestant minister during the Holocaust: “First they came for the Communists, but I was not a Communist so I did not speak out. Then they came for the Jews, but I was not a Jew so I did not speak out. And when they came for me, there was no one left to speak out for me.” Think about it.
Summary A persuasive speaker must find ways of motivating audiences. Strategies of involving listeners include appealing to needs, values, and beliefs; providing incentives; and involving emotions.
The persuasive speech to actuate is an excellent motivational presentation. It is orga- nized using Monroe’s motivated sequence, which includes five steps: attention, need, satisfac- tion, visualization, and action.
11. A clear transition connects numeral II with numeral III—the visualization step.
12. The speaker cites a powerful quote from President Kennedy to begin numeral III.
Omolola paints a horrifying picture of the future and uses an analogy that compares the past genocide in Rwanda to the present atrocities in Sudan.
13. Omolola uses another analogy when comparing the Sudan with the Nazi-driven Holocaust.
14. The speaker begins her conclusion by relating her topic to the occasion of her speech.
Omolola describes a long- term action: call the killings genocide. Next she provides a short-term action: sign a letter in next Tuesday’s class, urging Congress to stop the killings in Sudan. Finally, she ends her conclusion with a powerful quotation symbolizing the indiffer- ence of the world to the Holocaust.
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Skill Builders 1. Find examples of an Internet, magazine, newspaper, and/or recorded TV
advertisement that uses questionable ethics. Develop a classroom presentation that describes the success of the ads, the targeted audience, and the unethical practices used. Support your ideas with visual aids showing the advertisements.
2. Review the speech in this chapter titled “Genocide in Sudan,” by Omolola Otukoya, and answer the following: a. Describe the effectiveness of the speaker’s persuasive message. b. Explain how closely the speaker follows the motivated sequence. c. Describe the appeals that the speaker uses to connect to the audience. d. Discuss the effectiveness of the action the speaker suggests. Are there other
actions that she might have suggested for her listeners to consider?
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter Seventeen, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www. cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
Applying the Motivated Sequence 339
CHAPTER
18 SPEAKING FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Identify twelve types of speeches for special occasions
2 Describe the purpose of each special-occasion speech
3 Develop speeches for special occasions
They stood in deadly silence as the honor guard filed into Cassell Coliseum on the campus of Virginia Tech. Two days before, on April 16, 2007, a mentally disturbed student burst into classrooms in Norris Hall and shot thirty students and faculty and wounded twenty-four others. Altogether, thirty-two people were murdered before the killer took his own life on the campus of Virginia Polytechnic Institute in Blacksburg, Virginia.
Dressed in orange and maroon, thousands of shocked students gathered with faculty and grieving families to mourn their heartbreaking loss.1 Attending the convocation were the President, Virginia’s governor, the University president, and poet Nikki Giovanni, who offered these consoling thoughts:
We are sad today, and we will be sad for quite a while.
We are not moving on, we are embracing our mourning.
We are Virginia Tech.
We are strong enough to stand tall tearlessly, we are brave enough to bend to cry, and we are sad enough to know that we must laugh again.
We are Virginia Tech….
“Prose on certain occasionscan bear a great dealof poetry.” —Walter Savage Lander
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Giovanni ended her poem with “We will prevail” and “We are the Hokies,” as the crowd jumped to its feet and chanted the team cheer, “Let’s go Hokies. Let’s go Hokies.” With these sad but stirring words, Ms. Giovanni illustrated one of the ways we honor those we have lost.2
The tribute is one of many speeches for special occasions that you may be called upon to deliver during your lifetime. In this chapter we will examine the tools that are necessary to build tributes, as well as speeches that are appropriate for a variety of other occasions.
Types of Special-Occasion Speeches
The Speech of Tribute Speeches of tribute recognize distinguished careers and contributions of either the living or the dead. The tribute may be a testimonial presented at a retirement or other going- away ceremony or a eulogy delivered at a memorial service or funeral. The speech of tribute seeks to stimulate and reinforce feelings people share about a person (or group) admired within a community. In this presentation, the speaker’s goals are to acquaint the audience with the individual’s life, remind listeners of the person’s significant contribu- tions and virtues, and leave people feeling positive and hopeful for the future.
Construct a Brief Biographical Sketch Clearly identify the individual who is the subject of your tribute. Conduct accurate research to collect interesting anecdotes and incidents amplifying the individual’s char- acter and personality. Present a biography or life sketch providing insights into the indi- vidual’s family background, role models, education, and occupation. Be brief; include information that promotes understanding, and avoid insignificant details that interrupt the flow of the speech. Be sensitive to the setting of the presentation. If you are deliver- ing a eulogy, recognize that your audience will be grieving at the loss of a family mem- ber, friend, or business associate. Choose examples and quotations that contribute to the healing process. For instance, Nikki Giovanni realized that language was a powerful tool for capturing the feelings of her grieving listeners at Virginia Tech. If your speech cele- brates the current life of a distinguished person, you may have greater latitude in the use of supporting materials, such as colorful vignettes and humorous anecdotes. In both cases, however, choose materials honoring individuals, and avoid negative incidents or hostile satire revealing unsavory qualities. Construct a positive and hopeful tribute cele- brating a unique personality.
Acknowledge Significant Achievements and Virtues Speeches of tribute focus upon achievements and virtues. Speakers recount examples of heroism in battle; contributions in science, religion, or sports; or charitable service to humanity. These examples often identify and praise high moral values—qualities that serve as models for others. Speakers presenting tributes frequently include comments such as “She was the best athlete in her category,” “He worked tirelessly in the cause of equal- ity,” or “He kept going in spite of extreme adversity.” The intention is to remind the audi- ence of the qualities that contributed to the significance or greatness of the individual.
Convey Hope and Encouragement Effective tributes link past virtues and achievements to present times by encouraging listeners to continue similar struggles or to embrace the values of those they admire. Audiences experiencing separation from loved ones as a result of retirement, relocation,
Key Terms eulogy keynote speech testimonial
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or death should not be left with a sense of despair or futility. It is appropriate to use biblical quotations, citations of individuals being honored, or testimonies from others to reinforce feelings and to inspire listeners to grow from difficult experiences.
In a tribute presented at the funeral of Robert F. Kennedy in 1968, Edward M. Kennedy praised his brother’s values and quoted one of his brother’s speeches to encour- age listeners to “shape” America with reason and principle:3
“Our future may lie beyond our vision, but it is not completely beyond our control. It is the shaping impulse of America that neither faith, nor nature, nor the irresistible tides of history, but the work of our own hands, matched to reason and principle, will determine our destiny.”
There is pride in that, even arrogance, but there is also experience and truth, and, in any event, it is the only way we can live. That is the way he lived. That is what he leaves us.
My brother need not be idealized or enlarged in death beyond what he was in life. He should be remembered simply as a good and decent man who saw wrong and tried to right it, saw suffering and tried to heal it, saw war and tried to stop it.
Those of us who loved him and who take him to his rest today pray that what he was to us, and what he wished for others, will some day come to pass for all the world …
As he said many times, in many parts of this nation, to those he touched and who sought to touch him: “Some men see things as they are and say why. I dream things that never were and say, why not.”
The Presentation Speech Speeches of presentation are given to honor specific achievements of individuals in insti- tutions, occupations, or community organizations. The president awards the Medal of Freedom to distinguished Americans; the Pro Football Hall of Fame inducts sports per- sonalities into membership; the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences annually selects a best actor, actress, director, and best picture; public school systems award certi- ficates to outstanding teachers, and universities award scholarships to deserving students; businesses give away trips and prizes to employees with distinguished service records.
Because these speeches often take place in public ceremonies, they must be carefully crafted. The speech of presentation must be brief, accurate, and clear. It should identify the nature or type of award, provide brief information about the recipient’s life or career, and acquaint the audience with the individual’s specific achievement or service. The speech often includes adjectives like most, best, first, last, and greatest to describe the individual’s merits and accomplishments. The speaker usually ends the speech by for- mally presenting the award to the recipient.
The speech of presentation should exhibit polish and show evidence of rehearsal. The speaker must know how to pronounce the recipient’s name correctly and deliver phrases smoothly. During the presentation, the speaker should avoid embarrassing actions such as dropping framed certificates or handing out plaques upside down. The award should be presented carefully, without unnecessary fumbling. A speaker will often follow the presentation with a handshake or hug (if appropriate) and then step aside to allow the recipient to deliver the acceptance speech.
During the July 3, 1986, celebration marking the 100th anniversary of the Statue of Liberty, President Reagan awarded the Medal of Liberty to twelve distinguished American immigrants—among them comedian Bob Hope and songwriter Irving Berlin. ABC newsman Ted Koppel narrated the televised ceremony and made the twelve
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speeches of presentation. Here are two of these speeches—one honoring educator Hannah Holborn Gray and another saluting author Elie Wiesel.4 Because of the number of awards, each presentation had to be brief, yet each speech effectively acquainted listeners with the recipient, describing the individual’s contribution to American life.
When Hannah Holborn Gray was 4 years old, her father was dismissed from his teaching position in Heidelberg for opposing the Nazi party. He moved to New Haven, Connecticut, where Hannah pursued her education, becoming the first female provost at Yale University and eventually being chosen in 1979 to be the first woman president of the University of Chicago. The Medal of Liberty is awarded to this outstanding educator, Hannah Holborn Gray.
Elie Wiesel was born in Rumania, and as a boy he lost both parents and a sis- ter in the concentration camps. When the Americans liberated Buchenwald in 1945, they found the 14-year-old boy who had cheated death. He vowed to dedicate him- self to bearing witness to what had happened during the Holocaust in the hope of preventing that dark history from ever being repeated. He has become, through his writings and teachings, the foremost voice of warning and remembrance. The Medal of Liberty is awarded to Elie Wiesel.
The Acceptance Speech The acceptance speech is the response to the presentation. The recipient gratefully acknowl- edges an award, gives proper credit to those who have assisted in or been part of the achieve- ment, and states personal values and convictions that led to the accomplishment.
The speech should be well prepared. In many ceremonies, individuals know in advance if they will receive awards; in others, individuals may know only that they have been nominated. In either case, potential recipients should have acceptance speeches prepared to deliver if called upon.
The speech should be brief. The recipient should thank the presenter and organiza- tion for the honor and identify colleagues who have contributed to the achievement, as well as personal friends or associates who have given emotional support.
The speaker should exercise care, however, with the number of acknowledgments given. If you’ve ever watched the televised Academy Awards ceremony, you have seen embarrassing speeches where Oscar winners have thanked everyone from the obstetrician to the usher opening the theater door. Such problems can occur when recipients attempt to deliver impromptu speeches or ramble on without considering the needs of their audiences.
The recipient should exhibit poise in delivery. The speaker should receive the award graciously, possibly holding up the plaque, statue, or certificate to allow the audience to see it easily. The speaker can then place the award on the lectern (if available) to allow freedom for gestures and movement. The recipient should try to avoid distractions such as wiping the forehead or clearing the throat. Although agitated mannerisms or brief references to human feelings (“I’m really nervous tonight”) might generate some empa- thy from the audience, listeners expect a speaker to show competence and demonstrate the qualities being honored.5
At the 2007 Academy Awards ceremony in Los Angeles, Forest Whitaker won Best Actor for playing the role of Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in The Last King of Scotland. After receiving the Oscar, Whitaker delivered his acceptance:
When I was a kid, the only way that I saw movies was from the backseat of my family’s car, at the drive-in. And it wasn’t my reality to think I would be acting in movies, so receiving this honor tonight tells me that it’s possible. It is possible
Types of Special-Occasion Speeches 343
for a kid from east Texas, raised in South Central L.A. in Carson, who believes in his dreams, commits himself to them with his heart, to touch them, and to have them happen.6
Whitaker referred to his humble beginnings, showed appreciation for the honor, and celebrated the achievement of his dreams.
The Speech of Dedication The speech of dedication is presented to commemorate the completion of projects such as national monuments, museums, churches, ships, or hospitals. The speaker refers to the sacrifice and service of individuals who fostered the project and moved it to com- pletion. Effective dedication speeches acknowledge the symbolism of the venture and convey its meaning to the community. Speakers often remind listeners of their values and emphasize the way the finished project will meet individual or collective needs. Dedication speeches usually include phrases revealing the purpose of the project: “This is a place where families can receive help” or “This building will be a house of culture and creative thought.” Dedication speeches can bring the members of a community together by reacquainting listeners with their shared interests and common goals.7
On November 11, 1984, the Vietnam Veterans Memorial was presented to the U.S. government at a special dedication ceremony in Washington, D.C. Among the principal speakers at the event was Jan C. Scruggs, a Vietnam veteran whose commitment to the memory of his colleagues moved him to raise the $8 million needed for the monument. In his dedication speech, Scruggs acknowledged the bitter dissension caused by the war. But he also described the memorial as a symbol of national reconciliation: a “sacred” site where the sacrifices of young soldiers could be remembered and where national healing could take place.
But before we give the Vietnam Memorial away to the government, I have a few things to say. At age 18 I was among the thousands who volunteered for combat in Vietnam. We returned home scorned as the nation was too divided over that war to honor those who served and only wanted to forget those who died. In 1979 I decided to remind America of our patriotic service and to make certain that the names of the 58,000 who died would never be forgotten.
So today the memorial is to be given to the United States government. Vietnam veterans are giving this beautiful statue and the wall of names to America. It seems ironic. Indeed, it seems that rather than Vietnam veterans building a memorial for the government, that the government should have built the memorial for the veterans. But Vietnam was that kind of war.
My fellow veterans, because of this memorial, we now have our recognition. And we can now say that we have honored our dead. All of this has been a long time in coming and is a time for America to be proud again.
Yet this memorial has given America far more than that. Out of the bitter divi- siveness of Vietnam has come a symbol of national unity. This is a memorial to heal the wounds of the veterans and to heal the wounds of a nation.
People will always debate that war—and let them. But this site is sacred ground where Americans have shown their honor and their respect for the sacri- fices made by a generation of young soldiers who answered the call to duty….
Today we also thank those who gave the funds for the memorial: locals from the AFL-CIO, schoolchildren, veterans’ posts, antiwar protesters, conservative busi- nessmen, retired people. From across America, compassionate people responded to the need for funds. Thank you, America.8
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The Speech of Welcome Welcoming speeches extend greetings to new or returning members of organizations. University officials welcome incoming students, company representatives say hello to new employees, elected officials welcome new citizens, religious leaders greet new converts, and convention organizers extend warm regards to delegates. The speaker giving the welcome should express pleasure at seeing new as well as familiar faces, mention the goals of the group or organization, briefly identify problems to be solved, and convey best wishes to the audience members for success. The speech of welcome should be concise, communicate warmth in its tone and message, build trust and support, and establish common ground.
This welcome, presented to a group of public speaking students on the first day of class, uses questions to build a sense of community, identifies general course goals, and emphasizes positive achievement:
I want to give all of you a special welcome to this class. First, I’d like to ask a couple of questions. How many of you have ever had any type of speech or communica- tions course before, either in high school or in some other college class? A few of you—fine. Now for another question. How many of you have ever participated in a theatrical production or in a debate, given a report in a class, or been asked to deliver a talk in church or at your job? Well that’s almost all of you. You can see that almost every one of you has had some experience with public speaking in your lifetime. And certainly all of you had to present a series of mini-speeches to sign up officially for the course.
No matter what your background, your experience, or your knowledge, this course will help you. You’ll get to know people you’ve never met before, you’ll be confronted with a variety of ideas—some unfamiliar, some unconventional—and you’ll participate in a number of learning situations that will contribute to your growth. If you’re willing to work, listen, and participate, you should succeed.
The Speech of Introduction The speech of introduction acquaints the audience with a speaker or lecturer. The intro- duction should help to establish speaker credibility by relating the speaker’s occupation, experience, and expertise regarding the topic. The introduction might include descriptions of personal qualities—“He is a family man” or “She is an avid gardener”—and brief anec- dotes providing insights into the speaker’s personal life. The speech of introduction also describes values the speaker has in common with the audience.
The introduction should be concise and well organized. Lengthy or flowery intro- ductions can exhaust audiences and defeat speakers before they are able to establish credibility on their own. The goal of the introductory speech is to enlighten the audience about a speaker and to prepare them positively for the speaker’s remarks.
Dr. Paul Hardin, president of Drew University, gave the following introduction of actor Alan Alda, who delivered the commencement address at this small Methodist- affiliated institution in Madison, New Jersey. The university had originally invited Jesse L. Jackson to be the commencement speaker, but because of illness, he was replaced by Mr. Alda. This excerpt from Dr. Hardin’s speech demonstrates an effective verbal transition from Jackson to Alda, conveys familiar as well as unknown information about the speaker, and describes some of Alda’s important qualities and virtues:
We are, of course, very sorry that Mr. Jackson became ill and most regretful that he cannot be with us today. We wish him a speedy recovery. I would have been proud indeed to present him to you.
Types of Special-Occasion Speeches 345
I am equally proud, I assure you, to present to you the man who on just 36 hours notice, gracefully and unselfishly agreed to rescue us from a terrible pre- dicament and to speak from this platform today. Oh, I might say, Hawkeye to the rescue!
MASH is an acronym. MASH stands for Mobile Army Surgical Hospital. It also is the title of what has been called the most literate comedy series in the history of television. Probably everyone in this audience knows the series and loves its leading character, Captain Benjamin Franklin Pierce, better known as “Hawkeye.” Hawkeye and his fellows are constantly fighting the insanity of war, even as they fight to save the wounded victims of war. They instruct as they entertain.
The talented actor who plays Hawkeye was a hard-working and much traveled and successful veteran of stage, screen, and television, long before he made the role famous. This distinguished actor is the son of another distinguished actor, Robert Alda, who taught him much of what he knows. He is also a graduate of Fordham, an army veteran, a writer, producer, at times a television critic, an impas- sioned supporter of good causes, including the Equal Rights Amendment; and our speaker is justly respected as one of our nation’s foremost family men. Happily for Drew on this occasion, our speaker, his wife Arlene, and their three daughters love their small town in New Jersey.
Will you please give a very generous welcome to Hawkeye, to the very distin- guished and humane actor and writer, Mr. Alan Alda!9
The Keynote Speech The keynote speech is a presentation given at the beginning of a major conference or convention. Democrats and Republicans invite nationally known speakers to address their conventions every four years. Teachers, lawyers, physicians, auto makers, and chefs are among the many groups who ask experts to focus on specific issues at regional or national conferences.
Keynote speeches can be lengthy, sometimes as long as forty-five minutes to an hour. Keynote speakers highlight challenges and obstacles to goals such as divisive- ness, inferior working conditions, unknown cures, or inequality. To help members face these challenges together, speakers remind listeners of unifying principles and values within party platforms, bylaws, or creeds. Portions of keynote speeches identify solutions the group must accomplish—overturning Supreme Court decisions on abor- tion, defeating opposing candidates, or building better cars. Keynote speeches should convey emotion, reinforce feelings about organizational values, and inspire commit- ment to group goals.
On July 12, 1976, Barbara Jordan became the first African American woman to deliver a keynote address to the Democratic National Convention. In her remarks, the congresswoman from Texas called for strong ethics in government, asked party faithful to provide America with a “vision for the future,” and appealed for a sense of community and participation. As this excerpt reveals, Jordan’s ideas are as applicable today as they were in the 1970s:
And now, what are those of us who are elected public officials supposed to do? We call ourselves public servants, but I’ll tell you this: We as public servants must set an example for the rest of the nation. It is hypocritical for the public official to admonish and exhort the people to uphold the common good if we are derelict in upholding the common good. More is required of public officials than slogans and handshakes
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and press releases. More is required. We must hold ourselves strictly accountable. We must provide the people with a vision of the future.
Now, I began this speech by commenting to you on the uniqueness of a Barbara Jordan making the keynote address. Well I am going to close my speech by quoting a Republican president, and I ask you that as you listen to these words of Abraham Lincoln, relate them to the concept of a national community in which every last one of us participates: As I would not be a slave, so I would not be a master. This expresses my idea of democracy. Whatever differs from this, to the extent of the difference, is no democracy.10
The Nominating Speech Nominating speeches present the names of individuals for consideration to elective office before a group. The nomination should identify the qualifications necessary for the job, state the values and achievements of the nominee, and discuss how the group will suc- ceed under the nominee’s leadership.11
An effective nominating speech is accurate, brief, and optimistic. The speaker should have carefully researched the nominee’s background to avoid embarrassing mis- statements or factual errors. The speaker should mention the nominee’s experience and qualifications but eliminate biographical details having little significance to the posi- tion sought. A nominating speech should be short: a lengthy speech can affect listeners negatively, even damaging the nominee’s chances of election. The nomination can include statements of the individual’s virtues, quotations from speeches, or brief anec- dotes and testimonials. The speech should end positively, conveying inspiration and promise.
In this speech nominating General Dwight D. Eisenhower for the presidency at the 1952 Republican National Convention, Governor Theodore McKeldin of Maryland reminded delegates of Eisenhower’s heroism as Supreme Allied Commander during World War II. He also portrayed Eisenhower as a simple man, “rooted in the soil” of the Midwest, who could unite the nation and its allies:12
The man whose name I shall present … has been summoned successively from one gigantic task to another in freedom’s cause. His whole career as a soldier, statesman, administrator has prepared him uniquely for the greatest office in the realm of our people’s sovereignty—the presidency of the United States…. Here is the man to unite our party; here is the man to unite our nation; here is a man to unite our productive forces—labor and capital—in the teamwork that is essential to the times, fully recognizing the dignity and the rights of each; here is the man to unite our allies and potential allies against communism and all threats of aggression and oppression.
… While some of us kept interparty competition alive and active in our states, the candidate whose name I shall give you was engaged in leading America’s brave sons in the great, successful invasion of Normandy on D-Day…. This man is a true son of America’s frontier. His beginnings are rooted in the soil of our great Middle West and in the deep religious convictions of his devout, Bible-reading parents…. He was appointed to West Point during the Administration of President William Howard Taft…. It is with pride that I place before this convention for president of the United States the name of Dwight David Eisenhower.
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The Farewell Speech Farewell speeches are given on the occasion of retirements, resignations, or some other change in status and position. The speaker thanks listeners for their association and friendship, conveys appreciation for their help and/or support, and expresses hope and best wishes for the future. These speeches are often emotional and moving, especially if speakers are saying goodbye after many years of association with listeners.
Some of the most celebrated farewells in history were presented by leaders such as George Washington, who advised the new nation to “steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world”; General Douglas MacArthur, who identified him- self with “old soldiers [who] never die; they just fade away”; and Abraham Lincoln, who told friends in Springfield, Illinois, that he owed them “everything.”13 In Lincoln’s brief Farewell Address at Springfield in 1861, he acknowledged his friends and family origins, invoked God’s blessing, and expressed almost prophetic uncertainty about the future.
No one, not in my situation, can appreciate my feeling of sadness at this parting. To this place, and the kindness of these people, I owe everything. Here I have lived a quarter of a century, and have passed from a young to an old man. Here my chil- dren have been born, and one is buried. I now leave, not knowing when or whether ever I may return, with a task before me greater than that which rested upon Washington. Without the assistance of the Divine Being who ever attended him, I cannot succeed. With that assistance, I cannot fail. Trusting in Him who can go with me, and remain with you, and be everywhere for good, let us confidently hope that all will yet be well. To His care commending you, as I hope in your prayers you will commend me, I bid you an affectionate farewell.14
The Victory Speech Victory speeches are presented by individuals who have won significant contests in sports, politics, the military, or business. They often occur after hard-fought battles or competitions that require physical and psychological endurance as well as support from others. For example, an athlete winning a gold medal at the Olympics, a winning coach of a Super Bowl team, a military general who has defeated a foe, a real estate salesperson selling the most houses in a year, or a politician who has won election to public office would present a victory speech. These speeches can be as informal as a media interview or as formal as a carefully scripted speech delivered to a large audience. Victory speeches generally celebrate the winning accomplishment, thank those who encouraged and sup- ported the winner, and offer conciliatory remarks for the valiant efforts of the opponent.
After becoming the first African American to win the race for the White House on election night, November 4, 2008, President-elect Barack Obama presented this intro- duction to his victory speech before the world media and a huge audience assembled at Grant Park, in Chicago, Illinois:
Hello Chicago. If there is anyone out there who still doubts that America is a place where all
things are possible, who still wonders if the dream of our founders is alive in our time, who still questions the power of our democracy, tonight is your answer.
It’s the answer told by lines that stretched around schools and churches in numbers this nation has never seen, by people who waited three hours and four hours, many for the first time in their lives, because they believed that this time must be different, that their voices could be that difference.
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It’s the answer spoken by young and old, rich and poor, Democrat and Repub- lican, black, white, Hispanic, Asian, Native American, gay, straight, disabled and not disabled. Americans who sent a message to the world that we have never been just a collection of individuals or a collection of red states and blue states.
We are, and always will be, the United States of America.
During the speech, President-elect Obama celebrated his historic victory, thanked his family and supporters, offered appreciation to his opponent, Senator McCain, and outlined a vision for America’s future. You can read a transcript of the entire speech at http://edition.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/04/obama.transcript/.
The Commencement Speech Commencement speeches are given to honor the graduates of an institution, seminar, or field of study. Speakers congratulate listeners for their achievements, identify problems they will encounter throughout life, and refer to values that should guide their think- ing.16 Too often, when well-intentioned speakers become too self-absorbed or try too hard to sound eloquent and intellectual, graduation speeches become tiresome affairs, with speakers proclaiming platitudes having little meaning or interest to graduates.
