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2 COPPS

Partnerships in a Changing Society

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Communitarianism Community corrections Community court Community engagement Community governance Community justice

Community policing Community prosecution Community service center Demographics E-government Restorative justice

“Second-generation” station house

Sense of community Social capital

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

As a result of reading this chapter, the student will: � Have a grasp of what is meant by “community” and the roles that communitarianism, social

capital, and volunteerism play in it � Know why it is essential for government and the police to view citizens and other

organizations and agencies as invaluable partners in crime prevention and crime control � Comprehend the meaning of community policing, and understand how it differs from

traditional policing � Understand the challenges posed to the police by our nation’s shifting demographics,

immigration patterns, and high technology � Be familiar with the implications of an aging nation as well as the challenges posed by

younger generations of people and the changing nature of crime � Know what some jurisdictions are doing to make their police station houses more warm,

open, and community-oriented

� � � � � �

No problem can be solved by the same consciousness that created it. We must learn to see the world anew.

—ALBERT EINSTEIN

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When earth breaks up and heaven expands, How will the change strike me and you ...?

—ROBERT BROWNING

INTRODUCTION

What is a “community,” and how do the police go about engaging and addressing problems within a changing community with its shifting types of crime? What are some of the changes that are occurring in our nation, with both its population and methods of crime? How must the police prepare to deal with them?

This chapter examines those questions, beginning with a look at some of the elements that compose a community. Included in this discussion, and to better understand how our nation and policing have evolved into the current community policing era, we emphasize one of the basic premises on which that strategy is founded: All agencies of government should view their citizens as invaluable customers and should understand the roles that community justice and governance, social capital, and volunteerism play in that view. Then we look at how courts and corrections agencies are also partnering with citizens through community and restorative justice; included here is a look at how units of government are reaching out with community service centers and e-government activities.

Then we discuss the point to which all of this has evolved: community-oriented policing. This portion of the chapter, together with Chapter 3, comprises the heart and soul of the book; we review community policing’s basic principles and how this philosophy differs from traditional policing. Following that is a review of some of the challenges that exist today as police agencies attempt to engage this changing nation, with its demographics, its economic and immigration issues, its aging population, and its high technology, as well as how police must deal with violence and fear of crime.

The overarching theme of this chapter is that the police and the community must partner to engage in crime fighting (indeed, a national survey found that police agencies employing 73 per- cent of all police officers now include elements of community policing in their mission state- ments).1 We do not examine problem-oriented policing and problem solving at length here; those discussions will follow later, primarily in Chapter 3. Furthermore, we discuss several other aspects of our changing society, such as challenges being posed by the new generation of Millennials, who are now entering the police workplace as baby boomers retire, in later chapters as well.

The chapter concludes with a summary, review questions, and several scenarios and activi- ties that provide opportunities for you to “learn by doing.”

WHAT IS COMMUNITY?

A Sense of Community

This chapter is essentially about community. But what is meant by the term “community,” and how do the police interact with it? Those fundamental questions must be addressed before pro- ceeding to discuss how this nation is changing.

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First, it is important to note that today’s notion of community, under COPPS, is quite dif- ferent from the traditional view. The traditional community was homogeneous (as will be seen below); today most of us live with heterogeneity. Traditional communities experienced little change from one year to the next, commonly demanded a high degree of conformity, were often unfriendly to strangers, and could boast generations of history and continuity.

A sense of community is an intangible yet vital component of a healthy community. Many times a sense of community has deep historical roots, centered around a place, building, or event—a town square, church, holiday parades, sporting events, and so on. As well as good schools, clean air and water, and a low crime rate, a sense of community is increasingly a key fac- tor in where people reside. Strong communities also connect the different groups within them, and their members to each other and to civic life. They find ways for people to connect and con- tribute within the entire spectrum of community life.2

John Gardner3 delineated some key elements of a sense of community and what is needed to rebuild its sense of community in the future:

1. Membership. People become members of a community when they feel emotionally secure, personally invested, and a sense of belonging or identification in the community.

2. Influence. People who have a sense of community must feel that their opinion can have influence over what the group does.

3. Integration and fulfillment of goals. People are rewarded for their participation in the community, providing positive rewards and satisfying experiences.

4. Shared emotional connection. This final element seems to be the defining feature for peo- ple to experience a true emotional connection. There are many features of a community that facilitate people having such a connection, including a shared history or historical dis- trict, public places where they can socialize and interact, positive interactions between business owners and loyal customers, a nice blend between open spaces and buildings, and corridors that link cities and natural environment (rivers, biking trails).

A community’s quality of life is obviously determined by its citizens4; therefore, it is impor- tant that the public be empowered by government to engage in the identification and resolution of neighborhood concerns. It is well established that people act more responsibly when they con- trol their own environments than when they are controlled by others. Empowerment is an American tradition.5 Citizens should understand their community’s problems, and “good citi- zens make strong communities.”6

Communitarianism

A concept that has application to policing is communitarianism. This term, promulgated by prominent sociologist Amitai Etzioni and other academics, argues that we have gone too far toward extending rights to our citizens and not far enough in asking them to fulfill responsibilities to the community as a whole. Focusing not so much on politics as on the process of government, “it is a mindset that says the whole community needs to take responsibility for itself. People need to actively participate, not just give their opinions ... but instead give time, energy, and money.”7

In this view, communitarianism is an attempt to nurture an underlying structure of “civil society”—sound families, caring neighbors, the whole web of churches, Rotary clubs, block associa- tions, and nonprofit organizations that give individuals their moral compass and communities their strength. Communitarians see our political culture as being in very bad shape, not just because elected officials have done a bad job but because citizens have not attended to what citizenship is all about.8

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As a result, communitarians support processes such as problem solving, where neighbor- hoods have taken matters into their own hands, closing off streets and creating other physical barriers to disrupt the drug trade, working to overcome problems of homelessness and panhan- dling, and so on. This is where communitarians overlap with the objectives of community prob- lem solving: the recognition that many of the answers to community problems lie not with government but in the community at large.

Social Capital

Social capital concerns those “features of social organization such as networks, norms, and trust that facilitate cooperation or coordination for mutual benefits.”9 In other words, civic participa- tion is essential within American communities. Building partnerships between citizens and police is part of a larger community-building movement that requires high levels of trust and community engagement. For example, as will be seen below, making city services more accessi- ble, increasing citizen volunteers in government agencies, and developing neighborhood-based governing organizations have helped to increase problem-solving efforts.10

The first and most basic form of social capital is found among members of a family and between citizens within a community. Therefore, the importance of organizing a community cannot be overemphasized; doing so is the most effective way to work against often well-organ- ized adversaries (criminals).

The second level of social capital consists of those social networks tying the individual to broader community institutions: churches, schools, civic and voluntary organizations. These informal associations with other citizens help build familiarity and trust among individuals and keep individuals engaged in communal affairs.

If communities lack strong social cohesion, citizens are not likely to engage in collective activities, and police agencies will have difficulty implementing initiatives that require long-term citizen participation.

Volunteerism

The current economic crisis has probably placed more need for, and emphasis on the use of vol- unteers than any other time in our history. And people have responded to the call: An estimated

Citizen surveys provide police departments with vital information about their performance and citizens’ concerns. Courtesy Reno, Nevada, PoliceDepartment.

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63.4 million Americans now volunteer to help their communities—an increase of 1.6 million vol- unteers compared to 2008; volunteers also provide about 8.1 billion hours of service. Most volun- teers participate in fundraising/selling activities (26.6 percent do this activity), followed closely by preparing or serving food (23.5 percent), providing labor or transportation (20.5 percent), or tutoring or teaching (19 percent). It is also known that as the rates of homeownership and employment decrease, the volunteer rate also tends to decrease; people with higher levels of edu- cation tend to volunteer more, while persons living in poverty volunteer less.11

The police have certainly taken advantage of this surge in volunteerism. Exhibit 2-1 provides an example of how several police agencies use, and benefit from, the public’s interest in volunteerism.

PARTNERS IN COMMUNITY JUSTICE

In today’s complex and diverse society, the police understand full well that community engage- ment is at the core of successful problem solving. Most police-community partnerships are infor- mal, but some—even those involving regular meetings with neighborhood groups—go farther and have a formalized structure. Examples of the latter abound, but following are a few good illustrations:

• The New Rochelle, New York Police Department partnered with community leaders and clergy to develop a program to facilitate a mutually respectful relationship between the police and the community through open lines of communication and cooperation.

• In Boston, the police department developed the “Boston Re-Entry Initiative” in partnership with faith-based, community, and criminal justice agencies to help former prisoners adjust to life in their communities; it also works with clergy to make unofficial visits to the homes of troubled youth.

• The Pasadena, California, police partner with licensed clinical social workers through the Homeless Outreach Psychiatric Evaluation Unit to address long-term solutions for the homeless and those suffering from mental illness.12

Certainly, agencies of criminal justice other than the police—courts and corrections organi- zations as well—must partner with their communities. Next we examine some of the activities they employ in engaging the public, beginning with a relatively new concept known as restorative justice.

Senior volunteers provide assistance to visitors in the downtown area of Reno, Nevada. They relieve police of many duties and patrol parks, schools, business districts, residential areas, and downtown. Courtesy Reno Police Department.

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Community Justice, Community Governance, and Restorative Justice

As indicated above, in addition to the police, courts and corrections organizations have also been compelled to change their strategies and approaches to a concept of community justice. Community justice is a new way of thinking about the criminal justice system; it is a systemic approach to public safety, emphasizing problem solving and focusing on community concerns.

Exhibit 2-1 Volunteering in Police Services (VIPS): Some Examples

Following are three examples of how the police can utilize volunteers; national awards are now available to police agencies for those efforts. A part of this initiative is the Volunteers in Police Service (VIPS) Program. Managed by the International Association of Chiefs of Police and the Bureau of Justice Assistance, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice, VIPS has the sole objective of enhancing the capacity of state and local law enforcement agencies to utilize volunteers.

� Any employee of the Bellevue, Washington, Police Department can request volunteer help with an event or program. The volunteer program coordinator writes a volunteer assignment description that outlines the volunteer’s responsibilities, describes any spe- cial skills or abilities the volunteer should have, and sets the hours the volunteer will work. The volunteer program coordinator then finds the best available volunteer for the assignment. Volunteers in the program have served as archive managers, case assistants, bicycle registration and recovery specialists, fire lane parking enforcers, community projects administrators, quartermasters, and chaplains, to name just a few of the 30 or so roles they play.

� Volunteers assigned to VIPS Patrol in Vacaville, California, issue citations for all non- moving violations, direct traffic, service police vehicles, relieve school crossing guards, assist with searches for missing persons, report unlicensed businesses, and help enforce municipal codes involving neighborhood blight and reporting violations of all kinds. Volunteers also assist in the records section (releasing crash records, running citations for traffic court, providing customer service at the front counter), the prop- erty and evidence section (purging unneeded evidence, updating computer records), the K-9 unit (putting on the protective wear and standing in for the bad guy during training exercises), and the investigations division (coordinating the crime prevention program).

� The Hazelwood, Missouri, police department’s Volunteer Services Unit first requires volunteers to have completed the citizens’ police academy; they are then eligible to par- ticipate in the Citizen Observer Patrol, in which volunteers patrol designated areas of the city, in a marked car or on foot, watching for and reporting suspect activity; looking for disabled automobiles, injured persons, fires, and broken windows and open doors at homes and businesses; watching for teenagers who appear to be involved in mischief; and so on. Volunteers receive quarterly in-service training on such topics as traffic direc- tion, radio procedures, first aid, and CPR.

Source: Adapted from Volunteers in Police Service, “VIPS Focus,” pp. 1–3, http://www.policevolunteers.org/pdf/ 2007%20Award.pdf (Accessed July 9, 2010). Reprinted by permission.

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Increasingly, all segments of society as well as the nation’s criminal justice system are realizing that the only viable approach to mediating their problems is community-wide participation and cooperation.13

The concept of community governance has also been evolving, having its roots in commu- nity policing. Indeed, the principles and practices of community policing can be used to address a host of issues confronted by any unit of local government. Community governance focuses on the quality of life of citizens and their satisfaction with local government services. And, as with community policing, the central component of community governance is the development of strong partnerships to foster trust and collaborative problem solving.14

Closely related to the concept of community justice is restorative justice, the elements of which include repairing harm (first taking care of the victim who suffered the harm prior to trying to help the offender become a better citizen), reducing risk (managing the offender in such a way that he or she will not commit another crime), and building community (taking responsibility for the behavior of community members and becoming involved in the resolution process, not just turning crime over to government to be dealt with). Table 2-1 compares the traditional standard of retribu- tive justice with restorative justice, which concerns active involvement of victims and the community.

Community justice services aim to identify and solve the problems that foster crime and injustice. Next, though, we present some of the means by which the police, courts, and correc- tions components of the justice system have worked successfully to revitalize their communities.

Police

“FOUR R’S.” It is probably difficult for a police officer who was just kicked, bitten, scratched, and otherwise injured by a citizen to think in terms of collaboration with the public. Nonetheless, the fact remains that most of the people with whom the officer interacts do not conduct them- selves in that manner. Moreover, citizens expect and deserve a public servant who is wearing the uniform to provide specific things. The “four R’s” that citizens want from their police are:

• reliability • responsiveness

TABLE 2-1 Comparison of Retributive and Restorative Justice

Old Retributive Justice New Restorative Justice

Crime defined as a violation of the state Crime defined as a violation of one person by another

Focus on blame, guilt, and the past Focus on problem solving, liabilities, and future obligations

Adversarial relationships Dialogue and negotiation Imposition of pain to punish, the goal being

deterrence/prevention Restitution as a means of restoring both parties,

the goal being restoration The community as a passive observer

represented by the state The community as facilitator

A “debt” owed to society A “debt” to the victim recognized

Source: Adapted from Michael Phillips, “The New Paradigm of Justice,” Government Technology (Special Report: Building Digital Government) in the 21st Century (February 1, 2001), p. 41.

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• reassurance, and • results.

Certainly the officer’s providing excellent customer service, being a good listener, and using excellent communication skills will go far toward meeting those four desires.15

NOW MISSING IN SOME AREAS: “STATION HOUSE BLUES.” A relatively new and important way in which some police agencies are engaging in community building involves the design and amenities of their station houses. Generally, the public areas of most station houses are very stark, cold, unfriendly places. And, as with their dentist, few people go to their police station voluntar- ily. But some jurisdictions are hoping to change that.

In the Los Angeles Police Department’s West Valley station, in Reseda, residents will find ATMs in the light-filled lobby, kitchen-equipped meeting rooms for public use, and even an invit- ing outdoor courtyard with barbecue facilities. Gone from such “second-generation” station houses are the small windows that were located high off the ground to deter drive-by shootings but that made the buildings look like bunkers and armed camps. Such police stations also typi- cally offer more areas that are open to the public (such as cafeterias where officers and civilians can eat together), bigger lobbies where people can comfortably sit, and community rooms where people can hold meetings and training sessions.16

In a related vein, later in this chapter we discuss some police uses of the Internet to provide cit- izens with real-time information concerning officer responses to crimes and other calls for service.

The Los Angeles Police Department’s West Valley ”second-generation” station house. Courtesy Los Angeles Police Department. Used with permission.

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Courts

Community courts are now being launched in jurisdictions across the United States. Focused on bridging the gap between themselves and the neighborhoods they serve, community courts adapt the problem-solving approach (first tested by community policing) to the complex issues they face. They build new relationships and engage residents schools, churches, and other stakeholders. They com- bine punishment and help, requiring low-level offenders to pay back the community while address- ing the issues that often underlie criminal behavior, like drug addiction and unemployment.17

Community prosecutors can also focus on criminal and civil problems in specific neighbor- hoods and develop a long-term proactive partnership between their office, police agencies, the com- munity, and public and private organizations. The community prosecutor steps out of the traditional role (see Exhibit 2-2). Instead of reacting to a crime after it happens and a suspect is arrested, he or she uses such tools as nuisance abatement, drug-free and prostitute-free zones, restorative justice (discussed above), truancy abatement, and graffiti cleanup to improve neighborhood safety.18

Defense attorneys are also engaged in community justice. They know about their clients and the communities from which they come; the staff members see their communities as a series of interconnected family networks. Relatives often call the office out of concern for a person’s safety as he or she entered the justice system. The program provides a deeper understanding of clients through continuity of representation and better investigation, better presentation of sen- tencing options through greater connection to community resources, and greater ability to repre- sent residents’ support for a less severe sentence.

A good example of a community court’s activities is the Midtown Community Court in New York City.19 This court targets quality-of-life offenses, such as prostitution, illegal vending, graffiti, shoplifting, fare beating, and vandalism in midtown Manhattan. Residents, businesses, and social service agencies collaborate with the court by supervising projects and by providing onsite services, including drug treatment, health care, and job training. Social services located in

Exhibit 2-2 Community Prosecution in Albany, New York

The Office of the Albany County District Attorney has made it a priority to implement a progres- sive philosophy of restorative justice under the auspices of community prosecution. This pro- gram involves a long-term, proactive partnership between the prosecutor’s office, law enforcement, public and private organizations, and the community. Through these partnerships, the authority of the prosecutor’s office is used to solve problems, improve public safety, and enhance the quality of life of community members. Community Prosecution Offices (CPOs) are staffed with a community prosecution coordinator, an assistant district attorney, a probation officer, and a community representative. CPOs interact with the community at the neighborhood level to recruit volunteers and to identify and solve problems that contribute to crime and pose hazards to public order and safety. CPOs also:

� maximize potential for successful reintegration of re-entering prison inmates. � keep middle-school-aged kids out of the drug distribution economy. � Make public safety services more responsive to the needs of the aging population. � Foster and strengthen the Neighborhood Watch organizations.

Source: Adapted from Office of the Albany County District Attorney, “Community Prosecution: Action,” http://www. albanycountyda.com/issues/comm_pros.html (Accessed July 9, 2010).

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the court provide the judge with these services as well as a health education class for prostitutes and “johns,” counseling for young offenders and mentally ill persons, and employment training. For offenders with lengthier records, the court offers a diversionary program. Many defendants return to court voluntarily to take advantage of these services, including English as a second lan- guage (ESL) and General Educational Development (GED) classes.

Other partnerships that can involve the courts and citizens include child care during trials for victims and witnesses, law-related education, and job training and referral for offenders and victims. A community-focused court can also practice restorative justice, emphasizing the ways in which disputes and crimes adversely affect relationships among community residents, treating parties to a dispute as real individuals rather than abstract legal entities, and using community resources in the adjudication of disputes.20

Corrections

Community corrections may be defined as non-prison sanctions that are imposed on convicted adults or adjudicated juveniles either by a court instead of a prison sentence or by a parole board following release from prison. Community corrections programs are usually operated by proba- tion and parole agencies, and the programs can include general community supervision as well as day reporting centers, halfway houses and other residential facilities, work release, and other community programs. The multiple goals are: providing offender accountability, delivering reha- bilitation services and surveillance, and achieving fiscal efficiency.21

At the core of a good community corrections program is the use of an objective risk and needs assessment. The “risk” part assesses risk of offenders to reoffend; the “need” portion of the assessment instrument identifies the segment of the offender population that will benefit from being in rehabilitation treatment programs.22

According to Joan Petersilia, a future trend of community corrections includes the use of technologies to monitor compliance with court-ordered conditions, such as drug testing, global positioning systems, alcohol breathalyzers, and so on. Another trend has to do with “wrap-around” services, where mental health, alcohol and drug abuse, housing, and medical services agencies are planning an offender’s case management together.23

Exhibit 2-3 Corrections Partner with Others in Ohio

In Richland County, Ohio, a partnership exists between the county adult probation office, sher- iff ’s office, police department (city of Mansfield), and state parole authority, with teams of com- munity policing and community corrections officers conducting major joint operations. They engage in joint inspections of local bars, check for curfew violations, do fugitive surveillance, and perform joint visitations of probationers’ and parolees’ homes to seek out and question clients for possible violations. Community policing officers handle specific clients, which enhances their familiarity with supervised offenders; likewise, corrections officers supervise offenders in the police department’s beat areas, which gives them greater knowledge of the neighborhoods in which their clients reside. Crime statistics reveal a much greater reduction in violent and prop- erty crimes in areas where these agencies work together.

Source: David Leitenberger, Pete Semenyna, and Jeffrey B. Spelman, “Community Corrections and Community Policing,” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin (November 2003):20–23.

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Community Service Centers

Beginning in the mid-1980s, when community policing was becoming more widespread, police storefronts also became more popular. Today, however, cities are going beyond just using a store- front, instead providing a community service center where citizens can do “one-stop shopping” to access government services. In addition to filing police reports or obtaining information, fol- lowing is a list of some other kinds of services being provided:

• Affordable housing listings • Alarm permit applications • Business licenses • Bus schedules • City job listings and applications • Community event information • Community maps and plans • Crime prevention information • Dockets of city council meetings • Dog license applications • Notary services • Park and recreation class and event schedules

Sentencing low-risk offenders to community work projects is one community-based corrections strategy. Courtesy Washoe County, Nevada, Sheriff’s Office.

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• Passport applications • Permits • Social service referrals • Tax forms • Water bill payments

Police neighborhood resource centers (PNRCs) are also helping to break down barriers between the police department and the community and now offer a wide range of services, such as the following24:

• ESL classes • School district outreach services • Mobile public library services • Blood pressure screenings • Computer classes • Purchase of vehicle stickers

E-Government

The Internet is dramatically changing the way government operates—in terms of not only a greater ability of residents or businesses to interact with public agencies but also the manner in which government delivers services: e-government at work. Now obtaining information is liter- ally just a click away. Exhibit 2-4 shows some of the kinds of services and information that may be obtained online from the city government in Clearwater, Florida, a community of about 108,000 on the state’s west-central coast (see http://www.myclearwater.com/services/index.asp). The Clearwater Police Department uniquely provides an “Active Calls for Service” Web site whereby citizens can, in near real-time terms, see calls that are being dispatched to police officers. Exhibit 2-5 shows a display of that screen (it may be viewed at http://www.clearwaterpolice.org/cfs/ active.asp). Other Web-based functions are discussed in Chapter 5.

With such services available to them, constituents perceive government as a responsive entity, with greater convenience and ease of use, better and faster information, and a level of service that customers had come to expect only in the private sector.

WHERE ALL THESE ROADS HAVE LED: COMMUNITY POLICING

Basic Principles

As we noted in Chapter 1, Robert Peel emphasized the police and community working together in the 1820s when setting forth his principles of policing: “The police are the only members of the public who are paid to give full-time attention to duties which are incumbent on every citizen in the interest of the community welfare.”25

Unfortunately, as Herman Goldstein posited, the police have erred in recent decades by pretending that they could take on, and successfully discharge, all of the responsibilities that are now theirs:

It is simply not possible for a relatively small group of individuals, however pow- erful and efficient, to meet those expectations. A community must police itself. The police, at best, can only assist in that task. We are long overdue in recognizing this fact.26

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Exhibit 2-4

Courtesy Clearwater Police Department.

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Exhibit 2-5

Courtesy Clearwater Police Department.

In the early 1980s, the notion of community policing emerged as the dominant direction for thinking about policing. It was designed to reunite the police with the community.“It is a phi- losophy and not a specific tactic; a proactive, decentralized approach, designed to reduce crime, disorder, and fear of crime, by involving the same officer in the same community for a long-term basis.”27 But no single program describes community policing. It has been applied in various forms by police agencies in the United States and abroad and differs according to the community needs, politics, and resources available.

Differences between Community Policing and Traditional Policing

It is important to understand where community policing departs from traditional policing; the major points of departure may be seen in Table 2-2. Note that the definition, role, priorities, and assessment of the police differ between the two models.

Many past and present practitioners have become staunch proponents of the concept. For example, former Atlanta, Houston, and New York City Chief of Police Lee P. Brown wrote:

I believe that community policing—the building of problem-solving partnerships between the police and those they serve—is the future of American law enforcement. In essence, we are bringing back a modern version of the “cop on the beat.” We need to solve community problems rather than just react to them. It is time to adopt new strate- gies to address the dramatic increases in crime and the fear of crime. I view community policing as a better, smarter and more cost-effective way of using police resources.28

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It should be emphasized, however, that community-oriented policing can be a long-term process in some tradition-bound agencies, and it involves fundamental institutional change. One scholar warned police managers that “if you approach community-oriented policing as a program, you will likely fail. Beware of the trap that seeks guaranteed, perfect, and immediate results.”29

TABLE 2-2 Traditional Versus Community Policing: Questions and Answers

Question Traditional Policing Community Policing

Who are the police? A government agency principally responsible for law enforcement.

Police are the public and the public are the police: The police officers are those who are paid to give full-time attention to the duties of every citizen.

What is the relationship of the police force to other public service departments?

Priorities often conflict. The police are one department among many responsible for improving the quality of life.

What is the role of the police? Focusing on solving crimes. A broad problem-solving approach. How is police efficiency

measured? By detection and arrest rates. By the absence of crime and

disorder. What are the highest priorities? Crimes that are high value (e.g.,

bank robberies) and those involving violence.

Whatever problems disturb the community most.

With what, specifically, do police deal?

Incidents. Citizens’ problems and concerns.

What determines the effectiveness of police?

Response times. Public cooperation.

What view do police take of service calls?

Deal with them only if there is no real police work to do.

Vital function and great opportunity.

What is police professionalism? Swift, effective response to serious crime.

Keeping close to the community.

What kind of intelligence is most important?

Crime intelligence (study of particular crimes or series of crimes).

Criminal intelligence (information about the activities of individuals or groups).

What is the essential nature of police accountability?

Highly centralized; governed by rules, regulations, and policy directives; accountable to the law.

Emphasis on local accountability to community needs.

What is the role of headquarters? To provide the necessary rules and policy directives.

To preach organizational values.

What is the role of the press liaison department?

To keep the “heat” off operational officers so they can get on with the job.