Because the circumstances require the announcement of hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of graduates, successful commencement speeches should be brief. The speaker should remember that the focus of the ceremony is the awarding of diplomas—not the speech. A commencement speech should contain clear ideas and meaningful examples. The down-to-earth speaker will often be received more favorably than the individual who attempts to create high-sounding phrases.
The After-Dinner Speech The after-dinner speech is usually a light, humorous presentation designed to entertain or amuse an audience. This type of speech would be appropriate on many occasions: an “over-the-hill” party satirizing a friend’s fortieth birthday, a football victory celebration poking good-natured fun at the coach, a business luncheon “roasting” the boss, a gradu- ation party lampooning teachers, or an end-of-speech-class party reviewing the memora- ble blunders and bloopers of the semester.
The objective of the after-dinner speech is usually to entertain, but it should not consist of a series of unconnected jokes and disjointed stories. After-dinner speakers should observe the same principles of development needed for any other speech occa- sion. An after-dinner speech requires a unifying theme—a topic that generates interest and captures the imagination of the audience. Topics such as “Mind-Expanding Courses to Get You Through College,” “Doing Spain on One Foreign Word a Day,” or “Renam- ing Vegetables” could be developed into successful entertaining speeches. After-dinner speeches can be lighthearted, satiric, or subtly serious.
Although research for entertaining speeches often involves exploring your own imagination and creativity, these presentations require specific supporting materials such as quotations and examples to clarify ideas. The introduction should generate curi- osity and include a clear thesis statement identifying the main points of the speech. The body should contain proper transitions and references to sources where necessary. The speech should conclude with a suitable quote, reference to the introduction, or interest- ing narrative.
One way after-dinner speeches differ from other types is in the use of humor. Your speech may deal with a light topic designed to amuse an audience, but you should not
Types of Special-Occasion Speeches 349
try to become a stand-up comic or a professional entertainer. Develop your own natural and spontaneous style. It is more important to elicit a few genuine smiles from the audi- ence than to force raucous laughter. Humor depends upon timing and smooth delivery. If you’ve ever heard a comedian stumble over a punch line, you know how verbal blun- ders can destroy humor. Practice the after-dinner presentation as you would any other speech. Deliver anecdotes and punch lines clearly, and wait for laughter to subside before you continue. If you feel uncomfortable with humor, evaluate some of your strengths to determine what to include in the speech. Are you a good mimic? Can you tell a good story? Are you good at facial expressions or bizarre voices? Can you write clever rhymes or catchy poems?
Toasts Toasts are presented to honor individuals at ceremonial occasions such as birthdays, bar mitzvahs, weddings, graduations, or the conclusion of negotiated agreements and business transactions. An effective toast acknowledges past relationships, salutes the events surrounding the present ceremony, and expresses best wishes and hope for the future.
Oprah Winfrey is often
considered to be one of the most
influential women in America.
Through her television show and
magazine, she has focused
national attention on child abuse,
AIDS, women’s issues, and ethics
in government and the media.
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Depending on the occasion, toasts can be serious or humorous. A U.S. president welcoming a foreign head of state will often use a toast to define areas of unity or dis- agreement between countries, demonstrate commitment to continuing association, and convey interest in solving problems. At a birthday or wedding party, a speaker can be more humorous. The toast can relate colorful incidents from past relationships to enliven the speech and to entertain the audience. The speaker usually concludes the toast by expressing sincere wishes for the happiness and future success of the individuals being saluted.
In the following wedding toast, the speaker summarizes listeners’ mutual feelings, relates one humorous incident, and wishes the couple success and happiness for the future:
Good friends, I’d like to propose this toast to Jamal and Ayanna—the reason we’re all here today. I remember when Jamal came over to our house after proposing to Ayanna, he said, “She didn’t say yes, and she didn’t say no,” and he asked me, “What should I do?” Now I don’t usually give advice in these situations, but I said to Jamal, “Why don’t you just wait and call her tomorrow. Maybe Ayanna is testing you, and she’ll give you an answer in a day or two.” Well, the “test” lasted for about six weeks (you can see why I don’t give advice). But we’re all glad that you both came to terms and decided to make the arrangement official.
Will you all raise your glasses with me in wishing the best possible for Jamal and Ayanna—happiness in life’s joys, mutual comfort in life’s sorrows, and most important, a lifelong respect and love for each other. Here’s to the bride and groom.
In a wedding toast, a speaker
may acknowledge past rela-
tionships, relate a humorous
incident, and express best
wishes for the future.
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SAMPLE SPEECH: Dedication of the World War II Memorial
Almost 60 years after the end of World War II, the United States dedicated a national memorial to the courageous soldiers who fought with American allies in Europe and the Pacific. The memorial honors the 16 million citizens who served and the 400,000 Ameri- cans who died in the war. Robert Dole, a former majority leader of the U.S. Senate and unsuccessful candidate for president, was severely wounded on the battlefield and was twice decorated with the Bronze Star and the Purple Heart. He was the national chairman of the National World War II Memorial, which successfully raised $197 million in donations to pay for the structure. On Saturday, May 29, 2004, Senator Dole delivered these remarks at the dedication ceremony, which was attended by former Presidents Bill Clinton, George H. W. Bush, and George W. Bush, and more than 150,000 people, many of them aging veterans in their seventies and eighties.
A SPEECH OF DEDICATION Bob Dole
1. Thank you very much. Never had a crowd like this when I was running. Well it’s a real honor and privilege to be here and I won’t even start to begin to say thank you because where do you stop?
2. But Fred Smith who so kindly introduced me was my mainstay and opened a lot of doors along with General [John] Herrling and Jim Aylward and others on our com- mission and P. X. Kelley has done a splendid job and has a great staff and when our fund-raising was sort of ebbing, President Clinton, you recall, you took us down to the White House and brought in some potential contributors and a little spark.
Robert Dole, former majority
leader of the U.S. Senate, was
wounded in World War II and
was chairman of the National
World War II Memorial,
which successfully raised
$197 million in donations to
pay for the structure. Senator
Dole’s speech at the dedica-
tion of the memorial appears
at the end of this chapter.
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1. Senator Dole begins with humor directed at his failed bid for the presidency in 1996.
2–3. The senator acknowledges those who helped to raise funds for the memorial.
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3. I want to thank both President Clinton and President Bush 41 [George H. W. Bush] for their generous contributions to the World War II Memorial.
4. In the first week of January 1945, a hungry and lonesome second lieutenant from small-town Kansas dispatched a message to his folks back home: “You can send me something to eat whenever you’re ready,” he wrote, “send candy, gum, cookies, cheese, grape jelly, popcorn, nuts, peanut cluster, Vicks Vapor rub, wool socks, wool scarf, fudge cookies, ice cream, liver ’n onions, fried chicken, banana cake, milk, fruit cocktail, Swiss steak, crackers, more candy, Life Savers, peanuts, the piano, the radio, the living room, the suite, and the record player and Frank Sinatra.”
5. “I guess you might as well send the whole house if you can get it into a five-pound box. P.S. Keep your fingers crossed.” In authoring that only slightly exaggerated wish list I merely echoed the longing of 16 million Americans whose greatest wish was for an end to the fighting.
6. And 60 years on our ranks have dwindled. To the thousands assembled here on the Mall to the millions more watching all across America in living rooms and hospitals and wherever it may be. And overseas, our men and women overseas and our friends in Great Britain and our allies all around the world. Our final reunion can- not long be delayed.
7. If we gather in the twilight, it is brightened by the knowledge that we have kept faith with our comrades from a distant youth. Sustained by over 600,000 individual contributions—600,000—we have raised this memorial to commemorate the service and sacrifice of an entire generation.
8. What we dedicate today is not a memorial to war, rather it is a tribute to the physi- cal and moral courage that makes heroes out of farm and city boys and inspires Americans in every generation to lay down their lives for people they will never meet, for ideals that make life itself worth living.
9. This is also a memorial to the American people, who in the crucible of war forged a unity that became our ultimate weapon. Just as we pulled together in the course of a common threat 60 years ago, so today’s Americans united to build this memorial. Small children held their grandfather’s hand while dropping pennies in a collection box. Entire families contributed in memory of loved ones who could win every bat- tle, except the battle against time.
10. I think of my brother Kenny and my brothers-in-law Larry Nelson and Allen Steele—just three among the millions of ghosts in navy blue and olive drab we honor with this memorial.
11. And of course not every warrior wore a uniform. As it happens, today is the 101st birthday of Bob Hope—the GIs’ favorite entertainer who did more to boost our morale than anyone, next to Betty Grable.
I can already hear Bob, “But I was next to Betty Grable!”
12. And it’s hard to believe today is also the eighty-seventh birthday of John F. Kennedy. A hero of the South Pacific who, a generation after the surrender documents were
4–5. Senator Dole begins his speech by quoting a humorous letter he wrote home to his parents from the war front.
6. The speaker acknowledges the assembled listeners and the vast audience watching around the world.
7. The senator pays tribute to the individuals who have contributed to the memorial.
8. Dole refers to the ideals that the memorial represents.
9. The speaker refers to the memorial as a symbol of American unity.
10. The senator uses personal examples to represent the “millions” that are memorialized.
11. The mention of comedian Bob Hope and actress Betty Grable, whose shapely swimsuit photo was pinned on the lockers in many GI barracks, brings humor to the occasion.
Types of Special-Occasion Speeches 353
signed on board the USS Missouri, spoke of a generation of Americans tempered by war that was never less willing to “pay any price, to bear any burden, to meet any hardships, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.”
13. And we will always honor the memory of our great leader and our American hero General Eisenhower, who led us to victory all across the world.
14. As we meet here today, young Americans are risking their lives in liberty’s defense. They are the latest link in a chain of sacrifice older than America itself. After all, if we meet the test of our times, it is because we drew inspiration from those who had gone before—including the giants of history who are enshrined on this Mall.
15. From Washington, who fathered America with his sword and ennobled it with his character, from Jefferson whose pen gave eloquent voice to our noblest aspirations, from Lincoln who preserved the union and struck the chains from our countrymen, and from Franklin Roosevelt who presided over a global coalition to rescue human- ity from those who had put the soul itself in bondage.
16. Each of these presidents was a soldier of freedom. In the defining event of the twen- tieth century, their cause became our cause. On distant fields and fathomless oceans, the skies over half the planet and in ten thousand communities on the home front we did far more than avenge Pearl Harbor. The citizen soldiers who answered liberty’s call fought not for territory, but for justice. Not for plunder, but to liberate enslaved peoples around the world.
17. In contending for democracy abroad, we learned painful lessons about our own democracy. For us, the Second World War was in effect a second American revolu- tion. The war invited women into the workforce; it exposed the injustices to African-Americans, Hispanics, Japanese-Americans, and others who demonstrated yet again that war is an equal opportunity employer.
18. What we learned in foreign fields of battle we applied in postwar America. As a result our democracy, though imperfect, is more nearly perfect than in the days of Washington, Lincoln, Roosevelt.
19. That’s what makes America forever a work in progress. A land that has never become, but is always in the act of becoming.
20. And that’s why the armies of democracy have earned a permanent place on this sacred ground.
It is only fitting when this memorial was opened to the public about a month ago the very first visitors were school children.
21. For them, our war is ancient history and those who fought it are slightly ancient themselves, yet in the end they are the ones for whom we built this shrine. And to whom we now hand the baton in the unending relay of human possibility. Cer- tainly the heroes represented by the 4,000 gold stars on the freedom wall need no monument to commemorate their sacrifice. They are known to God and to their fellow soldiers who will mourn their passing until the day of our own.
12–13. Senator Dole refers to two former presidents who served in the war: John F. Kennedy, a PT boat commander, and General Dwight D. Eisenhower, supreme allied commander.
14. The speaker makes a reference to the war in Iraq and the “chain of sacrifice” to meet the “test of our times.”
15–16. Dole refers to the “chains” reflected in the giants of history who were “soldiers of freedom.”
16. The speaker describes the symbolism of the memorial—the struggle for liberty and justice for the enslaved.
17. The senator describes “painful lessons” learned about injustices to many of our own minority American soldiers.
19. The speaker describes America as a “work in progress.”
20. As is customary in a speech of dedication, the speaker refers to the memorial in lofty terms, such as “sacred ground.”
21. Dole again refers to the sacrifice represented by the 4,000 gold stars that symbolize the 400,000 who gave their lives in the war.
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22. In their name we dedicate this place of meditation. And it is in their memory that I ask you to stand, if possible, and join me in a moment of silent tribute to remind us all that in some time in our life we have or may be called upon to make a sacrifice for our country to preserve liberty and freedom. God bless America.
Summary In this chapter we have considered speeches for special occasions. The tribute recognizes distinguished careers and contributions of people either living or dead. Speeches of presen- tation honor the accomplishments of individuals, and acceptance speeches are given by indi- viduals who receive honors and awards.
Dedication speeches memorialize the completion of national or community projects, welcoming speeches extend greetings to new or returning members of organizations, and speeches of introduction acquaint audiences with speakers or lecturers.
Keynote speeches are thematic presentations given at the beginning of major confer- ences or conventions; nominating speeches present the names of individuals for possible election to an office; farewell speeches are given on the occasion of retirements, resigna- tions, or other changes in status and position; victory speeches are presented by individuals who have won significant contests after hard-fought battles or competitions; and com- mencement speeches honor candidates for attaining degrees.
The after-dinner speech is designed to entertain, and toasts are presented to honor individuals at ceremonial occasions.
Skill Builders 1. Using InfoTrac College Edition or your library database, search in Vital Speeches of
the Day or in another credible source to find a special-occasion speech. Present a report describing the following: a. Who was the speaker and what type of special-occasion speech did the
speaker present? b. Describe the date, purpose, and setting of the occasion. c. Describe how closely the speaker followed the guidelines presented in this
chapter. d. View a copy of the speech on DVD streaming video or videotape (if avail-
able) and describe the positive aspects of the speech and areas you think could be improved.
2. Divide into teams of two in your speech class and create presentation and accep- tance speeches using the guidelines discussed in this chapter. a. State the purpose, setting, and occasion of the speech. b. Team member A delivers a two- to three-minute speech of presentation and
team member B makes a two- to three-minute acceptance speech. c. Do the assignment again, switching roles and delivering speeches for another
occasion.
22. Senator Dole again uses another lofty metaphor to describe the memorial as a “place of meditation.”
Types of Special-Occasion Speeches 355
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter Eighteen, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www. cengage brain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
356 Chapter 18 • Speaking for Special Occasions
CHAPTER
19SPEAKING IN GROUPS
Chapter Objectives After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Define and describe the characteristics of small groups
2 Describe the development of a small group
3 Explain how small groups solve problems
4 Identify and develop three types of discussion questions
5 Identify group-centered behavior
6 Describe negative, self-centered behaviors
7 Recognize and describe positive leadership behavior
8 Understand special discussion formats
Joanne was frustrated at work. Her management team never seemed to accomplish their goals and they always fell behind schedule. There was one problem after another. Some workers would show up late or call in sick. Others would spend time making personal phone calls. Some employees would take long lunch breaks or spend too much time at the company gym. Tasks were often sent back for revision or overhaul. Joanne would complain to her boss, who was friendly and understanding but never seemed to take any action. She would speak to some of her coworkers about the problem but they would often shrug their shoulders and walk away.
Joanne was so discouraged at times she thought about quitting, but as a single parent, she needed the paycheck.
Have you ever been a part of a group like this? It could be a job, a church committee, or a Little League board of directors. The frustrations that are associated with membership
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“We have to face the fact thateither all of us are going todie together or we are going to learn to live together, and if we are to live together we have to talk.”—Eleanor Roosevelt
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in unproductive groups are sometimes inevitable. These situations don’t need to occur, however. When you know how a group develops, operates, and solves problems you can avoid some of the difficulties that Joanne encountered.
This chapter describes the characteristics and development of small groups, types of discussion questions, and ways to solve problems. It also includes guidelines for successful group participation and leadership. In addition, the chapter presents information concerning special discussion formats.
Characteristics of Small Groups
Think of the number of small groups to which you belong. You may be a participant in a campus club or association, a leader of an advertising committee at work, or a member of a bowling league. You may have joined these diverse groups for different reasons: to develop friendships, to get a job accomplished quickly, or simply to relax. The groups may differ, but they have several similar characteristics: Each has a shared goal, group interactions, a number of members meeting over a specified period of time, and a leader.1
Shared Goals Groups have goals that bring individuals together. Researchers refer to this quality as cohesiveness—that is, the unifying element, common purpose, or mutual feelings of members. Individuals belonging to a church have similar beliefs; employees in an assem- bly plant share production quotas. Small groups can be classified into types based upon general goals.2
Task groups emphasize the completion of objectives or implementation of solu- tions. Employers form search committees to review applicants, conduct interviews, and recommend candidates for positions. Baseball teams develop athletes to play specialized positions in the effort to win games. Civic groups organize membership, nominating, entertainment, or fund-raising committees, each with a different objective. As a member of a college class, you have the task of completing certain specific course requirements for a number of credit hours.
Key Terms agenda autocratic buzz groups cohesiveness democratic discussion questions encounter groups focus groups forming forum laissez-faire norming panel performing role-playing social groups storming symposiums task groups traits
In a successful group,
members share tasks,
maintain dynamic
interactions, and work
together to achieve
common goals.
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Encounter groups contribute to interpersonal learning and to insight. Couples go away for weekend encounters to develop greater sensitivity and to improve communication. Companies sponsor retreats for employees, managers, or executives to increase self- understanding and awareness of others. Support and therapy groups such as Parents Without Partners, Victims of Child Abuse, or Alcoholics Anonymous provide a caring environment for individuals with similar experiences. Colleges and universities sponsor retreats for student leaders to identify leadership strengths and weaknesses.
Social groups help members to establish friendships and personal relationships. If you go to the park for a picnic with a few friends or invite a roommate to a party, you are participating in a group to fulfill social needs. A social group can be an informal gathering like the “lunch bunch” at work or a more structured arrangement like the Tuesday night poker game.
Group Interaction Groups usually require interaction among members to accomplish goals. Imagine con- struction workers trying to complete a building without speaking or a football team attempting a touchdown without using signals or physical contact. Communication in groups is dynamic: it is continually active, steadily growing, and constantly changing. To maintain the dynamic energy of a group, members need personal contact with one another.
Size A small group consists of from three to fifteen members. Six to eight individuals often make an effective discussion—there are enough members for lively interaction, yet com- munication does not require limitation because of too many participants. Large groups are frequently divided into smaller work units of five or more members so that business can be conducted more easily and efficiently. The 535-member U.S. Congress, for exam- ple, conducts most of its business in small committees and subcommittees.
Time Period To make progress toward an objective, a group must meet over a period of time. A schedule allows a group to develop cohesiveness and to explore issues systematically. Intervals between meetings are sometimes as valuable as the meetings themselves. Mem- bers have time to process ideas and to bring fresh insights to the next discussion. An education committee, for example, would need to schedule a variety of meetings in order to design a new computer graphics curriculum. Members would come together to share preliminary ideas and to assign tasks; the group would then schedule future meet- ings to assess data, to formulate alternatives, and finally to write the curriculum.
Leadership Small groups usually require leaders to manage or to regulate discussion. In business, industry, or government, formal leaders with specific responsibilities are appointed or elected by organization members. A building foreman, a school principal, a club presi- dent, or a union negotiator are good examples of officially appointed or elected formal leaders. In groups without designated leaders, individuals with strong personality charac- teristics or competent management skills often become informal leaders. Leaderless gath- erings such as protests, support groups, ad hoc committees, or social groups are often
Characteristics of Small Groups 359
influenced by powerful individuals who gradually emerge as leaders during the course of group discussions.
Although we will discuss leadership theories in more detail later in this chapter, three leadership styles are important to present here. A democratic leader is often elected by constituents or fellow committee members. An effective democratic leader seeks discussion and input from as many people as possible, works for consensus of group members if attainable, tries to resolve conflicts, and attempts to keep the group on task. The disadvantage to a democratic style is in the lengthy time it often takes to resolve problems and arrive at decisions. The autocratic leader is often self-appointed or designated by another authority figure. Autocratic leaders tell group members what to do and assign their responsibilities. Autocratic groups often get tasks done quickly and do not experience some of the lengthy, time-consuming deliberations that occur in other groups. An autocratic leader who is kind and benevolent can operate as a father-figure and members may feel comfortable and content with the leader’s decisions. But members in autocratic groups are often afraid of speaking openly and honestly about issues and are frequently intimidated by leaders who may be aggressive or dictatorial and show little concern for the needs of group members. The laissez-faire leader is a leader in name only but makes no decisions and basically does not perform the responsibilities of a leader. In a group where well-motivated members are able to interact and solve problems without much direction, this leadership style may be very effective. But in groups that require significant guidance and conflict-resolution, laissez-faire leadership can waste precious time and contribute to lost productivity and enormous frustration among members.
Development of Small Groups
Imagine that you were elected for a one-year term as a sophomore delegate to the stu- dent government association (SGA) at your university. You begin meeting in Septem- ber, and you must get to know SGA officers and delegates from all the other classes and organizations for the first time. You convene in September and continue meeting once or twice a month for nine months of the school year. Your group members will have ups and downs as they meet together, make decisions, and attempt to implement actions over a period of months.
Small groups like your student government organization actually have life cycles as they begin to work, attempt to solve problems, and conclude. Researchers have discov- ered that when small groups begin to meet, they go through several stages of develop- ment and change. Bruce W. Tuckman, a professor in the College of Education at Ohio State University, studied groups extensively and determined that small groups go through four stages of development. Tuckman coined the following terms for these stages: forming, storming, norming, and performing.3
Forming The forming stage of development identifies the early phases of group meetings, when group members are in the process of orienting themselves to each other and to the task at hand. Group members are unsure of each other and try to determine what behavior is acceptable. In this stage of development, you might hear members use tentative lan- guage, including questions such as “Can you help me?” “Is this OK?” or “What are we supposed to do?” The group looks for guidance, support, and reinforcement. They are new to each other and the task, and they need to set ground rules.
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Storming The storming stage is characterized by interpersonal conflict. The group has been meet- ing for awhile, and the gloves are now off. There is often infighting, emotional reactions among members, lack of cohesiveness, and resistance to authority. Some members who dislike the idiosyncrasies of fellow participants even settle into subgroups or cliques. You might hear statements such as “I don’t agree with you at all,” “I didn’t come here to do that,” or “I think this whole thing has been a waste of time.” Language usage is focused around the words I and me, and expressions of individuality are common. It is an uncom- fortable, confrontational stage of group development.
Norming In the norming stage, the group has worked through many of the conflicts of the storm- ing phase and has now become more cohesive. Members are more open and willing to accept each other’s peculiarities. The group avoids interpersonal conflicts and begins to act on ideas proposed by group members. You might hear “How do you feel about that?” or “Let’s take a look at your solution.” Members tend to be in harmony and are now able to function as a group.
Performing The fourth stage, performing, is characterized by insight and action. Members wish to complete tasks they were given and adopt constructive behavior to implement them. In this stage you might hear statements such as “Here are the solutions we need to address,” “Let’s go with this solution,” or “Let’s form subcommittees to come up with a plan.” Notice that the statements use we and us language rather than I and me words. The var- ious factions and diverse personalities of the group actually come together in order to get the task accomplished.
Solving Problems in Groups
It is helpful for a group to select a specific issue in order to clearly identify a problem. Once the issue has been chosen, the process of problem solving can begin.
Questions for Discussion Issues for group discussions are usually phrased as discussion questions. Open-ended ques- tions tend to promote better discussions than do yes-no alternatives. For example, the issue “Should we increase tuition to solve financial problems at the university?” limits discussion because it offers only two alternatives. The question does not give members the freedom to analyze the complexities of the problem or to explore a wide range of solutions. A more effective question would be “What can be done to solve the financial problems at the uni- versity?” Discussion issues can be phrased as questions of fact, value, or policy.
Questions of Fact Questions of fact explore issues where information is either unknown or disputed. For instance, the purpose of the 9/11 Commission was to determine “What could have been done to prevent the terrorist attacks of September 11?” When the revo- lution against Libyan dictator Muammar Gadhafi exploded in 2011, former workers in Libya’s government charged that Gadhafi had something to do with the
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bombing that killed 259 passengers on board Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, and eleven people on the ground on December 21, 1988. A question of fact could be phrased, “Was Muammar Gadhafi responsible for the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103?” The question of fact then requires group members to research and analyze evidence in the effort to draw conclusions that provide an answer to the question.
Questions of Value Questions of value require discussion members to use personal judgments or feelings to evaluate issues. Words such as effective, fair, harmful, or beneficial are often used in the phrasing of value questions. A group might discuss the issue “Have government bailouts of large corporations been effective?” or “Would pass-fail grading be more equitable than the current system?” The difficulty with these issues is that they often depend on per- sonal opinions more than on evidence and research. Although questions of value may be useful topics for encounter groups, where personal feelings are important, these issues often have no real solution and simply generate circular discussions of members’ views. Groups that want to gather facts to form conclusions or develop specific solutions to pro- blems should avoid questions of value.
Questions of Policy Questions of policy stimulate discussion about solutions or future actions. Issues such as “How should America respond to nations and dictators it dislikes in a world filled with terrorism?” or “What should be done to reduce America’s dependence on foreign oil?” would be effective problems for policy discussions. Questions of policy require research, analysis of facts, and discussion of possible solutions for implementation. The word should is frequently included in the phrasing of policy issues.