To coordinate an essential channel of communication with the community.

How do the police regard prosecutions? As an important goal. As one tool among many.

Source: Malcolm K. Sparrow, Implementing Community Policing (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice: U.S. Government Printing Office, November 1988), pp. 8–9.

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Community policing goes beyond simply implementing foot and bicycle patrols or neigh- borhood stations. It redefines the role of the officer on the street, from crime fighter to problem solver and neighborhood ombudsman. It forces a cultural transformation of the entire depart- ment, including a decentralized organizational structure and changes in recruiting, training, awards systems, evaluations, promotions, and so forth. Furthermore, this philosophy asks officers to break away from the binds of incident-driven policing and to seek proactive and creative reso- lution to crime and disorder. See Figure 2-1.

UNIQUE CHALLENGES: ENGAGING A CHANGING NATION

Certainly the changing demographics and greater heterogeneity of today’s America pose unique challenges for the police in terms of engaging the community (discussed above). In this section, we examine specifically how America is evolving in terms of its demographics, its aging popula- tion, its generational differences, and its technology.

Demographics: Who We Are

Although Chapter 10 specifically addresses how the police can engage a diverse society, here we briefly discuss how America is being transformed in terms of its demographics.

Although the results of the 2010 U.S. Census may change the nation’s demographics con- siderably, today about 300 million people are believed to be legally residing in America. Approximately 80 percent of the population of the United States is white; nearly 13 percent is black; and nearly 7 percent is Asian, Pacific Islander, American Indian, or of two or more races. About one-fourth (26.4 percent) of all households are headed by one person. 30 The mean age of Americans is estimated to be 37.5 years; about one-fourth of the population (27.5 percent) is less than 19 years of age, while about 12.8 percent are over 65.31

TRADITIONAL POLICING

Emphasis on enforcing laws and making arrests provides short-term solutions to problems

vs.

COMMUNITY POLICING

A philosophy that emphasizes effective working partnerships

Code Enforcement, Health Department, Other City Agencies, Local Businesses, Dangerous Buildings,

Community Groups, Code Enforcement, Narcotics Task Force, Social Service Agencies, Fire Department, and so on . . .

PROBLEM SOLVING

A process to identify, analyze, and respond on a routine basis to the underlying

causes of crime and disorder

COMMUNITY ORIENTED POLICING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

COPPS is a philosophy, management style, and organizational strategy that promotes proactive problem solving and police-community partnerships

to address the causes of crime and fear as well as other community issues

FIGURE 2-1 Traditional Policing Versus Community Oriented Policing, Problem Oriented Policing, and Neighborhood Police Officers.

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There is an increasing number of fatherless children in this nation, children who are more often prone to delinquency and other social pathologies. Of the 72 million children under age 18 living in the United States, about a third (31.4 percent) live where there is either one parent or no parent present in the household (23 percent live with their mother only).32 Many problems in crime control are strongly related to absence of a father: About 90 percent of all homeless and runaway youths are from fatherless homes, as are 71 percent of high school dropouts, 70 percent of youths in state institutions, 75 percent of adolescent patients in substance abuse centers, and 85 percent of rapists who were motivated by displaced anger.33

With the Asian and Hispanic populations being the fastest growing in the United States,34

the face of America is indeed changing. Each year since 1990, between 600,000 and 1 million aliens have been lawfully admitted into this country for permanent residence.35 The Hispanic population is projected to increase rapidly over the 1995 to 2025 period, accounting for 44 per- cent of the growth of the nation’s population (32 million Hispanics out of a total of 72 million persons added to the nation’s population).36 Currently the nation’s population is 14 percent Hispanic.37

The Influences and Challenges of Immigration

The influence of immigration to America and the growth of minority group populations in gen- eral cannot be overstated. There are now an estimated 11.5 million illegal immigrants in the United States, according to the Pew Hispanic Center—certainly a significant number, but still the lowest number in a decade and still declining. From 2000 to 2005, an average of 800,000 ille- gal immigrants entered the United States each year, but since then an average of 500,000 have arrived annually.38

The reasons for this decline are several. First, a new 700-mile fence along the southwest- ern border (that represents only about one-third of the U.S.-Mexican border, and that keeps no one out who is determined to enter illegally) and increased patrolling and enforcement have been crucial to this decrease. Also, the federal Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) has been increasingly raiding U.S. businesses that employ illegal immigrants. And in the reces- sion of the mid- and late-2000s, fewer immigrants were coming to the United States because jobs were disappearing. Furthermore, a number of states, counties, and cities are taking legal actions never before heard of. The most controversial and toughest was that enacted in Arizona in April 2010, which:

• made it a violation of state law to be in the country illegally, and requiring immigrants to have proof of their immigration status; repeat offenses were to be a felony.

• required police officers to “make a reasonable attempt” to determine the immigration sta- tus of a person if “reasonable suspicion” exists that he or she was an illegal immigrant.39

Legal reactions (as well as outcries by many civic groups) to Arizona’s law came swiftly: first, in July 2010 the Justice Department filed a lawsuit to challenge the law, arguing that it would undermine the federal government’s pursuit of terrorists, gang members, and other criminal immigrants.40 Then, in July 2010, a federal judge issued a preliminary injunction against the most controversial provisions of the law—those that enabled police officers to check a person’s immigration status while enforcing other laws, and required immigrants to prove that they were authorized to be in the United States or risk state charges. The court largely sided with legal argu- ments filed by the Obama administration—that the law interfered with long-standing federal authority over immigration and could lead to harassment of citizens and legal immigrants.41

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Tens of thousands of people across the U.S. protested in 2010 against Arizona’s controversial anti-immigration legislation. Courtesy Shutterstock.

Following are some other examples of new legislation enacted in the states relating to immigration:

• In 2008, statehouses passed more than 200 laws relating to immigration, the majority of them clamping down on illegal immigrants and their employers; however, at the local level, such legal populism has not fared well; for example: • Columbia County, Oregon, imposed a $10,000 fine on anyone in the county who gave jobs

to undocumented workers (in April 2009, a circuit court judge overturned the measure) • A city in Texas is fighting for the right to make all renters show proof of citizenship.42

For many aliens, however, their investment in the American dream is too great to leave; they also know that if they return to Mexico, given the enhanced enforcement, they probably will not be able to return.43

Certainly the police are caught in the middle of this politically and emotionally charged issue. Furthermore, they do not appear to know or agree as to the relationships between illegal immigrants and crime. A national survey by the Police Executive Research Forum found that there is a perception by many police chiefs that illegal immigration contributed to increased crime, while others believe illegal immigrants are less likely to commit crime because most are here to work, and they try to avoid coming to the attention of the police.44 Perhaps the truth is more like that expressed by a Canadian police chief 45:

We’re having problems with the second generation of immigration. The parents come in and they’re hard-working, they want to succeed. But their kids are having a little bit of trouble integrating, and they’re committing crime, and violent crime, dis- proportionately to their numbers.

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Graying of America: Implications and Concerns

As indicated above, we live in a “graying” country as well, with 12.4 percent of the total popula- tion being at least 65 years old.46 The golden years for baby boomers represents a graying of the population. The first boomers reached age 50, or midlife, in 1996; soon they will command the aging agenda as they prepare for retirement in 2010 through 2030. The good news is the elderly are less likely than younger people to become victims of violence and are less likely to be injured during a violent crime; only about 2.1 violent crimes per 1,000 are committed against persons over 65 years of age.47 However, elderly victims are more likely to have been killed during the commission of a felony. Furthermore, with brittle bones, when they are injured, their injuries are more severe and their victimization can be permanently disabling. Being on fixed income, they cannot receive the best medical care; most are female. They also have a high fear of crime but are less likely to take protective measures than younger people and more likely to report a crime. They can also be victimized in nursing homes and hospitals, and their relative isolation can lead to a high percentage of their victimization occurring in their homes. They are targeted more often for fraud involving finances than other people, which can lead to severe depression and other serious health problems.48

Certainly the police must become more adept at preventing and investigating those types of crimes that tend to target our seniors. Their susceptibility to fraudulent schemes, purse snatch- ings, theft of checks from the mail, and crimes in long-term care settings poses unique challenges for investigative personnel.

A police officer works with Asian business owners to improve a shopping center that was run-down and was experiencing increased crime. Courtesy Community Policing Consortium.

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High Technology

The world has rapidly become more technological; today more than 311 million English-speak- ing people as well as 500 million non-English-speaking people use the Internet.49 The ability to produce and analyze information has become very important to our country economically in terms of a person’s social standing or ability to get a job.

Yet there exists what can be termed a serious “digital divide”.“Smokestack America” is largely gone; today there are fewer blue-collar jobs and more white-collar positions. The fastest-growing careers are those requiring more language, mathematics, and reasoning skills. In sum, today’s economy is based on knowledge and the ability to process information; whereas employers in the past mostly wanted muscle, today more and more jobs presuppose skills, training, and education.

SHIFTS IN CRIME

As with challenges to the police that are caused by alterations in our demographics, so are the police being challenged by shifts in criminal behavior. While we will discuss in Chapters 11 and 12 how problems involving gangs, drugs, and other crimes are being addressed under COPPS, here we mention in more general terms the violent nature of our society and our fear of being victimized.

A Violent Venue

Although the nation’s violent crime rate declined by 41 percent and the property crime rate fell by 32 percent from 1999 to 2008 (contributing factors, according to experts, including the overall aging of the population, longer prison sentences for habitual offenders, a relatively healthy econ- omy, and the community-oriented policing and problem-solving strategy), ours is certainly a long way from being a “safe” venue in which to live. It would seem that John Bunyan understood the human capacity for violence in 1686 when in his Book for Boys and Girls he wrote:

Children become, while little, our delights,

When they grow bigger, they begin to fright’s.

The police must maintain close contact with seniors to understand their needs and provide the best possible services. Courtesy of Cedar City, Utah, Police Department.

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Their sinful Nature prompts them to rebel,

And to delight in Paths that lead to Hell.50

We still experience nearly 5 million violent crimes and 16.3 million property crimes each year.51 A number of factors contribute to these victimizations: immediate access to firearms, alco- hol and substance abuse, drug trafficking, poverty, racial discrimination, and cultural acceptance of violent behavior.

Federal, state, and local governments spend more than $200 billion per year for criminal justice activities (including law enforcement, courts, and corrections agencies).52 Nearly half (about $99 billion) of this amount is for police protection, while about $47 billion is for the courts and about $67 billion is for corrections.53 On any given day, about 7.3 million Americans are under some form of correctional supervision: 4.2 million are on probation, 2.3 million per- sons are incarcerated in prisons and jails, and 800,000 are on parole.54

Fear of Crime

Crime, fear, and disorder frighten Americans, with 42 percent of Americans describing the nation’s crime problem today as either extremely serious or very serious.55

We know that neighborhood disorder affects a person’s perception of safety as much as crime does. People express greater fear of strangers loitering near their homes than they do the threat of murder. They fear being bothered by people they view as sinister: panhandlers, drunks, addicts, rowdy teens, mental patients, and the homeless. They also fear physical disorder: litter, abandoned buildings, potholes, broken streetlights and windows, wrecked cars, and other indica- tors of neighborhood decline.

Thomas Hobbes wrote in 1651 that the “fundamental purpose of civil government is to establish order, protecting citizens from a fear of criminal attack that can make life nasty, brutish, and short.”56 It would appear that we have yet to reach the goal that Hobbes established for civil government.

While juvenile crime has been declining, concern about youth crime and violence continues. Courtesy Washoe County, Nevada, Sheriff’s Office.

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After identifying that fear of crime exists—through community surveys and/or meetings, perhaps talking with key individuals such as postal carriers and business people, and looking for graffiti and other sources of fear—certainly there are many approaches the police can undertake to address the fear of crime, including the following—all of which are discussed in greater detail in later chapters:

• Personalized policing: using such strategies as following up on citizen complaints, engaging in reassurance efforts, and solving neighborhood problems

• Community engagement: volunteering in community programs, mentoring, forming com- munity groups, conducting neighborhood cleanups, holding marches, scheduling regular beat meetings, and establishing citizen patrols

• Environmental design: enhancing lighting increasing natural or electronic surveillance • Engaging in an overall problem-solving strategy57

Exhibit 2-6 describes another contemporary fear: how the return of prisoners to the community will affect public safety.

Exhibit 2-6 Prisoner Re-entry into the Community: Hazards of Early Release

During the recent recession, a number of states trimmed their prison populations by expanding parole programs and early releases. But the result—more convicted felons on the streets rather than behind bars—has often been disastrous in terms of public safety. For example, Oregon was forced to suspend its early-release program (touted to save $6 million) after a woman was attacked in her home by a registered sex offender; Illinois’ early-release program was described as “a big mistake” after convicts committed violent crimes within a few weeks. Colorado’s program, meant to save $19 million, was forced to scale back its releases after determining that many inmates were bad release risks. Similar programs in California and Michigan were challenged by victims’ rights groups and prosecutors.

Several issues and challenges militate against the successful reintegration of inmates through early release jail and prison programs:

� Mental illness Sixteen percent of both jail inmates and state prisoners report a mental condition

� Substance abuse and dependence More than two-thirds of jail inmates were dependent on or abuse drugs or alcohol, with 69 percent being regular drug users.

� Limited employability. Forty-three percent of jail inmates did not hold full-time jobs at the time of their arrest.

� Extensive criminal histories. Three-fourths of jail inmates served a prior probation or incarceration sentence, and about a quarter served three or more prior sentences to incarceration.

Sources: Monica Davey, “Safety Is Issue as Budget Cuts Free Prisoners,” New York Times, March 4, 2010, http://www. nytimes.com/2010/03/05/us/05parole.html?pagewanted=all (Accessed July 10, 2010); U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, Prisoner Reentry and Community Policing: Strategies for Enhancing Public Safety, March 2006, pp. 8–9, http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/files/RIC/Publications/e12051219.pdf (Accessed July 10, 2010).

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The homeless, inebriates, and panhandlers—many of whom have been sorely affected by the economy—can add to peoples’ fear of crime as much as actual crimes do. Courtesy Shutterstock.

IT’S THE ECONOMY

The Housing and Mortgage Crisis

There is an old saying among criminal justice planners: “There’s a lot of crime prevention in a T- bone steak.” Although historically that statement was likely to be more false than true—the com- mission of most crimes probably being much more closely associated with greed rather than need—there is little doubt that in today’s recession there is a causal relationship between the economy and crime.

Certainly crime and disorder have been affected by the recent housing and foreclosure cri- sis. Police agencies must now take proactive measures to counteract increases in crimes involving mortgage-related issues. The incidence of mortgage fraud has increased over the past few years, as well as crimes against vacant properties, mortgage fraud, and metal theft. The public must be educated concerning these crimes and in the methods for preventing them. Furthermore, the police should be prepared for an increase in the incidence of domestic violence, because studies show that there is a connection between worsening economies and increases in such offenses.58

Agencies must now pay close attention to their crime statistics to see if the relationship between the economy and these and other crimes exists and, if so, in what neighborhoods; then, responses can be designed to address them and to mitigate the effects on crime that arise from economic distress.

Shifting and Sharing Responsibility for Addressing Crime and Disorder

For quite a few years, the police have been subtly coercing people to take greater responsibility for their property. Examples would include business owners being fined by units of government if they have excessive false burglary alarms (in fact, more than 90 percent of such alarms are false, triggered by malfunction, rodents, and so forth), and the refusal of the police to help citizens get into their locked vehicle or jump-starting or pushing disabled vehicles. The resulting effect on police workload and the potential for liability are simply too great. Police are also more often seeking reimbursement for the cost of rescue when someone’s quest for adventure goes awry, or,

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Summary

This chapter, with its centerpiece being the partner- ship between the community and its police agency, has defined what is meant by “community,” demon- strated several means by which the police and other justice organizations are partnering with this dynamic populace, and how and why COPPS evolved and offers the best hope for meeting the challenges posed. Also discussed were several means by which government entities are expanding their community building and customer service.

We also examined a number of changes that are occurring in America, particularly with respect to the nature of its people and their crimes—and some

innovative means the police have adopted for dealing with them, including fines, public shaming, and withdrawal of services.

While violent crime has been declining of late, the years ahead certainly may not be tranquil. We cannot afford to hurtle into the future with our eyes fixed firmly on the rearview mirror. Social, political, and economic events of today will cause policing to change forever. A failure to anticipate and plan for what many people predict will be a turbulent and complex future could produce untenable consequences. “Business as usual” will probably not suffice.

Items for Review

1. Explain what is meant by “community,” including its ingredients and the roles that communitarianism, social capital, and volunteerism play in it.

2. Describe why it is essential for the government and the police to view citizens as invaluable customers.

3. Compare the ways in which community policing dif- fers from traditional policing.

4. Review the challenges posed to the police by our nation’s shifting demographics, immigration patterns, and use of high technology.

5. Outline the implications of an aging nation as well as the challenges posed by younger generations of people and the changing nature of crime.

6. Explain the characteristics of a “second-generation” police station house that serve to make it more warm, open, and community-oriented.

7. Describe how the economy has changed the nature of crime, and some innovative ways by which the police are attempting to deal with it.

say, a tavern or apartment complex has an inordinate volume of calls for service. Some agencies are even withholding services altogether, as when a self-service gas station has a high volume of drive-offs but has refused to install a prepayment system, or a restaurant has a poor system for monitoring customers and collecting payments.59

Now we find that the police are making even bolder formal attempts to coerce or persuade citizens to address crime and disorder problems. With the current economic recession, there is a growing tendency to ask, for example, who is really responsible for preventing and controlling retail theft? Is it the police? The business owner? The consumer? The insurance carrier? To a large extent, this is a political issue that comes down to who possesses the power to avoid accepting responsibility.60

Some agencies are even, as a last resort, resorting to publicly shaming delinquent parties. Public reputation is of great value to individuals and business owners; therefore, exposing, for example, the irresponsible practices of tavern or video arcade owners to local government or media outlets can serve to quickly quell a problem.61

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Notes 1. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics,

Local Police Departments, 2003, April 2006, p. iii, http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid= 1045 (Accessed July 9, 2010).

2. University of New Hampshire Cooperative Extension, Community Building: Strengthening the Sense of Community, http://extension.unh.edu/resources/ representation/Resource000625_Rep647.pdf (Accessed July 9, 2010).

3. Adapted from John Gardner, “There Is More Than a Ray of Hope for America’s Future: Rebuilding America’s Sense of Community,” http://www.world- trans.org/qual/Americancommunity.html (Accessed July 9, 2010).

4. David Couper and Sabine Lobitz, Quality Policing: The Madison Experience (Washington, D.C.: Police Executive Research Forum, 1991), p. 65.

5. David Osborne and Ted Gaebler, Reinventing Government: How the Entrepreneurial Spirit Is Transforming the Public Sector (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1992), p. 51.

6. Tom Dewar, quoted in David A. Lanegran, Cynthia Seelhammer, and Amy L. Walgrave (eds.), The Saint Paul Experiment: Initiatives of the Latimer Administration (St. Paul, Minn.: City of St. Paul, 1989), p. xxii.

7. Rob Gurwitt, “Communitarianism: You Can Try It at Home,” Governing 6 (August 1993):33–39.

8. Ibid., 39.

9. R. Putnam, “Tuning in, Tuning Out: The Strange Disappearance of Social Capital in America,” Political Science and Politics (December 1995):664–683.

10. Mark E. Correia, “Social Capital and Sense of Community Building: Building Social Cohesion,” in Ronald W. Glensor, Mark E. Correia, and Kenneth J. Peak (eds.), Policing Communities: Understanding Crime and Solving Problems (Los Angeles: Roxbury, 2000), pp. 75–82.

11. Corporation for National & Community Service, “Volunteering in America 2010: National, State, and City Information,” pp. 2-8, http://www. volunteeringinamerica.gov/assets/resources/ IssueBriefFINALJune15.pdf (Accessed July 9, 2010).

12. Carlos Fields, Award-Winning Community Policing Strategies 1999-2006 (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, September 2007, pp. 16–17, http://www2. gsu.edu/~crirxf/COPS-CP.pdf (Accessed July 9, 2010).

13. Laurie J. Wilson, “Placing Community-Oriented Policing in the Broader Realms of Community Cooperation,” The Police Chief (April 1995):127.

14. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, “Community Policing Dispatch: From Community Policing to Community Governance,” May 2008, http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/ html/dispatch/may_2008/nugget.htm (Accessed July 9, 2010).

Learn by Doing 1. Assume that your state’s governor is considering pros

and cons of legislation such as that enacted in Arizona in mid-2010 that would give greater latitude to police officers for identifying and arresting illegal immigrants. As legislative liaison for your law enforcement agency, you’ve been asked to prepare a position paper on this legislation. What would you identify as being possible positive and negative aspects of such legislation?

2. You are a patrol sergeant and have been tasked to lec- ture to your agency’s Citizens’ Police Academy about police-community partnerships and working with stakeholders. Your chief informs you that the group has

particular interest in the relatively new concepts of restorative justice, community courts, and community corrections initiatives. How would you explain each of these three concepts?

3. Each year your criminal justice faculty sponsor a “Career Day” program. The department chairperson requests that you participate by making a short presen- tation on policing recruitment and hiring—certainly topics of interest to your fellow students. What will you say about how the economy—particularly the housing and mortgage crisis—has affected policing, and some methods by which agencies are shifting and sharing responsibility for addressing crime and disorder?

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15. Gerald W. Garner, “Exceptional Customer Service,” Law and Order (June 2003):103–106.

16. Sheila Muto, “Arresting Design: Police Stations Get a Lift,” The Wall Street Journal (January 5, 2005), p. B-1.

17. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, “Community Policing Dispatch: Inspiring the Judiciary: Community Courts Adapt Community Policing Principles,” February 2009, http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/html/ dispatch/February_2009/courts_adapt.htm (Accessed July 9, 2010).

18. American Prosecutors Research Institute and the National District Attorneys Association, “What Is Community Prosecution?” http://www.ndaa-apri/ programs/community_pros/whis_is_community_ prosecution.html (Accessed March 3, 2006).

19. Ibid. 20. Ibid., pp. 46–51. 21. The Pew Center on the States, What Works in

Corrections: An Interview with Dr. Joan Petersilia, November 2007, p. 1, http://www.pewtrusts.org/ uploadedFiles/wwwpewtrustsorg/Reports/sentencing_ and_corrections/QA_Community_Corrections.pdf (Accessed July 9, 2010).

22. Ibid., p. 2. 23. Quoted in ibid., p. 3. 24. See, for example, the Des Plaines, Illinois, Web site,

http://www.desplaines.org/ Services/Police/PNRC. htm (Accessed March 3, 2006).

25. W. L. Melville Lee, A History of Police in England (London: Methuen, 1901), Chapter 12.

26. Herman Goldstein, “Toward Community-Oriented Policing: Potential, Basic Requirements, and Threshold Questions,” Crime and Delinquency 33 (1987):17.

27. Robert Trojanowicz and Bonnie Bucqueroux, Community Policing: A Contemporary Perspective (Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson, 1990), p. 154.

28. Lee P. Brown, “Community Policing: Its Time Has Come,” The Police Chief 62 (September 1991):10.

29. Jerald R. Vaughn, Community-Oriented Policing: You Can Make It Happen (Clearwater, Fla.: National Law Enforcement Leadership Institute, no date), p. 8.

30. U.S. Census Bureau, “U.S. and World Population Clocks—POPClocks,” http://www.census.gov//main/ www/popclock.html (Accessed February 24, 2006); also see U.S. Census Bureau, “Population Projections for States by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1995–2025,” http://www.census.gov/ population/ www/projections/pp147.html (Accessed July 9, 2010).

31. Ibid.; also see U.S. Census Bureau, “United States— Fact Sheet—American FactFinder.” http://factfinder. census.gov/servlet/ACSSAFFFacts?_event=&geo_ id=01000US&_geo (Accessed July 9, 2010).

32. U.S. Census Bureau, Population Profile of the United States: Living Arrangements of Children in 2002 (Washington, D.C.: Author, 2003), p. 1.

33. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistics in Brief: Population and Vital Statistics (Washington, D.C.: Author, 2000), pp. 13–16.

34. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Immigrants,” in 2003 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, http://uscis.gov/graphics/shared/aboutus/ statistics/ IMM03yrbk/2003IMM.pdf (Accessed July 9, 2010).

35. Ibid., p. 6. 36. Pearson Education, Information Please Database,

“Population of the United States by Race and Hispanic/Latino Origin, Census 2000 and July 1, 2004,” http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0762156. html (Accessed February 23, 2006).

37. U.S. Census Bureau, “Population Projections for States by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin.”

38. Immigrants from Mexico decline to lowest in decade,” World News Network, July 21, 2009, http:// www.examiner.com/a-2130084~Immigrants_from_ Mexico_decline_to_lowest_in_decade.html (Accessed August 1, 2009).

39. Adapted from Erin Kelly, “Immigration Measure may Spark Action in Other States, Congress,” Gannett Washington Bureau, April 25, 2010, http:// www.azcentral.com/news/articles/2010/04/24/ 20100424arizona-immigration-bill-federal-action. html (Accessed April 26, 2010); Kevin Johnson and Joan Biskupic, “Arizona Immigration Crackdown Raises Flags,” USA TODAY, http://www.usatoday. com/news/nation/2010-04-29-arizona-immigration_ N.htm (Accessed April 30, 2010).

40. Julia Preston, “Dept. Sues Arizona Over Its Immigration Law,” http://www.nytimes.com/2010/ 07/07/us/07immig.html (Accessed July 9, 2010).

41. Randal C. Archibold, “Judge Blocks Arizona’s Immigration Law” New York Times, July 28, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/07/29/us/29arizona.html (Accessed July 29, 2010).

42. “Court Overrules Oregon County’s Anti-Immigrant Law,” Salem News.com, http://www.salem-news. com/articles/april152009/immig_rights_4-15-09. php (Accessed August 1, 2009).