Developing a Problem-Solving Agenda To discuss a problem, a group must have an agenda, or an orderly list of topics the meet- ing will cover. One of the most effective ways to organize an agenda is to use a process known as “reflective thinking,” developed in 1910 by educator John Dewey in How We Think.4 Through the years, several researchers have adapted Dewey’s ideas more compre- hensively to the discussion process.5 As an example of how to develop a systematic approach in a group discussion, we will consider an eight-point problem-solving plan similar to that described by Larry L. Barker and others in Groups in Process.6 We’ll use your student government association as the example.
Define the Problem Groups should clearly understand all elements of an issue under consideration. Members may need to define ambiguous terms and provide explanations of key phrases found in the discussion question. For example, because of the rapid deterioration of the student center building on your campus, your SGA group identifies the problem with this ques- tion: “What can be done to improve the appearance of the campus student center build- ing?” The words “improve the appearance” then need to be more specifically defined. Definitions could range from “cosmetic change” and “space reorganization and redistribu- tion” to “substantive change.”
Narrow the Problem As is the case with speech topics, problems for discussion must be sufficiently limited. In narrowing topics, members should consider the needs of the group as well as the
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length of time available for discussion. The topic “What can be done to improve the appearance of the campus student center building?” is a broad one that might require discussion for a period of several months. Depending on how phrases are defined, the issue could involve enormous expenditures of money and amounts of time that the SGA does not have. One way to limit the problem would be to develop subcategories that could be managed more efficiently:
• Cafeteria and eateries need new tables and chairs. • Cafeteria needs new appliances. • Student lounges need new furniture and carpeting. • Sidewalks and steps need renovation and repair. • Outside of building needs beautification.
The group could select the subtopics that were most important to their analysis, and gauge their discussion according to time and financial limitations. Because your SGA members meet once a month for only two semesters of the academic year, they may not be able to solve all five areas of their identified problem. They may need to select one or two areas that can be resolved during the time of their one-year elected terms. Other organizations, such as business or governmental groups that meet more often, might be able to handle many more subcategories of an issue.
Analyze the Issue The next step in problem solving is to research and analyze the issue. Let’s say that the SGA has decided to address the needs of the cafeteria as the subtopic of their question “What can be done to improve the appearance of the campus student center building?” Members could divide the research responsibilities according to expertise or personal interest. A business major could research the cost of new appliances and cafeteria furni- ture. A sociology major might explore the types of tables and chairs available for people with differing needs of height, weight, and disability. An international student might research the specific eating requirements of a diverse student population. A nursing major might investigate the types of appliances and furniture that meet health and sani- tation standards. A law student could analyze the legal requirements, permits, and guide- lines with which cafeteria appliances must comply. If members conduct thorough research into the problem, they will have the tools necessary to discuss the complexities of the issue and to develop workable solutions.
Set Up Criteria Once the problem has been analyzed, the group should develop criteria or guidelines for a workable solution. This phase of problem solving keeps a discussion on track and helps a group to focus on successful results. When analyzing the narrowed topic of improve- ments to the cafeteria, the SGA might set up the following criteria:
1. Equipment should be cost-effective. 2. Equipment should meet needs of a diverse student body. 3. Equipment should meet all health, legal, and permit requirements. 4. Equipment acquisition, purchase, and installation should be completed 1 month
before the academic year ends.
Suggest Solutions Next, the group develops various potential solutions from individual research, through spontaneous discussion, and/or as a result of brainstorming techniques. SGA members
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discussing the purchase of new cafeteria equipment might have obtained bids from sev- eral companies estimating costs. Some members might have contributed new suggestions during the discussion process or thought of different alternatives as members jotted down ideas that came to mind.
Apply Criteria to Solutions Once a group has selected alternatives, members can apply the predetermined criteria to identify the most desirable solution. This step in problem solving enables a group to eliminate solutions that are not workable. Notice how the four criteria listed earlier can be applied to select a company to supply cafeteria equipment.
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS APPLICATION OF CRITERIA
Company A Supplies standard kitchen and furniture package
Violates 2: Does not supply wok or other diverse kitchen equipment; furniture does not meet diverse student needs.
Company B Supplies custom-made furniture and appliances
Violates 1 and 4: Equipment is too expensive; timeline is too long.
Company C Supplies standard industrial restaurant equipment
Violates 2 and 3: Equipment does not meet diverse student needs; exceeds space requirements of the permit.
Company D Well-known college and university appliance and furniture supplier
Meets criteria 1–4: Costs, diversity, permits, and timelines are satisfactory.
Implement the Selected Solution When group members make a final choice, their job is not complete until they actually implement the solution. In well-organized groups, members develop a plan of action and divide the responsibilities. To implement the plan for cafeteria equipment, for instance, some SGA members might contact the company to sign contracts, others might form a subcommittee to select furniture colors, and some could form another subcommittee to raise funds.
Monitor the Success of the Solution A solution needs to be monitored to determine its degree of success. Is the solution working as intended? Are there problems with any aspect of the plan? Does the group need to modify the solution or reevaluate its decision in view of new information? A group might need to conduct interviews or circulate questionnaires to examine how well the solution is working. After initial observations, for example, SGA members might discover that some of the tables and chairs were unstable. The group could either withhold payment until satisfactory modifications were made or reject the contract entirely and choose another company. Group members might also decide to evaluate the decision by circulating a survey asking students about the comfort, quality, and dura- bility of the furniture and the quality of the food.
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A Sample Agenda Here is a sample agenda to demonstrate how problem solving is applied in a group meet- ing. Notice that the agenda clearly identifies the time, date, and place of the meeting as well as the supporting documents included.
Special Business Meeting of the Student Government Association Monday, May 7, 2012
Room 201, Student Center Building 2:00–4:00 p.m.
Topic: To discuss the need for physical improvements to the Student Center Building
I. Introduce new members II. Approve minutes of 4/16/12 III. Introduce topics
A. Decision-making process B. Scope of SGA responsibility C. Concerns of SGA delegates
IV. Discuss scope of problem A. Areas of building needing improvement—physical plant superintendent B. Budget available to cover costs—treasurer’s report C. Deadlines for decisions, implementation—dean of administration D. Other related issues
V. Identify SGA decisions and recommendations VI. Make committee and subcommittee assignments
A. Subcommittee researching student needs B. Subcommittee researching comparative costs of projects C. Subcommittee determining feasibility of meeting deadlines
VII. Schedule next meeting and adjourn
Documents enclosed:
1. Agenda 2. Minutes of 4/16/12
Keep in mind that the committee discussions are an ongoing process: group mem- bers have made a preliminary decision to set up three subcommittees to conduct further research. But the SGA will need to conduct further research and meet again in order to make future decisions. SGA members cannot select or even monitor a solution at this stage, because they are in the early stages of problem solving.
Participating in Groups
Effective participation is vitally important to the success of a discussion and to the effi- cient completion of a task. Group members sometimes believe that they possess little power within an organization and that most of the authority remains with the leader. Such a view is usually mistaken. Although leaders can exercise influence, success within a group is often determined by the participants’ skill and expertise. One individual can exert a powerful influence to move a group toward the completion of a task or to inhibit the decision-making process.
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Group-Centered Behavior An effective discussion requires group-centered behavior: members need to cooperate with one another and share responsibility to help the group work efficiently toward solution. Here are six group-centered behaviors that can contribute to positive decision making.7
Be an Active Observer An effective participant carefully observes a group by listening attentively and watching intently. When you are in a group situation, observe how members approach problems, how frequently they contribute to the discussion, or how effectively they perform tasks. Ask yourself these questions: Is there a difference between what members say and do? Is the group analyzing all aspects of the problem? Is the group making progress toward stated goals? Are there any contributions I can make that can move the group more effectively toward solutions? Active observation can help you to sense the right moment to make an appropriate contribution. For example, if you were to see a heated conflict developing between two group members, you might cool the argument with the sugges- tion “We can’t solve all these problems at once.” When discussion is at an impasse, you might recommend that members return to the issue later or introduce a new idea to rekindle discussion. If you have listened actively, you might have the opportunity to remind participants of previous decisions that have been forgotten.
Support Group Procedure Discussion groups usually have a wide variety of tasks for members to perform. As an active participant, you should be willing to take on your fair share of assignments. You might be asked to chair a subcommittee; you might be placed in charge of duplicating and circulating committee pamphlets, questionnaires, or supporting materials; the group leader might even request your assistance in preparing the agenda or contacting fellow members. One job participants frequently dislike is recording minutes of committee con- versations and decisions. Keeping accurate records is important, however, especially in formal organizations where documentation of past committee actions is required. If a group has no assigned secretary, it is helpful to rotate this important responsibility among group members. As a participant, you should view tasks as opportunities to help the group complete its goals.
Be Reliable If groups are to function smoothly, members must perform tasks efficiently and on time. Groups are easily sabotaged by irresponsible members who are chronically late, who fail to complete assigned tasks, or who manage assignments carelessly. As a group member, take your responsibilities seriously. Be on time for group meetings, and complete duties conscientiously. Take care of any arrangements that may be required for your portion of a meeting: do necessary research, notify invited guests of the time and place of the meet- ing, and have all handouts or other paperwork ready for circulation. Recognize that irre- sponsibility wastes everyone’s time and energy within a group.
Be Willing to Compromise Group participation is not a game of winners and losers; an effective group experience should exhibit a healthy give-and-take among members. When you are a part of a discus- sion, you must be willing to hear other points of view and accept changes to some of your ideas and proposals. You are not expected to compromise your personal beliefs or
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values, but you should be able to alter your thinking if other suggestions prove to be more workable. Compromising is often viewed as watered-down or weak-willed decision making. But if a group is open to all the facts and genuinely seeks the best alternative, group members will often need to make compromises and modifications before coming to final decisions.
Be Courteous and Respectful Groups cannot function effectively when members are at odds. Participants who con- stantly interrupt one another, launch personal attacks, or exhibit insensitivity are engaging in disrespectful behavior that could eventually lead to the destruction of the group. Although members don’t need to like one another in order to accomplish group objectives, they must demonstrate respect and common courtesy. When another member is talking, give your full attention. Wait until the individual is fin- ished before you contribute an idea or make a suggestion. Respect the background, experience, and expertise of others, and recognize that everyone does not have the same perspective as yours. Be sensitive to those group members who speak English as a second language; they may need help in understanding difficult terms or collo- quial expressions. Respect individual differences, and do not discriminate on the basis of appearance, sexual orientation, gender, race, or religion. Women should not be required to bring coffee or perform secretarial duties because they are female any more than men should be assigned leadership roles or asked to empty the trash simply because they are male. Individuals should not separate or isolate themselves according to race or gender, but place themselves in seating arrangements that will assist and facilitate group procedures and tasks. Recognize that members with special needs, including individuals in wheelchairs or those who are hearing impaired, may require specific arrangements such as accessibility to ramps or proximity to interpreters. Be patient with irrelevancies or inappropriate remarks. Avoid using tactics such as per- sonal attacks or name-calling, which can stimulate anger. Don’t ridicule the ideas of members or jump to conclusions about their decision-making abilities. Know when to exercise silence, and let the leader handle difficulties.
Encourage and Energize Members Groups must work together to solve problems. If an outfielder drops a fly ball, the sec- ond baseman doesn’t laugh at the error; instead, the player tries to help the team by making a face-saving play. When members must complete difficult tasks, give your assistance or make helpful suggestions. Show encouragement to participants who per- form competently. Compliment a member by saying, “Your idea is a good one— maybe we can use it as a basis for the solution.” This type of support builds group cohesiveness and cooperation and helps to energize members to complete assignments. Participation is not a contest of wills: individuals must be able to subordinate personal egos for the overall benefit of the group.
Self-Centered Behavior Behavior that inhibits discussion in a group is often self-centered. A self-centered member uses the group to achieve personal goals and demonstrates a lack of interest in group needs or objectives. Self-centered conduct reroutes discussion and often stops problem solving. In 1948, Kenneth D. Benne and Paul Sheats studied groups extensively to deter- mine some of the positive and negative characteristics exhibited by members within
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small groups. Here is a list of eight negative group behaviors, based on research by Benne and Sheats:8
Negative Self-Centered Behaviors Example
Attacking Displaying aggressive behavior toward group members by making hostile comments (telling nasty jokes or putting down individuals), showing envy, or expressing disapproval.
“You’re dead wrong—you’re dead wrong. Where did you go to school, anyway?”
Blocking Behavior that delays the decision- making process, such as being unreasonable or negative, taking positions in opposition to the group (bringing up issues already decided or postponing issues members want to discuss), or generally failing to cooperate.
“I think we should table the motion—we’ve got a lot more important things to do than to spend our time talking about trivia like this.”
Boasting Attempting to impress group members and to maintain a central position in the group by bragging about professional expertise, personal qualifications, or past accomplishments.
“The company president always calls upon me when he needs a creative idea … in fact, I had lunch with him yesterday and he thought my proposal was an excellent solution.”
Clowning Exhibiting a lack of involvement in the group by telling inappropri- ate jokes, expressing cynicism, advocating recreational objectives, or simply “goofing off.”
“Why don’t we have our next meeting in a bar?”
Confessing Using the group as an encounter or therapy session to fulfill personal needs by relating irrelevant stories, inappropriate personal examples, or boring anecdotes.
“That reminds me of the time my husband and I were having problems in our marriage, and we tried to work them out but…”
Dominating Attempting to display self- importance and superiority by monopolizing or manipulating group discussions.
“This problem should be no surprise to anyone who has listened carefully to my past statements—I have repeatedly predicted this situation.”
Pleading Trying to gain constant sympathy for help or support from group members by expressing insecurity or inadequacy.
“I’ve never been in charge of a subcommittee before—it seems almost overwhelming. Why don’t you ask Tomika?—she’s more experienced.”
Promoting special interests
Behavior that seeks to manipulate a group based upon the needs, pre- judices, or interests of one member.
“Inever functionbefore11a.m.and I can’t meet after 2:30 because of a dentist appointment. Could we plan a lunch meeting instead?”
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Leadership in Small Groups
In order to be an effective leader, one needs to understand some of the theories of small group management and adopt positive leadership behaviors.
Leadership Theories There are many theories concerning group leadership. Some researchers believe that lea- ders possess certain powerful traits, such as physical appearance, speaking ability, or behavior, that determine leadership.9 The trait approach suggests that leaders do not learn or acquire these skills but are born with natural abilities. It can be argued, for example, that Abraham Lincoln, Winston Churchill, Franklin Roosevelt, Martin Luther King, and Mother Teresa possessed natural leadership abilities.
Another theory suggests that power and authority are significant factors in leader- ship.10 Members of a group will respond to a leader’s position, expertise, or job title— “chief executive officer,” “lieutenant,” “heart specialist,” “committee chair,” “florist,” “builder,” or “tax accountant.” According to this theory, members opposing a decision might be persuaded to comply with an argument such as “You may not agree, but this proposal is what the president wants.”
In the 1930s, Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lippitt, and Ralph K. White studied the reactions of ten-year-old boys to three different leadership behaviors over a three-month period. This research, now classic in the field, identified three leadership styles: autocratic, dem- ocratic, and laissez-faire.11 The autocratic leader acted as the chief decision maker of the group, giving orders and commands to group members. Democratic leaders functioned more as coordinators, promoting discussion and stimulating group decision making. The laissez-faire leader style was a leaderless group where members themselves took care of managerial or administrative responsibilities. In this study, researchers found that mem- bers of democratic groups experienced the greatest degree of satisfaction with leaders and group outcomes, while autocratic group members were least satisfied with leadership and group achievements. Members of leaderless groups were pleased with mutual associations and friendships acquired within groups, but participants felt that little was accomplished.
Research updating the Lewin study combines leadership style and personality. Inves- tigators suggest that authoritarian personalities are more “object oriented,” while demo- cratic personalities tend to be more “people oriented.”12
Today, some researchers view effective leadership in terms of adaptability. Arbitrary leadership styles or predetermined traits may not be appropriate in many group situa- tions. Leaders may need to adopt a variety of approaches to meet group needs and to help members accomplish organizational tasks.13
Positive Leadership Behaviors Most of us will be leaders at some time in our lives, either by choice or by necessity. Whether you are a PTA president, a manager, a self-employed professional, a committee chair, or an executor of a will, you need to know some of the skills that contribute to effective leadership. In this section, we examine four positive leadership behaviors that are necessary for successful group management.
Be Prepared A leader cannot simply appear and improvise an agenda for a group meeting; effective leadership requires careful advance planning. A leader must choose an appropriate loca- tion, prepare an agenda, and anticipate potential problems.
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Choose an Appropriate Location Know the size of the meeting area; don’t try to fit a large group into a tiny cubicle or a small group into a huge auditorium. Understand the characteristics of the room, and ask yourself these questions: Are there tables for discus- sion, are there enough chairs for participants, and can all members see one another eas- ily? Will participants need small tables, whiteboards, or flipcharts? Are screens, electrical outlets, computer projectors, connecting cables, and other equipment available to sup- port laptop computers for PowerPoint or other software presentations? Do invited guests have any special room requirements? Is the meeting located near noisy traffic areas, or can the room be closed for privacy? Is the area flexible enough to accommodate any rear- rangement that may be necessary during the meeting? Do you have a cell phone or Blackberry for messages, and is a fax machine, computer, or DVD/CD recorder available to document or transmit committee discussions and actions? Make any arrangements required for scheduling the room. Be sure that the room will be unlocked and set up for the discussion on the day of the meeting.
Circulate an Agenda As a leader you will need to prepare an agenda of the major topics to be covered during a meeting. Contact group participants to determine topics included in their presentations, and remind invited experts of their meeting obligations. Have the agenda and all supporting documents duplicated and circulated to the group well in advance of the meeting, so that participants are prepared for the discussion and can notify you if changes are necessary. Be certain that the agenda clearly identifies the date, time, and place of the meeting. If any guests may be unfamiliar with the location, include clear directions to the meeting place.
Anticipate Potential Problems If you have smokers as well as nonsmokers in the group, be sure that everyone understands the policies governing smoking in the build- ing or area where meetings are conducted. If there are no policies or regulations, establish clear guidelines to alleviate conflicts. To stimulate a positive discussion, it may be helpful to place shy members near more talkative participants or to separate members who constantly argue. Members with disabilities or special needs may require assistance with wheelchairs, interpreters, or readers. You may also need to handle potentially disruptive members by assigning specific tasks to keep them occu- pied. As a leader, you should be in contact with members a day or two before the meeting to determine if there are significant problems that could affect discussion and alter planning: members with schedule conflicts might need to arrive late or leave early; members with extreme personal emergencies may ask to be excused or replaced; members having complicated group assignments may need extended dead- lines; members discovering additional information may request further group discus- sion. Knowledge of potential problems and awareness of special circumstances can help you manage a discussion smoothly.
Keep to Time Limits Meetings should start and end on schedule. Tardiness not only wastes everyone’s time but also conveys disorganization and contributes to member hostility. Individuals who are angry because a meeting began twenty-five minutes late will not be in a construc- tive mood for decision making. Leaders should be prompt and expect members to be on time as well. If a meeting is scheduled to end at a specific time, the leader should do everything possible to close off discussion. When a meeting drags beyond the clos- ing time, members convey negative feedback by stacking papers into neat piles, watch- ing the clock, or squirming uncomfortably. A leader should be sensitive enough to realize that little will be accomplished by keeping participants overtime. Keeping to
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schedules can increase the satisfaction of group members and contribute to efficient problem solving.
Be Organized Begin the meeting by announcing any changes in the published agenda. Remember that agendas are not fixed in stone; they contain topic outlines designed to serve group needs. A leader who is willing to be flexible and make a few changes builds cohesiveness and improves the climate for decision making. A brief procedural comment can convey sen- sitivity to individuals: “We’ll consider item 3 on the agenda first—Julie is here from the daycare center. Because she has to leave to supervise the children, it would help her if we could deal with daycare issues first. Do you have any objections?”
Guide group members skillfully through the agenda. If the agenda is long, set time limits for specific items so that the group will cover all topics efficiently. If issues remain unresolved, establish additional subcommittees or work units to complete analysis and problem solving.
Help members seek information and analyze problems. Promote decision making by asking questions or interjecting thoughts, such as “Has that problem occurred before?” or “Maybe we need to distribute a questionnaire.” Move members toward solution of issues by asking for alternatives and requesting data to verify solutions—“Has this solution been successful in other places?” Work for consensus on issues. Groups don’t need to vote on everything; constant hand-raising or balloting can disrupt the flow of discussion. Reserve formal votes for final decisions or solutions.
Communicate effectively when you manage a discussion. Identify agenda topics clearly. Refer to exhibits, page numbers, or supporting documents distinctly so that mem- bers can easily follow what is being discussed. Be open to procedural questions or com- ments from members; let participants know that you want them to move forward toward solutions.
At the end of the meeting, clarify group tasks, summarize individual goals, and define future objectives. Set the time and place of the next meeting. Make sure the group feels a sense of accomplishment with the discussion, commitment to goals, and awareness of future responsibilities.
Know When to Intervene No theory or rule can tell you the exact moment you should do or say something as a leader of a group. It often takes many leadership experiences for an individual to develop a group “sense” or intuition regarding appropriate leadership behavior. There are, how- ever, several ways a leader can intervene constructively during a group discussion. A good leader can resolve conflicts, provide emotional support, clarify and summarize, and demonstrate flexibility.
Resolve Conflicts Conflicts are inevitable when group members are involved in the decision-making process. Participants can become fixed in their attitudes or take posi- tions they feel the group must adopt. While disagreement can stimulate debate among participants, serious conflict can damage the survival and success of a group. The leader must handle major conflicts carefully to allow the group to complete its objec- tives. If a serious argument develops between two members or opposing forces, the leader should identify areas of common ground. If none exist, the leader can then restate each argument, identifying its relative strengths and weaknesses. When review- ing the conflicting positions, a leader should give equal time to each argument and avoid taking sides. Being fair will strengthen the leader’s position; showing partiality
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will compromise and undermine the leader’s effectiveness. If no agreement can be reached, the leader should define areas of progress, honestly acknowledge unresolved conflict, and move the discussion to other topics. Disputes can often be settled at a later time when emotions have cooled.14
Provide Emotional Support There are occasions in a discussion when a leader must pro- vide members with emotional support in order to maintain a positive climate for decision making. New members who are meeting with a well-established group for the first time may need reassurance and special courtesy to feel secure, comfortable, and less isolated. Group members may experience hurt feelings after engaging in disputes, suffer humiliation after losing arguments, or need encouragement when not participating. A comment such as “That’s an excellent idea—but it may work better in a different situation” might help a member to save face in a discussion, or a statement like “That’s a great idea—why don’t you expand on it?” might encourage a member to participate more actively.
Clarify and Summarize A good discussion is dynamic—there is a great deal of give-and-take. Although dynamism is a positive force in a discussion, a leader must occa- sionally summarize the comments of group members who relate incomplete information, make disjointed remarks, or draw vague conclusions. Summaries help members follow the discussion easily, keep the discussion from backtracking, and clarify group decisions. A good summary is brief and clear, providing an accurate synopsis of a participant’s con- tribution or a group’s decision. A leader who comments, “Devon, I think you’re asking us to compare the data, is that right?” is diplomatically summing up Devon’s remarks, while at the same time checking the accuracy of the comment with the member. If the leader is unable to comprehend the content of a member’s remarks due to language, accent, or other cultural barrier, the leader should be careful not to embarrass or humili- ate the individual. A considerate leader finds creative ways of clarifying a difficult con- tribution, such as obtaining a written outline, talking privately with the member during a meeting break, or asking for help from other members who are able to translate or sum- marize more easily.
Demonstrate Flexibility A flexible and observant leader knows when to intervene and when to be silent. If a conversation gets off track, the leader should step in to check the irrelevancies. When a participant monopolizes the conversation, the leader should guide the discussion to other members. The leader needs to quiet the group clown who con- stantly engages in inappropriate humor or to gently reprimand the member who fre- quently interrupts others. Uncomfortable group silence may require the leader to activate discussion, while a hostile exchange may necessitate leader mediation. Not all situations, however, require intervention by the leader. A participant raising a point that seems irrelevant may, if allowed to continue, contribute important insights into an issue. A spontaneous joke related at the right moment can reduce tension and move an immobile conversation forward. Group silences can be necessary to help members think through ideas. A lively argument can be a productive force in solving a problem.
The style a leader adopts is often determined by the needs of the group as well as the requirements of the moment. Well-motivated participants who are experienced at discussion may require less intervention by the leader, while inexperienced members may require more guidance. A discussion that is moving along effectively may actually be impeded by an autocratic leader who tries to interject ideas or impose solutions. At the same time, members who are floundering may be frustrated with a democratic leader who provides little direction. During the life of a group, a combination of democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire leadership styles may be necessary.
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The Dysfunctional Group>>> Task: Members of the personnel department are to write specifications for
new offices in a new building complex. Leader: Ana Group Members: Juan, Lakesha, Min, Sarah Meeting Time: 1:30 p.m. Place: Conference Room 1
Members started drifting toward the conference room at about 1:40 p.m. Juan was the first to arrive; then came Ana, several minutes later. The members found the confer- ence room already occupied with five people from graphics who were having a departmental meeting. Juan and Ana argued as they stood in the hall outside:
Ana: These people have stolen our meet- ing room. We’ll just have to tell them to leave.