43. Nathan Thornburgh, “Undocumented and Undeterred,” Time, April 20, 2009, p. 34.

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44. Police Executive Research Forum, Police Chiefs and Sheriffs Speak Out on Local Immigration Enforcement, April 2008, p. 12, http://www.policeforum.org/ upload/Immigration_6a_main%20text_596427705_ 6252010114851.pdf (Accessed July 9, 2010).

45. William Blair, quoted in Police Executive Research Forum, Violent Crime in America: “A Tale of Two Cities” November 2007, p. 15, http://www.policeforum. org/upload/VC%20Summit%2007_full_148192123_ 1272007111812.pdf (Accessed July 9, 2010).

46. U.S. Census Bureau,“USA Statistics in Brief: Population by Sex, Age, and Region,” http://www.census.gov/ statab/www/pop.html (Accessed February 22, 2006).

47. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Violent Victimization Rates by Age, 1973–2004,” http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/glance/ tables/ vagetab.htm (Accessed February 25, 2006).

48. Andrew Karmen, Crime Victims: An Introduction to Victimology (6th ed.) (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2006), p. 228.

49. “Internet World Stats: Usage and Population Statistics,” http://www .internetworldstats.com/ stats7.htm (Accessed February 23, 2006).

50. John Bunyan, A Book for Boys and Girls: Or, Country Rhimes for Children (London: N.P., 1686), pp. 71–73.

51. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Criminal Victimization, 2008,” http://bjs. ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=1975 (Accessed July 9, 2010).

52. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Direct Expenditure by Level of Government, 1982–2006,” http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/glance/ tables/expgovtab.cfm (Accessed July 10, 2010).

53. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Direct Expenditures by Criminal Justice Function, 1982–2006,” http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/ content/glance/tables/exptyptab.cfm (Accessed July 10, 2010).

54. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Correctional Populations,” http://bjs. ojp.usdoj.gov/content/glance/tables/corr2tab.cfm (Accessed July 10, 2010).

55. Gallup, “U.S. Crime Problem Less Troubling to Americans,” http://www.gallup.com/poll/13987/ us-crime-problem-less-troubling-americans.aspx (Accessed July 10, 2010).

56. Thomas Hobbes, “Leviathan,” in C. B. Macpherson (ed.), Leviathan (Baltimore, Md.: Pelican Books), p. 5.

57. Gary Cordner, Reducing Fear of Crime: Strategies for Police, U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, January 2010, pp. 45–52. http://www.saferhastings.co.uk/pdfs/ reassurance%20pdf ’s/COPS_guide_ReducingFear. pdf (Accessed July 10, 2010).

58. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, “Community Policing Dispatch: Preparing for Crime in a Bad Economy,” http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/html/dispatch/January_ 2009/crime_economy.htm (Accessed July 9, 2010).

59. Michael S. Scott and Herman Goldstein, Shifting and Sharing Responsibility for Public Safety Problems, August 2005, pp. 23–24, http://www.popcenter. org/responses/responsibility/ (Accessed July 11, 2010).

60. Ibid. 61. Ibid., p. 4.

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� � � � � � 3

COPPS Problem Oriented Policing

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Analysis Assessment Guardian Handlers Incident-driven policing

Manager Problem analysis triangle Problem-oriented policing

(POP) Problem solving

Response Scanning Situational policing Small wins

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

As a result of reading this chapter, the student will: � Comprehend the development of problem solving for the police � Be aware of the basic principles of problem-oriented policing and how it differs from

incident-driven policing � Understand the four major steps in the S.A.R.A. problem-solving process, including their role

and methods of accomplishment � Be able to explain the potential difficulties with problem solving � Recognize the three identifiable stages of neighborhoods � Understand the four different types of neighborhoods � Know the meaning of situational policing � Be able to explain, after reading an example, the fundamentals of how problem-oriented

policing functions

It seemed that the next minute they would discover a solution. Yet it was clear to them that the end was still far, far off, and that the hardest and most complicated part was only just beginning.

—ANTON CHEKOV

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INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we analyze problem oriented policing: its origin and operation, and the four-stage problem-solving process that rests at its core. Included in this discussion is an overview of some possible difficulties that are involved with problem solving and how different types of neighbor- hoods require different approaches by the police in terms of overall strategies.

As we noted in Chapter 2, although the concepts of community policing and problem-ori- ented policing are commonly treated as separate and distinct entities, we maintain here and throughout the remainder of the book that they are complementary core components. Therefore, here as in other chapters we use the term “community oriented policing and problem solving,” or COPPS. We believe this term best captures the nature of this approach to policing.

Note that there are several important adjuncts to COPPS, including situational crime pre- vention, crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED), technologies, crime analysis, and mapping. Those topics are addressed in Chapters 4 and 5.

PROBLEM SOLVING

Early Beginnings

Problem solving is not new; police officers have always tried to solve problems (we define the word “problem” below). The difference is that, in past eras of policing, officers who were dealing with problems did not have an in-depth understanding of the nature and underlying causes of those crime problems, nor receive much guidance, support, or sophisticated methods (e.g., crime analysis or mapping tools) to support their efforts. The routine application of problem-solving techniques is new. It is based on two facts: that problem solving can be applied by officers throughout the agency as part of their daily work and that routine problem-solving efforts can be effective in reducing or resolving problems.

Problem oriented policing (POP) was grounded in principles different from community oriented policing (COP), but, again, they are complementary. POP is a strategy that puts the COP philosophy into practice. It advocates that police examine the underlying causes of recurring inci- dents of crime and disorder. The problem-solving process, discussed in later chapters, helps officers identify problems, analyze them completely, develop response strategies, and assess the results.

Herman Goldstein is considered by many to be the principal architect of POP. His book, Policing a Free Society (1977),1 is among the most frequently cited works in police literature. A later work, Problem Oriented Policing (1990),2 provided a rich and complete exploration of POP. Goldstein first coined the term “problem oriented policing” in 1979 out of frustration with the dominant model for improving police operations: “More attention [was] being focused on how quickly officers responded to a call than on what they did when they got to their destination.”3 He also bemoaned the linkage between the police and the telephone:“The telephone, more than any public or internal policy, dictates what a police agency does.And that problem has been greatly aggravated with the installation of 911.”4

As a result, Goldstein argued for a radical change in the direction of efforts to improve policing—a new framework that should help move the police from their past preoccupation with form and process to a much more direct, thoughtful concern with substantive problems. To focus attention on the nature of police business and to improve the quality of police response in the course of their business, Goldstein argued that several steps must be taken:5

1. Police must be equipped to define more clearly and to understand more fully the problems they are expected to handle. They must recognize the relationships between and among

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incidents—for example, incidents involving the same behavior, the same address, or the same people.

2. The police must develop a commitment to analyzing problems. It requires gathering infor- mation from police files, from the minds of experienced officers, from other agencies of government, and from private sources as well. It requires conducting house-to-house sur- veys and talking with victims, complainants, and offenders.

3. Police must be encouraged to conduct an uninhibited search for the most effective response to each problem, looking beyond just the criminal justice system to a wide range of alternatives; they must try to design a customized response that holds the great- est potential for dealing effectively with a specific problem in a specific place under specific conditions.

Basic Principles

In earlier chapters, we mentioned several limitations of traditional policing methods in trying to deal with incidents. The first step in POP, therefore, is to move beyond just handling each inci- dent separately (see incident-driven policing, Figure 3-1) and recognizing that incidents are often merely overt symptoms of problems and require that officers take a more in-depth interest in incidents by acquainting themselves with some of the conditions and factors that cause them. Everyone in the department contributes to this mission, not just a few innovative officers or a special unit or function.6

Figure 3-1 shows incident-driven policing as it attempts to deal with each incident. Like band-aid application, this symptomatic relief is valuable but limited. Because police leave unre- solved the underlying condition that created the incidents, the incident is very likely to re-occur.

A problem-oriented police agency would respond as described in Figure 3-2. Officers use the information in their responses to incidents, along with information obtained from other sources, to get a clearer picture of the problem. Then they address the underlying conditions. As James Fyfe asked, “Can anyone imagine the surgeon general urging doctors to attack [a disease] without giving any thought to its causes?”7 If successful, fewer incidents may occur; those that do occur may be less serious. The incidents may even cease.8

The problem-oriented approach also addresses a major dilemma for the police: the lack of meaningful measures of their effectiveness in the area of crime and disorder. Crime rate statistics are virtually useless because they collapse all the different kinds of crime into one global category and are an imperfect measure of the actual incidence of criminal behavior (evaluating COPPS initiatives is discussed in Chapter 8).9 Goldstein also maintained that the police should “disaggregate” the different problems they face and then attempt to develop strategies to address

FIGURE 3-1 Incident-Driven Policing Source: John E. Eck and William Spelman, Problem- Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in Newport News (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1987), p. 4.

UNDERLYING CONDITIONS

PROBLEM

IncidentIncidentIncidentIncident Incident Incident Incident

Police Response

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FIGURE 3-2 Problem Oriented Policing Source: John E. Eck and William Spelman, Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in Newport News (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1987), p. 4.

each one.10 Domestic disturbances, for instance, should be separated from public intoxication; murder should be separated from sexual assault. In this respect, POP is primarily a planning process.

Broader Role for the Street Officer

A major departure of POP from the conventional style lies with its view of the line officer, who is given much more discretion and decision-making ability and is trusted with a much broader array of responsibilities. POP values thinking officers, urging that they take the initiative in try- ing to deal more effectively with problems in the areas they serve. This concept more effectively uses the potential of college-educated officers who have been smothered in the atmosphere of traditional policing.11 It also gives officers a new sense of identity and self-respect; they are more challenged and have opportunities to follow through on individual cases, to analyze and solve problems, which will give them greater job satisfaction. We ought to be recruiting as police officers people who can “serve as mediators, as dispensers of information, and as community organizers.”12

Under POP, officers continue to handle calls, but they also do much more. They use the information gathered in their responses to incidents together with information obtained from other sources to get a clearer picture of the problem. They then address the underlying conditions.

S.A.R.A.: THE PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS

A four-stage problem-solving process has been developed and is known as “S.A.R.A.,” for scanning, analysis, response, and assessment.13 This process is depicted in Figure 3-3.

Scanning: Problem Identification

Scanning means problem identification. As a first step, officers should identify problems on their beats and then look for a pattern or persistent repeat incidents. At this juncture, the question might well be asked, “What is a ‘problem’?” A problem has been defined this way: A group of two or more incidents that are similar in one or more respects, causing harm and therefore being of concern to the police and the public.

UNDERLYING CONDITIONS

PROBLEM

IncidentIncidentIncidentIncident Incident Incident Incident

Other Public and Private Responses

Police Response

Problem-Solving Process

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Incidents may be similar in various ways:

• Behaviors. A pattern of behavior is the most frequent type of indicator and includes such activities as drug sales, robberies, thefts, and graffiti.

• Locations. Problems occur in hot spots, such as downtown cruising areas, housing com- plexes plagued by burglaries, and parks where gangs commit crimes.

• Persons. They can be repeat offenders or victims; both account for a high proportion of crime.

• Times. There may be a time pattern (e.g., seasonal, day of week, hour of day) due to traffic congestion, closing times for bars, or tourist activity.

• Events. Crimes may peak during such events as university spring breaks, rallies, and rock concerts.

There does not appear to be any limit to the types of problems patrol officers can work on; there are several types of problems that are appropriate for problem solving. The following list demonstrates the diversity of problems identified and addressed in several jurisdictions:14

• Series of burglaries from trailers at a construction site • Drug activity, drinking, and disorderly conduct at a community park • Prescription drug thefts from pharmacies • Thefts from autos at a shopping mall • Juvenile loitering at a shopping center and near a bar • Vagrants panhandling downtown • Problems with false and faulty alarms at commercial addresses • Parking and traffic problems • Street prostitution and related robberies in a downtown neighborhood • Identity Theft • Repeat domestic assault calls to certain addresses

If the incidents police are responding to do not fall within the definition of a problem, then the problem-solving model is not applicable. The police should handle the incident according to normal procedures.

There are numerous resources available to the police to identify problems, including calls for service (CFS) data, especially repeat calls from the same location or a series of similar inci- dents. Other ways are through citizen complaints, census data, data from other government agen- cies, and media coverage of community issues, officer observations, and community surveys (discussed in Chapter 8).

The primary purpose of scanning is to conduct a preliminary inquiry to determine whether a problem really exists and whether further analysis is needed. During this stage,

Scanning

Analysis

Response

Assessment

FIGURE 3-3 A Problem-Solving Process

Source: John E. Eck and William Spelman, Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in Newport News (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1987), p. 43.

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priorities should be established if multiple problems exist and a specific officer or team of officers be assigned to handle the problem. Scanning initiates the problem-solving process.

Analysis: Heart of Problem Solving

The second stage, analysis, is the heart of the problem-solving process, so we will dwell on it at greater length. Comprehensively analyzing a problem is critical to the success of a problem-solv- ing effort. Effective tailor-made responses cannot be developed unless people know what is caus- ing the problem. Thus, the purpose of analysis is to learn as much as possible about problems in order to identify their causes; officers must gather information from sources inside and outside their agency about the scope, nature, and causes of problems.