Juan: I already tried that, but they said they’d requested the room four weeks ago. They showed me the signed approval form. Did you screw up again, Ana?
Ana: Don’t tell me I screwed up. You were the one who was supposed to take care of the form, weren’t you?
Juan: I beg your pardon. That’s never been my responsibility. I don’t do forms, remember? (Lakesha enters)
Ana: Hi, Lakesha. You’re late again.
Lakesha: I’m really sorry. I had lunch downtown with a friend, and there was just too much traffic, and I couldn’t make it back in time. I’m so very sorry. Why’s everybody out in the hall?
Juan: Min or somebody messed up and forgot the sacred yellow form.
Lakesha: Well, why don’t we meet in my office?
Ana: Oh gosh, your office is so teeny, there’s only room for two people. Mine’s
so much more spacious and has a better view.
Juan: Yeah, the dumpster looks great when the sun is shining.
Lakesha: (Ignoring Juan and insisting) No, really, why don’t we meet in my office? We can all crowd in. It’s kinda cozy, I’ve got a coffee pot, and anyway I could use some company—I’ve had such a bad day. Please? Please?
Ana: Oh, all right. But there’s only room for three chairs in Lakesha’s office. What’ll we do if Min and Sarah show up?
Juan: Don’t worry, they won’t show up. And if they do, they’ll just have to stand. Serves ’em right for being late.
Ana: OK, let’s go.
Lakesha: Shouldn’t we leave a note or something on the door for Sarah and Min to let them know where we are?
Ana: Naw. We’ve waited long enough for them. They’re late anyway so let them have to hunt a little to find us!
Juan: You’re learning, Ana.
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Special Discussion Formats
There are a variety of special discussion groups, each with a different format and func- tion. In this section we will consider focus groups, symposiums, panels, and forums as well as buzz groups and role-playing groups.15
Focus Groups Focus groups represent target populations that are assembled to test arguments, ideas, and products. Focus groups do not usually make formal presentations, but their members
The Functional Group>>> Task: Members are to write specifications for their new graphics departmental offices in the new building complex.
Leader: Damian Group Members: Suresh, Eduardo, Kyle, Tanya Meeting Time: 1:30 p.m. Place: Conference Room 1
Damian arrived about 1:15 p.m. to make sure the conference room was set up properly with enough chairs and work tables to accommodate group tasks. He placed folders at each member’s table containing additional information needed for the meeting. Suresh and Eduardo arrived at 1:25. Tanya came in a couple minutes later and told Damian that she had received an e-mail from Kyle who said that he would be a few minutes late because of a child-care problem. The meeting began at 1:32 p.m.
Damian: Well, I’m glad everyone’s going to be here today. Suresh, why don’t we start with you, since you’re the first item on the agenda. By the way, since it’s after lunch, I brought dessert for everyone; so please, help yourself to the cookies in the middle of the table.
Suresh: Thanks. Gee, more calories. Everybody keeps bringing food. I’m going to have to go on a diet after these meetings are over! OK, I’ve got a lot of information that I want to pass around to each of you.
Eduardo: Do you need some help?
Suresh: Sure.Thatwouldbe great.Thanks.
Damian: If you and maybe Tanya could distribute these spec sheets, then I’ll circulate the rest of the documents. (Kyle enters) Hi, Kyle. Thanks for the message. We’re just getting started. Suresh is passing
around some documents from her research. Take some cookies.
Kyle: Thanks. (There is a knock on the door)
Tanya: I’ll get it. (Answers the door to the conference room) It’s Juan from Person- nel. He claims that their department has reserved this room for their meeting, and they want us to leave.
Damian: (To Tanya) Show Juan this yellow room confirmation form I have here in my folder. I reserved this room a month ago. Tell Juan that his group needs to send in a written request for the confer- ence room in advance of the requested day. (To Suresh) Are you ready, Suresh?
Suresh: Yes. Does everyone have five spec sheets? All right, let’s start with the first recommendation from our subcommittee.
374 Chapter 19 • Speaking in Groups
are brought together and often paid for their informal discussions and participation. Law- yers employ focus groups to test the strength of possible arguments they want to use to persuade jurors. They assemble a cross-section of four to six people who represent poten- tial jurors and then listen to their discussions and reactions to “practice” arguments. Advertisers try out potential TV sales pitches to small groups of consumers to determine how effective their ad campaigns might be. TV news media such as CNN, Fox News, or ABC bring groups of voters together to listen and react to presidential debates or major presidential speeches. Comedians test jokes on invited audiences to find out if their humor is really funny. And businesses test new products on selected groups to determine if consumers would buy their products.
The Symposium The symposium is a highly structured group of about two to six experts who reveal their views and perspectives on some aspect of a problem. Participants deliver prepared speeches to an audience but do not discuss issues informally. A chairperson usually iden- tifies the question, introduces each member, and explains how the meeting will proceed. Participants are usually seated at a table facing the audience while one member speaks from a lectern. An example of a symposium would be a convention program in which three renowned scientists report differing results from similar fusion experiments.
The Panel A panel is an informal discussion conducted by three to six individuals in front of an audience. One person acts as moderator, regulating participation and guiding the discus- sion through the problem-solving sequence. Panel members are often experts who speak from their own experience and knowledge. Participants do not deliver prepared speeches in a panel discussion; members make one point at a time, frequently interrupting each other and commenting upon ideas presented by other individuals. Panelists are often
In a panel discussion, participants
exchange ideas, analyze issues, and
explore solutions to problems with
the guidance of a leader or
moderator AP
Ph ot
o/ Je
nn ife
r Pa
ge
Special Discussion Formats 375
seated in a semicircle or a similar arrangement so that members can see one another dur- ing the discussion. Panels present issues and examine problems to inform and educate the audience. An example of a panel would be the nation’s chief law enforcement offi- cers considering America’s war on terrorism.
The Forum A forum is a public discussion in which all members of an audience have the opportu- nity to ask questions, make statements, or deliver speeches about issues. Because so many individuals are involved, a leader is needed to set the ground rules for the discussion and to regulate participation. The seating should be arranged so that all audience members can see everyone easily. The Senate and House of Representatives function as forums. In legislative forums, participation is guided by a speaker or president who operates according to strict rules of parliamentary procedure. In more informal town meetings or council hearings, moderators might allocate specific time limits for individual contribu- tions. Forums are often used in combination with other formats such as symposium- forums or panel-forums. When panelists have completed discussion or symposium parti- cipants have presented speeches, the audience becomes involved in the discussion.
Buzz Groups Buzz groups are often used in large organizations to involve many people in the decision-making process. Individuals are divided into small units or “buzz groups” of three to eight members. These smaller groups are then given specific tasks to accomplish or issues to examine within a time limit. Groups then report the results of their discus- sions to the larger organization through elected or appointed leaders. For example, a company could ask its 200 employees to discuss the topic “What can be done to improve productivity?” and divide into twenty-five groups of eight individuals each. Using this method, a large number of ideas could be generated by many people in a short time.
Role-Playing Groups In role-playing, group members assume characters or personalities to portray relationships and interactions among individuals. Members act out conflicts between parents and chil- dren, criminals and victims, or supervisors and employees to reveal dilemmas and to por- tray inner turmoil. Role-playing experiences are used effectively in encounter groups to stimulate discussion and to help members with decision making and problem solving.
Summary Small groups are characterized by shared goals, several individuals engaged in face-to-face interactions over a period of time, and a leader. Types of groups include task, encounter, and social groups. Issues for discussion are phrased as questions of fact, value, or policy. Groups go through different stages of change and development during the life of the group. Problem solving involves choosing a systematic agenda based upon John Dewey’s method of “reflective thinking.” When involved in group discussions, members should adopt group-centered behavior and avoid negative, self-centered conduct. Although there are many leadership theories, recent research emphasizes the need for leaders to demonstrate flexibility in managing a group. Special discussion formats include the focus group, symposium, panel, forum, buzz groups, and role-playing grous.16
376 Chapter 19 • Speaking in Groups
Skill Builders 1. Divide into a small group of at least four members in your speech class. Choose a
topic from current events or contemporary issues (see the suggested topics in the back of the text). Meet and communicate with your group several times outside of class to complete the following assignment: a. Phrase the issue as one of the three discussion questions. b. Follow the eight steps of the problem-solving process presented in this chapter. c. Present the issue to your class.
2. Keep a journal describing the process of decision making in the preceding group assignment. Write daily entries of your perceptions in the following areas: a. Describe the problems that occurred in your group
(1) Interpersonal conflict (2) Unreliable or irresponsible behavior (3) Inability to keep to tasks (4) Ineffective leadership or membership.
b. Explain how Tuckman’s four stages of group development impacted your group. c. Describe your contributions toward solving the group issue and resolving any
difficulties that occurred. d. Discuss your overall satisfaction with group process, leadership, and outcomes.
Building a Speech Online>>> Now that you’ve read Chapter nineteen, use your Online Resources for Building a Speech for quick access to the electronic study resources that accompany this text. You can access your Online Resources at http://login.cengage.com, using the access code that came with your book or that you bought online at http://www. cengagebrain.com. Your Online Resources gives you access to Interactive Video Activities, the book’s companion website, Speech Builder Express 3.0, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids, including a digital glossary and review quizzes.
Special Discussion Formats 377
Notes
Chapter 1 1. Shannon, Claude E., and Warren Weaver. The Mathematical
Theory of Communication. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1949.
2. Mortensen, C. David. Communication: The Study of Human Interaction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972, p. 14.
3. See Bucher, Marcel. “No Holy War.” Swiss News Dec. 2001: 29; and Dergham, Raghida. “You Won’t Win with Words Alone.” Washington Post 14 Oct. 2001: B1.
4. Reagan, Ronald. “Mr. Gorbachev, Tear Down This Wall.” Speeches That Changed the World. Ed. Mark Hawkins-Dady. London: Quercus Publishing Plc, 2010. Print.
5. See “Teresa, Mother.” Current Biography, Biography Reference Bank Select. Web. 21 Feb. 2011 and “Blessed Mother Teresa.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2011. Web. 21 Feb. 2011.
6. Mandela, Nelson. “An Ideal for Which I Am Prepared to Die.” Speeches That Changed the World. Ed. Mark Hawkins-Dady. London: Quercus Publishing Plc, 2010. Print.
7. “Angel’s Hand to an Aids Victim.” News of the World. [London] 26 Aug. 2007. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 11 Nov. 2010.
8. “Condoleezza Rice,” Biography Reference Bank, 2010. Online. The H.W. Wilson Company. Biography Reference Bank Select Edition. 11 Nov. 2010.
9. “Bono.” Biography Reference Bank 2009. Online. The H.W. Wilson Company. Biography Reference Bank Select Edition. 10 Nov. 2010.
10. “Christopher Reeve: Biography.” Christopher and Dana Reeve Foundation. Web. 11 Nov. 2010.
11. Fox, Michael J. Biography Reference Bank. 2009. Biography Reference Bank Select. Web. 2 Feb. 2011.
12. “Elie Wiesel.” The Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity. Web. 11 Nov. 2010.
13. “First Lady Michelle Obama.” The White House. 10 Nov. 2010. Web. 11 Nov. 2010.
Chapter 2 1. “Fears.” Conducted by Bruskin Associates for Whittle Commu-
nications, Inc., 1986. 2. Jones, W. H. “Situations Causing the Most Anxiety.” New York
Times [New York] 18 Dec. 1984: C1. “Situational Factors in Shyness.” American Psychological Association, Toronto. Used by permission.
3. Johnston, William Arnold, and Deborah Ann Percy. “Stage Fright Tops the Marquee.” Phi Kappa Phi Forum 90: 3 (Fall 2010): 24. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 27 Dec. 2010.
4. Manchester, William. The Death of a President, November 20– November 25. New York: Harper & Row, 1967, p. 85.
5. Selye, S. Hans. Stress Without Distress. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1974, p. 38.
6. McCroskey, James C. “Oral Communication Apprehension: A Summary of Recent Theory and Research.” Human Communi- cation Research 4 (Fall 1977): 78–96.
7. McCroskey, James C. “The Implementation of a Large-Scale Program of Systematic Desensitization for Communication Apprehension.” The Speech Teacher 21 (1972): 255–264. This article provides a detailed description of the process that McCroskey followed to help people who experienced high levels of communication apprehension.
8. Johnston, William Arnold, and Deborah Ann Percy. “Stage Fright Tops the Marquee.” Phi Kappa Phi Forum 90: 3 (Fall 2010): 24. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 27 Dec. 2010.
9. Ellis, Albert, and Robert Harper. A New Guide to Rational Liv- ing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1975, pp. 102–112.
10. Glaser, Susan R. “Oral Communication Apprehension and Avoidance: The Current Status of Treatment Research.” Com- munication Education 30 (October 1981): 330.
11. Maultsby, Maxie C., Jr. “Emotional Reeducation.” Handbook of Rational-Emotive Therapy, Albert Ellis and Russell Grieger, eds. New York: Springer, 1977, pp. 231–247.
12. Elliot, James. From speaking notes used in speech class, Carroll Community College, 1989. Used by permission.
13. Weekes, Claire. Peace from Nervous Suffering. New York: Hawthorne Books, 1972, pp. 69–73.
14. Seligmann, Jean, Tessa Namuth, and Mark Miller. “Drowning on Dry Land.” Newsweek, 23 May 1994: 64.
15. Dusek-Girdano, Dorothy. “Stress Reduction through Physical Activity.” Controlling Stress and Tension, Daniel A. Girdano and George S. Everly Jr., eds. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1979, pp. 220–231.
16. Zaslow, Jeffrey. “Keeping Your Foot Away From Your Mouth.” Wall Street Journal 7 July 2010: D.1. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 28 Dec. 2010 and “Texts of Statements by U.S. and Soviets on Jest.” New York Times 16 Aug. 1984: A4. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 29 Dec. 2010.
Chapter 3 1. Interview with Candita Chapman. Community College of
Baltimore County, Catonsville Campus, Catonsville, MD, 12 May 2005.
2. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. “Number of Jobs Held, Labor Market Activity, and Earnings Growth Among Younger Baby Boomers: Results from More Than Two Decades of a Longitudinal Survey.” 27 Aug. 2002. 6 May 2008. <http://www.bls.gov/nls/>.
3. Garonzik, Jamie. “A Career in Anthropology.” Informative, de- scriptive speech presented in speech class, Community College
378
of Baltimore County, Catonsville, MD, 2008. Used by permission.
Chapter 4 1. See Poniewozik, James. “Who Can Say What?” Time 23 Apr.
2007: 32; Stuever, Hank. “Question Celebrity.” Washington Post 17 Dec. 2006: W5; and Padget, Jonathan. “The Bionic Wo- man’s Toughest Mission: Can She Get Her Gay Fan Base to Overlook Isaiah Washington? Stay Tuned....” Washington Post 9 Sept. 2007: M5, and Zaslow, Jeffrey. “Keeping Your Foot Away From Your Mouth.” Wall Street Journal 7 July 2010. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 28 Dec. 2010.
2. Baster, Roy P., ed. Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, Vol. I. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1953, p. 273.
3. Stanton, William J. Fundamentals of Marketing. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981, pp. 35–55, 155–156.
4. This definition is partially based on a contribution from E. Joseph Lamp, professor of speech, Anne Arundel Community College, Arnold, MD.
5. See Lipton, Eric. “Giuliani Will Return Diminished, But Not Finished, Associates Say.” New York Times 1 Feb. 2008: B1; and Browne, J. Zamgba. “Kerik’s Nomination Withdrawal Sparks Support and Criticism.” New York Amsterdam News 16 Dec. 2004: 4.
6. See Goodspeed, Peter. “The House That Nancy Built: Why Speaker Pelosi Has Been Vilified by Republicans and Shunned by Democrats in the Mid-term Elections.” National Post [Ontario] 28 Oct. 2010: A3. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 4 Jan. 2011; Simon, Richard. “Election 2010: Assessing the Results.” 4 Nov. 2010: A17. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 4 Jan. 2011; “We Don’t Want This Health Care Reform.” St. Petersburg Times 12 Mar. 2010, ProQuest Newsstand, ProQuest. Web. 2 Feb. 2011; Seib, Gerald F. “Economy and Politics; Capital Journal: Palin Will Be a Republican Force Regardless of Election’s Outcome.” Wall Street Journal 24 Oct. 2010: 11. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 4 Jan. 2011; and Draper, Robert. “The Rogue Room.” New York Times Magazine 21 Nov. 2010: 43+. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 4 Jan. 2011.
7. Littlejohn, Stephen W., and David M. Jabusch. Persuasive Transactions. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1987, p. 54.
8. Hugenberg, Lawrence W., and Donald D. Yoder. Speaking in the Modern Organization. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1985, p. 182.
9. Littlejohn and Jabusch, p. 46. 10. Littlejohn and Jabusch, p. 56. 11. Maslow, Abraham H. Motivation and Personality. New York:
Harper & Row, 1970, pp. 15–22. 12. This section on audience needs and motivations uses the
work of Holtzman, Paul D. The Psychology of Speakers’ Audi- ences. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1970, pp. 50–63; and Maslow, Abraham H. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper & Row, 1970, pp. 46–47. Both authors identify spe- cific needs, and both discuss hierarchies of needs or values. The authors differ in their approaches, however. Holtzman examines multiple values, whereas Maslow uses a five-level hierarchy of needs. Holtzman believes that audiences set pri- orities based on their goals; Maslow believes that people cannot achieve higher needs until they have fulfilled lower levels of needs.
13. I am grateful to the following students who gave permission to use their motivational appeals as examples in this section: Evan Feinberg, Colleen V. Deitrich, HeatherHay, Kristine Ozgar, and J. Luke Snow.
14. Deitrich, Colleen V. “Mandatory Retirement Should Be Illegal.” Speech to convince presented in speech class, Carroll Commu- nity College, Westminster, MD, 1991. Used by permission.
15. This chart is synthesized from a larger table in Samovar, Larry A., Richard E. Porter, and Edwin R. McDaniel. Intercultural Communication, 11th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson-Wadsworth, 2006, p. 181.
16. Bosley, Debbie. “More Lenient Sentences for Postpartum Moms.” Speech to convince presented in speech class, Carroll Commu- nity College, Westminster, MD, 1992. Used by permission.
17. Kilduff, James. “Vegetarianism Is a Healthier Lifestyle.” Speech to convince presented in speech class, Carroll Community College, Westminster, MD, 1989. Used by permission.
18. Dodd, Carley H. Dynamics of Intercultural Communication, 4th ed. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark, 1995, p. 69.
19. Riche, Martha Farnsworth. “We’re All Minorities Now.” American Demographics. Oct. 1991: 26–33; and Edmondson, Brad. “American Diversity.” American Demographics Desk Refer- ence July 1991: 20–1.
20. Ricks, D. Big Business Blunders: Mistakes in International Market- ing. Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin, 1983, p. 41, cited by Adler, Ronald B. and Neil Towne. Looking Out/Looking In, 9th ed. Ft. Worth: Harcourt Brace, 1999, p. 219.
21. Alexander, Benjamin H. “The Uncritical Acceptance Today.” Vital Speeches 15 July 1992: 605.
22. Zaslow, Jeffrey. “Keeping Your Foot Away From Your Mouth.” Wall Street Journal. 7 July 2010: D.1. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 28 Dec. 2010.
23. Adapted from Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 25th ed., s.v. “Pancreas,” W. B. Saunders Co., 1994.
24. Nicholas N. J., Jr. “The Boob Tube Gets Smart.” Vital Speeches 15 June 1991: 535.
25. Iacocca, L. A. “In Order To.” Vital Speeches 1 Oct. 1987: 745. 26. Callahan, Daniel. “Thomas Jefferson.” Speech to inform pre-
sented in speech class, Catonsville Community College, Catonsville, MD, 1990. Used by permission.
27. Scheb, John M. “The American Patriot.” Vital Speeches 1 April 1991: 377.
28. The Carter “cardigan speech” received much favorable reaction, although there were news accounts that reported some negative feedback to the sweater. Compare “Warm Words from Jimmy Cardigan.” Time 14 Feb. 1977: 18 to “Pleasures and Perils of Populism.” Time 21 March 1977: 25.
29. Stanton, p. 45. 30. I wish to thank Marie Skane, associate professor of mathematics
at Catonsville Community College, who provided me with in- formation about the SPSS computer program.
Chapter 5 1. International Listening Association. “Listening Factoids.” 26 August
2002. <http://www.listen.org/pages/factoids.html>. 2. Barker, Larry, Karen Gladney, Renee Edwards, Frances Holley,
and Connie Gaines. “An Investigation of Proportional Time Spent in Various Communication Activities by College Stu- dents.” Journal of Applied Communication Research 8(1980): 101–109.
3. De Chello, Christine. “The Art of Listening: As Important as the Power of Persuasion in Effective Telecommunications.” Telemarketing & Call Center Solutions March 1997: 74.
4. See Johnston, David, and Jim Dwyer. “Files Show Warnings Were More Dire and Persistent.” New York Times 18 April
Notes 379
2004: 1.1; and Duffy, Michael et al. “How to Fix Our Intelli- gence.” Time 26 April, 2004: 26.
5. See Jordan, Mary, and Sue Anne Pressley. “Gruesome Contest to Raise Dead Led to Koresh’s Takeover of Cult.” Washington Post 7 March 1993: A3; and Gotschall, Mary G. “A Marriage Made in Hell.” National Review 4 April 1994: 57.
6. Koehler, Carol. “Mending the Body by Lending an Ear: The Healing Power of Listening.” Vital Speeches of the Day 15 June 1998: 543–544.
7. As reported in O’Neil, John. “When Patients Have Their Say.” New York Times. 1 October 2002: F6.
8. As reported in Rosenbaum, Bernard L. “Rx for Better Doctors.” Training & Development Journal August 1989: 77–80.
9. Rosenbaum. 10. Wolvin, Andrew D., and Carolyn Gwynn Coakley. Listening,
5th ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 1996, pp. 69–96. 11. Wolvin, and Coakley, p. 69. 12. Two sources were used as the basis for this section: Wolf, Flor-
ence I., and Nadine C. Marsnik. Perceptive Listening, 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1992, pp. 88–103; and Wolvin, Andrew D., and Carolyn Gwynn Coakley. Listening, 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996, Part II, pp. 151–380. The authors of Perceptive Listening present five kinds of listening that include “self-listening.” In Listening, the writers identify five areas but include a different type they call “comprehensive listening.” The four listening types presented in this chapter are those most commonly identified throughout the literature.
13. This list of common barriers to listening is synthesized from two sources: Hirsch, Robert O. Listening: A Way to Process Informa- tion Aurally. Dubuque, IA: Gorsuch Scarisbrick, 1979, pp. 36–41; and Nichols, Ralph G. Are You Listening? New York: McGraw-Hill, 1957, pp. 104–112.
14. Conrad, Peter. Television, the Medium and Its Manners. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982. Conrad makes some devastating and thought-provoking attacks on the invasion of television into our lives. “Talk on television isn’t meant to be listened to. The words merely gain for us the time to look at the talker. The talk shows are theatres of behavior, not dialogues” (p. 48).
15. Frisk, Bob. “Effective Listening a Forgotten Art that Can Open Many Doors.” Daily Herald [Arlington Heights, Illinois] 11 May 2007:1. ProQuest Newspapaers. Web. 23 Nov. 2010.
16. Gup, Ted. “My Big Hang-Up.” Smithsonian 41.6 (Oct. 2010): 100. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 22 Nov. 2010.
17. CNN.com/US. “‘Bring it down’ was about car, students’ lawyer says.” 15 Sept. 2002. <http://www.cnn.com/2002/US/09/15/fla. terror.students/> [2 April 2003].
18. Used by permission of the Mathematics Department, Toronto Board of Education.
19. Kelley, Charles M. “Empathic Listening,” in Trent, Jimmie D., Judith S. Trent, and Daniel J. O’Neill. Concepts in Communica- tion. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1973, p. 270.
20. Norton, Robert W., and Loyd S. Pettegrew. “Attentiveness as a Style of Communication: A Structural Analysis.” Communica- tion Monographs 46 March 1979: 13–16.
Chapter 6 1. Edwards, Steven. “Madoff Gets 150 Years.” Leader Post [Regina,
Sask.] 30 June, 2009: D4. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 22 Nov. 2010; and Zweig, Jason. “The Intelligent Investor: How Bernie Madoff Made Smart Folks Look Dumb.” The Wall Street
Journal. 13 Dec. 2008: B1 ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 16 Nov. 2010.
2. See Pennington, Bill, Thayer Evans, and Michael S. Schmidt. “Steroid Report Depicts a Two-Player Domino Effect.” New York Times 16 Dec. 2007: 11, and “Baseball Blues.” Scholastic News 7 Jan. 2008: 2.
3. McCoy, Brian. “You Must Work Really Hard.” Vital Speeches July 2007: 321–322.
4. Cooper, Lane, ed. The Rhetoric of Aristotle. New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, 1960, p. 9.
5. Cooper, p. 47. 6. As cited in Colson, Charles W. “Right or Wrong in Today’s
Society.” Vital Speeches 1 July 1991: 561. 7. I thank Paul S. Cunningham, professor emeritus of history and
geography at Catonsville Community College, who provided valuable assistance for this section on history and ethics.
8. “Jury Convicts Tom DeLay on Money Laundering Charges.” The Brattleboro Reformer [Vermont] 25 Nov. 2010. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 29 Nov. 2010.
9. Simon, Richard. “Rangel Draws Ethics Censure; He Is the First House Member in Three Decades to Receive Such Sanction.” Los Angeles Times 3 Dec. 2010: A.1. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 6 Dec. 2010.
10. See Schmidt, Michael S. “Jones Hands Over Her Olympic Medals.” New York Times 9 Oct. 2007: D4; and “Jones Pleads Guilty, Admits Lying About Steroids.” MSNBC 5 Oct. 2007, 9 Feb. 2008 <http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21138883/>.
11. Davenport, Jim. “South Carolina House Reprimands Governor.” Houston Chronicle 14 J Jan. 2010: 4. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 29 Nov. 2010.
12. See Cohen, Richard. “Oprah’s Grand Delusion.” Washington Post 17 Jan. 2006: A17; and Kurtz, Howard. “Oprah Throws the Book at Herself.” Washington Post 27 Jan. 2006: A1.
13. MacDonald, G. Jeffrey. “‘It’s All Good, Boss!’ Ethical Lapses in High Places Stem in Part from Lack of Honest Feedback.” Christian Science Monitor 6 July 2005: 15.
14. Braden, Waldo W., ed. Representative American Speeches, 1974–1975. New York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1975, p. 52.
15. Lacayo, Richard, and Amanda Ripley. “Persons of the Year.” Time 30 Dec. 2002/6 Jan. 2003: 32–33.
16. “Joseph R. Biden.” Current Biography. 2009, Print. The H.W. Wilson Company. Biography Reference Bank Select Edition. 29 Nov. 2010; Borger, Gloria. “On Trial: Character.” U.S. News & World Report (28 Sept. 1987): 26. LexisNexis Academic. Web. 18 Nov. 2010; Corry, John. “Senator Biden’s Drama.” The New York Times (21 Sept. 1987): C18. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 18 Nov. 2010; and “Biden to Quit Campaign.” The Windsor Star (23 Spet.1987): A4 ProQuest Research Library. Web. 18 Nov. 2010.
17. Goldman, Russell. “9/11 Yarn A Web of Lies.” ABCNews 27 Sept. 2007, 15 Feb. 2008 <http://www.abcnews.go.com/US/ story?id=3662119&page=1>.
18. Saltzman, Joe. “Lying as America’s Pastime.” USA Today July 2006. ProQuest Newspapers. ProQuest. CCBC-Catonsville Library, Baltimore. 10 Feb. 2008.
19. Harvis, John F., and Dan Balz. “Clinton More Forcefully Denies Having had Affair or Urging Lies.” Washington Post 27 Jan. 1998: A1.
20. Fermino, Jennifer. “Liar Pol’s Polls Get Viet-Cooked-Loses Big Connecticut Lead Amid New War-Story Woe.” New York Post 20 May 2010: 7. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 29 Nov. 2010.
380 Notes
21. Terhune, Chad, and Carrick Mottenkamp. “Cleaning Up: For Some Workers, Storms in Florida Rain Opportunity; A $1 Bil- lion Job Attracts Men with Trucks and Tricks; Feds Try to Prevent Fraud; A Hauler Protests His Score.” Wall Street Journal 15 Sept. 2004: A1.
22. “Nifong Surrenders License; Prosecutor of Duke Lacrosse Rape Case Disbarred for Conduct.” The Sun (Baltimore) 17 June 2003: 3A.
23. Thomas, Jo. “‘No Sympathy’ for Dead Children, McVeigh Says.” New York Times 29 March 2001: A12.
24. Gatehouse, Jonathon. “All We Hoped For.” Maclean’s 24 Dec. 2001: 48–50.
25. Toosi, Nahai. “Iranian President Ahmadinejad Questions 9/11, Holocaust.” Chicago Citizen 26 Sept. 2007: 9.
26. Richter, Paul. “U.S. Tries to Contain Damage; WikiLeaks Cables Reverberate in Global Hot Spots.” Sun [Baltimore] 30 Nov. 2010: A8. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.
27. See “Stars Light Up Capital for Memorial Day.” The Washington Post 29 May 2010, Washington Post, ProQuest, Web. 14 Mar. 2011, and “Brian Corman, Columbia Valedictorian, Plagiarized Patton Oswalt in Graduation Speech.” Huffington Post 5 May 2010. Web. 7 Mar. 2011.
28. Mydans, Seth. “Four Held in Attack at Riots, Outset.” New York Times 13 May 1992: A20.
29. Townley, Preston. “Business Ethics.” Vital Speeches 15 Jan. 1992: 209.
30. These guidelines are quoted, in abridged form, from Capen’s speech to the Conference Board Conference on Business Ethics in Vital Speeches 1 Sept. 1990: 686–687.
31. Stewart, Thomas C. “Practice, Practice, Practice: Knowing Is Not the Same Thing as Doing.” Vital Speeches July 2007: 321–322.
Chapter 7 1. Marszalek, Maria. “The Art of Egg Decorating.” Demonstration
speech presented in the Fundamentals of Public Speaking Course, Catonsville Community College, 1989. Used by permission.
2. I am appreciative of the following students who gave me per- mission to use their topics and specific purposes as examples in this chapter: Linda Carey, Jo Ann Dickensheets, Patricia Farquhar, Dawn Gyory, Stephen King, Lou Ann Pfister, Dwayne Mitchell, Sandra Prusin, Richard Renehan, Susan Stephan, Sherri Webb, and Tracey Weise. I also gratefully acknowledge the late Professor Stephen S. Hiten, who coined the phrase “Be clear, concise, and unambiguous” in his public speaking courses at Columbia Union College.
3. Speeches in this section were presented in the Fundamentals of Public Speaking Course, Catonsville Community College, Catonsville, MD, 1987, 1988, 1989, and 1990; and in Funda- mentals of Speech Communication, Community College of Baltimore County, Catonsville Campus, 2004. All used by permission.
Chapter 8 1. In preparing this section, I was assisted by these Internet sources:
Henderson, John. “ICYouSee.” <http://www.ithaca.edu/library/ Training/hott.html> [22 July 1999]; and Grassian, Esther. “Thinking Critically about Discipline-Based World Wide Web Resources.” UCLA College Library Instruction. <http://www.
library.ucla.edu/libraries/college/instruct/web/critical.htm> [10 Nov. 1998].
2. “About Wikipedia.” Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. 29 Jan. 2008. Wikipedia. 30 Jan. 2008 <http://www.en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Wikipedia:About>.
3. Hacker, Diana. A Writer’s Reference. New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007.
4. “Lightbulbs.” Consumer Reports Oct. 2010: 26–27. Print. 5. Based on a definition used in Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically,
3rd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990, p. 37. Much of this section on critical thinking is based on Chapter 2 of Chaffee’s book and Chapter 1 of Rieke, Richard D., and Malcolm O. Sillars. Argumentation and Critical Decision-Making. New York: HarperCollins, 1993, pp. 1–16.
6. Chaffee, p. 55. 7. I want to thank Cassidy Chestnut, reference and instruction
librarian at the Community College of Baltimore County— Catonsville Campus, for his guidance and advice regarding this chapter.
Chapter 9 1. Cohen, Jon, and Dan Balz. “Beyond the Tea Party: What
Americans Really Think of Government.” Washington Post 10 Oct. 2010. Washington Post.com. Web. 8 Jan. 2011.
2. Merrell, Kenneth W., and Duane M. Isava. “How Effective Are School Bullying Intervention Programs?” School Psychology Quarterly 231. (2008): 26–42. Print.
3. Mayerowitz, Scott. “Oil Execs Grilled Over High Prices.” ABC News 1 April 2008.
4. Eitzen, Stanley. “Ethical Dilemmas in American Sport.” Vital Speeches 1 Jan. 1996: 183.
5. Illustration created by the author. 6. Badshah, Neha. “The Indian Wedding Ceremony.” Informative,
descriptive speech presented in speech class, Catonsville Com- munity College, Catonsville, MD, 1992. Used by permission.
7. Hoguet, Andrea. “Parents Should Be Responsible for Their Children’s Actions.” Persuasive speech to convince presented in speech class, Carroll Community College, Westminster, MD, 1989. Used by permission.
8. Lamm, Richard D. “Time to Change Course.” Vital Speeches 15 Oct. 1985: 4.
9. “A Champ In, and Out Of, the Ring.” Reported by Steve Hartman. CBS Evening News. 7 March 2008. CBS News. 14 March 2008. <http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/03/07/ assignment_america/main3919119.shtml>.Example quoted by the author.
10. Farmer, Paul, and Jean-Renold Rejouit. “How We Can Stop Cholera; Two Doctors on Why There’s Still Hope for Haiti.” Newsweek 156.25 (20 Dec. 2010). ProQuest Research Library. Web. 8 Jan. 2011.
11. Thorpe, Vanessa. “National Earthquake Relief: Millions Raised as Clooney Leads Haiti Aid Effort.” The Observer [London] 24 Jan. 2010: 8. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 8 Jan. 2011.
12. See Brandli, Hank, and Jim Foster. “North and South Korea at Night.” Earth Science Picture of the Day. Universities Space Re- search Association, Oct. 2002. Web. 21 Mar. 2011; “South Korea.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Mar. 2011; and “North Korea.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2011. Web. 17 Mar. 2011.
Notes 381
13. Wishard, William Van Dusen. “Between Two Ages.” Vital Speeches 15 Jan. 2002: 203.
14. Kammerzell, Robert. “Same-Sex Civil Unions Should Be Sup- ported.” Persuasive speech to activate presented in speech class, Community College of Baltimore County, Catonsville Campus, 2005. Used by permission.
15. Sajak, Pat. “The Disconnect Between Hollywood and America.” Vital Speeches 15 Aug. 2002: 701.
16. Schwarzkopf, Norman. “Leaders for the 21st Century.” Vital Speeches 15 June 1999: 519.
17. Trudeau, Garry. “The Impertinent Questions.” Vital Speeches August 1986: 619–620.
18. Trudeau, p. 620. 19. Alexander, Gina. “Effective Interviewing Techniques.” Speech
to demonstrate presented in speech class, Carroll Community College, Westminster, MD, 1990. Used by permission.
20. Hollands, Peter. “The Flag Raisings at Iwo Jima.” Informa- tive, descriptive speech presented in speech class, CCBC- Catonsville, MD, 2008. Used by permission. My thanks to Jennifer Kafka Smith, associate professor of speech com- munication, who provided valuable assistance with this speech.
Chapter 10 1. Humphrey, Judith. “Executive Eloquence.” Vital Speeches 15
May 1998: 468–469. 2. I am grateful to the following students, who gave me permission
to use their topics and to modify their outlines for this chapter: Lisa Hilton, “Ancient Egyptian Funeral Customs”; Steve Hogue, “The American Muscle Car”; Joe A. Lloyd Jr., “Colon Cancer”; Erin Ellis, “Major Causes of Child Abuse”; Mary Holmes, “Life in Dunoon, Scotland”; Richard Renehan, “HMOs and Quality Health Care”; Olivia J. Ellis, “The Process of Preparing an Ointment”; Ralph Thompson, “Understanding Mental Retar- dation”; Richard Watson, “The Art of Juggling”; Tina Cerrato, “Teenage Suicide”; Stephen Friedman, “The Art of Tattooing”; Susan Stephan, “Sex in Advertising”; Tara Baker, “Four Types of Masks,” courtesy of Mary Anne Rhoades, associate professor of speech; Della Leister, “Chocolate—One of America’s Passions”; Steven Sapp, “No Limits on Immigration”; and Dawn Anderson, “Discrimination Against Divorced Fathers.” I would also like to acknowledge the late Leroy Giles, professor emeritus of English at Catonsville Community College, for his helpful suggestions as I prepared this chapter.
Chapter 11 1. Plavetich, Richard G., and Brian H. Kleiner. “How to Be an
Effective Public Speaker.” Training & Development November 1992: 17+.
2. Anderson, Gary. “A Lesson in Modern Terrorism: In Memory of Juliana McCourt.” Vital Speeches 1 Dec. 2001: 117.
3. Alexander, Gina. “Sexual Harassment.” Speech to actuate pre- sented in speech class, Carroll Community College, Westmin- ster, MD, 1990. Used by permission.
4. Gerber, Michael. “Tornados—The Deadliest Wind of All.” Speech to inform presented in speech class, Catonsville Community College, Catonsville, MD, 1989. Used by permission.
5. King, Stephen M. “The Right to Privacy.” Speech to convince delivered in speech class, Catonsville Community College, Catonsville, MD, 1987. Used by permission.
6. Birckhead, Kathy. “Child Sexual Abuse.” Speech to inform presented in speech class, Carroll Community College, West- minster, MD, 1990. Used by permission.
7. Schultz, George P. “The Changed World.” Vital Speeches of the Day 1 July 2004: 546.
8. Allred, Michelle. “The Anti-Mormon Campaign.” Speech to inform presented in speech class, Carroll Community College, Westminster, MD, 1990. Used by permission.
9. Davis, Scott. “The Rough Road to an Export Economy.” Vital Speeches of the Day 77.1 (Jan. 2011): 11–13. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 31 Jan. 2011.
10. Leonard, Karen. “Roller Coasters.” Informative speech pre- sented in speech class, Carroll Community College, Westmin- ster, MD, 1990. Used by permission.
11. Archambault, David. “Columbus Plus 500 Years.” Vital Speeches 1 June 1992: 491.
12. Clinton, Hillary Rodham. “Remarks of Senator Hillary Clinton at the Opening of September 11th: Bearing Witness to History.” 10 Sept. 2002. <http://clinton.senate.gov/speeches/020910.html INTERNET> [19 September 2002].
13. Alexander, Benjamin H. “Before You Lambast This Genera- tion.” Vital Speeches 15 Nov. 1987: 70.
14. Trader, Rick. “Participating in the Nationwide Movement Toward Recycling.” Speech to actuate presented in speech class, Carroll Community College, Westminster, MD, 1989. Used by permission.
15. Koeppen, Chris. “The Intrigue of the Great Pyramid.” Speech to inform presented in speech class, Carroll Community Col- lege, Westminster, MD, 1991. Used by permission.
16. Kreczmer, Meredith M. “How to Take Interesting Pictures.” Speech to demonstrate delivered in speech class, Carroll Com- munity College, Westminster, MD, 1990. Used by permission.
17. Jones, Kim. “Sojourner Truth.” Speech to inform presented in speech class, Carroll Community College, Westminster, MD, 1992. Used by permission.
18. Anderson, Gary. “A Lesson in Modern Terrorism: In Memory of Juliana McCourt.” Vital Speeches. 1 Dec. 2001: 125.
19. King, “The Right to Privacy.” 20. Shields, Jacquelyn V. “Increasing the Length of the School
Year.” Speech to convince delivered in speech class, Carroll Community College, Westminster, MD, 1990. Used by permission.
21. Snyder, Shelley Y. “Let’s Take a Stand Against Racism.” Speech to actuate delivered in speech class, Carroll Community College, Westminster, MD, 1992. Used by permission.
22. Kittle, Kimberly L. “Helpful Ways to Use Everyday Products.” Speech to inform presented in speech class, Carroll Community College, Westminster, MD, 1992. Used by permission.
23. Cooper, Ernestine D. “Aerobic Exercise Can Be Harmful.” Speech to convince presented in speech class, Catonsville Community College, Catonsville, MD, 1989. Used by permission.
24. Ferris, Norma. “You Can Make a Difference.” Speech to actuate delivered in speech class, Catonsville Community College, Catonsville, MD, 1987. Used by permission.
25. Bailey, Tresse. “Helping Battered Women.” Speech to actuate presented in speech class, Catonsville Community College, Catonsville, MD, 1989. Used by permission.
26. Verschleisser, Chaim. “Raising the Monitor.” Speech to inform presented at the Community College of Baltimore County, Catonsville Campus, MD, 2002. Used by permission.
382 Notes
Chapter 12 1. Petrie Charles R. Jr. “Informative Speaking: A Summary and
Bibliography of Related Research.” Speech Monographs 30 (June 1963): 82.
2. McLaughlin, Abraham. “The Radical Road that Harley Took.” Christian Science Monitor 19 November 1999: 1.
3. My thanks to Ben P. Hardy, library media technician at CCBC, Catonsville, who provided me with valuable help in preparing the electronic section of this chapter.
4. United States Census Bureau. “Selected Cosmetic Plastic Sur- gical Procedures: 2002 to 2008.” Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2010. Washington, DC: GPO, 2009. Print.
5. Kirkley, Donna. “Visuals Help Communicate.” videotape. 1975. 6. I want to thank Hal Rummel, professor of computer graphics
and visual communication at the Community College of Baltimore County, Catonsville Campus, who provided valuable information about the use of computers in developing visuals.
7. United States. Library of Congress. “Copyright and Other Restrictions That Apply to Publication/Distribution of Images: Assessing the Risk of Using a P & P Image.” Prints and Photographs Reading Room: 2010. 22 Oct 2010. Web. 30 Mar. 2011.
8. Yingling, Mark. “How Do Airplane Wings Produce Lift?” Dem- onstration speech, presented in Fundamentals of Speech Com- munication, the Community College of Baltimore County, Catonsville Campus, MD, 2002. Courtesy of Jennifer Kafka Smith, assistant professor of speech communication. Used by permission.
Chapter 13 1. “Leaves from a Lurid Lexicon.” Newsweek 28 Sep. 1970: 24. 2. “Buckley’s Remarks at Gala.” The National Review 31 Dec. 1986:
24. 3. Moran, Terence P. “Public Doublespeak: On Beholding and
Becoming.” Language Awareness, 2nd ed. Paul Eschholz, Alfred Rosa, and Virginia Clark, eds. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1978, p. 54.
4. ABC. “Incredible Sunday.” 30 Oct. 1988. See also Brown, Drew T. “The Inspiring Life Story of a True American Hero.”
5. Ferris, Norma. “Papering a Wall.” Speech to demonstrate presented in speech class, Catonsville Community College, Catonsville, MD, 1987. Used by permission.
6. The statistics and examples used in this passage were based on two articles: “First U.S. City Nears Ban on Saturday Night Specials.” Baltimore Sun 24 Nov. 1995: A10; and “The Gun Law: Maryland’s High-Powered Issue.” Baltimore Sun 30 Oct. 1988: A1.
7. Hensley, Carl Wayne. “Speak with Style and Watch the Im- pact.” Vital Speeches of the Day 61.22 (1 Sept. 1995): 701–704. EBSCOhost. Web. 2 Feb. 2011.
8. Dodd, Carley H. Dynamics of Intercultural Communication, 4th ed. Dubuque; IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1995, pp. 133–134.
9. Dodd, p. 136. 10. Armao, R. “Worst Blunders: Firms Laugh Through Tears.”
American Business Jan. 1981:11, cited by Adler, Ronald B and Neil Towne in Looking Out Looking In, 8th ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College, 1996, p. 101.
11. Dodd, p. 150. 12. Dodd, p. 149. 13. Dodd, p. 148.
14. Riegert, Ray. Hidden Hawaii. Berkeley: Ulysses Press, 1989, p. 25.
15. Dodd, p. 134. 16. Some of the suggestions used here are taken from the eleven-
point plan for “Developing Skills in Language and Culture” in Dodd, pp. 149–150.
17. Trenholm, Sarah, and Arthur Jensen. Interpersonal Communica- tion, 3rd ed. New York: Wadsworth, 1996, p. 193.
18. Much of the information about gender differences in language was drawn from the following sources: Adler and Towne, pp. 214–219; Berko, Roy M., Andrew D. Wolvin, and Darlyn R. Wolvin. Communicating: A Social and Career Focus, 6th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995, pp. 208–212; Trenholm and Jensen, pp. 193–195; and Weaver, Richard L. Understanding Interpersonal Communication, 5th ed. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman/Little, Brown Higher Education, 1990, pp. 173–178.
19. Adler and Towne, p. 216. 20. Weaver, pp. 175, 177. 21. “Ventura Says Religion Is for ‘Weak.’” New York Times 1 Oct.
1999: A2. 22. Watson, Diane E. “Insensitivity Conflicts with Heritage.”
Baltimore Sun 29 July 2005: 13A. 23. Zamichow, Norma. “California Psychologist Follows the ‘Ums’
in Speech.” Baltimore Sun 3 May 1992: 2A. 24. “Like, Wow, Colleges Include Speaking Class.” Baltimore Sun
23 March 1999: 3A. 25. “Like, Wow,&” 26. Balick, Julie. “Circus Clowns.” Informative speech presented in
speech class, Catonsville Community College, Catonsville, MD, 1988. Used by permission.
27. Petrie, Charles R. Jr. “Informative Speaking: A Summary and Bibliography of Related Research.” Speech Monographs 30 (June 1963): 81.
Chapter 14 1. Anburajan, Aswini. “Michelle Obama Booed Over ‘Nevada.’”
MSNBC 18 Jan. 2008. 4 April 2008. <http://www.firstread. msnbc.msn.com/archive/2008/01/18/589216.aspx>.
2. This section on the production of sound is based on five sources that you can consult for more detailed information: (1) Ander- son, Virgil A. Training the Speaking Voice. New York: Oxford University Press, 1961, pp. 21–54; (2) Eisenson, Jon. Improve- ment of Voice and Diction, 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan, 1965, pp. 15–41; (3) Fisher, Hilda B. Improving Voice and Articulation, 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975, pp. 3–23, 87–104; (4) Gray, Giles Wilkeson, and Claude Merton Wise. The Bases of Speech, 3rd ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1959, pp. 135–199; and (5) Lessac, Arthur. The Use and Training of the Human Voice, 2nd ed. New York: Drama Book Specialists, 1967, pp. 9–16.
3. These exercises were selected from Eisenson, pp. 45–47. 4. Fisher, pp. 3–35. Definitions of vocal delivery are based on
those of Hilda Fisher, which she provides in Chapter 1 of her text.
5. “The Art of Being Fully Human.” Public Broadcasting Company Video. Washington, DC, 1980.
6. This exercise is drawn from a longer list of words provided in Anderson, p. 405.
7. Fisher, p. 67. Fisher recommends exercises that help the muscles of the larynx to relax. If you have some concerns about the
Notes 383
quality of your voice, try some of the exercises she suggests on pages 64 to 72.
8. Petrie, Charles R. Jr. “Informative Speaking: A Summary and Bibliography of Related Research.” Speech Monographs 30 (June 1963): 81.
9. Dodd, Carley H. Dynamics of Intercultural Communication, 4th ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1995, p. 199.
10. Chaiken, Shelly. “Communicator Physical Attractiveness and Persuasion.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (25 Aug. 1978): 1387–1397. This article contains some interesting research about the impact of physical attractiveness on persuasion. The author concludes that “the present research indicates that physical attractiveness can significantly enhance communicator persuasiveness” (p. 1394).
11. Chaiken, p. 82. 12. Example based on a speech delivered by Marie E. Miller,
Catonsville Community College, Catonsville, MD, 1988. Used by permission.
13. See Adams, Lorraine. “The Fight of Her Life; Marcia Clark— Working Mother and O. J. Simpson’s Lead Prosecutor—Takes Her Place Among Other Maligned, Adored and Misunderstood Modern Women.” Washington Post 20 August 1995: F1.
14. Adler, Ronald B., Lawrence B. Rosenfeld, Neil Towne, and Russell F. Proctor II. Interplay: The Process of Interpersonal Communication, 7th ed. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Col- lege, 1998, p. 58.
15. Examples used in this discussion were selected from these sources: Berko, Roy M., Andrew D. Wolvin, and Darlyn R. Wolvin. Communicating: A Social and Career Focus, 3rd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995, p. 158; Dodd, pp. 156, 175; and DeVito, Joseph A. Messages: Building Interpersonal Commu- nication Skills, 2nd ed. New York: HarperCollins College, 1993, p. 143.
16. Berko et al., p. 156. 17. McLoughlin, Merrill, Tracy L. Shryer, Erica E. Goode, and
Kathleen McAuliffe. “Attitude: In Politics and Management, the ‘Gender Gap’ Is Real.” U.S. News & World Report 8 Aug. 1988: 56.
18. This comparison and contrast of gender differences in nonverbal behavior uses these sources: Arliss, Laurie P. Gender Communi- cation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991, pp. 75–90; Trenholm, Sarah, and Arthur Jensen. Interpersonal Communica- tion, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1996, pp. 195–196; and Weaver, Richard L. Understanding Interpersonal Communication, 5th ed. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1990, p. 219.
19. Weaver, pp. 175, 219–220.
Chapter 15 1. Olbricht, Thomas H. Informative Speaking. Glenview, IL: Scott,
Foresman, 1968, pp. 15–16. This chapter’s discussion of the difference between information and persuasion coincides with Olbricht’s analysis of the “traditional means of distinguishing informing from persuading” in his second chapter.
2. Olbricht, p. 15. 3. Foley, Ann. “Fingerprint Identification.” Demonstration speech
presented in Fundamentals of Public Speaking, Catonsville Community College, Catonsville, MD, 1988. Used by permission.
4. I wish to thank Kara Jenkins and Tom Pfeffer for permission to use portions of their outlines and Kelly O’Connor, Joan Stark, and Tresse Bailey for topic ideas.
5. Verschleisser, Chaim. “Raising the Monitor.” Speech to inform presented at the Community College of Baltimore County, Catonsville Campus, MD, 2002. Used by permission.