RESEARCHING A PROBLEM. One will greatly reduce the time spent searching for information about a problem if the problem is tightly defined. The best way to begin is by examining related sources and Web sites, such as the following:

• The U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, has pub- lished a Problem-Oriented Policing Guide entitled Researching a Problem (2005); it is avail- able at: http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/files/RIC/Publications/e02052729.pdf

• Center for Problem-Oriented Policing (www.popcenter.org). The center is the first place to look for information concerning how to address problems of crime and disorder; it has myriad resources to draw from, including more than 80 of the problem-oriented guides mentioned above, covering all types of problems of crime and disorder and possible solu- tions to them (see http://www.popcenter.org/guides). Launched in 2003, the POP Center Web site has provided innovative learning experiences, curriculum guides, teaching aids, problem analysis tools, and countless examples of POP projects in the United States and abroad in multiple languages.

• National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) (http://abstractsdb .ncjrs.org). This is an information clearinghouse created by the U.S. Department of Justice for people involved in research, policy, and practice; the Web site includes an online tutorial on how to search its abstracts.

• Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS Office) (www.cops .usdoj.gov). This office funds the aforementioned Center for Problem-Oriented Policing; its Web site allows you to download or order COPS publications, and it has links to regional commu- nity policing institutes (RCPIs).

• Police Executive Research Forum (PERF) (www.policeforum.org). PERF is a national membership organization of police executives from large law enforcement agencies. Its Web site may be entered by a guest or a member. It contains POPNet, a searchable database of COPPS projects.

Other sources to be sought out for information on problem solving would include the Police Foundation (www.policefoundation.org), the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) (www.theiacp.org), the RAND Public Safety and Justice Center (www.rand.org/psi), and the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin (www.fbi.gov/publications/leb/htm).

PRINCIPLES OF ANALYSIS. A complete analysis includes identifying the seriousness of the problem, all the persons/groups involved and affected, and all the causes of the problem and then assessing current responses and their effectiveness. One might be tempted to circumvent or give only passing attention to the analysis phase of S.A.R.A., believing that the nature of the problem

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is obvious, succumbing to pressure to quickly solve the problem, or feeling that the pressure of CFS precludes their having time for detailed inquiries into the nature of the problem. Problem solvers must resist these temptations, or they risk addressing a problem that does not exist and/or implementing solutions that are ineffective in the long run.

There are several considerations to remember when planning and conducting problem analysis:

• Analysis is based on common sense: Although good analysis will include some statistical analysis and research methodology that are not typical law enforcement activities, the process also relies on the officer’s experience and ability to determine what is known about the offender, offenses, locations, and victims.

• There is no one way to do analysis: Done appropriately, analysis will generate valuable knowledge about the problem and suggest potential responses. There are often many ways to produce such information, using multiple analytical approaches.

• Individual problems require individual analysis: Because an analysis plan was successful in one location does not guarantee it will succeed elsewhere. Much can be learned from the experiences of other jurisdictions, so it is wise to consult agencies that have encountered similar problems.

• Analysis requires creativity and innovation: Many problem solvers limit their analysis to reported incidents. Other sources should be considered, however. Incident reports typically include only information about the offense, not about the general conditions surrounding the incident. Additional sources of information that can clarify the problem include changes in usage of target areas, property values, business profits, medical data, and build- ing occupancy rates.

• Analysis does not need to be complex: In most cases, simple frequencies of events, percent- ages of various categories, and tables showing how characteristics relate to each other (e.g., type of burglary by time of day) are sufficient for adequate analysis15

ANALYSIS TOOLS FOR PROBLEM SOLVING. Many tools or data sources can facilitate analysis and the problem-solving process. Conducting an overall review of source availability and accuracy early in the analysis process helps clearly define a problem, generates useful analysis questions, determines the order of analysis activities, and facilitates discussion for the analysis team.

An abandoned residence vandalized with gang graffiti shows how quickly a neighborhood may decline. Courtesy Sgt. Dominic Licavoli, LAPD.

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TABLE 3-1 Data Sources Used by Police for Analysis (in Order of Greatest Frequency)

Incident reports 88.9

Calls-for-service records 85.5

Officer perceptions, observations, surveys, interviews 77.9

Arrest reports 77.5

Partner or stakeholder information 69.8

Community surveys 62.6

Victim interviews 54.2

Offender interviews 47.3

Field interviews 46.9

Targeted resident surveys 38.9

Mapping and GIS data 38.2

Court and municipal agencies 24.4

Relevant literature 24.0

Social service agencies 20.6

Environmental surveys 19.8

Other law enforcement agencies 17.2

Other government agencies 13.7

Media 13.0

Other criminal justice agencies 11.8

Other sources 11.1

Local real estate and tax records 8.8

Insurance records 4.2

Medical records 1.9

Transit agencies 0.8

Source: Adapted from Timothy S. Bynum, Using Analysis for Problem-Solving: A Guide for Law Enforcement, p. 20 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, http://www.cops. usdoj.gov/pdf/e08011230.pdf (accessed October 6, 2010).

Table 3-1 lists the most frequently used data sources as determined by a national survey by the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.

SEEKING “SMALL WINS.” Karl Weick explained that people often look at social problems on a massive scale. 16 The public, media, elected officials, and government agencies often become fix- ated on problems and define them by using the simplest term (gangs, homelessness, poverty, mental illness, violent crime, and so on). Viewing problems in this manner leads to defining problems on a scale so massive that they are unable to be addressed and people become over- whelmed in their attempts. For this reason, Weick introduced the “small wins” concept. One must understand that some problems are too deeply ingrained or too rooted in other complex social problems to be eliminated. Conversely, however, adopting the small wins philosophy helps people understand the nature of an analysis and a response to problems.

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As indicated above, the more appropriate response to these problems is to break them down into smaller, more controllable problems. Although an individual small win may not seem important, a series of small wins may have a substantial impact on the overall problem. Eliminating the harms (graffiti, drug sales, and so on) is a sensible and realistic strategy for reducing the impact of gang behaviors. Therefore, it makes sense to address a large problem at a level where there can be a reasonable expectation of success.

The idea of small wins is also helpful when prioritizing problems and working together in a group. We have discussed the benefits of collaborating with the community and other outside agencies to address problems. Small wins can help the group understand the problem better, select realistic objectives, and formulate more effective strategies. It also helps to build confidence and trust among group members.

USING THE PROBLEM ANALYSIS TRIANGLE. Generally, three elements are needed for a prob- lem to occur: an offender, a victim, and a location. The problem analysis triangle helps officers visualize the problem and understand the relationship between these three elements. In addition, it helps officers analyze problems, suggests where more information is needed, and assists with crime control and prevention.

The relationship between these three elements can be explained as follows. If there is a vic- tim and he or she is in a place where crimes occur but there is no offender, no crime occurs. If there is an offender and he or she is in a place where crimes occur but there is nothing or no one to be victimized, then no crime will occur. If an offender and a victim are not in the same place, there will be no crime. Part of the analysis phase involves finding out as much as possible about the victims, offenders, and locations where problems exist in order to understand what is prompting the problem and what can be done about it.

The three elements must be present before a crime or harmful behaviors—problems—can occur: an offender (someone who is motivated to commit harmful behavior), a victim (a desirable and vulnerable target must be present), and a place (the victim and offender must both be in the same place at the same time) (see Figure 3-4). (We discuss locations more below.) If these three elements show up over and over again in patterns and recurring problems, removing one of these elements can stop the pattern and prevent future harms.17

As an example, let us apply the problem analysis triangle to the issue of graffiti, using Figure 3-5. The place is marked buildings and areas immediately around them. The victims are the owners and users of the buildings; the offenders are the writers of the graffiti (see the inside triangle of Figure 3-5; the outside triangle is discussed below). Removing one or more of these elements will remove the problem. Strategies for removing one of these elements are limited only by an officer’s creativity, availability of resources, and ability to formulate collaborative responses.

Problem

Place

VictimOffender

FIGURE 3-4 Problem Analysis Triangle Source: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Assistance, Comprehensive Gang Initiative: Operations Manual for Implementing Local Gang Prevention and Control Programs (Draft, October 1993), p. 3.

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GRAFFITI

MARKED BUILDINGS

GUARDIANS

O W

N ER

S, U SER

S, O TH

ER S

W R

IT ER

H AN

D LE

R S

M AN

AG ER

FIGURE 3-5 Graffiti Problem Triangle: The Role of Third Parties Source: Adapted from John E. Eck, “Police Problems and Research: A Short, Furious, Concise Tour of a Complex Field.” Unpublished draft 1.2, January 20, 2002, p. 4; and U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Assistance, Comprehensive Gang Initiative: Operations Manual for Implementing Local Gang Prevention and Control Programs (Draft, October 2003), pp. 3–11. Used with permission.

Some jurisdictions, for example, are using nonadhesive paint on buildings and property (protecting locations) to discourage taggers (“offenders”). Other jurisdictions have contemplated outlawing the sale of spray paint or limiting the sale of broad-tip markers to juveniles, while still others have enacted graffiti ordinances to help business owners (“victims”) to keep their loca- tions graffiti-free.

Police engaged in problem solving need to also be aware of three types of third parties that can either help or hinder the problem-solving effort by attempting to act on behalf of one or more of the three elements discussed above in the problem analysis triangle, at Figure 3-4. We will again use examples and Figure 3-5 to explain the role of third parties:

1. Handlers. There are people who, acting in the best interests of the potential offenders, try to prevent them from committing crimes. Handlers of gang members might be parents, adult neighbors, peers, teachers, and employers. However, these youths may live in a poor one-parent home or not be attending school or working. Controllers can often restrict the tools used by gang members, such as putting spray cans in locked bins, restricting the wearing of colors, and passing laws obstructing the sale of semiautomatic and automatic weapons.18

2. Guardians. There are people or things that can exercise control over each side of the trian- gle so that crime is less likely and are called guardians. For instance, if the crime problem is drug dealing in a house and the offender side of the triangle includes dealers and buyers, then a list of guardians would include police, parents of dealers/buyers, probation and parole officers, landlords, city codes, health and tax departments, and neighbors. Tools used by guardians can include crime prevention techniques (discussed more later).19

3. Managers. People who oversee locations are called managers. For example, apartment managers can help prevent or solve problems by installing security equipment in their buildings, screening tenants carefully, and evicting troublemakers or criminals. Conversely, where managers are absent or lax, risks will be higher.20

Police should constantly look for ways to improve the effectiveness of third parties, as these groups of individuals have the authority to deal with the problem. There will always be the temptation on the part of society to use the police as handlers, guardians, or managers.Although this may be effec- tive for a short time, there are rarely enough officers to control a recurring problem in the long run.

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We conclude our discussion of the critical analysis stage of the S.A.R.A. process by noting that in Chapter 5 we examine additional tools—such as mapping, GPS, CompStat, and computer- aided dispatch systems—that can also be brought to bear on the analysis of crime problems.

Response: Formulation of Tailor-Made Strategies

After a problem has been clearly defined and analyzed, the officer confronts the ultimate chal- lenge in problem-oriented policing: the search for the most effective way of dealing with it. This stage of the S.A.R.A. process focuses on developing and implementing a response to the problem. Before entering this stage, an agency must overcome the temptation to implement a response prematurely and need to be certain that it has thoroughly analyzed the problem; attempts to fix problems quickly are rarely effective in the long term.

To develop tailored responses, problem solvers should review their findings about the three sides of the crime triangle—victim, offender, and location—and develop creative solutions that will address at least two sides of the triangle.21 It is also important to remember that the key to developing tailored responses is making sure that the responses are very focused and directly linked to the findings from the analysis phase of the project.

Responses may be wide-ranging and often require arrests (but apprehension may not be the most effective solution), referral to social service agencies, or changes in ordinances. Potential solutions to problems can be organized into five groups:22

1. Totally eliminating the problem. Effectiveness is measured by the absence of the types of incidents that this problem creates. It is unlikely that most problems can be totally elimi- nated, but a few can.

2. Reducing the number of incidents the problem creates. A reduction of incidents stemming from a problem is a major measure of effectiveness.

Seeking information from a variety of resources (e.g., business owners) will assist officers in understanding the underlying conditions and factors related to problems. Courtesy Community Policing Consortium.

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3. Reducing the seriousness of the harms. Effectiveness for this type of solution is demon- strated by showing that the incidents are less harmful.

4. Dealing with a problem better. Treating participants more humanely, reducing costs, and increasing the effectiveness of handling incidents are all possible choices. Improved victim satisfaction, reduced costs, and other measures can show that this type of solution is effective.

5. Removing the problem from police consideration. The effectiveness of this type of solution can be measured by looking at why the police were handling the problem originally and the rationale for shifting the handling to others.

Box 3-1 provides an explanation of the possible range of responses to problems. Furthermore, because problem-solving officers must often seek the assistance of the community, other city depart- ments, businesses, private and social service organizations. Box 3-2 is a guide to collaboration— developing networks with people and other agencies in developing appropriate responses.