Chapter 16 1. Jacobs, Don Trent. “The Red Flags of Persuasion.” ETC.: A
Review of General Semantics Winter 1995: 375. 2. Cooper, Lane. The Rhetoric of Aristotle. New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts, 1932, p. 8. [I added the second and third bracketed comments.]
3. Cooper, p. 9. 4. See Emmrich, Stuart. “The 110 Things New Yorkers Talked
About in 2010: [List].” New York Times 30 Dec. 2010, Late Edition, (East Coast): ProQuest National Newspapers Core, ProQuest. Web. 7 Mar. 2011, and “Brian Corman, Columbia Valedictorian, Plagiarized Patton Oswalt in Graduation Speech.”Huffington Post 5 May 2010. Web. 7 Mar. 2011.
5. Toosi, Hahal. “Iranian President Ahmadinejad Questions 9/11, Holocaust.” Chicago Citizen 26 Sept. 2007: 9. ProQuest News- papers. ProQuest. CCBC Catonsville Library, Baltimore. 18 Feb. 2008.
6. Zernike, Kate. “Macaca.” New York Times 24 Dec. 2006: 4. 7. Rumber, Pamela. “The Sale of Prescription Drugs over the
Internet Should Be Outlawed.” Speech to convince presented in speech class, Community College of Baltimore County, Catonsville Campus, MD, 2000. Used by permission.
8. Ruffin, Kenneth. “Online Services Should Be Banned.” Speech to convince delivered in speech class, Catonsville Community College, Catonsville, MD, 1996. Used by permission. The fol- lowing sources were used to update this example: Foderaro, Lisa W. “Man Charged with Raping Girl He Met on Internet.” The New York Times. 5 Sept. 2003: B6. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 28 Mar. 2011 and Lait, Matt. “Dozens Held in Long Beach Sting; Police Team up with an Internet Watchdog Group and a TV News Show to Snare Adults Using Chat Rooms to Try to Prey on Children.” Los Angeles Times. 11 Sept. 2006: B4. Pro- Quest Newspapers. Web. 28 Mar. 2011.
9. Cooper, p. 9. 10. These excerpts are taken from the complete speech. See “Earl
Spencer’s Eulogy: Farewell to a Princess.” Baltimore Sun 7 Sept. 1997: 27A.
11. Littlejohn, Stephen W., and David M. Jabusch. Persuasive Transactions. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1987, p. 54. I want to thank James L. Koury, professor of philosophy at Catonsville Community College, who gave me valuable help and advice in the logic section of this chapter.
12. In this section on the appeal to reason, I used a system of argu- mentation similar to Hugenberg and Yoder’s section entitled “Use Logical Proof: Appeal to Logic and Reason,” pp. 188–191 in Speaking in the Modern Organization (see note 12). However, I have altered the terminology, examples, and numbers of logical proofs. For a more traditional approach, see Ross, Raymond S, and Mark G. Ross. Understanding Persuasion. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1981, pp. 155–168.
13. Hugenberg, Lawrence W., and Donald D. Yoder. Speaking in the Modern Organization. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1985, p. 190.
14. Amanpour, Christiane. “My People Love Me: Moammar Gadhafi Denies Demonstrations Against Him Anywhere in Libya.” ABC News International. ABC News. 28 Feb. 2011. Web. 9 Mar. 20ll.
384 Notes
15. Poniewozik, James. “Who Can Say What?” Time 169: 17 (Apr. 2007): 32. ProQuest Research Library. Web. 6 March 2011.
16. The following speeches used in this chapter were presented in the Fundamentals of Speech Communication class, the Community College of Baltimore County— Catonsville Campus: a speech where the name was withheld to protect privacy; and D’Archangelis, Anna. “Computer-Enhanced Advertising Should Be Clearly Labeled,” 2004. Used by permission.
17. Dewey, John. How We Think. Boston: D. C. Heath, 1933, pp. 102–118. Read Chapter 6 of Dewey’s book to understand the five phases of “reflective thinking.” You will discover a great similarity to some of the problem-solution models presented in this persuasive speaking chapter.
18. Supporting materials and references used for “The U.S. Should Close the Guantanamo Bay Detention Facility and Detainees Should Be Tried in U.S. Civilian Courts,” were paraphrased or quoted from the following articles in the Opposing Viewpoints in Context: Dreezen, Yochi J. “Obama Retreat on Guantanamo Closure Draws Unexpected Support.” National Journal (2011). Gale Opposing Viewpoints in Context. Web. 14 Mar. 2011; “Obama to Appeal for Guantanamo Closure: First Trial in U.S. Set to Be Announced.” Washington Times [Washington, D.C.] 21 May 2009: A01. Gale Opposing Viewpoints in Context. Web. 14 Mar. 2011; and “Myth of Gitmo Closure Dismissed; Ex-military Leaders See Danger in It Staying Open.” Washington Times [Washington, D.C.] 30 Sept. 2009: A06. Gale Opposing Viewpoints in context. Web. 15 Mar. 2011.
19. I want to thank the following students who provided topic ideas for this chapter: Michael Becker, Candy Chancellor, Evan Feinberg, Colleen Hamilton, Deborah E. Hensley, Lisa Hilton, Ken Kuzo, Marie Miller, Jeff Ritter, Pamela Rumber, Grover Sauter, Michelle M. Tawes, and Cheryl Zuretti.
20. I wish to thank Bill Rice, associate professor of philosophy at the Community College of Baltimore County— Catonsville Campus, for his professional help and valuable assistance with the fallacies section of this chapter.
Chapter 17 1. See Brown, Jenny et al. “To Viewers, Happiness Is a Warm
Puppy.” USA Today 4 Feb. 2008 Academic Search Premier. Ebsco Host. CCBC Catonsville Library <http://web.ebscohost.com/ ehost/detail?vid=6&hid=6&sid=834689fc-e7a9-4d43-9b35- 2ebd&> Baltimore. 15 Apr. 2008; Petrecca, Laura. “Best of the Past: Pepsi’s Cheatin’ Heart.” USA Today 4 Feb. 2008 Academic Search Premier. Ebsco Host. CCBC Catonsville Library, Baltimore. 15 Apr. 2008; and “Super Bowl Ad Prices Sacked by Sour Economy.” Newsday. 12 Jan. 2010: A34. ProQuest Newspapers. Web. 7 Apr. 2011.
2. Examples used for the five stages of Maslow’s hierarchy were taken from two speeches: Broos, Cecelia. “Deforestation”; and Warhime, Kimberly. “Chesapeake Bay Pollution.” Persuasive speeches to actuate, Carroll Community College, Westminster, MD, 1991 and 1992. Used by permission.
3. Information for this section is from Merrick, Amy. “Kmart Tries Pitch for Family Values in New TV Spots.” Wall Street Journal 25 Feb. 2002: B16; Cobb, James G. “Ghost of Portholes Past.” New York Times 29 Dec. 2002: 12.1; and Horovitz, Bruce. “You Just Can’t Go Wrong with a Chimp.” USA Today 8 Feb. 2005: 3B.
4. “Old Joe Must Go.” Advertising Age 13 Jan. 1992: 16. 5. See Schofield interview and Shane, Scott. “Maryland to Join
Tobacco Settlement.” Baltimore Sun, 21 Nov. 1998: 1A.
6. Alexander, Gina. “Pet Owners Should Receive a Tax Deduc- tion.” Persuasive speech to convince, Carroll Community Col- lege, Westminster, MD, 1990. Used by permission.
7. Mundell, Karen. “Research Your Family Genealogy.” Persuasive speech to actuate, Carroll Community College, Westminster, MD, 1990. Used by permission.
8. Manzer, Cathy. “Highway Etiquette.” Persuasive speech to ac- tuate, Carroll Community College, Westminster, MD, 1990. Used by permission.
9. Reilly, Rick. “Let’s Bust Those Chops.” Sports Illustrated 28 Oct. 1991: 11, as cited by Masimore, Patricia. “Sports Teams and Racism.” Persuasive speech to convince, Carroll Community College, Westminster, MD, 1991. Used by permission.
10. Meyers, Becky. “People in Need in Carroll County.” Persuasive speech to actuate, Carroll Community College, Westminster, MD, 1990. Used by permission.
11. Pettis, Ashley V. “Have a Moving Experience.” Persuasive speech to actuate, Catonsville Community College, Catonsville, MD, 1992. Used by permission.
12. Suggestions for incentives and appeals to emotions are based on Verderber, Rudolph F. Essentials of Persuasive Speaking. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1991, pp. 114, 116–119.
13. Gronbeck, Bruce E., Douglas Ehninger, and Alan H. Monroe. Principles of Speech Communication, 10th ed. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1988, pp. 272–285.
14. Jenkins, Kara. “Feeding the Hungry Here at Home.” Persuasive speech to actuate, Catonsville Community College, Catonsville, MD, 1988. Used by permission.
15. Otukoya, Omolola. “Genocide in Sudan.” Persuasive speech to actuate, Community College of Baltimore County, Catonsville, MD, 2005. Used by permission.
Chapter 18 1. Fetterman, Mindy. “We Are the Hokies! We Will Prevail!”
USA Today 18 June 2007. Academic Search Premier. Ebsco Host. CCBC Catonsville Library, Baltimore. 22 April 2008. <http:// web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=4&hid=116&sid=e1e8- bacf-3ed8-4c77-8ce7-cf2&>.
2. Giovanni, Nikki. “We Are Virginia Tech.” Vital Speeches of the Day June 2007: 73 Academic Search Premier. Ebsco Host. CCBC Catonsville Library, Baltimore. 10 April 2008. <http://web.ebs- cohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=7&hid=6&sid=47b58e60-89d2- 49e7-9616-713>.
3. Kennedy, Edward M. “A Tribute to His Brother.” Vital Speeches of the Day 1 July 1968: 547.
4. “Liberty Weekend,” ABC, July 3, 1986. 5. Johannesen, Richard L., R. R. Allen, and W. A. Linkugel.
Contemporary American Speeches. Dubuque, IA: Kendell/Hunt Publishing Co., 1992, p. 343.
6. “Oscar’s King and Queen.” ABCNews 26 Feb. 2007 ABCNews. 24 Apr. 2008 <http://www.abcnews.go.com/search?searchtext=- forest%whitaker%20oscar%20speech&type=>.
7. Johannesen et al., p. 342. 8. This excerpt was supplied courtesy of Jan C. Scruggs, who gave
permission for its use. 9. Hardin, Paul, former president of Drew University. Speech de-
livered at the 111th Commencement of Drew University 19 May 1979. Used by permission of Paul Hardin, Chancellor, University of North Carolina.
10. Jordan, Barbara. “Keynote Address.” Vital Speeches of the Day, 1976: 646.
Notes 385
11. Johannesen et al., p. 343. 12. “Excerpts from Texts of the Nominating Speeches.” New York
Times 11 July 1952: 9. 13. Bauer, Andrew, ed. A Treasury of Great American Speeches. New
York: Hawthorn Books, 1970, pp. 47 and 296. 14. Basler, Roy P., ed. Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings.
New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1962, p. 568.
Chapter 19 1. Compare the definition and characteristics of a group discussion
found in Barker, Larry L. et al. Groups in Process, 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991, pp. 7–10, with descriptions provided by Bormann, Ernest G. Discussion and Group Methods. New York: Harper & Row, 1969, pp. 3–6.
2. Compare Cragan, John F., and David W. Wright. Communica- tion in Small Group Discussions. New York: West, 1980, pp. 46–48, with Goodall, H. Lloyd Jr. Small Group Communication in Organizations. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1985, p. 94. Cragan and Wright list three “generic” types of groups: task, encounter, and consciousness-raising groups, while Goodall uses Julia Wood’s typology of task, social, and dually oriented groups (a combination of task and social groups). Because I believe that encounter and consciousness-raising groups can be combined into one category, I have used the labels—task, encounter, and social—as the classifications for study in this section.
3. Tuckman, Bruce W., and Mary Ann C. Jensen. “Stages of Small Group Development Revisited.” Group and Organization Studies. December 1977: 419–427.
4. Dewey, John. How We Think. Boston: D. C. Heath and Com- pany, 1933, pp. 102–118.
5. See McBurney, James H., and Kenneth G. Hance. Discussion in Human Affairs. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950, pp. 3–15.
6. Barker et al., pp. 110–116. 7. Benne, Kenneth D., and Paul Sheats. “Functional Roles of
Group Members.” Journal of Social Issues 4 (Spring 1948): 45–46. Also see Cragan and Wright, pp. 116–117; Barker et al., pp. 46–47.
8. This discussion combines recommendations appearing in Cra- gan and Wright, pp. 114–116, as well as in Benne and Sheats, pp. 44–45, with some of my own suggestions.
9. Goodall, p. 122. 10. Cragan and Wright, pp. 75–76. 11. Lewin, Kurt, Ronald Lippitt, and Ralph K. White.
“Patterns of Aggressive Behavior in Experimentally Created ‘Social Climates.’” Journal of Social Psychology 10(1939): 271–299.
12. Rosenfeld, Lawrence B., and Timothy G. Plax. “Personality Determinants of Autocratic and Democratic Leadership.” Speech Monographs 42 (August 1975): 203–208.
13. Wood, Julia T. “Leading in Purposive Discussions: A Study of Adaptive Behavior.” Communication Monographs 44 (June 1977): 152–165.
14. Goodall, p. 145. 15. Barker et al., pp. 193–219. 16. I want to thank Jennifer Kafka Smith, assistant professor of
speech communication at Community College of Baltimore County, Catonsville Campus, who provided valuable assistance with this chapter.
386 Notes
Glossary
A abbreviated sources Partial references that are included in parentheses within the body of a written outline. They usually include only the author’s last name, title of the book or periodical, and page number.
abstract A brief summary of an article, study, or narrative.
action step The fifth part of Monroe’s motivated sequence that requires the persuasive actuating speaker to provide listeners with a specific behavior to perform in order to solve a problem.
active listening Attentive, involved behavior that represents a complete mental commitment on the part of the hearer.
active listening behaviors Becoming a better listener by withholding judgment about a speaker, providing honest attentive feedback, eliminating distractions, and evaluating the speech when it is finished.
actuate To present a persuasive speech that motivates listeners to action.
agenda An orderly list of topics a meeting or discussion group will cover.
alliteration Speech that employs the repetition of the same sounds.
amplification An arrangement of words or phrases in order of importance to emphasize an opening or closing statement.
analogy A logical argument comparing two or more similar cases to show that, because of their similarity, what applies to one case can also apply to the other.
anecdote A brief humorous story used to demonstrate a point.
antithesis A contrasting of ideas or qualities to convey a concept.
appeal A specific call to an audience to act on an issue such as a vote, donation of money, or volunteering for a cause. This strategy is often used in persuasive actuating speeches. See challenge.
appearance Dress that is appropriate for the audience, occasion, and speech topic.
appreciative listening Listening to hear the power and beauty of words, images, music, or the environment.
argument A logical, organized method of supporting a claim by presenting clear, correct, and complete facts and by drawing conclusions from the data to support the claim.
Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) Plato’s famous student; wrote The Rhetoric, challenging many of Plato’s negative opinions about oratory. He helped to gain respect for the study and practice of public speaking as an art and a discipline.
articulation The clarity and enunciation of words, phrases, and sentences.
attention step The first part of Monroe’s motivated sequence that generates audience interest and curiosity in the persuasive actuating speech.
attitudes Prior inclinations people have about issues; a spectrum of audience perception from disagreement or neutrality to agreement.
audience response system An interactive system that lets the speaker poll or quiz the audience and get immediate results on the data projector. It is usually tied into the PowerPoint program and listeners need “clickers,” or electronic response devices.
audiovisual aids Devices that may appeal to any of the senses: graphs, drawings, photographs, posters, chalkboards, mechanical media, models, and objects.
autocratic A leadership style in which the leader is the chief decision maker and gives orders and commands to group members.
awfullizing A term coined by two psychotherapists, Albert Ellis and Robert Harper, referring to an irrational dread of the future.
B barriers to listening Poor listening behaviors such as blocking, selective listening, yielding to distractions, and avoidance. See listening barriers.
beliefs Conclusions people have about the world based upon
387
observations, knowledge, and experiences.
bibliography The complete alphabetical listing in an outline of sources that are used as research for a speech.
body The longest part of a speech containing the main headings that were identified in the thesis statement.
body movement Stance, posture, and poise, which can support the ideas of a speech.
brainstorming The technique of rapidly and uncritically listing ideas to generate topics for a speech.
buzz groups Technique often used in large organizations of dividing the larger group into small units of three to eight members and reporting to the larger organization through designated leaders.
C case study An in-depth account of a situation or a set of circumstances.
causation A logical argument identifying known causes to determine unknown effects (cause-to-effect reasoning) or identifying known effects to determine the unknown cause (effect-to-cause reasoning).
cause-effect sequence The arrangement of main points of the body of a speech according to causes and/or effects.
CD (compact disc) An audio CD that is used for listening to music.
CD-ROM (compact disc read-only memory) A small laser disc containing video and audio that is used with a computer for education, information, and entertainment.
challenge A broad, generalized summons to an audience to support a topic. This strategy is often used to conclude a persuasive convincing speech. See appeal.
channel The means of transmitting a message through our senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch.
charisma A special magnetic quality, possessed by some speakers, that attracts audiences and inspires confidence.
Chicago Manual (CM) The Chicago Manual of Style is a source that provides guidelines for annotating research sources in proper form. CM bibliographic form is often used in the humanities.
chronological sequence The arrangement of the main points of the body of an informative speech according to time or order of events.
clavicular breathing Incorrect respiration, from the top of the lungs.
code of ethics Standards of right and wrong that act as guides for ethical behavior and speaking practices.
cohesiveness One of the characteristics of a small group; represents a unifying element, common purpose, or mutual feelings of members.
commercial use Refers to copyrighted materials, such as videos, downloaded images, or print materials, that are used in speeches where admission is charged or the speaker/writer will benefit economically as a result. Written permission must be obtained in this case and a royalty fee may be required.
communication apprehension Coined by university speech instructor James C. McCroskey to describe an individual’s anxiety about speaking to another person or group.
communication model A system or plan that helps us understand the dynamic process of communication.
comparative advantages A method of organizing the main points of the body of a persuasive convincing speech by comparing the advantages of a proposed solution with the advantages and disadvantages of other solutions.
comparisons Similarities in situations or events.
compliment An introductory strategy in which the speaker praises elements of the audience or speaking occasion to build a relationship with an unknown speaker or unfamiliar audience.
computer (or data) projector A device that is connected to the computer, allowing your audience to see an enlarged version of the computer monitor on a movie screen.
conclusion The ending of a speech that resolves the ideas presented in the body.
connotation Personal, specific, and subjective meanings of words.
content The research, organization, and logical development of a speech topic.
contrasts Differences in situations or events.
convince To present a persuasive speech that seeks to alter the beliefs and judgments of an audience.
coordination Refers to the placement of equal ideas within the same level of an outline.
copyright laws Refers to the need of a speaker to be aware of copyright laws that govern the use of copyrighted materials in a speech. See fair use and commercial use.
credibility Confidence that listeners place in a speaker due to the speaker’s use of verifiable research and reliable sources.
critical thinking The ability to test information, be organized, listen to different perspectives, think independently, and use self-discipline.
culture An individual’s background, origin, geography, and characteristic features of everyday existence that influence verbal and nonverbal messages.
D data projector Refers to the projector that is connected to a computer and can show PowerPoint visuals or anything that a computer can display or play.
388 Glossary
database A computer software system such as ProQuest or Academic Search Premier that indexes periodicals, journals, and books and helps speakers to locate relevant research quickly.
decoding The thought process within the receiver that changes symbols into meaningful ideas, thoughts, or feelings.
definition speech An informative speech about a philosophical concept, such as a theory or idea, or a concrete subject, like science or art.
delivery The style or presentation of the speech.
democratic A leadership style in which the leader functions as a coordinator, promoting discussion and stimulating group decision making.
demographic analysis Collecting social and statistical information about listeners through surveys or interviews that will help the speech to receive a favorable hearing.
demonstration speech An informative presentation that includes a variety of audiovisual aids to show the steps of a process: how something works, is made, or is done; or how something happens.
denotation Dictionary definitions of words.
descriptive speech An informative speech related to persons, places, objects, or events.
devices for capturing media Small hardware devices that allow one to copy media created on a home or office computer and take it to a presentation computer. Examples include flash or thumb drives, laptops, smart phones, MP3 players, and Ipods.
diaphragmatic breathing Steady breathing from the diaphragm that produces a constant supply of air needed to produce sound.
discriminative listening Listening to learn, to be instructed, and to test theories.
discussion questions Open-ended issues that are phrased as questions and become the subject of a group discussion. Ques- tions of fact explore issues where information is either unknown or disputed; questions of value require discussion members to use personal judgments to evaluate issues; questions of policy stimu- late discussion about solutions or future actions.
document camera An electronic device that is connected to a computer and a projector and is used to project images onto a large screen.
dramatic pauses Intentional breaks or silences between major ideas that can bring out the meaning of a specific passage. See pauses and vocalized pauses.
DVD player Electronic system that uses a small laser disc similar to an audio CD and allows a speaker to project
video onto a larger screen or monitor and switch quickly among clips with the press of a button.
E elements of virtue In his book The Rhetoric, Aristotle identified these values of ethics as justice, courage, temperance,magnificence, magnanimity, liberality, gentleness, prudence, and wisdom.
e-mail Electronic messages that are sent via the Internet.
empathic listening Listening to understand and facilitate the needs and feelings of someone else, as in therapeutic listening.
emphasis Alterations in rate of speech, volume, and pitch to highlight significant words and sentences.
encoding The thought process within the sender that changes ideas, thoughts, or feelings into understandable symbols.
encounter groups A type of discussion that contributes to interpersonal learning and insight.
entertaining speech A type of speech that pokes fun at people, places, or events to gain a humorous response.
enumeration A logical argument in which the speaker cites a series of specific cases to support a generalization.
ethics Earning the respect and trust of listeners by avoiding deceptive practices and by being reliable, fair, and honest.
ethnocentrism The belief that one culture or environment is superior to another.
ethos One of Aristotle’s three proofs; refers to the ethical appeal and the speaker’s ability to gain the confidence and trust of listeners.
eulogy A speech of tribute delivered at a memorial service or funeral.
euphemism A vague, inoffensive term that conceals what an individual really means.
evaluative listening Listening as a response to a persuasive message.
example A brief, factual instance that demonstrates a point. It can serve as an introductory or concluding strategy or can be used as supporting material in a speech. See illustration or story.
extemporaneous Approaching speech development with research, a prepared outline, speaking notes, and effective eye contact. The style of speech delivery presented in a public speaking course.
external transitions Complete sentences or phrases that connect the major sections or main points of a speech.
eye contact Communicating visually to reach the intellect and emotions of the audience and gauge feedback to ideas.
Glossary 389
F facial expression Nonverbal signals such as smiles or frowns expressing feelings like anger, love, or joy, which can express silent messages and support the emotions of a speech.
fair use Refers to copyrighted materials that are reproduced such as downloaded images, videos , or print materials that are used for teaching, research, news reporting, or criticism. These materials do not require written permission if used for these purposes.
fallacies Illogical arguments that employ unclear or incorrect facts, incomplete evidence, and/or erroneous reasoning.
false authority The use of an authority figure who is not an expert in a field to validate a claim.
fax A computer or machine that allows letters and messages to be sent electronically over a telephone line.
feedback A verbal or nonverbal response from the receiver to the sender. It can indicate whether communication has occurred, how it has been received, and whether it has been understood.
flash drive Often called a thumb drive, is a device that allows one to copy media from a home or office computer and take it to a presentation computer.
focus groups A type of group formed to represent target populations that are assembled to test arguments, ideas, and products.
formal outline The formal written structure that refers to the speech body. It includes the main points, subordinate elements, abbreviated sources, and written transitions.
forming The early phases of small-group meetings (theorized by Bruce Tuckman) in which group members are in the process of orienting themselves to each other and to the task at hand.
forum A public discussion in which all members of an audience have the opportunity for asking questions, making statements, or delivering speeches about issues.
G gender Characteristics that are related to one sex. Women and men exhibit some traditional differences in their verbal and nonverbal communication patterns.
general adaptation syndrome Refers to Hans Selye’s classic research in the field of stress reduction. He concluded that the body reacts to stress in stages through an alarm reaction, a resistance stage, and finally a phase of exhaustion.
general purpose The direction of the material presented in a speech: to inform, persuade, or entertain.
general references Library research tools such as the catalog and periodical indexes that help speakers locate books, publica- tions, or other relevant research sources for speech topics.
gestures Physical movements of the hands and arms to emphasize words, describe physical objects, or point out locations.
graphs Three types of graphs are the bar, line, and pie graphs, which are helpful visuals for explaining trends, showing comparisons, or indicating portions of a whole.
H hidden agenda An unstated, often deceptive speaking goal that a speaker uses to manipulate an audience.
hierarchy of needs Basic needs of all human beings; psychologist Abraham H. Maslow organized these needs based on five levels: physiological, safety and security, love, esteem, and self-actualization.
home page A website developed by an institution, business, or individual and placed on the Internet for information, publicity, commerce, or entertainment.
humor A joke or humorous anecdote that is used as a strategy to introduce or conclude a speech.
hypothetical example A fictitious situation or scenario that has a realistic application.