Assessment: Evaluation of Overall Effectiveness

Finally, in the assessment, officers evaluate the effectiveness of their responses. A number of measures have traditionally been used by police agencies and community members to assess effectiveness. These include numbers of arrests, levels of reported crime, response times, clear- ance rates, citizen complaints, and various workload indicators, such as CFS and the number of field interviews conducted.23

Several of these measures may be helpful in assessing the impact of a problem-solving effort; however, a number of nontraditional measures will shed light on whether a problem has been reduced or eliminated:24

• Reduced instances of repeat victimization • Decreases in related crimes or incidents • Neighborhood indicators (including increased profits for businesses in the target area,

increased usage of the area, increased property values, less loitering and truancy, and fewer abandoned cars)

• Increased citizen satisfaction regarding the handling of the problem, determined through surveys, interviews, focus groups, electronic bulletin boards, and so on

• Reduced citizen fear related to the problem

Assessment is obviously the key in the S.A.R.A. process; knowing that we must assess the effec- tiveness of our efforts emphasizes the importance of documentation and baseline measurement. Supervisors can help officers assess the effectiveness of their efforts.

If the responses implemented are not effective, the information gathered during analysis should be reviewed. New information may need to be collected before new solutions can be developed and tested.25

It is also important to distinguish between evaluation and assessment. Evaluation is an overarching scientific process for determining whether a problem declines and whether the solution caused the decline; it begins at the moment the problem-solving process begins and continues throughout the effort. Although assessment is the final stage of both evaluation and problem solving, critical decisions about the evaluation are made throughout the process.

Figure 3-6 shows the relationship between the problem-solving process and critical evalua- tion questions that should be asked at each stage. The left side of the figure shows the S.A.R.A. process, while the right side lists critical questions to address to conduct an evaluation. We discuss assessment (evaluation) in greater depth in Chapter 4.

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BOX 3-1

Range of Possible Response Options

1. Concentrate attention on the individuals accounting for a disproportionate share of the problem. A relatively small number of individu- als usually account for a disproportionate share of practically any problem, by causing it (offend- ers), facilitating it (controllers, managers, guardians), or suffering from it (victims).

2. Connect with other government and private services. A thorough analysis of a problem often leads to an appreciation of the need for (a) more effective referrals to existing governmental and private services, (b) improved coordination with agencies that exert control over some of the problems or individuals involved in the inci- dents, and (c) initiative for pressing for correc- tion of inadequacies in municipal services and for development of new services.

3. Use mediation and negotiation skills. Often the use of mediation and negotiation teams can be effective responses to conflicts.

4. Convey information. Relating sound and accurate information is one of the least used responses. It has the potential, however, to be one of the most effective for responding to a wide range of prob- lems. Conveying information can help (a) reduce anxiety and fear, (b) enable citizens to solve their own problems, (c) elicit conformity with laws and regulations that are not known or understood, (d) warn potential victims about their vulnerability and advise them of ways to protect themselves, (e) demonstrate to people how they unwittingly contribute to problems, (f) develop support for addressing a problem, and (g) acquaint the com- munity with the limitations on government agen- cies and define realistically what can be expected of those agencies.

5. Mobilize the community. Mobilizing a specific segment of the community helps implement a specific response to a specific problem for as long as it takes to deal with the problem.

6. Make use of existing forms of social control. Solve problems by mobilizing specific forms of social control inherent in existing relation- ships—for example, the influence of a parent, teacher, employer, or church.

7. Alter the physical environment to reduce opportu- nities for problems to recur. Adapt the principles

of crime prevention through environmental design and situational crime prevention to the complete range of problems.

8. Increase regulation, through statutes or ordi- nances, of conditions that contribute to problems. An analysis of a specific problem may draw attention to factors contributing to the problem that can be controlled by regulation through statutes or ordinances.

9. Develop new forms of limited authority to inter- vene and detain. Examination of specific prob- lems can lead to the conclusion that a satisfactory solution requires some limited authority (e.g., to order a person to leave) but does not require labeling the conduct criminal so that it can be dealt with through a citation or a physical arrest followed by a criminal prosecution.

10. Make more discriminate use of the criminal jus- tice system. Use of the criminal justice system should be much more discreet than in the past, reserved for those problems for which the system seems especially appropriate, and used with much greater precision. This could include (a) straightforward investigation, arrest, and prose- cution; (b) selective enforcement with articulated criteria; (c) enforcement of criminal laws that, by tradition, are enforced by another agency; (d) more specific definitions of behavior that should be subject to criminal justice prosecution or con- trol through local ordinances; (e) intervention without making the arrest; (f) use of arrest with- out the intention to prosecute; and (g) new con- ditions attached to probation or parole.

11. Use civil law to control public nuisances, offensive behavior, and conditions contributing to crime. Because most of what the police do in the use of the law involves arrest and prosecution, people tend to forget that the police and local govern- ment can initiate a number of other legal pro- ceedings, including those related to (a) licensing, (b) zoning, (c) property confiscation, (d) nuisance abatement, and (e) injunctive relief.

Source: Adapted from Herman Goldstein, Problem-Oriented Policing (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990), pp. 140–141. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill.

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BOX 3-2

Problem Solving: Guide to Collaboration

General Background 1. Develop personal networks with members of

other agencies who can give you information and help you with problems on which you may be working.

2. Become familiar with the workings of your local government, private businesses, citizen organi- zations, and other groups and institutions that you may need to call on for help in the future.

3. Develop skills as a negotiator.

Getting Other Agencies to Help 1. Identify agencies that have a role (or could have

a role) in addressing the problem early in the problemsolving process.

2. Determine whether these other agencies per- ceive that there is a problem. a. Which agency members perceive the prob-

lem and which do not? b. Why is it (or isn’t it) a problem for them? c. How are police perceptions of the problem

similar to and different from the perceptions of members of other agencies?

3. Determine whether there is a legal or political mandate for collaboration. a. To which agencies does this legal mandate

apply? b. What are the requirements needed to

demonstrate collaboration? c. Who is checking to determine whether col-

laboration is taking place? 4. Look for difficulties that these other agencies

face that can be addressed through collabora- tion on this problem. a. Are there internal difficulties that provide an

incentive to collaborate? b. Are there external crises affecting agencies

that collaboration may help address? 5. Determine how much these other agencies use

police services. 6. Assess the resource capabilities of these agen-

cies to help. a. Do they have the money? b. Do they have the staff expertise? c. Do they have the enthusiasm?

7. Assess the legal authority of these other agencies. a. Do they have special enforcement powers? b. Do they control critical resources?

8. Determine the administrative capacity of these agencies to collaborate. a. Do they have the legal authority to intervene

in the problem? b. What are the internal procedures and poli-

cies of the stakeholders that help or hinder collaboration?

Working with Other Agencies 1. Include representatives from all affected agen-

cies, if possible, in the problem-solving process. 2. Look for responses to the problem that maxi-

mize the gains to all agencies and distribute costs equitably.

3. Reinforce awareness of the interdependence of all agencies.

4. Be prepared to mediate among agencies that have a history of conflict.

5. Develop problem information sharing mecha- nisms, and promote discussion about the mean- ing and interpretation of this information.

6. Share problem-solving decisions among stake- holders, and do not surprise others with already-made decisions.

7. Develop a clear explanation as to why collabora- tion is needed.

8. Foster external support for collaborative efforts, but do not rely on mandates to further collabo- ration.

9. Be prepared to negotiate with all involved agen- cies as to their roles, responsibilities, and resource commitments.

10. When collaborating with agencies located far away, plan to spend time developing a working relationship.

11. Try to create support in the larger community for collaborative problem solving.

When Collaboration Does Not Work 1. Always be prepared for collaboration to fail. 2. Have alternative plans. 3. Assess the costs and benefits of unilateral action. 4. Be very patient.

Source: Adapted from John E. Eck, “Implementing a Problem-Oriented Approach: A Management Guide,” mimeo, draft copy (Washington, D.C.: Police Executive Research Forum, 1990), pp. 69–70.

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PROBLEM-SOLVING STAGES AND MAJOR QUESTIONS

CRITICAL EVALUATION QUESTIONS

How should the problem be measured?

How big is the problem? Who is involved, and how? Where is the problem, and why?

Did the response occur as planned (process evaluation)? Did the problem decline? If the problem declined, can alternative explanations be ruled out?

How will accountability be determined? How will problem reduction be measured? How will displacement and diffusion be measured? How will alternative causes for reduction be examined?

SCANNING What is the problem?

ANALYSIS How big is the problem?

Who is involved, and how? Where is the problem, and why?

RESPONSE What should be done about the problem?

Who should do it, and how? Is it being done?

ASSESSMENT Did the response occur as planned?

Did the problem decline? What should be done next?

FIGURE 3-6 The Problem-Solving Process and Evaluation Source: John Eck, Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for Police Problem Solvers (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 2004), p. 6.

Working partnerships with residents to create safer and more secure neighborhoods are vital in community policing. Courtesy Keith Richards, City of Charlotte, North Carolina.

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DIFFICULTIES WITH PROBLEM SOLVING

Notable community policing and problem-solving researcher and author John Eck has bluntly offered a number of caveats with respect to problem solving. Given his pioneering involvement with and stellar reputation in the field, his musings are certainly worthy of mention.

First, Eck argues that POP suffers from appearing to be simple—beginning with the term “problem solving” itself. It is one of those ubiquitous terms that are used in countless business, math- ematics, computer, psychology, and many other books. Another problem is that the term suggests that for every difficulty there is a solution that is easy, cheap, permanent, and 100 percent effective.26

Eck also bluntly maintains that several explanations have been offered for why problem- solving efforts are not always successful. Most of these explanations (but not all, he argues) are inadequate.27

• Police officers do not have the analytical skills required to analyze problems. Eck believes that while more problem-solving training certainly could be given to officers, it should not be assumed that we even know how to train police in problem solving, especially in its nuances. (See, however, Chapter 9 on training for COPPS, which includes discussion of the new Police Training Officer [PTO] program.)

• Police managers and supervisors do not know how to foster problem solving. Eck believes this is probably true. Can supervisors discriminate between quality problem solving and superficial problem solving? The answer is “no.”

• Police agencies resist change. Eck argues that despite a large body of literature on policing and COPPS, there is little practical advice that research can provide police executives. Resistance to change is to be expected if research cannot provide practical guidance on how to behave with a new approach.

• Police workloads prevent anything but superficial analysis. One thing is clear: Problem solv- ing—which requires days, weeks, even months—has a different time frame than responding to calls, which is measured in minutes and hours. Eck is of the opinion that difficulty with time is not how much is available but how much time the police are willing to devote.

• There is too little involvement of communities. There is also merit to this argument. Neighborhoods usually cover much larger areas than most problems, even the most engaged communities are aware of problems, and citizens are often in the dark about how to systematically analyze and fix problems, Eck states.

• Little is known about what works under what circumstances. Eck believes this statement is also true. He says that the police and community can therefore experiment with solutions or systematically record and organize their problem-solving experiences; then, they can share them with each other. Neither approach is adequate, however. Experimentation is a slow process, while few problem-solving efforts result in a formal evaluation.

COMMUNITY ORIENTED POLICING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Basic Principles

As we mentioned in Chapter 2, our view is that the two concepts of community policing and problem-oriented policing are separate but complementary strategies that work together hand- in-glove. And as we emphasized in Chapter 2, the police are severely hampered when attempting to solve neighborhood and community problems without the full cooperation—a partnership and collaboration—with the community and other resources.

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Chapter 3 • COPPS 77

The two concepts of community-oriented policing and problem-oriented policing share some important characteristics: (1) decentralization (to encourage officer initiative and the effec- tive use of local knowledge), (2) geographically defined rather than functionally defined subordi- nate units (to encourage the development of local knowledge), and (3) close interactions with local communities (to facilitate responsiveness to and cooperation with the community).28

Herman Goldstein did not see POP as an alternative to community policing or in competi- tion with it. However, he asserted that much of what is occurring in community policing projects begs for application of all that has been described under the label of problem-oriented policing.

Definition

What exactly is COPPS? How does it function? How would we know it if we saw it? Following is our definition—which we believe accurately captures the essence of this concept:

Community oriented policing and problem solving (COPPS) is a proactive philoso- phy that promotes solving problems that are criminal, affect our quality of life, or increase our fear of crime, as well as other community issues. COPPS involves iden- tifying, analyzing, and addressing community problems at their source.

One of the strongest advocates of this kind of approach to policing is the California Department of Justice, which has published several monographs on the subject and has taken the following position:

Community Oriented Policing and Problem Solving is a concept whose time has come. This movement holds tremendous promise for creating effective police-com- munity partnerships to reclaim our communities and keep our streets safe. COPPS is not “soft” on crime; in fact, it is tougher on crime because it is smarter and more cre- ative. Community input focuses police activities; and, with better information, offi- cers are able to respond more effectively with arrests or other appropriate actions. COPPS can unite our communities and promote pride in our police forces.29

In order for COPPS to succeed, however, we believe the following measures are minimally required:

• Conducting accurate community needs assessments • Mobilizing all appropriate individuals for collecting data and brainstorming strategies • Determining appropriate resource allocations and creating new resources where necessary • Developing and implementing innovative, collaborative, comprehensive programs to

address underlying causes of neighborhood crime and disorder • Evaluating programs and modifying approaches as needed

CHOICE OF APPROACH: TAILORING STRATEGIES TO NEIGHBORHOODS

Which Strategy Where?