I illustration A long example that clarifies and amplifies an idea. It can be used as a strategy for the introduction and conclusion or provided as supporting material in the body of the speech.
impromptu A speech presented without prior notice or preparation; a “surprise” speech.
incentives Benefits or rewards people gain by agreeing with and adopting the goals of a persuasive speaker. Long-term incentives are benefits that listeners gain over a sustained period of time. Short-term incentives are devices that provide immediate reinforcement of ideas.
indentation Each level of supporting elements in an outline is indented under main points so that the outline clearly indicates the relationship between the heading and the subdivision.
inflection Changes in pitch that make a speech sound interesting and avoid monotony.
informal outline The portion of the written outline that refers to the introduction, conclusion, bibliography, and other outline preliminaries.
informative speech A type of speech that promotes enlightenment and education about a topic.
internal transitions Brief words and phrases such as also, then, next, in addition to, or finally that link the supporting materials within a subdivision of a speech.
390 Glossary
Internet Computerized cyber system connecting offices, businesses, institutions, and homes to the World Wide Web.
interview A meeting in which the purpose is to obtain information from a person.
introduction The beginning of a speech that generates curiosity and prepares the audience for the topic and thesis statement.
K keynote speech Presentation given at the beginning of a major conference or convention.
keyword A term or group of words that is used to search for documents in an electronic database.
L laissez-faire A leadership style in which no leader exists, or the leader exerts little or no influence. Group members take care of managerial or administrative responsibilities.
lecture A type of informative speech presented by an expert for instructional or educational purposes.
linguistically parallel Refers to the similarity of sentence structure and wording in each level of an outline.
listening barriers Poor listening behaviors, such as blocking, selective listening, yielding to distractions, and avoidance.
listening model A process describing how we receive, attend to, and assign meaning to stimuli. A model developed by Andrew Wolvin and Carolyn Coakley graphically demon- strates this process.
logos One of Aristotle’s three proofs; it involves the speaker’s appeal to logic and reason.
long-term incentives See incentives.
M manuscript A style of speech delivery that is written out and read word-for-word.
Maslow, Abraham H. A psychology professor at Brandeis University. He identified five levels of basic drives that he felt influenced our thinking and behavior. See hierarchy of needs.
mechanical media Any type of electrical device that can be used as an audiovisual aid.
memorized A style of speech delivery that requires the speaker to commit the entire speech to memory and make the presentation without speaking notes.
message A set of organized, structured symbols for communication.
metaphor A figure of speech used to show comparison without the words like or as.
MLA Developed by the Modern Language Association, this system provides a format for annotating bibliographic sources. It is the system suggested in this text and is most often used in college research papers, theses, and dissertations.
mnemonic phrase A memory device used to help people remember main ideas or significant themes.
modem A device connecting a computer to a telephone.
Monroe, Alan A professor of speech at Purdue University in the 1930s. He combined problem-solution techniques with motivational approaches to train sales personnel. His technique, known as the motivated sequence, is a five-step system used in persuasive actuating speeches.
motivated sequence A five-step system used in persuasive actuating speeches, developed by Alan Monroe.
movement See body movement.
N narrative An experience or story that is told by the speaker.
need step The second part of the motivated sequence that identifies and develops the existence of a problem in the persuasive actuating speech.
negative self-talk Thinking negatively about one’s efforts at public performance; having a derogatory attitude about public speaking.
noise A distortion or distraction to the communication process. Noise can be external, internal, or semantic.
norming The third stage of Bruce Tuckman’s small-group theory; in this phase, the group has worked through many of the conflicts of the storming phase and has now become more cohesive.
O observation A judgment based on what an individual has seen.
occasion The impact of the environment of the speech. It includes the purpose and location of the speech as well as the expectations of the audience.
open-ended questions A strategy that requires a clear response from the audience. It is often used in the introduction to a speech. See questions.
opinions The verbal expressions of attitudes; verbal inclinations or perceptions about topics and issues.
Glossary 391
opposition argument A strong argument against a speaker’s proposition or viewpoint.
organizational sequence The manner in which the main points of the body are organized. Informative speeches can be organized according to chronology, space, causation, or topic. Persuasive speeches can be structured by problem- solution, reasons, comparative advantages, or motivated sequence.
overhead projector A device that is used, with clear acetate transparencies, to enlarge images onto a screen. In many speech settings, it has been replaced by document cameras.
P panel An informal discussion during which one person acts as moderator, guiding three to six members through an interactive problem-solving process in front of an audience.
passive listening Listening that is relaxed or “easy,” such as listening to an iPod or watching a movie.
pathos One of Aristotle’s three proofs. It involves the speaker’s appeal to the emotions of an audience.
pauses Breaks or interruptions in speech that separate thoughts and ideas. See dramatic pauses and vocalized pauses.
performing The fourth stage of Bruce Tuckman’s small-group theory; this phase is characterized by insight and action. Members wish to complete tasks they were given and adopt constructive behavior to implement them.
personal experience Direct, firsthand knowledge of a situation that can be valuable supporting material in a speech. Also a type of informative presentation that provides information about an event, such as a travelogue, adventure, or expedition.
personal reference An introductory strategy in which a speaker includes autobiographical facts to help listeners learn more about the speaker. This strategy is used when an audience is unfamiliar with the speaker.
persuasive speech A speech that influences a listener’s beliefs, feelings, or behavior.
phrasing A vocal technique of grouping words and sentences into units of thought that make ideas easier to understand.
pitch Vocal element that refers to the highness or lowness of sound.
polls Samplings of opinion on selected issues.
positive self-talk Developing positive attitudes and thoughts about one’s abilities at public performance.
PowerPoint Acomputer graphics program created byMicrosoft Corporation to assist in the development of computer-driven visual aids such as tables, graphs, and images that provide
support for a speech. The program is used with a computer and a data projector that displays images on a large screen.
primary evidence Original firsthand fact or experience such as an autobiography.
problem-solution An organizational sequence used to structure the main points of persuasive speeches by developing a problem and then proposing solutions.
pronunciation Describes the combinations of vowels, consonants, syllables, and accents a speaker uses to emphasize a specific word.
proposition An arguable, debatable statement that acts as the focal point for a persuasive convincing speech. Propositions of fact create a controversy out of commonly held beliefs; propositions of value seek judgment as to whether an issue is right or wrong, good or bad; and propositions of policy advocate the adoption of a future action or behavior that proposes a change in the status quo.
Q quality Refers to the unique sound or timbre of the voice.
questions Can be used as attention-getting devices in speech introductions or to stimulate serious thought among listeners in speech conclusions. Rhetorical questions are self-answered, and open-ended questions require a verbal response from the audience. See rhetorical questions and open-ended questions.
quotation The exact restatement of a person’s words. Quotations can be valuable supporting materials in the body of the speech or can be used as a strategy for the speech introduction or conclusion.
R rate Refers to the number of words an individual speaks every minute.
reasoning The process of presenting logical arguments to draw conclusions or inferences.
reasons A method of organizing the main points of a persuasive convincing speech by building a case using the strongest reasons from thorough research.
rebuttal argument Diffusing possible disagreement in a persuasive speech by providing evidence that opposing viewpoints are flawed or inaccurate.
receiver The destination or recipient of communication.
red herring A fallacy where a speaker tries to avoid addressing an issue by diverting to another topic.
reference to the introduction A strategy used in the conclusion to remind listeners of a point, story, or issue
392 Glossary
mentioned at the beginning of the speech. This strategy promotes unity in the speech.
reference to the occasion A strategy used in an introduction to refer to a familiar event that is connected to the topic of a speech.
repetition The reiteration by a speaker of words or phrases to emphasize key ideas and convey vivid images.
report A type of informative speaking that is required in business or industry.
rhetoric In ancient times, referred to as “the art of the orator.” Classical rhetoric dealt with the ability to persuade and move an audience to a specific viewpoint.
rhetorical questions Questions posed by a speaker that are self-answered. The audience does not respond verbally. A rhetorical question is often used as a strategy to introduce a speech. See questions.
role-playing A technique using an individual(s) to act out a brief skit, assume a character, or simulate a conflict. Also a type of group wherein members assume characters or personal- ities in order to portray relationships and interactions among individuals, act out family conflicts, or reveal inner dilemmas.
S satisfaction step The third part of the motivated sequence that identifies and develops solutions to a problem in the persuasive actuating speech.
scanning The process of copying visual aids or written documents into a computer by using a scanner.
search engines Computer software programs designed to locate topics on the Internet. The most well known search engines is Google.
secondary evidence Information reported secondhand by an intermediary standing between the researcher and the original source.
sender The individual who originates communication with thoughts, ideas, or feelings.
sentence outline Refers to a format that includes complete sentences throughout main and subordinate elements of an outline.
setting The physical and psychological factors of the communication process that include occasion, environment, space, and time.
Shannon and Weaver In the 1940s, Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver wrote The Mathematical Theory of Communication, describing a classic communication model as a flat line with a source, message, channel, and receiver.
shocking statement A situation, experience, or phrase that the speaker uses in the introduction to get the audience’s attention.
short-term incentives See incentives.
simile A figure of speech in which like or as is used to show comparison.
slippery slope An appeal to fear that if one bad situation occurs, other bad events will follow.
social group A type of group that helps members to establish friendships and maintain personal relationships.
source A term relating to the origin of communication. It is used extensively in the Shannon and Weaver communication model.
spatial sequence The arrangement of main points of an informative speech according to geography or location.
speaking notes A brief outline of an entire speech written on 4-by-6-inch or 6-by-9-inch notecards.
specific purpose Includes the general purpose and one topic idea, stated in clear and concise language.
statistics A collection of facts in numerical form. They can be used as credible supporting materials in the body of the speech, to gain the attention of listeners in the introduction, or to get the audience to think seriously about an issue in the conclusion. See surveys.
status quo Represents the existing condition or present state of affairs. Propositions of policy seek to change the status quo.
stereotyping An oversimplified perception and often a prejudicial opinion that all people in a group, culture, or region have the same rigid characteristics or qualities without much exception.
stimulate To present a persuasive speech in which the speaker seeks to reinforce and intensify the beliefs or feelings of listeners.
storming The second stage of Bruce Tuckman’s theory. This stage is characterized by interpersonal conflict, infighting, emotional reactions to members, and resistance to authority.
story A short narrative that can be used as an attention- getting strategy for the introduction or as a final narrative in the conclusion. See illustration and example.
straw man An oversimplification of an opposing argument in order to shoot it down.
subdivision Refers to the subordinate points under a heading of an outline. The elements in a subdivision should be divided into separate and equal categories. See also subtopic.
subject A broad, general area or issue identified before narrowing to a limited topic for a speech.
Glossary 393
subordination Refers to the placement of secondary, or lower-ranking, ideas beneath higher-order topics in an outline.
substantive references Sources such as biographies, encyclopedias, almanacs, books, and magazines that help the speaker locate specific information for a speech topic.
subtopic Refers to the lower-ranking ideas in an outline. See subdivision.
summary A strategy used in the conclusion to recap the main points or thesis statement of the speech. It is especially effective when the topic involves complicated subject matter.
surveys Studies that draw conclusions from research.
suspense A strategy used in the introduction to stimulate interest or make listeners curious about a topic.
symbol A verbal or nonverbal expression or action that has meaning.
symposium A type of highly structured group in which two to six experts reveal their views on some aspect of a problem and deliver prepared speeches to an audience without informal discussion.
systematic desensitization A process developed by James C. McCroskey for treating and reducing high levels of communication anxiety through relaxation tapes, visualization, and follow-up exercises.
T targeting The process of identifying selected groups of listeners and designing specific appeals to motivate them.
task groups A type of group in which the completion of objectives or implementation of solutions is emphasized.
teleconference To gather research by interviewing an expert on a topic by telephone.
testimonial A speech of tribute presented at a retirement or other going-away ceremony.
testimony A statement or endorsement given by an expert or an individual with a logical connection to the topic.
thesis statement Often called the central idea or central objective, it is the sentence at the end of the introduction that expands the specific purpose and tells the audience exactly what main points the speech will cover.
tiling A computer-generated process of creating large posters with a graphics program.
topic An interesting, well-defined, and limited area that a speaker selects for speech development and delivery.
topic outline A format that includes brief phrases throughout the main and subordinate elements of an outline.
topical sequence Structuring the main points of the body of an informative speech by a logical or natural sequence; finding research that clusters around natural topics that can be earmarked as the main points of the outline.
touch screen A monitor that allows one to use special pens to write on digital media to highlight words, make notations, or even circle information on a slide or picture.
trait A leadership philosophy suggesting that leaders possess certain powerful characteristics such as physical appearance, speaking ability, or behavior.
transitions Connectives or listening cues between major or minor ideas in a speech. See external transitions and internal transitions.
transparencies Clear acetate sheets of plastic used with an overhead projector to enlarge photographs or other documents onto a large screen for easy viewing.
U unethical practices Untrustworthy behaviors through which a speaker advocates harm, provides false information, uses offensive language or name-calling, plagiarizes, or stacks the deck to manipulate or exploit members of an audience.
URL Uniform Resource Locator or web address of a specific Internet site.
V values A set of principles or standards that people consider to be important and that cause individuals to achieve goals or states of mind and behave in certain ways.
visualization step The fourth part of the motivated sequence in the persuasive speech to actuate that pictures the future if a problem is or is not solved.
vocalized pauses Verbalizations, such as “uh” and “um,” that cause distractions in speaking. See pauses and dramatic pauses.
volume The intensity or loudness and softness of the voice.
W whiteboard An electronic system that allows a speaker to use a digital pen to write on media and project it onto a screen.
394 Glossary
Suggested Topic Areas
The following lists contain suggested topics for speeches. Some issues are general and include a wide range of ideas, while others are more specific. Topic areas can be altered easily to fit the interests of a speaker, the general purpose of the speech, the needs of an audience, or the requirements of an occasion. We include these suggestions to stimulate creative thinking and productive investigation.
Art, Crafts, and Humanities Classic movies
Collecting: airplanes, art glass, baseball cards, bottles, but- tons, cars, Civil War memorabilia, clocks, coins, comics, dolls, fossils, guns, hats, juke boxes, linens, minerals, model trains, campaign buttons, phonograph records, porcelain, quilts, slot machines, stamps, teddy bears
Costs of maintaining museums
Creating: batik, designer cowboy boots, Greek moussaka, ice sculptures, perfect diamonds, stained-glass art
Designing: a home, clothing, flower arrangements, a land- scaped garden, a mall, a wedding cake, a high-rise con- dominium, a city, a solar-powered car, a golf course, an Olympic-standard racing bicycle, a surf board, a jet ski, a tunnel, a stadium, an airplane, a race track, a submarine, a nuclear power plant, a suspension bridge, a guitar
Famous objects: Broadway theaters, cathedrals, jewels, light- houses, museums, opera houses, palaces, prisons, ships, stadi- ums, streets, cities, ruins, mountains, forests, parks, trees, weapons, rivers, monuments, graves
Famous people: composers, musicians, painters, sculptors, actors, actresses, dancers, singers, authors, poets, presidents, first ladies, hall of fame personalities, Nobel Prize winners, world leaders
Fashion design and the consumer
Government funding of controversial art projects
Learning to make clay pottery
Life in a symphony orchestra
Looking for treasures at antique stores and flea markets
Major contemporary architectural styles
Manufacturing musical instruments
Re-enacting battles from the War of Independence or the Civil War
Science of restoring artworks
Understanding: Japanese origami, cubism, impressionism, Cajun cooking, the Amish, the game of cricket, soccer, lacrosse, Mexican history, Islam, Sioux tribal festivals, the festival of Kwanza, the celebration of Christmas in different countries, the feast of Ramadan, Hanukah, the Chinese New Year
Understanding ethnic food, music, or dance
Business and Industry Analyzing employee-owned companies
Bailouts of auto companies
Bar owners’ responsibilities to their intoxicated customers
Cleaning up industrial pollution from major waterways
Change in the United States from an industrial to a service economy
Corporate scandals
Craigslist
Creative packaging for increased sales
Ebay
Enforcing food-industry health standards
Government bailouts of Wall Street
Increasing the minimum wage
Rise, decline, and fall of the stock market
Making U.S. products more competitive with foreign goods
Maintaining business and industrial health and safety standards
Maintaining ethical practices in business
Manufacturing American goods in foreign “sweat shops”
Multitrillion-dollar national debt
Overcoming the groupthink mentality in large corporations
395
Positive and negative impact of labor unions on U.S. business
The profitability of legalized gambling
Rating airlines’ service and safety
Reducing America’s trade imbalance
Regulating the U.S. auto industry
Regulating the insurance industry after natural disasters
Regulating banks and mortgage companies
Subprime mortgage crisis
Women and minorities in management positions
Contemporary Issues Banning cigarette farming, production, and sales
Biological and chemical terrorism
Botox parties
Destructive nature of “designer drugs”
DNA testing, justice, and criminals
Effective prison rehabilitation programs
Eliminating street gangs
Eliminating inner city slums
Endangered species
“Going green”
Government bailouts of Wall Street
Government-supported day-care centers
Home testing kits for genetics, HIV, cancer
Improving relations among races
Investing portions of Social Security in stocks or bonds
Jury consulting as “legalized” jury tampering
Homeland security
Infrastructure of U.S.: deteriorating interstate highways, bridges, electricity grid, water and sewage systems
Legality of car radar detectors
Mandating energy-efficient appliances and lighting
Most wanted criminals in the United States
The need for judicial reform
Police roadblocks as a deterrent to drunk driving
Preventing crime and violence in public schools
Red light and speed cameras
Regulating auto insurance rates
Regulating health maintenance organizations
Reliability of child witnesses in sexual-abuse trials
Social networking: Facebook, Twitter, Myspace
Solutions to homelessness
Solutions to prison overcrowding
Stopping frivolous lawsuits
Victims’ rights
Current Events Abuse of women in U.S., third world countries
Achieving energy independence
Airline increases in fees for baggage, meals, etc.
Airline regulation and safety since September 11
Airline on-time performance
Air passengers’ bill of rights
Airport security checkpoints
Afghanistan: effectiveness and ineffectiveness of prolonged war
Apprehending: serial killers, child molesters, terrorists
Children sold into slavery and/or prostitution
Collective bargaining rights for state employees and teachers (Wisconsin, Ohio, New Jersey)
The Brady Law: pro- and anti-gun legislation
Decline of the American dollar
Dominating role of the United States in world affairs
Detecting auto-sales fraud
Earthquakes, tsunamis, and natural disasters
Effectiveness or ineffectiveness of affirmative action
Eliminating the Internal Revenue Service
Eliminating nuclear weapons
Fukushima, Japan, nuclear power plant meltdown
Government effectiveness in responding to disasters
Hybrid, flex-fuel, hydrogen-fueled vehicles
Home foreclosures
Identity theft
Illegal immigration
Illegal tampering with foods and medicines
Iran and destabilization of Iraq
Legalized gay marriages
396 Suggested Topic Areas
Mandating English as the national language
Middle East peace
National Health Care Law: cost, effectiveness, repeal
Negotiating with America’s enemies
Nuclear Power Plants: dangers and future prospects
Publishing ex-convicts’ names and addresses in community newspapers
Repairing the interstate highway system
Raising vs. cutting taxes
Recession and slow recovery
Repeal of “Don’t ask, don’t tell” policy in the military
Reducing the federal deficit and balancing the budget
Relevance or irrelevance of the vice-presidency
Revolutions and uprisings in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Yemen, Syria, Iran
Selling organs for transplant
September 11: the Patriot Act, loss of freedoms, anthrax, smallpox, suitcase nuclear weapons, limits of American power, guns in airplane cockpits, limiting immigration, fight- ing terrorist nations
Skyrocketing price of gas
Success or failure of the president’s economic program
Supreme Court decisions regarding: search and seizure, free- dom of the press, freedom of expression, surrogate parenting, three strikes and you’re out, Pledge of Allegiance, executive privilege, separation of church and state, affirmative action, lethal injections for capital punishment, illegal immigrants and social services, school prayer, cruel and unusual punish- ment, suing HMO insurance companies
Term limits for members of Congress
U.S. foreign policy (pro and con): aid to Russia, granting China favored-nation trade status, the United States as “the world’s policeman,” accepting immigrants from third-world countries, Iraq, Afghanistan, support of Israel, establishing a Palestinian state, outsourcing of U.S. companies to other countries for cheap labor, responsibility in feeding the world’s hungry, re- sponsibility for eliminating AIDS, free-trade agreements
Unemployment
Labor unions and auto companies
Violence on YouTube
Wasting tax money on beach replenishment
Welfare reform
Withdrawal of troops from Iraq and the Middle East
Education Bullying in public schools
Cheerleading as a dangerous sport
Creative financing for a college education
Decline of the U.S. educational system
Defining and eliminating illiteracy
Differences between U.S. and Japanese educational systems
Eliminating the factory model of education
Eliminating same-sex public military education (such as the Citadel and Virginia Military Institute)
Eliminating sports programs vs. removing music, art, and dance curricula in public schools
Establishing tax vouchers for parents who choose to send their children to private schools
Future of fraternity and sorority systems
Internet degrees
“No child left behind” effectiveness
Public school issues (pro and con): mainstreaming students with special needs, mandating the learning of a foreign lan- guage, mandating year-around education, requiring high school students to perform community service
Performance stress among preschoolers
Prescriptive vs. non-prescriptive approaches to general educa- tion requirements for college
Privatization of public school systems
Reforming America’s public schools
Sex education programs in public schools
Teaching “intelligent design” in public school science curricula
Teaching values in public schools
The effectiveness or ineffectiveness of home schooling
Impact of magnet schools on school districts
Television or the Internet as a positive or negative force in education
The harmful effects of fraternity hazing practices
The impact of budget-cutting on public schools
Understanding learning disabilities
Violence and security in America’s schools
Family Issues Adoption: alternative methods, single parent, gay parent, adopting foreign children, buying and selling babies,
Suggested Topic Areas 397
bureaucratic difficulties, foster care, adoption scams, cross- racial adoptions, adoption rights of parents and children
Child slavery
Child prostitution
Children abusing parents
Children divorcing parents or children suing parents
Children as murderers of peers or parents
Children’s choice in choosing either of the divorced parents
Children and kidnapping by one parent
Coping with the sudden death of a family member
Donating the organs or tissues of deceased babies for transplants
Family issues: abuse, incest, alcoholism, dysfunctional family members, gay family members, sibling rivalry, in-laws, parent- child jealousy
Famous and infamous families
Effects of touch deprivation
Helping a family member with special needs
Having quintuplets
Making a will
No-fault divorce
Nursing homes, assisted living, or hospice care for family members
Parental responsibility for obese children
Parental responsibility for actions of underage children
Parents murdering children
Parents without partners
Positive and negative effects of a permissive upbringing
Prenuptial agreements
Preparing for a: family vacation, wedding, baby, birthday, anniversary, formal dinner party, funeral, bar mitzvah
Prison marriages
Psychological bonding of twins
Regulating the Internet to protect underage children
Removing driving privileges from an aging family member
Runaway children
“Tough-love” programs
Unusual wedding ceremonies
The “V-chip” as an effective or ineffective device for control- ling the TV viewing habits of children
Health Advances in artificial-limb technology
The benefits and risks of alternative medicine
Choosing a competent doctor or specialist
Comparative quality of health care in the United States
Cosmetic surgery: advantages, disadvantages, risks.
Cross-species organ transplants
Curing: Alzheimers, autism, infertility, cancer, diabetes, glaucoma, AIDS, ADD, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, parkinson’s, heart disease, Gulf War syndrome, spinal cord injury
Detecting and prosecuting incompetent health practitioners
Doctors who make house calls
Doctors’ perspectives on universal health insurance
Mandating HP vaccine to teenagers
The effectiveness and efficiency of Medicare
Effectiveness of transplant procedures
Excessive exercise
Family therapy as a treatment for abuse or other problems
Gene selection for determining traits in children
Health insurance for pets
Home testing for HIV, genetics, cancer
Improper diets
In-home hospice care
Limiting financial awards for malpractice
Low-cholesterol cooking
Malpractice insurance costs
Medical insurance coverage for birth control and male impo- tence drugs
New treatments for mental illness
National crisis of nurse shortages
Programs to reduce prescription drug costs
Pro or con: regulating caps on doctor and hospital fees
Research using aborted fetal tissue
Risky medical procedures
Stem cell research
Tips for choosing a veterinarian
Tissue regeneration
Transsexual surgery
Treatments for sexual dysfunctions
398 Suggested Topic Areas
Careers and Occupations Becoming: a jockey, a TV game show host, a casino manager, an Alaskan crab boat captain, a stand-up comic, an auction- eer, a roller-coaster designer, an air traffic controller, a navy radar specialist, a bombardier, a day-care supervisor, a lawyer, a sculptor, a weapons designer or manufacturer
Coaching a football team
Creating cartoons
Constructing neon signs
Jobs generated by the high-technology revolution
Making movies
Managing stocks and bonds
Protecting the Alaskan wilderness
SCUBA diving for fun, work, or national security
The history of: skywriting, pro bowling, chimney sweeping, jousting, polo, windsurfing, the Olympics, bungee-jumping, tennis, submarines
Unusual careers for women and men
Weather forecasting
Working as a park warden in Hawaii’s Volcano National Park
Personal Experience Becoming a(n): chef, skydiver, gymnast, cruise director, clogger, bagpiper, parasailing expert, actress, ballet dancer, female impersonator, explorer of sunken ships, mountain climber, test pilot, circus-animal trainer, woman priest, zookeeper
Forgettable and unforgettable characters
Surviving: isolation, loneliness, death of a loved one, illness, hunger, poverty, children, parents, addiction, crime, Nazi death camps, divorce, the military, stress, mothers-in-law, the family vacation, college, the wilderness, rafting, terrorist attacks
People Famous: felons, presidents, scientists, inventors, doctors, law- yers, actors, musicians, artists, athletes, politicians, revolu- tionaries, journalists, activists, celebrities, religious figures, business people, engineers, Nobel Prize winners, Pulitzer Prize winners.
Science and Technology Availability of alternative low-cost fuels
Availability of alternative fueling stations in the U.S.
Bluetooth technology
Carbon dating
Cyber bullying
Development of space exploration plans
Driverless cars
Electric-powered vehicles
Flex-fuel vehicles
Gene manipulation and selection
Impact of fiber-optic technology on the consumer
How radio telescopes help astronomers
High-definition television
Human cloning
Hydroponic gardening as a solution to world hunger
Hydrogen-powered vehicles
Laser technology in medical science
Latest computer technologies
NASA’s space plane
New computer and micro-computer technologies
Positive and negative impacts of robotics
The possibility of cryogenics
Possibility of developing “designer” genes
Potential benefits from superconductor technology
Recent Mars, Mercury, and Venus explorations
Reclaiming oceans for human habitation
Smart phone technology
Status of research into fusion
Undersea exploration and colonization
Understanding the patterns of individual biorhythms
U.S. plans for a space station
Wind farms to manufacture energy
Suggested Topic Areas 399
Index
A Acceptance speech, 343–344 Active listening, 70 After-dinner speech, 349–350 Agnew, Spiro, 230 Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, 89, 298 Alexander, Benjamin H., 54 Allen, George, 298 Andersen, Gary, 182 Angelou, Maya, 3, 252, 304 Appreciative listening, 69 Aristotle, 297 Armstrong, Lance, 276f Asner, William, 324 Audience analysis, 43–62, 45f
attitudes, 47 audience motivation, 49–51
beliefs, 49 esteem needs, 50 hierarchy of needs, 49 love needs, 50 physiological needs, 50 safety needs, 50 self-actualization needs, 50 stereotypes, 50 values, 49
conducting of audience profile, 62 computers and, 62 demographic data, 60–62 informal assessment, 60 interviews, 61 questionnaire, 61 surveys, 60–61
importance of, 44–45 occasion impact
event location, 59 purpose, 58 speaker expectations, 59–60
opinions, 47 social group impact
age, 51 cultural origin, 53–54 educational level, 55 ethnic origin, 53–54 gender, 52
geographic location, 56 income level, 56 interests, 55 occupation, 55 religion, 53 social organizations, 56–57 specific groups, 57–58
speaker, audience perception of, 45–46 topic, audience perception of, 46–49
Audience motivation, 324–339 appeal to listener’s beliefs, 326–327 appeal to listener’s values, 326–327 emotional involvement, 328 hierarchy of needs, 325–326 incentives
long-term, 327 short-term, 328
Audiovisual aids, 206–228 actual objects, 220 bar graphs, 213, 213f chalkboards, 218 copyright cautions, 223 developing graphs, 214 electronic media
audience response systems, 209 computer, 207–208 data projector, 207–208 document camera, 208 other, 209 PowerPoint, 207 text and video devices, 208 touch screen monitor, 209 whiteboard, 209
flipcharts, 218 guidelines for, 221–222 illustrations, 214, 216f, 217f line graphs, 213–214, 214f parts of objects, 220 photographs, 215 pictures, 217, 219f pie graph, 214, 215f posters, 218 presenter’s gestures, 222 scale models, 220 types of, 207–227
Autocratic leader, in groups, 360
B Bacon, Kevin, 82 Basinger, Kim, 16 Bernays, Edward L., 292 Biden, Joseph, 47, 86 Bin Laden, Osama, 13, 297 Blumenthal, Richard, 87 Bocelli, Andrea, 16 Bojaxhiu, Agnes Gonxha (Mother Teresa), 11, 13
Bonds, Barry, 82 Brainstorming, 104 Buckley, William F., 230 Burke, Edmund, 160 Bush, George W., 10, 11, 25, 46, 263
C Callahan, Dan, 58 Capen, Richard R. Jr., 93 Cappone, Al, 43 Carter, Jimmy, 25, 59, 264 Chapman, Candita, 28 Churchill, Winston, 102, 236 Clavicular breathing, 249 Clemens, Roger, 82 Clinton, Bill, 87, 263 Clinton, Hillary, 11, 57, 188, 247, 308f Clooney, George, 3, 149 Commencement speech, 349 Communication apprehension
nervousness symptoms, 17, 18f reducing of
constructive behaviors, 23 constructive criticism, 25–26 facing it, 19–21 health and exercise, 23–24 mistakes, learning of, 25 positive attitude, 21–22 preparation, 24 responsibility, 26–27 rewards, 24–25
stress research, 17–19 systematic desensitization, 18 understanding of, 15–27
Communication process application of, 12–13 circle of, 7f
400
communication models, 4, 5f channel, 6 decoding, 6 encoding, 6 feedback, 7 message, 6 noise, 8–10 receiver, 6 sender, 5–6 setting, 7–8
communication tools, 10–12 speech anxiety, 16–17, 16t success plan design, 13–14
Communication tools, 10–12 Comprehensive outline
conclusion, 32–33 introduction, 32 transition, 32
Conclusion inadequate conclusion,
191–192 outlining of, 198 planning of
appeal, 194–195 challenge, 194–195 example, 197 humor, 195–196 illustration, 197 introduction reference, 194 main point summary, 192–193 question, 196–197 quotation, 193–194 statistics, 197–198 story, 197
purpose of, 191 speaking notes, 199–203
Concrete language, 232–234 Connotation, 233–234 Coolidge, Calvin, 264 Coordination, 168 Corman, Brian, 92, 298 Couric, Katie, 47
D Davis, Scott, 186 De Chello, Christine, 65 Dedication speech, 344 Definition speech, 280–282 Deitrich, Coleen, 51 Democratic leader, in groups, 360 Demonstration speech, 276–279 Denny, Reginald, 93 Denotation, 233–234 Descriptive speech, 272–276 Dewey, John, 313, 362 Diana, Princess of Wales, 11, 12, 13, 303 Diaphragmatic breathing, 249 Discriminative listening, 68
Douglas, Michael, 299 Dramatic pauses, 254
E Eisenhower, Dwight D., 347 Ellis, Albert, 21 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 229 Empathic listening, 70 Encoding, 6 Entertaining speeches, 31, 108 Ethics, in public speaking, 81–99
code of ethics, 93–98 ethical standards application, 90–98 honesty, 91–92 motives, 92–93 need for, 83–84 speaker’s ethics
honesty, 84–86 motivations, 87–88 policies, 88–90 reliability, 87
Evaluative listening, 69 Extemporaneous delivery, 29–30 External noise, 8
F Farewell speech, 348 First speech, 28–41
blueprint creation audience members sensitivity, 33 comprehensive outline, 32–33 confidence, 35–36 ethical responsibilities, 33 general purpose, 31 practice of, 33–35 purpose statement, 32 research, 31–32 thesis statement, 32 topic selection, 30
career speech developing, 37–41 research for, 36–37
extemporaneous delivery, 29–30, 33 speaking styles, 29–30
impromptu, 29–30 manuscripts, 29 memorized delivery, 30
Ford, Gerald, 25, 85, 231 Formal outline, 160 Fox, Michael J., 4f, 12 Francis, Brendan, 141 Frey, James, 84 Frisk, Bob, 71
G Gadhafi, Muammar, 361 Garrison, William Lloyd, 236
General adaptation syndrome, 17 General purpose, 31 Gibson, Mel, 43, 241 Giuliani, Rudolph, 46 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 11 Group speaking, 357–376
dysfunctional group, 373 encounter groups, 359 functional group, 374 group interaction, 359 group size, 359 leadership, 359–360
agenda choice, 370 clarification, 372 conflict resolution, 371–372 emotional support, 372 flexibility, 372 location choice, 370 positive behavior, 369 potential problems anticipation,
370–371 theories for, 369
participation in group-centered behavior, 366 self-centered behavior, 367–368
problem solving agenda for, 362–365 criteria set up, 363 discussion, 361–362 issue analysis, 363 problem definition, 362 questions of fact, 361–362 questions of policy, 362 questions of value, 362 solutions application, 364 solutions suggestion, 363–364
small groups development of, 360–361 shared goals, 358–359
social groups, 359 special discussion formats
buzz groups, 376 focus groups, 374–375 forum, 376 panel, 375–376 role-playing groups, 376 symposium, 375
task groups, 358–359 time period, 359
Gwynn, Carolyn, 67
H Hanson, John, 123 Hardin, Paul, 345 Harper, Robert, 21 Hayward, Tony, 43
Index 401
Head, Tania, 86 Hewson, Paul David (Bono), 11 Hitler, Adolf, 13, 297 Humphrey, Judith, 160 Hundley, Todd, 83
I Iacocca, Lee, 56 Informal outline, 160 Informative speeches, 31, 107, 284f
persuasion vs., 271–272 types of
definition speech, 280–282 demonstrative speech, 276–279 descriptive speech, 272–276 lectures, 283 personal experience, 284 reports, 282–283
Internal noise, 8–9 Internet research tips, 121–123 Introduction
inadequate introduction, 180–181 outlining of, 190–191 planning of
compliment, 187 examples, 182 flexibility of, 189 humor, 188–189 illustrations, 182–183 occasion reference, 188 open-ended questions, 185 personal reference, 187 questions, 185–186 quotation, 186 shocking statement, 183 statistics, 184–185 stories, 182 strategy combination, 190 suspense, 186–187
purpose of, 180 speaking notes, 199–203
Introduction speech, 345–346
J Jacobs, Trent, 293 Jamieson, Kathleen Hall, 206 Jefferson, Thomas, 81 Jobs, Steve, 146f John Sheen, Fulton, 247 Johnson, Ben, 2 Johnson, Lyndon, 264 Johnson, Samuel, 116 Jones, James Earl, 252 Jones, Jim, 13 Jones, Marion, 84 Jordan, Barbara, 346 Josephson, Michael, 84
K Kennedy, Caroline, 254 Kennedy, John F., 10, 17, 86, 264, 304 Keynote speech, 346–347 Kilduff, Jim, 53 King, Larry, 84 King, Martin Luther, 10, 13, 196f, 237, 304 King, Rodney, 93 Kinnock, Neil, 86 Koppel, Ted, 83 Koresh, David, 66, 297
L Lady GaGa, 252 Lafollette, Robert, 258 Laissez-faire leader, in groups, 360 Lamm, Richard D., 147 Lander, Walter Savage, 340 Language
appropriateness cultural differences, 238–240 gender, 240–241 grammatical errors, 242–243 irrelevant language, 241–242 offensive terms, 241
clarity, 230–232 concrete language, 232–234 connotation, 233–234 denotation, 233–234 euphemisms, 231–232 personal pronouns, 243–244 style, building of
alliteration, 236 amplification, 236 antithesis, 236–237 metaphors, 235 mnemonic phrases, 237–238 repetition, 237 similes, 234
transitions, 244–245 Lay, Kenneth, 85 Leno, Jay, 252 Letterman, David, 30, 252 Lincoln, Abraham, 229 Linguistic parallel, 171–172 Listening skills
barriers to attention faking, 74 communication, blocking out,
72–73 distractions, 71 selective listening, 73 speaker, criticism for, 74 unpleasant situations, 74–75
distractions and, 78 feedback, 76–77 judgment withholding, 75–76
kinds of active listening, 70 appreciative listening, 69 discriminative listening, 68 empathic listening, 70 evaluative listening, 69 passive listening, 70
listening model, 67 listening process, 66–68 significance of, 65–66
Logical and ethical fallacies summary, 309–311
Lopez, Jennifer, 3
M Madoff, Bernard, 82 Mandela, Nelson, 11, 12, 13 Manning, Peyton, 147 Maslow, Abraham H., 49 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 49f, 326 The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Shannon/Weaver), 4
McCain, John, 47 McCarthy, Joe, 298 McCoy, Brian, 83 McCroskey, James C., 18 McVeigh, Timothy, 88 Modern world, communication in, 3 Monroe, Alan, 329 Monroe, Marilyn, 252 Motivated sequence, 329
application of, 331–334 outlining of, 335 speech to actuate
action step, 330 attention step, 329 need step, 329 satisfaction step, 330 thesis, phrasing of, 330–331 visualization step, 330
N Negative self-talk, 21 Nicholas, 56 Nifong, Mike, 88 Nixon, Richard, 85, 231 Nominating speech, 347–348 Nothing is Impossible: Reflections on a New
Life (Reeve), 12
O Obama, Barack, 25, 29, 73, 86, 147, 247, 252, 299f, 304, 348
Obama, Michelle, 12, 254, 255f Occupational Outlook Handbook, 36 O’Donnell, Rosie, 252 Olivier, Lawrence, 16 Ong, Betty, 65
402 Index
Open-ended questions, 185 Osteen, Joel, 3 Oz, Mehmet, 142
P Pacino, Al, 21 Palin, Sarah, 47, 73, 252 Passive listening, 70 Pelosi, Nancy, 47, 48f, 73 Persuasive speeches, 31, 107
audience emotions and, 301 charisma and, 304 comparative advantages, 315–316 controversial issue, 314–315 emotions in speech, 300 ethos, 297–298 logos
arguments based on analogy, 306 arguments based on causation,
307–308 arguments based on enumeration,
305–306 opposition arguments, 308–309 rebuttal arguments, 308–309
motivated sequence, 316–318 organization of
problem-solution, 313–314 reasons, 311–312
pathos, 299–304 persuasion, nature of, 293 proposition statement
of fact, 296 of policy, 296–297 of value, 296
speeches to actuate, 294–295 speeches to convince, 294 speeches to stimulate, 294 in today’s society, 293 topic selection, 295 unethical persuasive practices, 298
Pitt, Brad, 3 Positive self-talk, 21 Powell, Colin, 188 PowerPoint guidelines, 210–212 Primary sources, 118 Public speaking study, 2–14 Purpose
selection of, 102–114 writing of
clarity, 108–109 conciseness, 108–109 declarative statement, 110 major idea, 109–110
Purpose statement, 32
R Rangel, Charles, 84 Reagan, Ronald, 11, 12, 25, 264, 304, 342
Reeve, Christopher, 12 Research, 116–140
bibliography, 134–136 credibility, 117–118 critical thinking, 136–140 governmental research, 129 institutional research, 129–130 Internet searching, 121–123 interviewing
conducting, 133–134 notes, 134 preparation, 132–133
legal research, 126 legislative research, 129 library access
databases, 119–121 online catalog, 119
museums, 131 note keeping, 131–132 organizational research, 130–131 plagiarism, 136 preparation for, 117 primary sources, 118 reference sources
almanacs, 125 audiovisual aids, 126 biographies, 123 books, 125 dictionaries, 124 directories, 124 encyclopedias, 124 handbooks, 124 interviews, 127 journals, 125–126 magazines, 125–126 newspapers, 125–126 quotations collections, 125 statistical publications, 125 yearbooks, 125
secondary sources, 118 specialized libraries, 131
Rice, Condoleezza, 11, 12 Richards, Michael, 43, 241 Rock, Chris, 252 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 357 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 10, 12, 237, 258, 304
Ruffin, Kenneth, 302 Rumber, Pamela, 300
S Saltzman, Joe, 86 Sandburg, Carl, 237 Sanford, Mark, 84 Scheb, John M., 58 Secondary sources, 118 Seinfeld, Jerry, 15, 252
Selective listening, 73 Semantic noise, 9–10 Sentence outline, 172 Shannon, Claude, 4 Shocking statement, 183 Simmons, Ruth, 242 Simpson, O.J., 257 Skarda, Patricia, 242 Smith, Will, 3, 252 Social group impact, 51–58 Speaker, audience analysis of, 45–46 Speaking styles, 29–30
impromptu, 29–30 manuscripts, 29 memorized delivery, 30
Special occasion speech acceptance speech, 343–344 after-dinner speech, 349–350 dedication speech, 344 eulogy, 341–342 farewell speech, 348 introduction speech, 345–346 keynote speech, 346–347 nominating speech, 347 presentation speech, 342–343 toasts, 350–351, 351f tribute speech, 341–342 types of, 341–351 victory speech, 348–349 welcoming speech, 345
Speech anxiety, 16–17, 16t Speech body
cause-effect sequence, 164 chronological sequence, 162–163 coordination, 168 external transitions, 174–175 linguistically parallel, 171–172 main points, 161 numerals use, 166 organizational sequence, 162 organization of, 160–178 outlining principles, 160–175 problem-solution order, 166 sentence outline, 172–173 spatial sequence, 163–164 speaking notes, 175–177 subordination, 168 subtopics, 169–170 supporting materials,
167–169, 173–174 topical sequence, 164 topic outline, 172
Speech delivery, 247–268 breathing, importance of, 249 checklist for, 269f nonverbal/visual delivery
appearance, 257 body language, 259 culture and, 260–261
Index 403
Speech delivery (continued) eye contact, 256–257 facial expressions, 258 gender and, 261–263 gestures, 257–258
skills in, 264–267, 268f visual, combined with vocal, 263–264 vocal delivery
articulation, 251 combined with visual, 263–264 emphasis, 255–256 inflection, 251–252 pauses, 254 phrasing, 255–256 pitch, 251–252 pronunciation, 253–254 quality, 252–253 rate, 253 volume, 250
Spielberg, Steven, 82 Stereotypes, 50 Stewart, Rod, 16 Stravinsky, Igor, 64 Streisand, Barbara, 16, 23 Subtopics, 169–170 Supporting materials, 141–157
anecdotes, 152–153 case study, 146–147 comparisons, 150–151 contrasts, 150–151
examples, 144–145 expert testimony, 148–149 humor, 152–153 illustration, 145 narrative, 147 observation, 151–152 personal evidence, 151–152 personal testimony, 149 polls, 143 prestige testimony, 149 quotations, 148 role-playing, 153–154 selection of, 142 statistics, 142–153 study, 143 surveys, 142 visual evidence, 149
Symbols, 6 Systematic desensitization, 18
T Thesis statement, 32, 110–113 Toasts, 350–351, 351f Topic
audience perception of, 46–49 brainstorming, 104 ideas for, 103–104 Internet use, 104 library databases, 104 outline, 172 selection of, 102–114
appropriateness, 106 general purpose, 107–108 interesting, 104–105 new information, 106 time limit and, 105–106
Topic outline, 172 Tribute speech, 341–342
V Victory speech, 348–349 Villa, Pancho, 179 Vocalized pauses, 254 Vonn, Lindsay, 118
W Washington, Isaiah, 43 Watkins, Sherron, 85 Weaver, Warren, 4 Weber, Ron, 65 Welcoming speech, 345 Whitaker, Forest, 343 Wiesel, Elie, 12 Williams, Serena, 277f Williams, Venus, 277f Winfrey, Oprah, 3, 84, 350f Wolvin, Andrew, 67 Wolvin-Coakley listening model, 68f
Z Zaslow, Jeffrey, 55
404 Index
- Cover
- Title Page
- Copyright
- Contents
- Preface
- Unit One: Surveying the Landscape
- Chapter 1 Introducing the Study of Public Speaking
- COMMUNICATION IN THE MODERN WORLD
- THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
- UNDERSTANDING THE TOOLS OF COMMUNICATION
- APPLYING THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
- DESIGNING A PLAN FOR SUCCESS
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Chapter 2 Understanding and Reducing Your Apprehension
- SPEECH ANXIETY IS COMMON
- RESEARCH INTO STRESS AND COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION
- REDUCING COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION
- TAKING RESPONSIBILITY TO REDUCE APPREHENSION
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Chapter 3 Building Your First Speech
- EXTEMPORANEOUS DELIVERY AND SPEAKING STYLES
- CREATING A BLUEPRINT
- THE CAREER SPEECH
- SAMPLE SPEECH: CAREERS IN ANTHROPOLOGY
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Chapter 4 Analyzing Your Audience
- THE IMPORTANCE OF AUDIENCE ANALYSIS
- CONDUCTING AN AUDIENCE ANALYSIS
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Chapter 5 Improving Your Listening Skills
- THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LISTENING
- THE PROCESS OF LISTENING
- KINDS OF LISTENING
- BARRIERS TO LISTENING: THE LACK OF BEING "PRESENT"
- HOW TO BECOME AN ACTIVE LISTENER AND SPEAKER
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Chapter 6 Considering the Ethics of Public Speaking
- THE NEED FOR ETHICS IN SOCIETY
- EVALUATING A SPEAKER'S ETHICS
- APPLYING ETHICAL STANDARDS
- SAMPLE SPEECH: PRACTICE, PRACTICE, PRACTICE: KNOWING IS NOT THE SAME THING AS DOING
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Unit Two: Preparing the Foundation
- Chapter 7 Selecting the Topic and Purpose
- GETTING IDEAS
- SELECTING THE TOPIC
- WRITING THE SPECIFIC PURPOSE
- WORDING THE THESIS STATEMENT
- PUTTING IT TOGETHER
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Chapter 8 Conducting Research
- PREPARING FOR RESEARCH
- ESTABLISHING CREDIBILITY
- PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES
- ACCESSING THE LIBRARY
- GUIDELINES FOR SEARCHING THE INTERNET
- RESEARCHING REFERENCE SOURCES
- KEEPING ACCURATE NOTES
- INTERVIEWING
- THE BIBLIOGRAPHY: HOW TO RECORD AN ENTRY
- AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
- THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT SPEECH RESEARCH AND CONSTRUCTION
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Chapter 9 Choosing Supporting Materials
- MAKING THE APPROPRIATE SELECTION
- STATISTICS, POLLS, AND SURVEYS
- EXAMPLES, ILLUSTRATIONS, CASE STUDIES, AND NARRATIVES
- QUOTATIONS AND TESTIMONY
- VISUAL EVIDENCE
- COMPARISONS AND CONTRASTS
- PERSONAL EXPERIENCE AND OBSERVATION
- HUMOR AND ANECDOTES
- ROLE-PLAYING
- SAMPLE SPEECH: THE FLAG RAISINGS ON IWO JIMA
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Unit Three: Creating the Structure
- Chapter 10 Organizing the Body of the Speech
- APPROACHING ORGANIZATION LOGICALLY
- PRINCIPLES OF OUTLINING
- YOUR SPEAKING NOTES
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Chapter 11 Selecting the Introduction and Conclusion
- PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION
- THE INADEQUATE INTRODUCTION
- PLANNING AN EFFECTIVE INTRODUCTION
- OUTLINING THE INTRODUCTION
- PURPOSE OF THE CONCLUSION
- THE INADEQUATE CONCLUSION
- PLANNING THE EFFECTIVE CONCLUSION
- OUTLINING THE CONCLUSION
- SPEAKING NOTES FOR THE INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION
- SAMPLE OUTLINE: RAISING THE MONITOR
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Unit Four: Refining the Appearance
- Chapter 12 Using Audiovisual Aids
- TYPES OF AUDIOVISUAL AIDS
- SAMPLE SPEECH: HOW DO AIRPLANE WINGS PRODUCE LIFT?
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Chapter 13 Considering Language
- DEVELOPING CLARITY
- USING CONCRETE LANGUAGE
- BUILDING A UNIQUE STYLE
- BEING APPROPRIATE
- MAKING IDEAS MEANINGFUL AND INTERRELATED
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Chapter 14 Developing the Delivery
- DELIVERING THE SPEECH
- PROPER BREATHING FOR VOCAL DELIVERY
- VOCAL DELIVERY
- VISUAL, NONVERBAL DELIVERY
- COMBINING VOCAL AND VISUAL DELIVERY
- BUILDING SKILLS IN DELIVERY
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Unit Five: Considering Different Types of Structure
- Chapter 15 Speaking to Inform
- THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INFORMATION AND PERSUASION
- TYPES OF INFORMATIVE SPEECHES
- SAMPLE SPEECH: RAISING THE MONITOR
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Chapter 16 Speaking to Persuade
- PERSUASION IN TODAY'S SOCIETY
- THE NATURE OF PERSUASION
- ETHOS, PATHOS, AND LOGOS: THE MEANS OF PERSUASION
- LOGOS: THE APPEAL TO REASON
- METHODS OF ORGANIZING PERSUASIVE SPEECHES
- SAMPLE SPEECH: COMPUTER-ENHANCED ADVERTISING SHOULD BE CLEARLY LABELED
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Chapter 17 Speaking to Persuade: Motivating Audiences
- STRATEGIES FOR MOTIVATING LISTENERS
- THE SPEECH TO ACTUATE
- APPLYING THE MOTIVATED SEQUENCE
- SAMPLE SPEECH: GENOCIDE IN SUDAN
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Chapter 18 Speaking for Special Occasions
- TYPES OF SPECIAL-OCCASION SPEECHES
- SAMPLE SPEECH: DEDICATION OF THE WORLD WAR II MEMORIAL
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Chapter 19 Speaking in Groups
- CHARACTERISTICS OF SMALL GROUPS
- DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL GROUPS
- SOLVING PROBLEMS IN GROUPS
- PARTICIPATING IN GROUPS
- LEADERSHIP IN SMALL GROUPS
- SPECIAL DISCUSSION FORMATS
- SUMMARY
- SKILL BUILDERS
- BUILDING A SPEECH ONLINE
- Notes
- Glossary
- Suggested Topic Areas
- Index