Some interesting research has been done on whether or not COPPS can work in different types of neighborhoods; one study suggests that COPPS should have similar benefits in different types of neighborhoods.30 Furthermore, a theoretical framework has been developed by Nolan et al. to help police decide which type of COPPS strategy to employ in specific neighborhoods.31 First, it is important to remember—as noted in Chapter 3 discussions of communitarianism, social

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78 Chapter 3 • COPPS

capital, mobilization, and alliances—that the level of responsibility for neighborhood safety and problem solving is important and relates to a community’s level of crime. Some authors have termed this “collective efficacy”: the cohesion among residents combined with shared expecta- tions for the social control of public space that predicts both crime and disorder.32 Some researchers argue that neighborhood-level collective efficacy is the most significant predictor of crime.

In a related vein, research has indicated that a neighborhood can exist in one of three iden- tifiable stages:33

1. Dependence. Community members depend on the police to solve problems related to pub- lic order, and officers are willing to do so. Most residents view officers as competent and respect them, and officers view the neighborhood as unable or unwilling to care for itself.

2. Conflict. Here, officers cannot address community problems or provide safety because res- idents have become dissatisfied with the police and with each other; they see the police as having primary responsibility for order maintenance in the neighborhoods but consider the police to be ineffective. In defending themselves, officers may initiate high-visibility foot or bicycle patrols or other methods in order to appease residents. To move out of this stage, officers must give up the notion that they alone can address crime and disorder in neighborhoods.

3. Interdependence. Once the police and the community have come to recognize their mutual responsibilities for restoring order and safety, development of social networks begins to occur. Officers play a less prominent role in order maintenance and develop a more trust- ing relationship with the community.

Differing Types of Neighborhoods

Obviously, neighborhoods will differ in their ability to move along these stages of development. Some are stronger than others and have more resources to help them evolve. There are four basic types of neighborhoods:34

1. Strong. Strong communities experience low levels of crime and have residents who interact or organize themselves on issues of community disorder.

2. Vulnerable. Vulnerable neighborhoods also have low rates of crime and disorder, but they have minimal levels of development as well. Residents depend on the police to deal with disorder.

3. Anomic. Anomic communities have high rates of crime and disorder and low levels of neighborhood development. Residents are dependent on officers to take care of safety problems and are dissatisfied because of the officers’ lack of success.

4. Responsive. Responsive neighborhoods have high levels of crime and disorder, but resi- dents work with the police to resolve problems.

Effective policing involves not only reducing crime and disorder but also facilitating neigh- borhood development. The police must strive to move the community along two dimensions: low levels of crime and disorder and high levels of integration and collective efficacy (interde- pendence). Therefore, matching the policing style to the neighborhood type represents only the first step in the process.

Figure 3-7 shows situational policing in motion. The right side of the figure lists policing strategies that will help to move a community toward the responsive and then to the strong quadrants. If crime is high and the citizens are independent (stage one), police should use a

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Chapter 3 • COPPS 79

Coordinated Response

Systems Thinking and Planning

Dialogue and Neighborhood Problem Solving

Police Problem Solving

Response to Calls for Service

HighLow Conflict

Dependence

Crime and Disorder

Interdependence

Responsive Neighborhood

Anomic Neighborhood

Vulnerable Neighborhood

Neighborhood Development

Strong Neighborhood

Traditional Assumption: Police alone can solve problems. This path is not recommended.

FIGURE 3-7 Situational Policing in Motion Source: James J. Nolan, Norman Conti, and Jack McDevitt, “Situational Policing,” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 74 (11) (November 2005), p. 8.

professional service-oriented approach as the logical and preferred first step. The dotted line at the bottom of the figure indicates the direction the police usually want to follow based on the utopian idea that given increased resources or more efficient responses to CFS, they could reduce crime without collective effort. This assumption has proved fictional over the years because the police do not have the resources needed to eliminate crime and disorder through more or better services.

After an initial stage of stepped-up law enforcement, a second wave of activity might include problem solving. At first, the police might do problem solving on their own, without the help of residents. But as officers establish dialogue with residents and as relationships and com- munication build, police and citizens must reach a shared realization that officers alone cannot fix neighborhood problems and keep residents safe. With this understanding, activities may begin to take place that move the neighborhood toward the responsive quadrant, where residents are ready to organize and plan for addressing crime and disorder.35

In sum, situational policing may very well bridge the philosophical gap between traditional policing and COPPS by identifying situations where each style is appropriate. It provides a desired end state at which the police can aim and against which competing strategies can be evaluated.

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80 Chapter 3 • COPPS

A WINNING EXAMPLE: THE CHULA VISTA MOTEL AND HOTEL PROGRAM

To illustrate COPPS and S.A.R.A. in action, it would be helpful to see how the Chula Vista, California, Police Department addressed a serious motel and hotel problem. This project won the coveted Herman Goldstein Award for Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing, conferred at the annual International Problem Oriented Policing Conference. Note the kinds of measures that were taken as the department followed the S.A.R.A. problem-solving model:36

Example Reducing Crime and Disorder at Motels and Hotels in Chula Vista, California

Scanning

In the mid-1990s, business organizations asked for the city’s help in improving the quality and safety of Chula Vista’s motels. In response, police increased enforcement at motels and imple- mented a new law requiring all motel guests to show photo ID at check-in. Despite these efforts, police continued to respond to a high number of calls for service at motels, which remained plat- forms for criminal activity and inhibited efforts to bring tourist dollars to the city. With a man- date for improvement, police staff, along with other city staff and business groups, began working on a problem-oriented policing project to improve public safety levels at motels.

Analysis

The problems at motels were analyzed in a variety of ways, including motel user interviews; motel manager interviews; environmental surveys; analysis of CFS, crime, and arrest data; and a compre- hensive review of the literature pertaining to crime and disorder at motels. Project staff tested and rejected a number of hypotheses regarding the cause of the problems at Chula Vista motels. Ultimately, the project team concluded that motel managers and owners could effectively control crime and disorder on their properties through good management practices if they chose to do so.

Response

Working together, police, code enforcement, and chamber of commerce staff spent several years reaching out to motel managers and owners, offering information on the nature and level of problems at motels and ways those problems could be reduced. Code enforcement staff began an annual motel inspection program in 2003, to ensure that the properties met state and local hous- ing codes. However, these efforts did not substantially reduce public safety problems at motels. Recently, police worked with staff from the city attorney’s office, planning and building, commu- nity development, finance, and fire departments to develop an ordinance that enabled the city to hold motels accountable for meeting a CFS-based public safety performance standard.

Assessment

• CFS to Chula Vista motels declined 49 percent • Violent crimes and crimes against persons at motels declined 49percent; Part I and Part II

crimes at motels went down 70 percent • Drug arrests at motels decreased 66 percent • The quality and appearance of several motels improved dramatically

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Chapter 3 • COPPS 81

Summary This chapter and the discussion of community in Chapter 2 constitute the heart and soul of this book and have set out the basic principles and strategies of the COPPS concepts. This combined approach of COPPS is, we believe, the best philosophy and strat- egy for the future of policing. We also believe that blending these two concepts results in a better, more comprehensive approach to providing quality police service—combining the emphasis on forming a police-community partnership to fight crime with the use of the S.A.R.A. process to solve problems.

As we noted in the summary of Chapter 2, it is essential for the reader to have a firm, fundamental understanding of these two chapters, as they lay the foundation for what follows in the remaining chap- ters. Subsequent chapter topics elaborate on COPPS and the problem-solving process and include a large number of examples of COPPS in real-life situations. Furthermore, some chapters, particularly those addressing such topics as crime prevention, informa- tion technology, and crime analysis, bear heavily on the S.A.R.A. problem-solving process.

Items for Review 1. Explain what is meant by problem-oriented policing,

and how it differs from traditional reactive, incident- driven policing.

2. Briefly describe the four steps of the S.A.R.A. problem- solving process.

3. Review in detail what kinds of activities are involved in the analysis stage of the S.A.R.A. process.

4. Delineate the three elements of the problem analysis and graffiti problem triangles.

5. List the three types of roles of third parties in the problem analysis triangle.

6. List the five potential solutions to problems. 7. Describe five potential difficulties with problem solving. 8. Explain what is meant by COPPS, and provide an

example of how it might function in a situation involv- ing neighborhood disorder.

9. Review some of the considerations in tailoring problem- solving strategies to neighborhoods.

Notes

• Motel management practices improved • The number of motel rooms that did not meet basic safety standards declined from at least

378 to 0 • Aggregate transient occupancy tax reported to the City increased

1. Herman Goldstein, Policing a Free Society (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1977).

2. Herman Goldstein, Problem-Oriented Policing (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990).

3. Herman Goldstein, “Problem-Oriented Policing.” Paper presented at the National Institute of Justice Conference on Policing: State of the Art III, Phoenix, Arizona, June 12, 1987.

4. Ibid., p. 4. 5. Ibid., pp. 5–6. 6. John Eck and William Spelman,“A Problem-Oriented

Approach to Police Service Delivery,” in Dennis Jay

Kenney (ed.), Police and Policing: Contemporary Issues (New York: Praeger, 1989), pp. 95–111.

7. Quoted in Roland Chilton, “Urban Crime Trends and Criminological Theory,” in Chris W. Eskridge (ed.), Criminal Justice: Concepts and Issues (Los Angeles: Roxbury, 1993), pp. 47–55.

8. Ibid., p. xvii. 9. Samuel Walker, The Police in America: An Introduction

(2nd ed.) (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992), p. 177. 10. Goldstein, Problem-Oriented Policing, pp. 38–40. 11. Goldstein, “Toward Community-Oriented Policing:

Potential, Basic Requirements, and Threshold

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82 Chapter 3 • COPPS

Questions,” Crime and Delinquency 33 (1987): 6–30.

12. Ibid., p. 21. 13. Ibid., pp. 43–52. 14. Goldstein, Problem-Oriented Policing, p. 18. 15. Adapted from Timothy S. Bynum, Using Analysis for

Problem-Solving: A Guide for Law Enforcement (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 2002), pp. 13–15.

16. Karl E. Weick, “Small Wins: Redefining the Scale of Social Problems,” American Psychologist, 39 (1) (1984):40–49.

17. John Eck, A Dissertation Prospectus for the Study of Characteristics of Drug Dealing Places (Dissertation, College Park, Md.: University of Maryland–College Park, 1992).

18. Marcus Felson, “Linking Criminal Career Choices, Routine Activities, Informal Control, and Criminal Outcomes,” in Derek Cornish and Ronald Clarke (eds.), The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending (New York: Springer- Verlag, 1986).

19. Lawrence E. Cohen and Marcus Felson, “Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach,” American Sociological Review 44 (August 1979):588–608.

20. Eck, A Dissertation Prospectus for the Study of Characteristics of Drug Dealing Places, p. 5.

21. Rana Sampson, “Problem Solving,” in Neighborhood- Oriented Policing in Rural Communities: A Program Planning Guide (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1994), p. 4.

22. William Spelman and John E. Eck, “Problem- Solving,” Research in Brief (January 1987):6.

23. Darrel Stephens, “Community Problem-Oriented Policing: Measuring Impacts,” in Larry T. Hoover

(ed.), Quantifying Quality in Policing (Washington, D.C.: Police Executive Research Forum, 1995).

24. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, Problem Solving Tips, p. 20.

25. Sampson, “Problem Solving,” p. 5. 26. John E. Eck, “Why Don’t Problems Get Solved,” in

Wesley G. Skogan (ed.), Community Policing: Can It Work? (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2004), pp. 185–206.

27. Ibid., pp. 190–193. 28. Mark H. Moore and Robert C. Trojanowicz,

Corporate Strategies for Policing (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1988), p. 11.

29. California Department of Justice, Attorney General’s Office, Community Oriented Policing and Problem Solving: Definitions and Principles (Sacramento, Calif.: Author, 1993), p. iii.

30. See W. G. Skogan, S. M. Hartnett, J. DuBois, J. T. Comey, M. Kaiser, and J. H. Lovig, Problem Solving in Practice: Implementing Community Policing in Chicago (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 2000).

31. James J. Nolan, Norman Conti, and Jack McDevitt, “Situational Policing,” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin (November 2005):1–9.

32. R. J. Sampson and S. W. Raudenbush, “Systematic Social Observation of Public Spaces: A New Look at Disorder in Urban Neighborhoods,” American Journal of Sociology 105 (3) (1999):603–651.

33. Ibid, pp. 3–4. 34. Ibid., pp. 4–5. 35. Ibid., pp. 7–9. 36. Center for Problem-Oriented Policing, “Goldstein

Awards 2009,” http://www.popcenter.org/library/ awards/goldstein.cfm?browse=abstracts (accessed July 10, 2010).

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